ce esac ie pe te Pees ere sts ihe Chota Seach HA Mets . : ‘ : a, ; : oT ! =~ 4 > - ; , t ! r a ; : A . : “dane, EE . sd > ty 3N-1 ; / rae 2 wpe wre Tee Horas ee n me ri toLoe i i: | ; - % so tn ~ " : ¥ ree ee, } - ay sy et Lae ty = , i ee a, hae Jk 7 w . : : “ : « —— 4 . =» he, rs : 1g be Contents INTRODUCTORY MATTER FAC MOLE IOCOLPOL atlOl cre carne ttre pate eitets acute hci ee eee eee ee eee LEAP SILER AS sitprSl IA ces AO Seti SiS Lc HENS 1S OHS 8 Cr cy re ieee ore ier eR aca ces ti eRe (Conterive ley an AN Ware SUEY eR Teaco oleae ites eel SS pp iP le ch PN ta a cae Rg WincersmeiQrel 92-22... Vee eters Taser ee sac ter soa tee ee te hen OR COLOMM OGG 2229 a Was AS ee Mee Scone ee cease pe ee ieee oe Ie eine LLESR @ie (CHOTNEUT RS Sa CORI ed ia By clit nc inst ee Rise Roo rammOtm Gr eHe tal SESSIONS osed cy wee eres ease cae eee ee i en ee poten ie COMmMMmittcerOn UR esOlUEONS 00 te tiejece con se ce aol coher ees oo. Minutes or oecond sRepresentative Assembly. -!)."..0 022... 0eccccecuc sees ecse Report of Executive Committee for Board of Directors...................... PATIOS RCDOLtEP EEE ere cer vice ike. tae saath cue eab toes oe ireasurems Kepore june i. 192ieto Way, 31, 1922. ...0.21. seco cenecee uae REDO DOAN OMOLALUSLCeS tsetse eter cc ces cect ces ce baba e nl ey oe bsg MVitnmtesnoie xecutivier Committee: cm yom es cciciccwiece 0d ota ene ccarse sets eos Secretary’s Report: HielGmD epartinent.eoe ee yee eee sete aoe Ilene a nia sho ob dtavape © onesses ous Businesses Depantinentamcsas iri ote ey See aa tte on el paver oeaeto ie oc é ne oe Editonae Departments. C1a seme ot ocr oc ee cee ete cc 8 cee dacenrce okt Departmentiors Records ald, -Accounts..- ssenc eine ecien eo cee eee eee PASSISCAlIEOECLECALY AE fc5s het shakes 8 | CAPR e ee CE teers oeuem wtore IRESEALCH MLICPALEMEN ten wiersrs dis cre! sic iscera"s ite! in vdieravele allots, aie) w) euouer eis By enca ers) 6 Cheam StatemandwLocal Alnliations. . . cm eee act, Mote nud ad A852 acevo cerca oe eos terees GENERAL SESSIONS Boston ADDRESSES MiherNiews ducatlon=—COVeM s. cocise tect est ss cbt scene)? cel eidieis ie wis m suereaie st oue ung The Far-Reaching Results of the Washington Conference—Libby............ Edueationals Message for’ 1922—Winship? > oes... woe ee cece ep eee Je eae 4 Professional Training for Teachers of City Schools—Jones................. Improvement and Preparation of Teachers While in Service—Mortenson. Professional Standards for Classroom Teachers—Skinner..........0.0...05. Present-Day Objectives of American Education—Tigert.................... The Profession Appreciates Foundations Early Established in Massachusetts and Her Present Interest in Education—Dorsey...........0 00sec cence eaes The Democratic Awakening and Professional Organization—Williams...... Democracy, im the -Classroom—MacGregor. 2.2. se6 sess saees tee oes esac FEIN Ve Onrel OOK =I IRE. (tam Meee eter eralelete e ccs oie aateis cise aetels «6 «(6 0 lara lane eee ace The Women of America and the Democratic Awakening—Park............. Message from Honorable Charles Evans Hughes, Secretary of State—West.. The Peace-time Program of the American Legion—Owsley..............0.. Outstanding Needs of Rural Life Today—Works.................00 cece eee Consolidation, Supervision, and Administration of a County System of SChoolsS=—S Ginulel SOs mare Ab eh aisiesiaele = JG SERIE SN ehh Se ARM aah Fae ake State- Aid| for Teacher's Salaries—K elleyianasitem | ae oftids ocls. Na sfeststled wie ae National Responsibility for the Improvement of Rural Schools—Carney...... A New Type of Leadership to Carry Out the New Policies—McSkimmon.... The Responsibility of the College and the University in a Democracy— JEUMHTOGS. oS so.<1 Stagbttoe Bed BE S0 ec GOES OD reas Nea PO HORA THORS, ERT er ARN Ro Oe 183 201 205 Vill. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Improvement of Moving Pictures—Hays..............+-.eee cece eee sees 2522 Our Need of an Intelligent Electorate—Russell.......... 0.0.0 see eee eeeeees 258 The Education of Our Illiterates—Finegan......... see ee eee ee cere e eens 264 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Report of the Committee of the Salaries Division—Snow............++0.-05 275 Report of the Sub-Committee on Tenure—Updegraff SEIS Aetna oe ee 279 Report of the Sub-Committee on Pensions—Carlson..............e0e ee eeeee 287 Report of Committee on) Rural) Bducation—Stms 7... «ei eterno eet ake 289 Report of the Committee on the County Superintendents’ Problems—Driver. » 1298 Report of Joint Advisory Committee of the National Education Association and The American. Legion—Ry att... cia: 2h coms ne oivivie as oe Ce nee 303 Report of Legislative Commission—Strayer.. ~~ .2..0. 2. 0-7-9. eee eee 305 Report of Committee on Foreign Relations—Thomas........... beeen eens 312 Report of the Commission on the Coérdination of Research Agencies—Newlon. 317 Report of Committee on Sources of Revenue—Owen.............-20eeceeeee 323 Report of Committee on Health Problems in Education—Wood.............. 325 Report of the» Editorial Council—-Bagleys).-ae -.4-cieencee aeeee 329 Report of the Advisory Committee of Superintendents—Bradford............ 333 Problems and Standards of Employment Certificate Issuance—Matthews.... 334 Report of the Commission on the Revision of Elementary Education— MeN atight.. 2 si 5h3 S826 50's) 615 0.415 da sivib ue oars EE ee ee 338 Outline of Report on Education of the Immigrant—Woodward.... 341 Outline of Report on Education of the Juvenile Delinquents— JONES eno F os 0 on owe celnis Had dee Oe EEE IES 343 Report of the Committee on Financing Delegates to the Representative Assembly—A datr . davis 5..\.).c4 ws soncaie ere ete ee seeee al orig oie ee 344 Report on Social Hygiene—Lathrop and Vandewalker.......... itt dee eee 345 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Cuicaco MEETING Secretary’s! Minutes > seeccya secant each ates caters oars art ree 349 The Elimination of Educational Waste—Seerley........................... 351 Semi-final Report of the Committee on Rural Education—Sims.............. 353 Final Report of the Committee on State Administration of Schools—Cary.... 359 Report of the Committee on American Teachers’ Colleges—McKenny........ 363 Recent Educational Progress in the United States—Tigert.................. 373 The Hope and the Result of American Education—Williams................ 378 Great Educational Accomplishments—Jones.............00.00c0-00-- 381 The Junior High-School Program of Studies—Glass....................... 386 Junior High-School " Buildings—Bemél ey)... .tiy 026 «2. «jsnjamneciaatie onta AV 400 Report of the Committee on Participation of Teachers in School Manage- ment —U pd egrayy eae: 404 The Coordination of the Community Agencies in Effecting Character Edu- pation —S HIS es cies ss 010 cago OCR ALE ef aecreaiare- pepe 409 The Bearing of Sex-Education upon Character—Galloway................. 416 Justice and Equality for Child Health—Wood............................. 421 Contribution of Physicians in Forty-T'wo States to the Health Work in the Schools—Dodsor yi... «sn: ineanpsewar dere ee tee teat ane ere ene 424 What the Women Are Doing to Promote Health in Schools—Wood.......... 425 Report of the Committee on Teaching of Democracy—Yocum........... 430 The Teaching of Democracy—A ndrewst vase). Sl eee, eee ee 446 English—Its Relation to the “Ten Essentials”—Barnes. Reese tent eee 448 Report of Progress of the Committee on Vocational Education—Baylor. . ' 451 Report of Committee on Adult Illiteracy—Stewart........................ 453 Report of Progress of Committee on Educational Surveys—Winship..... ter: 456 Report of Progress Committee on Character Education—The Sanctions of Morality=Beanion 8 et OS, 1) ia ne 457 The Continuity of Education—Guwinn.-... 7 eee ee CoNnTENTS ix ; Boston MEETING SCCLeLAliyasm VUMULES maetee teihe eb i iat cRY: (0, oes Giese) Siess ofersie eke. s «,5, chose ateusyoettvdieie here 460 Gers anidag Vem Dersi. uz in eerie bad RES ctctsve, cunyeles Mises cdersis ance eid sido ceare cue horeuarenek c 467 PAnnualmReportiok EhenSeeretaby—— Bay lose. ciscn csr ste ieyed elu nists hve che oso 470 The Outstanding Issue in American Education—Seerley................000- 473 The Activities of the United States Bureau of Education—Tigert............ 475 PACH Al pivesUlts® Ola th peje Ai I4 1 LAC t7 Seu, a echt ars spas nauctue ashes respesus tele ole ar cvs 0G 482 The Most Effective Administration and Taxing Unit—Hines................ 487 The Arousal of Interest on the Part of the People in Their Own Schools— IDEA? 2 ng eS LSE Geter CEO eee Be TE Oe Oe en ee OE ee eae ee 489 Report of Sub-Committee on Consolidation of Rural Schools—Baylor........ 493 Transportation of School Children at Public Expense—Muerman............ 495 Tests and Measurements in Rural Schools—Cram.............0.0.cce0eeees 497 Evidences of Progress in Education as Indicated in Better Provision for the Physical Welfare of the Child—Beveridge... ccc u. cere saree cs sescees 499 Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Democracy—Yocum............ 505 ubesRelationiot Judaism to Democracy—Mann.. 2.2... 5252s s« okt on stots oe one 511 SeiabOteStAntism Vand LD.eMmOcracy—A thar. 22s spayee wus wre shoious.scaici neyardieh vio orahenagdicls 517 Present Contributions of Catholicism to Democracy—Hickey................ 522 Report of the Committee of the National Council on Changes Needed in the Mlenientanyesca0ols Gourse—=BLake. . .. sere © os + eroreyere vexed tye sysro evar siq. weno sisheistars 525 ramming stor barenthQod—WOCAwWArd oi. . wf s. 5% oo aside 8 +o, 5» sitslontie Wlouas 533 Final Report of Committee on Health Problems in Education—Keyes........ 535 Pealthandethes SChool—— Diy BA it. a\s dewey Reaeene he RSet AS ETS vo so ehevg aia wor 539 Report of Committee on Participation of Teachers in School Manage- TSE 2 IGA Bs eee Be Me oon 6 GOO Eee DD ONOIN OL OOOO PASO TOC nses aca r 546 Sub-Committee Report on the Course of Study—Felmley...............0004. 548 Report of Progress of Committee on Problems of Vocational Education— LOVIN at, 5 3 COTS 5 HAPS OO DOO ODO REO RCIOr TG, Ore hn DeMaria der erase 555 Contributions of Part-Time Education in Los Angeles—Dorsey............. 558 Recent Accomplishments in the Continuation Schools in Massachusetts— EG) OS Sp gctcy She) sass sect ta Oto 3 avers G4 aisas « Blarelajereterniete 4.0 aiekds Makealvokiwites o SE etter 560 Report of the Committee on Racial Well-Being—Putnam...............0005. 562 Preliminary Report of Committee on the Status of the American Woman Bea CH CI——PORCE eo ae.e is. ays, 5 oa leis Diaciusrd ishdo cde fom @ ob ste dlygyefehorsi dds ie remaesene ee 564 Report of the Committee on the Status of the Classroom Teacher, A Sub- Committee of the National Council of Education Committee on the Status Otel CacChers——A dat to yearn che wie dese Hoe ahh ayes SOS eA eee ee 570 Preliminary Report of Committee on Teacher Welfare—Carr............... 52, DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION SCGHUHIB7D. INDIES. -o 6 tot.0 6 Joe in ae SA a DD COO Ao Oe iS Dei nae Peer EC 575 lnc eMentmeenODleMS—O(DILETI MARAE -cicve. We accel ote siese sie « coe sees es sautivun ole ame Ae 576 Putting the Short in, Shorthand—Campbell............. ccc cece eee en eee 581 Intensive Draining for Business—Hoffacker..........00 0. cccc sees sc ccvenes 585 Correlation of Commercial Courses of Secondary Schools with Courses Offered in Collegiate Schools of Business—Rittenhouse...........0.. 0000. 589 DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE Seeasmray’S: IMMNNIGS» os bodes Soe hne.d58 0 andor aes Oop Cou orate Moon ad 591 The Preparation of Teachers in Health Education—Turner...............-. 593 The Prevention and Correction of Speech Defects—Martin................. 594 Teaching the Deaf Child—Adams................. Seer sea eeee 598 The Awakening of Latent Hearing by Means of Musical Sounds and Vibra- HOC AIA co coacma sds OOb 68S S00 Asso SUED OOS peeeees sic gil ele a oni 604 The Importance of Subject Content in Health Education—Winslow......... 606 Physical Fitness for School Admission—Jensen and Gowans...............4 611 The Responsibility of Public Schools in Health Supervision—Keene......... 615 The Relation of Nutrition to Dental Conditions—Howe..................... 624 A Practical School Program in Nutrition—McCormick............-.0..0005 625 Fresh Air, Diet, and Rest for Selected Pupils—Reed...................... 626 x NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Report of the Follow-up Work of 197 Open-Air Class Children in the Washington School—Callaghan .....0cce eve e cece nent e eee eee e en ees An Effective Rural-school Health Service—Turnbull....... nce Par oroo cu Community Coéperation in School Health Work—Dinwiddie............-.. Improved Medical Inspection of Schools—Wilkes......0-0+0-0seeesececeeee How to Reduce the Morbidity from Communicable Diseases in Schools— Godfrey eco 50 eT nn Ont oto ale ove agate orp te ea atte eee The Mental Hygiene of the School Beginner—Burnham.............++-+++: A Compensatory Mechanism in Status Thymico-Lymphaticus—Timme....... Tonsils and Adenoids in Children—Greene....... 0.0.22 cee cee cence teen ees Early Recognition and Proper Care of Heart Disease Among School Chil- dren— Halsey Wooo ee mee ess ogee ta oe teats > ate oan eee Conservation of the Eyes of School Children—Derby......:.........++++-5: Ohio’s Effort to Bring Children Up to a Normal Health Standard—Wiunters.. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Secretary's Minutes <15..c.eiatemssatesiort ree tere eae iets eltreretele oleate ns eee New Ideals: in’ Education—Ktl patrick ero oa aiekel oe as nee The Improvement of the Teaching Profession Through Tenure Legisla- tion V7 111i ams ee een eck cte acct oto ere Cooperation Between Classroom Teachers of Large and Small Communi- BLES VA 0 OF Cs iesioidiah dich cata A's fo "= to She ade ou eee ee ene ates ee ete ee DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN Secretary's. Minutes) sn RPTL E ETE ROTO HOS OOS POP toes ME ema Sato c foc The Special Honors Plan at Smith College—Wright Regulation of Extra-curricula Activities—Grote...............0s..+-eecees The Relation of the College Women to the General Federation of Women’s Clubs—Plum mien, soc diate « pda pete ee SOR SOCCER eee National Aspects of the American Association of University Women— Reinhardt ooo ee ere ave yo as Te ere Relations to Other Organizations—McWilliams........... 000. ceecev veces Consideration to be Taken into Account in the Stimulation of Graduate Work for: Womtn—Pound \>- 300 ho sao ce ee Some Results of Graduate Work by Women—Talbot...........<........... Retirement Systems for Women Members of College Faculties—Stayt........ How May the Dean Best Apportion Her Time Among the Academic, Ad- visory, and Social Side of College?—Tannahill......................... Extra-curricula Activities—What Ones Do You Consider of Sufficient Im- portance to Justify Their Existence and How May We Keep Them in a Subordinate Position ?—Kingsland Student -Leadership—W rt... 46, ....2t tia eee Relation of the Dean of Women to the Professional Life of the Student— Priddy CoNnTENTS xi DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS DSECKEHAL gS y UMUC SEER germ icrsi rsh governs cto ve 6) ouek ANS 15008) oe torenogs. ef are kitts Os gone te ene 795 After-war Recovery in the Textbook Publishing Business—Seaver........... 795 Keeping Pace with the Nation-wide Demand for Reorganization of Ele- MentanyanC OULSE SOL! StUdV=——DItG GS ta aiy oe ss kice wi eters owas sicaSure Rieu e Ea ahs 800 Discussion of Mr. Driggs’ ‘Talk on Keeping Pace with the Reorganization Dime ementaryey PAC atsOn——— 0/1091 0S sch vatsye SET ate shots esusiclioyp dijeuriors. Sle 0,0 0s aye o.0.5 802 Safe Economies Consistent with Improved Standards of Textbook Making— (UNG Sn SAS ae co ee ate b Polos SBA Ioe Nae AAS Nene, eee 804 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION SKSCREGHUET SMITA RO Co atealee semen aut ae ePene coche RENO can CNR nana eee 809 The Mental Health of Young Children—Andress......... 00.00 ccc cee eee 810 Present-day Tendencies in Education and Their Relation to the Kinder- Batter poder rimary Departments —Smith oe. ioe soos oe ols teks ys ene ence 819 The Adjustment of Elementary Education to the Project Method—Hosic...... 824 The sate 8 ion of Young Children in Rural Communities—Cook............ 828 The Work of the National Education Association as Viewed from the Stand pomit ota. Classtooml P eachel— Wants. vets ees chee ee cess 834 Measuring’ Capacity of Pupils and the Efficiency of Schools by Means of “OSS O MOL, «1x2, 50505 gt ale Cory tI AS GTO SMCS CLE) ERO ne 835 Rating Students on the Basis of Native Capacity and Accomplishment— INEFEEOP sm 3 05 @O008 0.0, S OGG OS. OMENS SSG Ol i RO 6 ORE ae ee 839 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Cuicaco MEETING Rao cram or Gnicaro pVLeetiN pg sa54s.20 Sen Gone ARs een Lo lores ols yates AR 851 Some Objectives of the Department of Elementary-school Principals—Power. 852 The Elementafy-school Principal from the Viewpoint of the Superintendent— OO RSO EMCO « Se 4 Sha Sea MCN GE. Ry 5 NER, ct, a ae, AO RD oe 852 Developing thé, Elementary School as a Social Unit—Sargeant.............. 860 sbherSpectate Teacher: im the Grad es—WV altersvina <2 bl pacleln jlo elle aso Sheela 864 Juvenile Delinquency as a Social Factor in the Elementary Schools—Jones... 869 Socializing the Elementary-school Course of Study—Agnew................. 874 The Elementary’ Principal as a Professional Leader—Marston.............. 880 Boston MEETING SOEGURIB SIM SORE) dp Sees Sees Sep Oss. EROG wen hae ie ng Aman anes 884 DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION SACLE U AI Sm MUL ESM tui. cin aaa mils e os eons eran Soe names fe sac es ee seeeee B87 The Principals Underlying the Relations Between Faculty and Administrative Officers in College and University Control—Smith......... DoW ei pas see 887 Advantages Involved in Extending the Scope of Faculty Participation—Leigh- BLE) 5 SS Bb e BOS Atte EOS CTE ae me ROMP CE (AS Or Gato ti cigs nek ii ae ek 896 i DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION Program ‘of Mectingsic so. oie o2 Whe awit a ie Wie ves ce ole ole eel Dew e e e eee neletinns 905 Americanization—Wise and Unwise—Hoban....... Ei Seca scne 906 Socializing the Method, Content, and Procedure—Richardson..... ee inane 914 How Shall the Problem of the Immigrant Mother be Solved—Springsteed... 928 Education for Citizenship—Shiels.......... be wvig.s lene eels viet pte dante cei 934 The Democratic Awakening in Adult Education—An Opportunity—Graves.. 940 Outstanding Achievements from the Viewpoint of the State—Deming....... 942 Outstanding Achievements from the Viewpoint of the Superintendent— WVEGA 2A 7.2) Mae re cre Grape toa Oe soe fos St he JL esa AR eae eee eens nee beeen 943 Outstanding Achievements and Present Difficulties from the Viewpoint of the a8 City, Director—Stone Wii evista kM as ate ew oe te ae eee ee xil NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Outstanding Achievements and Present Difficulties from the Viewpoint of the City Director—Downey........++-++++5 oe beeen eee e eens tees sete enees 945 Outstanding Achievements and Present Difficulties from the Viewpoint of the Teacher—-P or ber sc snc ore ore ee le Sess Tete et en RR Teme Notts Keene totes eeans ane ae, Outstanding Achievements and Present Difficulties from the Teacher’s View- POUNt— Clark. acces siers cielo cvensicher «eke event oe) sie oteh lett) ea tases Ten 948 Opening Remarks—Clark .........ccce eee e ete eee e eee eeee fe os kee 949 Developing of Factory Classes in Massachusetts up to Date—Quimby....... 951 Report of Investigation into Factory Class Programs in New Bedford, Massa- chusetts—Bruyn and Mason............ ooh ook notion 3 958 Report on Factory Classes in Southbridge, Massachusetts—Power............ 963 Remarks on) Factory Classes—Cody. 0 0 ic tee «e+ cite em cheer te terete 967 DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION Secretary’s Minutes) 2. .cee = sete ctttee elie aie ole Oletans etude ers rte eee 969 Changing Conceptions of the Kindergarten as the Outgrowth of New In- sight—Watkins ...........+++- oS Ma a apeteeae! piss haa a ola ale ne tie Ui 970 Changing Conceptions of Kindergarten Supervision—Boyce..............+.- 974 Changing Conceptions of the Kindergarten in Teacher Training—Palmer.... 977 The Nursery, Schools of England—Owe7 a5 tae ci 4h 982 LIBRARY DEPARTMENT Secretary’s Minutes: vie oot ies are cscinieie seer shel eee iol leten Marra Renee ae ee hee 987 How Shall Adequate Public Library Service be Established Where None Now Exists in’ the Nation—Morganz.. ..0. oe 9-7 one net eee ee 988 Libraries. and: Rural Schools—Hale. aii) jaca ects ieee eee 992, ‘The Consolidated Rural School Library—D rakes eee eee 995 Libraries and Librarians—Williams...........2+..:. Sct. ea ee 998 How the Public Library Helps the Foreigner Make His American Contribu- tlON— ROSE 5.656152 4. 5 wre S arelete Se acho Oe Do eEE ED ea 1001 Effective Codperation Between the Public Library and the Public School— IM COOMR GY esos se VR eR Nase Bok he De aeRte Aas A CPP «en ae 1002 The Daily Newspaper in the School—Rice..................000008- Serreat i: 1006 ‘Lhe SpiritJot Dibrary: Service—Carteran. sone cepa 8. ee eee eee eee 1011 Story Telling: Its Relation to Literary Appreciation—Parker............... 1016 The Pupils’ Contribution to the Success of the School Library—Hall........ 1018 Books: for: Boys—dé Milles SS20NSseh ee eee eee 1018 Opportunities in Junior High-School Libraries—Smith..................++- 1027 The Stimulation of Outside Reading Among High-School Pupils—Cosgrove.. 1032 ‘Eraining for Schools librarians Wop eyaei steerer tet eee 1037 adhe. Child's: Own Readine—Mel cherancen. son care eo ee 1039 Library Work in Normal Schools to Fit Students for Their Work as Teach- CTS—Richardson. sios.scxians donee ea eee 1043 DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes: 755. eis ce sia. © oc:esr le EET RIOR Seo en ee 1047 Music in’ thesRurallSchools—G7bso7 es «ee eee eee 1047 Music: in the) Rural School——Perry. seen ee eee tis Sa cine cera 1055 School Music and the Community—McConathy................00000cceeeee 1056 A Modern Viewpoint of Music Education—Smith...2............1-----0-- 1058 DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS Secretary's Minutes: 025 ea0. «cls Sore x0 Sone ore 1053 What Should the Geography of the Grades Include—Atawood............... 1064 Objectives in the Teaching of Geography—Brown...............ceeceseeee 1065 Geography) for Rural Schools—Ridgelyay. eee . eee ee 1070 The Elementary Curriculum as. Presented in Normal Schools—Wright...... 1074 Subject Matter in the Teachers’ College Curriculum—Shafer............... 1081 The Practical Nature of an Education for Teaching—Alger................ 1084 CoNTENTS Xiil DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Secretary ese Minutesn s. tracer ttt .1-ceeeeo oe ateutha eb vis b xe ag ¥ ees Ge va ele 1085 Rural: Group Athletics and What It Means—Chase..............sene0ccees 1085 The Place of Physical in the Country School Program—Broome............. 1088 The Relation of Physical Education to Social Hygiene—Gruenberg.......... 1091 Purposes of the Committee on Women’s Athletics of the American Physical Education Association and Its Progress up to the Present—Wesson........ 1095 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION CuHrIcaco MEETING Sesreinrny’s IMUM coerce caso aom | ene RE tm le OTR Rt ee en Ree | 1099 President’s Address—Resources in Rural Education—Burnham.............. 1102> Some Unsolved Problems of Rural Education from the Viewpoint of Sociol- Oy SWIM OTIOT, . oa) ee Cn ee ee ee 1110 Obyectivesmoumsccondany Education —Br7GG9)y. <,<.c..ec « spore's) ss. 4 0 s:cyp10 ir bre ole oi nlls 12H bhewsmallsCommunity Haigh School—Pillips..........0e0ccecesnssceneenonn 1124 Problems and Methods in the Organization of Rural Community High SOROS ONA GO occlsta's ah ols clea Oe te ORI Ciee eae ce eee ene 1126 Consolidated Schools of the Mountains, Valleys, and Plains of Colorado— SOTATIL. oa Géian Soins 8 Aga Ga ea SES Oa I PIECE Ge ee ea er 1135 Education in Its Proper Enyironment—Sabin.f.... 0... eect eet enaan 1137 wRuba le deachers: Plattsoulo—PHOMAS tides sae bee a ss owe ate ch meee 1140 The Teachers’ Institute as an Agency for Training Teachers in Service— ELDER GO Le 25 eck Sh ee oS AOD os A CEPI SOs RCD aeRO ROCCE RRR OT 1141 A State Program of Instructional Supervision—Foote..............0..00005 1149 Training Supervisors for Rural Schools—Dakin..............2.06eeeeeeeee 1154 The Use of Test and Measurements in Rural Schools—Bennett............. 1158 Real Supervision for Rural Schools—Hoffmam....ccsceccceccseccceecceunes 1167 The Curse and Cure of the County Superintendency—McDonald............ 1169 The County Unit of High School Consolidation—Harman...............0405 1171 The Output of Professional Schools for Teachers That Enter the Rural TAN C a TS CIRO IE a satel eile cin a gochev es shen tials haw Beameke Denes: ies abe, ae 1173 Junior Extension Work as Developed Through the Public Schools—Wright.. 1177 Junior Extension Work as Developed Through the Public School—Smith.... 1182 Some Contributions of the New York Rural School Survey—Butterworth.... 1186 Boston MEETING SECE Otay: SENN ULES memrnmeterta gat sie teceuh > dra ee core (or eval certs ar escosceP aye asvele Gustave, « eke OOS 1197 Thesidelping-eacher in New Jersey—Fuller.....0...62 v0 2s c5s.6 0 9 vine 50 thes 1198 Community Leagues of Virginia and Their Contribution to Rural Education— (GD inc. 668-5 BO TS SSA MODS CE ERS RE OT ee oe ee ER aT ae 1203 filvemCousolidation uot Rural SCHOOLS —D77Vere peice or o.cis ce si+,08see + t= 4) te lonebieks 1207 The Need of High-School Opportunity for Country Children—Robinson...... 1214 The Extent and Control of Rural Child Labor—Gibbons.................... 27 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION WCCUEL AME SME VLINIITES Bact tcseetet Rete somes It ee ca SIS te alee eA odo itera ele wtereens 1223 C@onsolidationsote Rural, Schools=—Sny deren « scikaeeo ccllslets pole oie ole oe cetenels 1224 The Relation of Administrative Officers to Boards of Education—Strayer... 1229 Academic, Vocational, and Personal Guidance of Boys and Girls in Our High CONGO SVOZO “Sa 5 0.0 og lato Po.ciy-clea o_O iteG cl Oli ena ae 1235 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION SECLELAT VAS. VIIMUCES Herat nee foleree us) Sein caer a oto fb OS ORNS Fe tee cho oS 1239 Ev Suen ma same ant MOM BIOLO SV ——IV CES site cate ey tre aie 8 Ge ise os e150,» ticleve co age chau 1240 its Seis OF Oiielor INGQencrh Gi iol coe foc oeeua ee SORE OOO OROE Ob 1244 Widnagins samoctence ClUD— M1 CISt eI. one Neat cfereaie) ais os) ve 65.2 one. 028 :01f) qgeuauertliens 1246 The Teaching of High-Schoo] Chemistry—Stone..............0200e+eeeeeee 1247 Contents of a Course in Physics for Girlsk—Whitman............000000000- 1255 ey SCS MEGTE DOV S11 UICWERE GHG cts s gil tcc i pices eee ess ce ste see teen eees 1260 XIV NaTIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes... 0... 0.0 cece scence owls emsiscie tie sini ctiin -ireieteesa sishene 1267 Character Training—Smith.....0....cccer cece ene cence cette enter teseeee 1268 Student Organizations and the Development of Character—Paul Pe Pees oe 1273 Report of Committee on Library Problems—The School Library as a Problem in Architectural Design—Certain........... soe a + nol imaielareas +12 oa sates 1280 The Professionally Trained High-School Principal—Briggs.........+.+-++++- 1286 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Secretary's Minutes... 22. ...0.25 0b ssecs soe cee tec eee cee ee twee map iiss 1295 Proposed Constitution. ..........0-- sees see erences eteneeeeccs 1298 The Outlook for Commercial Education—WNichols..... PIG Sac so 6 1306 The Outlook for Cultural Education—A ydelotte.. 2.1.0.0... cee eee ene ee eee 1317 To What Extent are we Warranted in Purchasing Education for Adults from : Funds Levied for the Training of Children of School Age—Graves...... 1318 The Need of National Organization for Educational Service: Tagish, Sect waleiar epeerions eth teaepeste ne eat ys rey een tee ete ee! 1322 AY 14/5 ae OI biome Loe Cea anmoremocouerocosonGaosdaccosuoscon 1330 WOInSTAD Bo4 os motte heey. 3 caste She Sega gol scons haha oye ne eee 1334 (OL 7 petite PanCICInintS MINIS Sooo eOO Sortio tice Cuma UO DOO djocoDOO Loo OTS 1335 BHO O11 6 Sas 255 ice eo ace 0070 Rsk oa a alol ook oO tee te Nealon nee eta te ee ee 1337 8 OY 1 OOS IOC IOC ST SU POOH OUOCOON OC OoQOwoD DOT Hoc’ 1339 ST ESSIUDP .acatecle Weeysoretohs s-0 + Wlale hes wheter teen tsa Papeete tee aie ee eae 1344 Important Elements in the Development of a School-Building Program— ALE CL ee CEE Oe OO Oo one bO OGAU OUR AboosOOC OU: 1346 Adapting the School Plant to the Curriculum—Spain................+..44. 1352 Solving the Problem—The Architect and the Superintendent—Garber....... 1353 The Advantages of the One-Story School Plan—Perkins.................+- 1359 The Problems before the Commission in Charge of the Educational Finance Uri quiry—Str ay er ses iia stares are oi brele Med ehecleateror negate ahs ascot ciate: ass aca elle 5 a cere 1362 Financial Needs of Rural Education—Hydetmanciacia: oe oe ice see eee 1367 Financial Needs of Education in Cities—Thomsen...........2....000ce00s 1372 Financial Needs of Higher Education—Davenfport.............00ceeceecees 1380 How May the Necessary Funds for Public Education be Provided—Seligman. 1386 What Has This Country Reason to Expect by Way of Culture, Efficiency, and Good Citizenship in Return for the Cost of Operating Public Education— TROmMPSOn eine as 20s. ok = ehigesicas olin us ae Mueen fone Te 1393 What Has This Country Reason to Expect by Way of Culture, Efficiency, and Good Citizenship in Return for the Cost of Operating Public Education— Sipauldingre se. oa oes oe slo teeta oe eee eo: Pe eee 1400 What Has This Country Reason to Expect by Way of Culture, Efficiency, and Good Citizenship in Return for the Cost of Operating Public Education— LAG ETE Caeser ane win, oO Sia oe OLRM DER Eat epee 1403 What Has This Country Reason to Expect by Way of Culture, Efficiency, and ee Citizenship in Return for the Cost of Operating Public Education— 00 tate ensue lsUMMepSeais co © vias iu 'diotal’ate fo iolSLere SReLe EN Gr meee Te Sie) Seer Te CRETE ace ee 14 Virginia’s Building Program, its Aims and Vocational Work—Duffield..... Tee dikes One-Storyvasscuool——M cl onald saa sent ae ee een 1423 Mooted Questions in School-Building Service—Ittner...................... 1425 The Superintendent and Standardized Tests—Bliss............000c0000-0-- 1428 The Superintendent and the Course of Study—Bruner.........0..0cc00-00- 1431 Bibs ilonscertte, otatate suger stementetnee 1434 Selling the Schools to the Publio—Wilion.....0 0220 ET dae Your Most Perplexing Problem—Fisher. .. : idle eee 1452 Problems of Financing Education—How They are Being Solved in My City— El arian cll Petra Ott Oe sme erat 1483 School Architecture that Encourages Wider Use—Ittner................005 1484 Wider Wscrot the School Plant—Co0 per... sees vs neds baie cee wine oe slinoeeec 1486 Difficulties in the Dual Direction of After-School Activities—Bachelor...... 1488 The Virginia Coédperative Education Association—Its Influence on the Com- munity Through the Wider Use of School Plants—Heath................ 1491 { ; res ae fat i ar pence gee ae y ¥ —— fy r TULL te - © ie WA OA Ar Fury mites xe a National Education Association of the United States 1857—1870 THE NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. PurposE—To elevate the character and advance the interests of the pro- fession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. The name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the “National Educational Association.” 1870—1907 | NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, “National Education Association,” which was changed to ‘National Educational Association,” by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907— NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the ‘“‘National Educational Association.” ‘The charter was accepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Con- vention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA- TION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: SecTION 1. That the following-named persons, who are now officers and directors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: *Nathan C. Schaeffer, *Eliphalet Oram Lyte, *John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Washington, D. C.; Arthur J. Matthews, of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, *George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O’Connor, *Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamber- lain, of California; *Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of New York; *George W. Twitmyer, of Delaware; *J. Ormond Wilson, *William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of * Deceased. [1] 2 NATIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; *William M. Slaton, of Georgia; *Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G, Lane, *Charles I. Parker, *John W. Cook, *Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, *Joseph A. Mercer, of Ilinois ; *Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory ; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, *A. V. Jewett, *Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; *Warren Easton, of Louisiana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot, *Mary H. Hunt, Henry Di Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Mich- igan; *William F. Phelps, *Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota ; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, *James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska; *Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; *James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey; *Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; *James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, *William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; *Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; *Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert Lange, of South Dakota; *Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas; David H. Christensen, of Utah; *Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robinson, of West Virginia; *Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; *Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii, C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby in- corporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by the name of the “National Education Association of the United States,” and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to pro- mote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organization or consolidation, to wit: The Depart- ments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department; six- teenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its by-laws. oie ta de Sat said corporation shall further have power to have and to ‘ , and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or dish? ahd Giitr! oi lon ee eat er Constitution of the United eels 50 ey oe Rinne ean nae See devise, bequest, or purchase, any real 7 ase nal catate Gate hoy peel et ox ae ae a ae personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, , purpose of its incorporation; and to accept and * Deceased. Act OF INCORPORATION 3 administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. Sec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia, which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation; provided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the in- come of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corporation; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Com- missioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. Sec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members—viz., active, associate, and corresponding—whose qualifications, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the by-laws of the corporation. Sec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board of Trustees. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each State, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Education Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacan- cies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the by-laws of the corporation. The Executive Committée shall consist of five members, as follows: the Presi- dent of the Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, to serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, of the _ Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting at which they were elected, they shall elect one trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his member- ship. : cot 7. That the invested fund now known as the “Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association,’ when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and in- vestment of such fund, and of all other funds which the corporation may receive 4 NatIOoNAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two-thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommenda- tion of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organiza- tion of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund; all surplus funds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. Sec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia; provided, That the meetings of the corpora- tion, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the by-laws. Src. 9. That the charter, constitution, and by-laws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new by-laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Association shall continue to hold office and per- form their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the “National Education Associa- tion of the United States”; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all Property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand ae ae directors, or trustees of the corporation . if verified certificate executed by officer and secretary of such annual meeting, granted by this act by the National Education of the fact, when filed with the Recorder 0 and, provided further, That in the event of the charter granted by this act at said a National Educational Association and its hereby extended until the thirty-first day o the presiding showing the acceptance of the charter al Association, shall be legal evidence f Deeds of the District of Columbia; the failure of the Association to accept nnual meeting then the charter of the incorporate existence shall be and are f July, nineteen hundred and eight, and Act oF INCORPORATION 5 at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District of Columbia. Sec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. Sec. 11. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Sec. 12. That said corporation may provide, by amendment to its by-laws, that the powers of the active members exercised at the annual meeting in the election of officers and the transaction of business shall be vested in and exercised by a representative assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed in accordance with the provisions of the by-laws adopted by said corpo- ration. Sections 1-11 were passed by Congress and approved by the President June 30, 1906. They were accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Edu- cation Association of the United States by the active members of the National Education Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. Section 12 was passed by Congress and approved by the President of the United States May 13, 1920, as an amendment to the original act of Incorporation. It was accepted and adopted as an amendment to the Constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members thereof in annual session at Salt Lake City, Utah, July 9, 1920. BY-LAWS (Complete as amended at the Annual Business Meeting of the Representative _ Assembly, Boston, Massachusetts, July 7, 1922.) ARTICLE I—MEMBERSHIP SecTioN 1. The membership of the National Education Association of the United States shall consist of three classes, Active, Associate, and Corresponding, whose qualifications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. Sec. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work at the time of their becoming members. Sec. 3. The annual dues of an active member shall be $2.00, which shall entitle him to attend all meetings of the Association and its several departments, to receive The Journal free, and, on application, to secure all publications of the As- sociation at a price fixed by the Publication Committee, which shall be the ap- proximate cost. By the payment of annual dues of $5.00 an active member shall receive, in addition to The Journal, without application or other condition, the volume of Proceedings and all other regular publications of the Association, in- 6 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cluding reports of committees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. : joe Src. 4. All life members and life directors shall have all the rights and privileges of active members without the payment of annual dues, and shall receive free without application or condition the publications of the Association. Src. 5. Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not actively engaged in the profession of teaching, but interested in the promotion of education. The annual dues of an associate member shall be the same as the dues of an active member, and he shall have the same rights and privileges ex- cepting the right to vote and hold office. Sec. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board of Directors as corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall not at any time exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the publications of the Association. Sec. 7. The annual dues of all members shall be paid at the time of the annual meeting of the Association or shall be sent to the Secretary on or before November 1. An active member failing to pay his dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privileges of membership and after being in arrears one year shall be dropped from the list of members. Sec. 8. The membership year shall be the same as the fiscal year of the Associa- tion, from June 1 to May 31, inclusive. New members may join at any time, and the membership of those joining between March 1 and June 1 shall extend to the end of the following membership year. Those joining after January 1 may, if they so elect, have their dues apply to membership for the following year. Sec. 9. The Secretary of the Association shall furnish each member of the As- sociation a membership card, declaring him to be a member of the National Education Association for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such en- titled to all the rights and privileges granted by the Charter and By-laws of the Association. Sec. 10. The right to vote shall be limited to active members of the Associa- tion whose dues are paid. The right to hold office in the Association or in any department shall be limited to active members whose dues are paid. The right to vote and hold office in the Council shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Each active member shall have one vote. ARTICLE II—ELECTION OF OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS SECTION 1. The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. The President, Vice-President, Treasurer, and Directors of the Associa- tion shall be chosen by the Representative Assembly by ballot, at the annual business meeting, a majority of the vctes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the terms for which they are separately chosen and until. their successors are duly elected. Sec. 3. The State Teachers Association or Ed : ucational Associatio territory, n of a State, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each Affiliated State Association shall be a State unit in the organization of th Association and as such shall be entitled to Assembly as hereinafter provided. e National Education representation in the Representative The annual dues of an Affiliated State Associa- By-Laws 7 tion shall be $10.00 for each delegate to which said State shall be entitled, with a maximum of $100.00. Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the Volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 4. A local educational association or teachers’ organization within a State, territory, or district may afhliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be a local unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled to representation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter provided. The annual dues of an Afhliated Local Association shall be $5.00, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, in- cluding the Volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both State and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and support of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such affiliated association and its members in so far as such interests come within the purpose and object of the National Education Association as set forth in its Charter. The Secretary of the National Education Association shall, with the advice and ap- proval of the Executive Committee, make such arrangements for mutual codperation between the National Education Association and the State and Local Afhliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interests of the teaching profession. Sec. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association, up to five hundred such active members, and thereafter one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. Sec. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. Sec. 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the election of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but one Affiliated Local As- sociation. Sec. 9. The officers of the National Education Association as named in the Charter and the State Superintendent or Commissioner of Education of each State, territory, and district, shall be ex officio delegates to the Representative Assembly. The President of the Association shall preside at the annual meeting of the Repre- sentative Assembly, and the Secretary of the Association shall keep the records thereof. In case of a tie the President shall cast the deciding vote. Sec. 10. Delegates shall file their credentials with the Secretary of the Associa- tion on blanks furnished by him for that purpose not later than ten days before the beginning of the annual meeting. The Secretary shall turn over such cre- dentials to the Credential Committee, when appointed, with such information thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Association. The Repre- sentative Assembly shall be the final judge of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meetings of the Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertaining to the Association. The Representative Assembly shall adopt rules of procedure which 8 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION MAMET BORED: ALENT SCR L REL Mot se f= shall not conflict with the Charter and by-laws of the Association. It shall recom- mend an equitable plan for paying the expenses of delegates to the annual busi- ness meeting of the Association. Src. 11. The officers shall be permitted to hold meetings other than for business purposes and expenses therefor shall be provided. ARTICLE III—DUTIES OF OFFICERS SrcTion 1. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association. In his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall pre- side; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association, and, with the approval of the Executive Com- mittee, shall determine the time and place of the general meeting of the Associa- tion and of the various departments not definitely fixed by these by-laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in the programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized by the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Di- rectors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vice-President for the ensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Com- mittee on Publication. Src. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the As- sociation as provided in the articles of incorporation and the by-laws, and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, shall be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and, in the absence of direction by the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the President, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer, shall counter- sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings of the Board of Directors, or on the approval of the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secre- tary of the Board of Directors, and a member of the Committee on Publication. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than July 1 prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all money, books, and other property in his pos- session belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish, nor distribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Publi- cation Committee. Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of the Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Associa- tion; shall pay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of the Association and the chairman of the Board of Tr f : ociati : ustees when- ever the surplus funds in his possession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirty-first day of May of each year, he shall render By-Laws 9 to the Executive Committee not later than July 1, and when approved by said com- mittee they shall be transmitted by the committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting and to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed by Section 6 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council of Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power to fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees; shall recommend to the Executive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association, the Council of Education, and the departments. ‘The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred under authority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee, or the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or Executive Committee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the Repre- sentative Assembly at the annual business meeting for the work of all special com- mittees of research and investigation authorized and provided for at the annual business meetings, shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Associa- tion (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees) to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting, ‘and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. Sec. 5, The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging for the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of the various departments. The Executive Committee shall recommend to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for investiga- tion or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active membership of the National Education Association or by any of its departments; it shall recommend the amount of money to be ap- propriated for such investigations. When such special committees are provided for and duly authorized by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision of them, shall receive and consider all reports made by them, and shall print such reports, and present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the office of Secretary. Sec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds of such amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful per- formance of their duties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Associa- tion to the Executive Committee not later than July 1 prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. It shall choose annually its own chairman and secretary. ARTICLE IV—THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Section 1. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from 10 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual meeting on Educational Progress during the Past Year; and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to pro-' mote the cause of education in general. Sec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred and twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected. Src. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota of members. No State, territory, nor district in the United States shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council. Sec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Sec, 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be de- nominated honorary members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association with the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council. Sec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president, a secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secretary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for pub- lication. Sec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or the by-laws of the Association; provided, That such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative. Sec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolished upon a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly taken at the annual meeting of the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V—DEPARTMENTS Section 1. The following departments are now (1921) in existence, to wit: The departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Vocational Educa- tion and Practical Arts; sixth, of Kindergarten Education; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of Secondary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth of Child Hygiene; eleventh, of Physical Education; twelfth, of Science Taseruceene thirteenth, of School Administration; fourteenth, the Library Department; ff. teenth, of Rural Education; sixteenth, of Classroom Teachers; seventeenth foe the Promotion of the Wider Use of Schoolhouses ; eighteenth, of Educational Publica! tions ; nineteenth, Deans of Women; twentieth, Department of Elementary School Principals; twenty-first, Department of Immigrant Education. : Sec. 2. Each department shall have the right to fix the qualifications of its members for the purpose of electing officers and transacting the other business of the department; provided active members of the Association, and no Behcrs, By-Laws 11 shall be eligible to such department membership, and provided also that all active members of the Association shall be permitted to attend the professional programs and discussions of any department. Sec. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold its annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined by said department, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the Association. Src. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The pro- grams of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in confer- ence with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session of business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers. Sec. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice- president, and a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their election, be active members of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of president of any of, the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the President of the Association. Any other departmental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the president of the department. Any department may provide for the creation of an executive committee and assign to it any duties consistent with the purposes of the department, and the Charter and By-Laws of the Association. Sec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the department for publication. Pro- vided, no department shall establish an office outside of the general headquarters of the Association without the consent of the Executive Committee of the Asso- ciation. Sec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception stated in Section 3 of this article. ‘They shall be named in Section 1 of this article in the order of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each department may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or these by-laws. Sec. 8. A new department may be established by a two-thirds vote of the Board ot Directors taken at a regular meeting of the board, or by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any annual business meeting; provided, That a written application for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding annual business meeting, by at’ least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the field of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be established. A department already established may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any business meeting of the Association; provided, That announce- ment has been made of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the preceding year, or at the preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it fails to hold a regular meeting for two succéssive years, Sec. 9. Any department, by a two-thirds vote of those voting at any regular business meeting, may levy a membership fee to supplement its allowance from: the Association. Such membership fees shall be paid to the secretary of the department who shall transmit them monthly to the Secretary of the Association. Such funds shall be added to the department’s allowance from the Association 12 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION and shall be used for the work of said department only, and shall be disbursed upon the recommendation of the executive officers of the department in the same manner as other funds of the Association are disbursed. ARTICLE VI—COMMITTEES Section 1. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors on the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee consist- ing of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a trustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided in Section 6 of this article; and the committee shall report its findings at the meeting of the Representative Assembly. , Src. 2. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association, the State and local delegates from each State shall select one member for each of the following committees: Credentials, Nominations, Resolutions, and Necrology. The Committee on Credentials shall receive the official list of the delegates from the Secretary and report thereon to the Representative Assembly. Src. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the third day of the annual meeting at 9:00 A. M., at a place designated by the President of the Associa- tion, and shall nominate persons, for the following offices in the Association to wit: one person for President, eleven persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from each State, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board of Directors. It shall report to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. Sec. 4. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meet- ing of Representative Assembly, and except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee without discussion. ‘This committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the purpose of receiving proposed resolu- tions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them. Sec. 5. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the published Proceedings a list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year accompanied by memorial sketches whenever practicable. Sec. 6. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Asso- ciation, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licensed to do business. as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and compare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of said accountants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted with such comments as he may think Proper, to the Board of, Directors, at their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association. ARTICLE VII—MEETINGS SecTion 1. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education and of each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall bE de- termined by the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance with these by-laws. An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies may be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two thirds of the directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee. By-Laws 13 Sec. 2. The annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly shall begin on the second day of the annual meeting at 9:00 a. mM. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting at 10:30 A.M. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announced in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Di- rectors referred to above in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman, and shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the board by the secretary thereof. ARTICLE VIII—PROCEEDINGS SECTION 1. The proceedings of the Association, the Council, the departments, the commissions and committees, shall be published at the discretion of and under the direction of a committee appointed by the executive committee, provided, That in the opinion of the executive committee the funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. Sec. 2. No paper, lecture, nor address shall be read before the Association or any of the departments in the absence of the author, without the approval of the President of the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the Proceedings without the approval of the Publication Committee. ARTICLE IX—QUORUM SecTION 1. Representatives from twenty-five States and territories shall consti- tute a quorum in all meetings of the Representative Assembly and of the Board of Directors. ARTICLE X—APPROPRIATIONS SecTion 1. Unless otherwise ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meetings, not less than 10 per cent of the gross income of the Association each year shall be set aside for such educational investigations and studies as may be ordered in accordance with Section 5 of Article III. ARTICLE XI—AMENDMENTS SEecTION 1. These by-laws may be altered or amended at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly by unanimous vote, or by a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly. if the alteration or amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announcement of the proposed action shall have been made in the official publication of the Association. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress ap- proved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shep- ard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the 10th day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Con- gress entitled “An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions Do hereby certify that the National Education. Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by- laws, and is the lawfu! successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, Presiding Officer IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY 10, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter granted by an act of Congress entitled “An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2s Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect imme- diately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its lved corporate seal a circle containing the title “National Education Association of the United States,” and the dates “1857 L9O7e ; 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organi under the charter granted by the act of Con cone gress. Filed in the office of the R rd istri i fata e Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, Septem- [14] CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1857—PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) James L. Enos, Chairman. WK. SHELDON, Secretary. 1858—CINCINNATI, OHIO . RicHarps, President. J. W. BULKLEY, Secretary. J. Rickorr, Treasurer. 1859 WASHINGTON, D G J. RickorF, President. tT W. BULKLEY, Secretary. C. §. PENNELL, Treasurer. 1860—BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. BuLxtey, President. Z. RicHarps, Secretary. O. C. Wicut, Treasurer. 1861, 1862—No session. 1863—- CHICAGO, ILL. Joun D, Puivsrick, President. Me CruIKSHANK, Secretary. O. Wicut, Treasurer. 1864—OGDENSBURG, NEA YE W. H. WELLS, President. Davin N. Camp, Secretary. Z. RicHarps, Treasurer. 1865—HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. GreENE, President. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. Z. RicHarps, Treasurer. 1866—INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. WickrersHaM, President. S. H. Wuire, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867—No session. 1868—NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Grecory, President. I, Van BoxKELEN, Secretary. JAMES CRUIKSHANK, Treasurer. 1869>—TRENTON, N. J. L. Van BoxKKeE.en, President. W. E. Crospy, Secretary. A, L. Barser, Treasurer. 1870o—_CLEVELAND, OHIO DanieEL B. Hacar, President. A. P. Marae, Secretary. W. E. Crossy, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1907 1871—ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Picxarp, President. W. E. Crossy, Secretary. Joun Hancock, Treasurer. 1872—BOSTON, MASS. E. E. Wuire, President. S. H. Wurtte, Secretary. Joun Hancock, Treasurer. 1873—ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Norturop, President. S. H. Wuire, Secretary. Joun Hancock, Treasurer. 1874—DETROIT, MICH. S. H. Wurre, President. A. P. Marsie, Secretary. Joun Hancock, Treasurer. 1875—MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. M. R. Apgsort, Secretary. A. P. Marais, Treasurer. 1876—BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. PueEtps, President. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. A. P. Marsie, Treasurer. hae” RN a ey A. NEWELL, President. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. J. Ormond Wison, Treasurer. 1878—No session. 1879—PHILADELPHIA, PA. Joun Hancock, President. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. J. Ormond Wi1son, Treasurer. 1880—_CHAUTAUQUDA, N. Y. J. Ormonp Witson, President. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. BE. T. Tappan, Treasurer. ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. HeNn«KLE, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. peae eek RALOGS SPRINGS, N. Y. J. Orr, President. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. H. S. Tarseit, Treasurer. 1881 1883—SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. SHeEtpon, Secretary. N. A. Carxins, Treasurer. 1884— MADISON, WIS. THomas W. BicKNELL, President. H. S. Tarsevy, Secretary. N. A. Cauxins, Treasurer. 1885—SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. Louis Soupan, President. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. N. A. Cavxins, Treasurer. aug a KANS. N. A. CALKINS, President. EW 8 ES: SHELDON, Secretary. E. C. Hewert, Treasurer. 1887—CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. SHELDON, President. 9 J. H. Canrieup, Secretary. Kk. C. Hewerr, Treasurer. 1888—SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. CanFietp, Secretary. E. C. Hewert, Treasurer. 1889 NASHVILLE, TENN. ALBERT P. MARBLE, President. J. H. CanFretp, Secretary. BE. C. Hewert, Treasurer. 1890—ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canrietp, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. BE. C. Hewerr, Treasurer. 1891—TORONTO, ONT. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Coox, Secretary. J. M. Greenwoop, Treasurer. 1892—S: pRa roe. SPRINGS, N. Y. E. Cook, President. R. W. STEVENSON, Secretary. etd ks GREEN Woop, Treasurer. 1893—CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education) ALBERT G. LANE, President. IRwin SHEPARD, Secretary. J. M. Greenwoop, Treasurer. [15] 16 NATIONAL EpucCATION ASSOCIATION Roe SO ae i eee ee 1894—ASBURY PARK, N. J. Apert G. Lane, President. Irwin SHEPARD, Secretary. . M. GreeNwoop, Treasurer. 1895 —DENVER, COLO. : NicHoLas Murray Bur.erR, President. Irw1N SHEPARD, Secretary. I. C. McNeitu, Treasurer. 1896—BUFFALO, N. Y. : Newton C. DoucHerty, President. IRwIN SHEPARD, Secretary. I. C. McNertx, Treasurer. 1897—MILWAUKEE, WIS. ; Cuartes R. SKINNER, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. I. C. McNer1u, Treasurer. 1898—WASHINGTON, D.C. | J. M. Greenwoop, President. IRw1In SHEPARD, Secretary. I. C. McNerLi, Treasurer. 1899—_LOS ANGELES, CALIF. E. Oram Lyre, President. IRw1In SHEPARD, Secretary. I. C. McNett, Treasurer. 1900—CHARLESTON, S. C.° Oscar T. Corson, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. Carrot, G. Parse, Treasurer. 1901 —DETROIT, MICH. q James M. Green, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. LL, C. GREENLEE, Treasurer. 19022—MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. f Wiitiam M. BEarDSHEAR, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. Cuartes H. Keyes, Treasurer. 1903--BOSTON, MASS. 1 Cuartes W. Extot, President. Irwin SHEPARD, Secretary. W. M. Davipson, Treasurer. 1904—ST. LOUIS, MO. jf Joun W. Cook, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. McHenry Ruoaps, Treasurer. 190s—ASBURY PARK ann OCEAN GROVE, _N. J. 7 Wiriam H. MaxweE -t, President. IRwin SHEPARD, Secretary. James W. CRrasTREE, Treasurer. 1906—No session. 1907—LOS ANGELES, CALIF. ; Naruan C. SCHAEFFER, President. Irwin SHEPARD, Secretary. Ces J. N. Witxrnson, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1908— 1908—CLEVELAND, OHIO Epwin G. Cooney, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. ArtTHUR H, CHAMBERLAIN, Treasurer. 1909— DENVER, COLO. Lorenzo D. Harvey, President. IrnwIN SHEPARD, Secretary. ArtTHuUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Treasurer. 1910—BOSTON, MASS. James Y. Joyner, President. Irwin SHEPARD, Secretary. ArtHuR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Treasurer. t911—SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Eiia Fracc Younc, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. Duranp W. SPRINGER, Treasurer. 1912—CHICAGO, ILL. CarroLt G, Prarsk, President. Irwin SHEPARD, Secretary. KaTHERINE D. Brake, Treasurer. 1913—SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. Epwarp T. FarrcHILp, President. Duranp W. SprRInGER, Secretary. Grace M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. 1914—ST. PAUL, MINN. JosEPH SwaIin, President. Duranp W. Sprincer, Secretary. Grac— M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. 1915 OAKLAND, CALIF. (International Congress of Education) Davip STARR JoRDAN, President. Duranp W. SPRINGER, Secretary. Grace M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. 1916—NEW YORK, N. Y. Davip B. Jounson, President. Duranp W. SPRINGER, Secretary. Grace M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. 1917—PORTLAND, ORE. Ropert J. Arey, President. Duranp W. SprRINGER, Secretary. . Tuomas E, Finecan, Treasurer. 1918—PITTSBURGH, PA. Mary C. C. Braprorp, President. J. W. Crastree, Secretary. A. J. Marruews, Treasurer. 1919 MILWAUKEE, WIS. Grorcr D. StRAYER, President. J. W. Crastree, Secretary. A. J, MarrHews, Treasurer. 1920—SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. JOSEPHINE CorLiss PRESTON, Pres. J. W. Crastree, Secretary. A. J. MarrHews, Treasurer. 192I—DES MOINES, IOWA Frep M. Hunvrer, President. J. W. Craprrex, Secretary. CornEtia S. Aparr, Treasurer. 1922—BOSTON, MASS. CuarLt OrmMonp WILLIAMs, President. J. W. Craptree, Secretary. Cornetia S. Aparr, ‘Treasurer. National Education Association of the United States OFFICERS FOR 1921-1922 GENERAL ASSOCIATION CHaARL ORMOND WILLIAMS............ PFENIEMU A Tae ees ae Omni Memphis, Tenn. SSR VV GIR GRABER Denese, cele tuniales oleae Here. SCHEELE ee area deci ceitee Washington, D. C. Cornutt S. OADATR |. acccces cede cect. LVEOSUPEN Fe oC OO eee Richmond, Va. VICE-PRESIDENTS Frep M. Hunrer, Superintendent of Schools,.......5.ce0.ececeececveee Oakland, Calif. E. BE. OseRHoutzER, Superintendent of Schools.......6.00.0:ceeece0ee Tulsa, Okla. PP. ZIMMERS wouperintendent, OF Schools... ..0,0 0.0000 scnwcee seen oe Boise, Idaho J. A. C. CHANDLER, President of the College of William and Mary...... Williamsburg, Va. Cora Witson Stewart, Chairman National Illiteracy Commission...... Frankfort, Ky. MiG. LEMLeR,) Superintendent Of OCHOOlSis 5 «..6ciser6 sing seer aie + sue0-200 Lincoln, Nebr. Caartes B. Bover, Superintendent of Schools....... wc sce eee scenes -Atlantic City, N. J. OrayE MVE ONES, (Pranctpal EDUC SCHOOL E2O stem ceicly gietsisiele's + ayare-0 o1e.e ie «6 New York, N. Y. J. 'O; ENGLEMAN, Superintendent of Schoolsicc «resi sieinjsie sos shares sess Joliet, Ill. WILHELMINA VAN DE GoorBERG, Elementary Teacher...........0-.2000% Los Angeles, Calif. ANNIE Wess Branton, State Superintendent of Public Instruction..... Austin, Texas L. D. Corrman, President of the University of Minnesota.............. Minneapolis, Minn. BOARD OF TRUSTEES CHar~t Ormonp Wit iams, President.. Superintendent of Shelby County (Sfol Nore) oe ie tat potions SACs Memphis, Tenn. GAGROLE GG PEARSE. ..: cs ccs 5c sles President State Normal School.. Milwaukee, Wis. NVATUER Rs MOLDERS « sls'e a's ole cs c's te ele & Superintendent of Schools...... Pocatello, Idaho ANGNE SUES DOBERTY.s cieisteteicis steve oe ccs eee Central’ High ‘School? ......:..5. St. Paul, Minn. OuiveE M. Jonrs Baste siciateha tenets tenons erste Principal Public School 120..... New York, N. Y. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS......++-++5 (RIESiA en radsls@> oe euhbieidabhe its Memphis, Tenn. ERED NOGARO TERS. 310,20 yeioio 0.9) 5c talomieers Vice-Presidentircls wctoles dora sislelers:6 Oakland, Calif. CARROLL. GAUPEARSE telecine aelelele a cehee Chairman Board of Trustees.... Milwaukee, Wis. CorweEra, S. ADATRiie tole cleteteteiale leo bieede SR AT Le AAT DOOODBLIAO CO Oee Richmond, Va. EBay Fv EST:N ENCOUN Stal sls) eusus le iosialaioveue jenssaie seus Member by Election.......++.+. Harrisburg, Pa. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors Ex Officio Cyart Ormonp Wittiams, President, Mem- Cornetia S. Apair, Treasurer, Richmond Va. phis, Tenn. Carrott G. Pearse, Chairman of the Board Frep M. Hunrer, First Vice-President, Oak- of Trustees, Milwaukee, Wis. land, Calif. J. W. Crasrrer, Secretary, Washington, D. C. Life Directors Indianapolis, Ind. Arey, Ropert J., Butler College.....--0+eseseeeeee eee e nee r eee ereeees Braprorp, Mary C. C., 1735 Bellaire Street..........eesceee seer eeeeee Denver, Colo. BrcxnELt, THomas W., 207 Boyle Avenue.....-+e+eeeeeeeeeeecersceres Providence, R. I. BoaRD OF EDUCATION. .cceccccecvec ccc e rests eeteeereeeresresecrercens Nashville, Tenn. Brown, Ermer ExiswortH, President of New York University........ New York, N. Y. Burtrer, Nrcnoras Murray, President of Columbia University......... New York, N. Y. [17] 18 NatIoONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION Craxton, P. P., 1717 Lamont Street, IN Oe Baro olgo 3-40 Oty © oh sees eees (Cavey a4 fos z0 a \ peepee oodesen sao osacbbdurmmocsdondcGb> oonogD NOM ORD Cooter, Epwin G., Union League Club sare: n jest eet oere toler eae age? ataneVal oie) eleke Corson, Oscar T., R. F. D. No. 2..-.-.- SEE Bn 0 BOR A ree gene tnrere ie Eviot, Cuartes W., President Emeritus of Harvard University........ GRAH AMS Elan Av rim edo ore ptereerointaiele!o%> 1 siete *lsinieyou= casein ste uae anor aaa Harvey, Lorenzo D., President of Stout Tristitiitek «jo cic cimeiceic sieietesialetele Jounson, Davin B., President Winthrop Normal and Industrial College. . Jorpan, Davin Starr, President Emeritus, Leland Stanford University. . OMNERN JAMES | Voleleerorelerstolers atl o\e(lele) slate ebeyei=!alalelslelniivieieloiel~ 21ge(-) eset ies MARSHALL, T, MARCELLUS.......ce cece eee cess eee een eres er esse ccsens Preston, JosEpHINE Corviss, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Parse, Carrott G., President of State Normal School....++-.++see0+ Skinner, Cuartes R., Legislative Reference Library, Capitol Building. . Srare TEacHERS’ AssocraTIon oF Intinois, Robert C. Moore, Secretary. Srrayer, Georcr D., Teachers College, Columbia Wintyersity: opie aioe Swain, JosepH, Swarthmore College........- sees eee cece rece tere eeeee UW) Weed Sea onannonosn noedtodods cocuuns codEodosar ocnocuocis aot THACHERS® SUNSHUEC ULE ci1c 11> nol eiche stebelele sie imioininnsieeyele lelanerels svale elevevsheverapener tenet Ticert, Joun J., U. S. Commissioner of Education, Bureau of Education WHITE; CHAREES Gye 2 )e oie 0 5 o-01ciyere aneis #lnininietoieteiolatele! sisleronalersioial arelste!sioiateys State Directors Adabamia ane cctiele seis P. W. Honcks, Secretary of Certification and Place- ment, State Department of Education........... INES SEA cee Lester’ D. HENDERSON. <1 sroielelsisetehrcetsineiate enters IATIZON ATE ee «asics . Joun D. Loper, Superintendent of Schools........ PATCADSAS ws cinelersieieteneie ANNIE GriFFEY, Primary Supervisor.............. Californiaccieioeeleversie Mary F. Mooney, Vice-Principal, Washington School. Goloradomencrccleeste H. B. SmirH, Secretary of the Colorado Education ASSOCIATION, 5.0.00, ersie cake alelvele rep ieiocste ery rare ererete Connecticut........ Levi T. Garrison, President of the State Teachers’ ASSOCIALL ONS. %5,Stn.c.sie svete ro enererblecsne ay vertiee etnies see leans Delaware........ ., H. E. Srautr, Director of Research in Education... Eloridattccstecnaisetae . F. A. Haraway, County Superintendent of Schools. Georgia............ K. T. Atrrignp, President of Military College.... Tahoe ictesicsevexe «+e. T. B. ScHANK, Superintendent of Schools........ Illinois )yts eteesi sis « Mrs: Saran, tomas, Teachers. o.acucncene eee o. Indianasaa te eeee H. Lester Smitu, Dean of the School of Education. Lowa Sse caesine ...-. L. H. MInKEL, Superintendent of Schools........ Kansasieacaistee ments M. E. Pearson, Superintendent of Schools....... Kentucky... 40.25 J. H. Ristey, Superintendent of Schools......... Eowisianas eee: J. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools......... Mainey.2taneen eae H. A. Atian, Rural Schools Inspector, State House. Maryland ieee aiee Wixiiam Burpick, Superintendent of Physical Edu- CAELORM es sar seet etats «5/0 x Sle ma eiae cick PRO ee eee Ee Massachusetts...... Mary McSkimmown, Principal of Pierce School.... Michiganves sear ee Tuomas E. JoHnson, State Superintendent of Schools. Minnesota.......... J. C. Brown, President of the State Normal School. Mississippi......... E. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools........... MESS OLE sae sei I, McCartney, Superintendent of Schools........ Montana*).y...cceee D. S. WitiiaMs, Superintendent of Schools...... Nebraska............ A. H. STAey, Superintendent of Schools........ Nevada New Mexico....... JoHN MILNE, Superintendent of Schools New Yorcaeen sees AMBROSE Cort, Principal of Public School 73 North Carolina..... Rosert H. Wricut, Teachers’ Training School hon NELson SAUVAIN, Superintendent of Schools vag eee Crauncry W. Smiru, Superintendent of Schools. . New Hampshire.... Danie. W. MacLean, Headmaster, High School.. New Jersey........ THomas AcNneEw, Principal of Horace Mann School. President of East Carolina Washington, D. C. Dekalb, Ill. Chicago, Ill. Oxford, Ohio Cambridge, Mass. Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Menominee, Wis. Rock Hill, S. C. California La Grange, N.C. Stouts Mill, W. Va. Olympia, Wash. Milwaukee, Wis. Albany, N. Y. Carlinville, Ill. New York, N. Y. Swarthmore, Penna. Decatur, Ill. Philadelphia, Penna. Washington, D. C. Menominee, Wis. Birmingham Juneau Phenix Little Rock San Francisco Denver Willimantic Dover Jacksonville Milledgeville Ceeur d’Alene Rockford Bloomington Fort Dodge Kansas City Owensburg New Orleans Augusta Baltimore Brookline Lansing St. Cloud Hadleyburg Hannibal Glascow Hastings Elko Berlin Bayonne Albuquerque Brooklyn Greenville Devil’s Lake bie aCe SOO SE W. W. McIntyre, Dean of the School of Eddeaton. Athens Oklakhoma’......08ee KE. E. Operwoutzer, Superintendent of Schools... Tulsa Oregon ; t Be Rc Cuartes A. Rice, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Portland OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 19 Pennsylvania....... Wirt1am M. Davinson, Superintendent of Schools. Pittsburgh Rhodepisland rgd WATHERINE Ul, PIERCE. clots saii's.c 4's 0 s..¢.0ciaeie.o ove cave . Providence South Carolina..... Grorce H. Wenger, Superintendent of Schools..... Beaufort South Dakota..... . M. M. Guutin, Director of Americanization........ Pierre Tennessee.......... R. L. Jones, President of the Normal School...... Murfreesboro Wexas\ eicoteccan ess - Mamie §. Bastian, President of the State Grade Teachers #Assocmtion™ satire Pee tee de winless Houston WS itale wrench onepnuey ss asi L. Joun Nurratr, Jr., Superintendent of Schools... Spanish Fork Wermonti)s:ci<. sie1s,+ © « Carotine S. WoOoDRUFE. . 0.00. 05s nacnoone og eters . St. Johnsbury Virginia........... Nanni—E W. THompson, 130 Second Avenue....... Richmond Washingten......«. Mrs. JENNIE. M. FRENCH.......-.00cc0.. Ab oes Tacoma West Virginia...... FLORENCE J. Parker, Principal of the High School.. New Haven Wisconsin.......... J. F. Srms, President of the State Normal School.. Stevens Point Wyoming.......... A. A. Stang, Superintendent of Schools........... Casper District of Columbia. Harry EncrisH, Mathematics Department, High SCHOO lamers e us femnieiey sisseysre ate tesistsse/eue,4 tie areisie goto. Ore seteis Washington Fla waail oe secs Tense JOSEPHING DEYou Halo WmioneSchools....-....+..* een Lilo Philippine Islands.... LurHer B. Brewery, Director of Education....... - Manila Porto-Rico.2... .... RatpH §S. Garwoop, University of Porto Rico...... Mayagues HEADQUARTERS’ STAFF 1201 Sixteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. C. J. W. Crastree, Secretary Hucu §. Maciir, Field Secretary Ray S. ErLanpson, Assistant Secretary Acnes S. WINN, Assistant Secretary HELEN T. Hixson, Recorder Joun K. Norton, Director of Research Dept. Joy Ermer Morcan, Editor NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Presidents ors ti sta Homer H. Seerrey, President of Iowa State Teach- ersuCollege Ba. Moai ela kre «Sete kh- Raton» arte me Cedar Falls, Iowa Vice-President...... JosEPHINE CorLiss Preston, State Superintendent of Piablic MINStPictionl ssa sae ec esr tieticie ste lel aigteterets Olympia, Wash. NECK ELAN Goria oie ciate ss ADELAIDE STEELE Baytor, Federal Agent tor Home ESCOMOMINCS Bee trae othe tances foie aussi cu ualegsicielsisqsocacierese Washington, D. C. OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Business Education PrESIECHE. 20.408 « Cray D. StinxeEr, Director of Business Education.. Des Moines, lowa WECKEEAVG) fare citieie.cie-« G. F. Kwnippratu, Head of the Bookkeeping and Accounting Department, High School of Commerce. Omaha, Nebraska _ Child Hygiene President... 00+ O. B. Nessit, Director of Medical Inspection...... Gary, Ind. Vice-President...... Maupg A. Brown, Supervisor of Hygiene-......... Kansas City, Mo. IS EGHEVOTVelcisio ols s xcists Wiiitram A. Howe, State Medical Inspector....... Albany, N. Y. Classroom Teachers PHESUAC Iie « v0.5 0.00 Erne, M. Garpner, President of the Milwaukee Meachers MASSOCIATION Scie cipeistsiels ts slere esi © art = sq Milwaukee, Wis. Vice-President....+. SAT AM EA gmIEN ATED ES Vempia nga alololayay als cha Jo)o(al ejaiisi estate! «eke ish Levee 3rooklyn, N. Y. WSC EHEL OY Yoinllloleloieleiets = Mary Dwyer, Grade Teacher..........+sseseeeeee Chicago, Ill. Deans of Women President... 0.2... Mina Kerr, Dean of Women, Wheaton College.... Norton, Mass. Vice-President...... Grorcra L. Wuire, Adviser to Women in Cornell Wniversity. «..-.<>- af ot Huts te pibpcracid r rcp Ithaca, N. Y. Secretary...esee+-- Anne Duptey Buitz, Dean of William Smith College. Geneva, N. Y. 1 Departments are arranged alphabetically for convenient reference. 20 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION Educational Publications President. .«-+.0+ Grorce I, Towne, President University Publishing Com panyarysaeleciing sie) dyalid insu stata eae Sr ebeeay easyer ...-- Lincoln, Nebr. SECVELATY. 0+ os iecere C. W. Taser, Western Mecater Lippincott & Co.. Chicago, Til. Elementary Education President.......++. Mary E. Lawter, School No. 12......---- Dee cree . Paterson, N. J. Secretary.....s.0-- Brssix Brown Goopricu, Director of Elementary [Hekiecal lien auopwoOdoUN YO ROUNDS eistetersta\cis oils ....++ Des Moines, Iowa Elementary School Principals President... cise . Leonarp Powrr, Principal of the Franklin School... Port Arthur, Texas Corresponding Sec’y Joun I, Bracken, Principal U. S. Grant School... Duluth, Minn, Higher Education President. ...sss00 F. J. Ketry, Dean of the School of Education, Uni- Weing toe IEE Go oiconsccaueduc atetel sin eeishenene ..- Lawrence, Kans. Secretary..vesescae F. H. Hopper, Head of the Deparkiient of ike and Political Science, University of Kansas..... Lawrence, Kans. Immigrant Education President.......00. W. C. SmitH, Supervisor of Immigrant Education. Albany, N. Y. SS CCKEEAIV. «a stale alals «\s Grack M. SHEPHERD..... ab ddtghetaner aie a teNeTe Sister .... Warrensburg, Mo. Kindergarten Education PLESUGEN Es oss a31.05018 Marion S. Hancxet, Supervisor of Kindergarten and Primary Grades........ says tevacatevaney? epeteretote ... Richmond, Va. Vice-President.....: Maryvi DABNEY) DAVIS Sericicmielate Prestdent.o ae. ca cu Vice-President..... SECKELAI errs o\sinys are PHEStA CN Eo i00, 00s os Ist Vice-President... 2d Vice-President... TreaSureticscecessss BCT ETAT S oisioucseus\aeuy Members of the Executive Committee....... Presidents... 0.6 S2CreELar yen sate) «coe Presidentec. 08.2%: Vice-President..... Secretaryoccatina. OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 21 Rural Education Ernest Burnuam, State Normal School........... Kalamazoo, Mich. J. C. Murray, Specialist in Rural Education, Us S. Bureau of Education....... Rirsvarictalatcis ete verano ae tre Washington, D. C. MaseL Carney, Professor of Rural Education, Teachers College, Columbia University.......... New York, N. Y. School Administration Ira B. Busu, Superintendent of Schools.......... Erie, Pa. Wititam C, Bruce, Editor of the America School PB OOIE med OUTMAL ooo ainve tenet ce oh oe eine ates cieneeie Milwaukee, Wis. School Patrons Mis.) (GuoRGE "Wij McMATH. flac aes cece eles corae Portland, Ore. Science Instruction Gitpert H. Trarron, State Teachers College...... Mankato, Minn. Secondary Education H. T. Sreeper, Principal of the West High School. Des Moines, Iowa S. O. Rorem, Principal of the East Junior High SCHOO Um sro eto eee eee cate te niche tele Ltder oie nt Osis the Dashade an Sioux City, Iowa Oxivia Pounp, Assistant Principal of the T,incoln High: sSchootl} wuss sys a oes pete alates sauteed aa ns Lincoln, Nebr. Superintendence Joun H. Beveripcr, Superintendent of Schools..... Omaha, Nebr. Rozinson G, Jones, Superintendent of Schools..... Cleveland, Ohio F. W. Battovu, Superintendent of Schools..... so.¢ Washington, D.C Ira B. Busu, Superintendent of Schools........... Erie, Pa. S. D. SHANKLAND, Superintendent of Andrews Insti- EGLO OE Soto stoncachete soils of vane lchedattpestu ve cist ale douse Su ickabints iets Willoughby, Ohio Payson SmitH, State Commissioner of Education.. Boston, Mass. Term expires 1926 RanpvaLtL J, Conpon, Superintendent of Schools.... Cincinnati, Ohio Term expires 1925 Frank Copy, Superintendent of Schools........... Detroit, Mich. Term expires 1925 Jesst H. Newton, Superintendent of Schools...... Denver, Colo, Term expires 1923 Vocational Education and Practical Arts Wirsur H. Benner, State Director of Vocational Education FRANKIE CoNNELL, Director of Part Time School... Des Moines, Iowa Hannibal, Mo, Wider Use of Schoolhouses JoserHrnké Cortiss Preston, State Superintendent of Public? Instruction 3... +... A Gio OY eRe Olympia, Wash. I. B. Morcan, Director of Vocational Schools...... Kansas City, Kans. iSucené C. Gisney, Director of Community Centers, Board OL me OU Gatton tak tediateuele versus cle alch daie exeyer New York, N. Y. , National Education Association OFFICERS -FOR 1922-1923 GENERAL, ASSOCIATION Wiarnram By OWEN 66 c.05 510 eases ines PP OSNG CHE st shal -Vals foleyotel elecnuctertenteneee Chicago, Ill. Pare CRAB PRET occ areiaisiaystson'e Geis vyelsyers SE CVELOTY a. se useyd sh oiaisoy or eager Washington, D. C. CORNELIA SADA SR 6 ajute sige-clc its ois crete PV EUSUTET o6 wiatetesa ok aces eee ent enee Richmond, Va. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Wrarttam Bo OWEN 66 66 ccc-tr: un ewtette PPCSACHT Metals creas. « «+p alts. cucesatene Chicago, Ill. Cart ORMOND WILLIAMS,............ VAGe PB reSvd ent amortsus axe cuca Memphis, Tenn. Wide SERS | “SOLDERS sicrsioiels eucrateriaiete ny ee iehe Chairman Board of Trustees.... Pocatello, Idaho. GORNEETAS Os MADALR yettersiacias -ieistaiara ciate TP COSUMET caavereleheioiclatstate! siees eee Roerere Richmond, Va. BORED Mig EL UNTER ayeroic s+ eis creis ov her tee Member by Blection............ Oakland, Calif. BOARD OF TRUSTEES Water R. Sripers, Chairman......... Superintendent of Schools...... Pocatello, Idaho WHAM BB: (OWEN occ sascre o/scereseichetenstonere Pres., Chicago Normal College... Chicago, Hl. AGNESP EH. DOHERTY cis sisis seein cee Teacher, Central High School... St. Paul, Minn. @rrnvEr IMs JONES fac «crctetes erortoerytedelsreye Principal, Public School 120.... New York, N. Y. CARROLE GS PEARSE, << icin viere.cree rere President, State Normal School.. Milwaukee, Wis. VICE-PRESIDENTS CuHart OrmMonpd WILLIAMS, Superintendent Shelby County Schools..... Memphis, Tenn. Minnie J. Nietson, State Superintendent Public Instruction.......... Bismarck, N. Dak. JoHn W. ABERCROMBIE, State Superintendent of Education............. Montgomery, Ala. CLARENCE H. Dempsey, State Commissioner of Education............. Montpelier, Vt. He Wis Dono superintendent mora Schools-ee ep eerier creteienh neers Allentown, Pa. Wak? Gricrr. Superintendent of “Schoolss: -eeiaemacnd cee aon ace Tacoma, Wash. C. N. JENSEN, State Superintendent of Public Instruction.............. Salt Lake City, Utah Urt W. Lamkin, President, Northwest State Teachers Collese.cnn ac Marysville, Mo. Mary McSxrimmon, Principal of Pierce School.............-...-+s.-. Brookline, Mass. Many Ha AwLer se eacher SchoolsNow ins 44 ecmeereee cee ion aera Paterson, N. J. H. Lester Smitru, Dean of School of Education, Indiana University.. Bloomington, Ind. Rosert H. Wricut, President of East Carolina Teachers Colleges. -. 25. Greenville, N. C. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors Ex Officio Wi1iam B. Owen, President, Chicago, Ill. Cuart Ormonp WiiraMs, First Vice-Presi- dent, Memphis, Tenn. CornELia S. Aparr, Treasurer, Richmond, Va. WALTER R. SipErs, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, Pocatello, Idaho, J. W. Crastree, Secretary, Washington, D. C. Life Directors Rosert J, Arey, President of Butler College shots dkage’ steuecefe Gs os iereee waeceteteete Indianapolis, Ind, Mary C. C. Braprorp, 1735 Bellaire Street...................000..... Denver, Colo. Tuomas W, BICKNELL, 207 Boyle Avenue...... PRA Pe era p le eke An Providence, R. I. BOARD OE RDUCATION. ..Sopuee sites seus or cee rete ee + Nashville, Tenn. ELMER ErtswortH Brown, President of New York University......... New York, N. Y. [22] OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS NicHotas Murray But er, President of Columbia University P. P. Craxton, Provost of the University of Alabama New York, N. Y. University, Ala. BpwiniG. CoorexgiUniom, Ieaguien@lith jmstitielemeictsvs) cvaccieds «cha dlele 8 five wietele Chicago, Il. OSCAR BT (CORSON Ge Ra Poe set NORMA ia a ao eke SERS ocus.d baal Eosiortierevectore § Oxford, Ohio CuHarLes W. E ior, President Emeritus of Harvard University........ Cambridge, Mass. El ese GRA EAN Gan. 64. tree ERR Seca Seve Gisele. Sata eaesen nw Mt. Pleasant Mich. Frep M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools...............2cceeceeees Oakland, Calif. Davin B. Jounson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College. Davip Starr JorDAN, President Emeritus, Leland Stanford University. . Rock Hill, S. C. California WANTS SH Nes CONN RU Mf wiaimyoxstersvousi the tettaee «7c RIRIS SIE At MEAS) SA. AI RAO ances La Grange, N. C. SAT CRUEL US MUN PARSELAIL,.. selahe tants ove ale sateie oS ENS Bian oar OE ws MOR onl Stouts Mill, W.Va. JosgPpHINE CoRLIss Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Olympia, Wash. CarroLt G, PEARSE, President of State Normal School..............0. Milwaukee, Wis. Cuartes R. Skinner, Librarian, Legislative Library, Capitol Building. . State TEACHERS’ AssocIaTION oF ILLtnors, Robert C. Moore, Secretary. Albany, N. Y. Carlinville, Il, Grorce D. StrayEr, Teachers College, Columbia University............ New York, N. Y. HOSE Has SIVGACN I tious pete Re tte perere nee ise iets Sica. aa atl StAe wabetonele-ditohialle Swarthmore, Pa. NAAN ee YA els ORIMMIMOP AE orausnnntewapewskctonhereecas oar eon erek atone every ake Oe Mears Mele ak anteeetens Decatur, Ill. WP ACEIORS ae kis Tach Orr Ey eee Gey = ter neta eae a iialera) ao Se die aide dub ea o's le lees Philadelphia, Pa. Joun J. Ticert, U. S. Commissioner of Education, Bureau of Education. (CHARTERS GMAW EMD eee Cpr. ie yetarme A atetatetl dtee el icerascreie s oe eudsersSi emai bs CHARL OrMonDd WILLIAMS, Superintendent of Shelby County Schools... State Directors Washington, D.C. Menominee, Wis. Memphis, Tenn. ENla Daina yells C. B. Grenn, Superintendent of Schools............+... Birmingham Alaska ..,0.. Lester D. Henperson, Commissioner of Education...... Juneau PATIZ OTA p.\eeae H. E. Henprrx, Superintendent of Schools............. Mesa Arkansas .... Annie G. Grirrgy, Primary Supervisor.............0+ Little Rock California Mary F. Mooney, Vice-Principal, Washington School.... San Francisco Colorado ..... H. B. Smiru, Secretary Colorado Education Association. Denver Connecticut .. Levi T. Garrison, Regional Supervisor, Willimantic Nor- RAMS CMO OL cma a tterarsla sisi stones meraatociske say araieratcheyaxoreverd Willimantic Delaware .... H. V. Hottoway, State Superintendent of Public In- S Lis EOIN a cay onaliol one Pol RetsN 555) Sai 8 se coh silo ue dhol Secs Golpslete fore teterete ot Dover District of Col. Harry Encrisu, Head of Department of Mathematics in HighSschools., Mranklin Biilding:..)-0,<.-.« sire ses arsine Washington Florida ...... F, A. Hatuaway, Superintendent of Duval County Schools Jacksonville Georgia ..... Kk. T. ArrienD, President Georgia Military College..... Milledgeville Hawaii ...... VaucHan MacCaucuery, Superintendent of Public In- SUL WCPLON ors, 6) oo Seis ce AUTH TID BLM NT sASIA < RENE o.0.0r9 8:0 scgu8t 5.0 Honolulu ‘Tdahow sos eas TurEoporeE B. SHANK, Superintendent of Schools........ Coeur d’Alene MRO: 6k os 2 SaraH L,. THomas, 401 Kishwaukee Street............+- Rockford Indiana ..... H. Lester Smitu, Dean of the School of Kducation, IidianamWantver Sits tate. cateeree are tia lem a citi st ates tele Bloomington Vaan ee eee L. H. Minxer, Superintendent of Schools............. Fort Dodge PE NOCEIS co an M. E. Pearson, Superintendent of Schools............. Kansas City Kentucky . Rk. E. WitriiaMs, Secretary, Kentucky Education Associa- Bion. 4508 southern Parkway 2. o.s «5 esietseielesrt ato 0s Louisville Louisiana W. S. Lararcuk, Superintendent of Lafouche Parish.... Thibodaux Maitie’ ese H. A. Atzan, State Agent for Rural Education........ Augusta Maryland Wiit1am Burpicx, General Director, Public Athletic League, Children’s Playground Association........... Baltimore Massachusetts Mary McSximmon, Principal of Pierce School.......... Brookline Michigan Tuomas E. JoHnson, State Superintendent of Public TBaiefagh (ey tig Meee ee Oe ck ake O cach ROG che cn eee a ee Lansing Minnesota . J. C. Brown, President of the State Normal School..... St. Cloud Mississippi... E. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools................. Greenville Missouri o. DHOMAS Jo WALKER, 7) Academy: Pall nn... cissicipee eines siy are Columbia Montana .... J. M. Hamivton, Dean of State College of Agriculture... Bozeman Nebraska . A. J. Stoppaxp, Superintendent of Schools.............. Beatrice 24 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION ee eee eee Nevada .....+--- New Hampshire... New Jersey...-.-- New Mexico...... New York.......+ North Carolina... North Dakota..... (O) 0% (oy area rcr arerion Oregon Pennsylvania .... Philippine Islands. Porto Rico...° << ‘ Rhode Island..... South Carolina... South Dakota.... Tennessee Vermont .. Virginia Washington ...... West Virginia.... Wisconsin Wyoming J. W. Craptree, Secretary Ray S. Eruanpson, Assistant Secretary Acnes S. Winn, Assistant Secretary Herren T. Hrxson, Executive Committee...... W. J. Huntine, State Superintendent of Public In- truction . Ciirton Tow, Superintendent of Schools.......-- Tuomas AGNEW, JR., Principal, Horace Mann School. Joun Mine, Superintendent of Schools. . Aweprose Cort, Principal of Public School No. 73-.-- Rogert H. Wricut, President of East Carolina ‘Teach- ers College A. C. Berc, State Rural School Inspector.....-+.-.- F. E. Reynoxps, Superintendent of Schools......--. E, E. OserHortzer, Superintendent of Schools..... : b Foe letarenane, bam ta se eee e ee eene .E. H. Wuirnny, Assistant Superintendent of Schools J. H. Kerrey, Secretary, State Teachers’ Association, 10 South Market Square.........- J Lururer B. Bewixy, Commissioner of Bilucesonm Juan B. Huyxr, Commissioner of Education........ Wru1am O. Horven, Head of Commercial Depart- ment, High School.... ae Grorce Harris Wesser, Superintendent of Schools.. » Haron W. Focu?, President of the Northern Nor- mal and Industrial School......... cach siete cations S. 1. Smiru, General Field Agent for Rural Schosls, Commercial Club Building........ aystemetede CATHERINE Gorzsutt, 2 Wallace Annex.. IL, Joun Nuvrtatu, J8., Director of means Senoer Brigham Young University.. M. D. CuirrenveNn, State Board of Education....... Nanniz W. THompson, 120 Second Avenue......... Jennie M. Frencu, Principal of Point Defiance School FLORENCE J. PARKER, Principal High School......... J. F. Sims, President of State Normal School....... A. A. Stave, Superintendent of Schools... seer eer enews eee eernne eee ee eene HEADQUARTERS’ STAFF 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. partment Assistant Treasurer Joy Eimer Morcan, Editor Carson City Exeter Bayonne Albuquerque Brooklyn Greenville ‘Towner West Park Tulsa Portland Harrisburg . Manila San Juan . Pawtucket Beaufort - Aberdeen Nashville El Paso - Provo Montpelier Richmond Tacoma New Haven Stevens Point Casper Joun K. Norron, Director of Research De- SHERwoop D, SHanxxanp, Secretary, Depart- ment of Superintendence NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION J. M. Gwyn, Superintendent of City Schools... Apa Van Stone Harris, Principal City Normal School :....eroaasace tere alSysva teers Risetainte te ah cocina .. ADELAIDE STEELE Baytor, Federal Agent for Home Economics {%..)..-\«:<.sere «oe ate ee ee A. J. Marruews, President, Tempe Normal School (Term expires 1923) Anna Lavra Force, Principal, Lincoln School.. (Term expires 1924) Davip B, Corson, Superintendent of City Schools. (Term expires 1925) - New Orleans, La. Pittsburgh, Pa. - Washington, D.C, Tempe, Ariz. . Denver, Colo. Newark, N. J. OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 25 OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Business Education President jin. o.oo .. E. W. Barnuart, Chief of Commercial Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Educa- HOMES aloe asian setsree Son! ood GAN e ain oboe eI OD Washington, D. C, Setretaryies vets ssce Mrs. Luzrmrta Erickson, State Supervisor of Commercial WHayeatiom hat see ty oe sidvlciels occ aches Boise, Idaho Child Hygiene President: «i saetins s Dr. Wittram A, Howe, State Medical Inspector Of OCHOONS) ae h se oaieies kiss Es NOeia Phas alle oe tase Albany, N. Y. Vice-President....... Dr. E. A. Pererson, Public Schools............ Cleveland, Ohio Secretary-Treasurery,. Dr. CHartes H. Keene, Director, Bureau of Health Education, Department of Public In- SEQUCHON 6 cee seca eiceseecesesseveneceens .-. Harrisburg, Pa. Classroom Teachers PYCSUGENE + cizie disianessra Erriz MacGrecor, Minneapolis Teachers’ League.. Minneapolis, Minn. Vice-President....... Ipa C. Iversen, President, City Teachers’ Club... Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer.. FLORA MrnzEL, Milwaukee Teachers’ Association.. Milwaukee, Wis. ETA Eee SUC LV AN a araste verre ea: 4 Boston, Mass. phe ath SS SUE MON ANS ave taseun (orelich oteyt sfeieheions.cr cele us'e.: 9.6) e821 5)'6s01% Little Rock, Ark, ea ) Z ¥ ies Se Jutta Spooner, President, Grade Teachers’ Asso- Committee...... oe CALAN sercna eters. osc ibs 075 (eer tetave.pslouaceW Sictioreiisyeve by000.8 Portland, Ore. : Deans of Women PHeSIdENE. o. 000s Mary Ross Porter, Dean of Women, Northwest- erm Universitye, «cai ... Minneapolis, Minn. Vice-President......+. Juria WabE AsporT, Specialist in Kindergarten Education, Bureau of Education.........-+--+-++ Washington, D. C. SECretany were ce tee Frances Kern, Principal of Department of Early Elementary Education, Western State Normal School) Verictatette piatanctoteleteto cite sever Netisce aeRoleienen heen abana Kalamazoo, Mich. Library Department President. ca.0 ss Martua C. Prrresarp, Supervising Instructor for a ; School Libraries, Department of Education.... Detroit, Mich. Vice-President,...... Mrs. Epwarp Carter, Librarian, Port Arthur ’ : Skt) Sool AG ooocesaoososunddvondnecoweres Port Arthur, Texas Seeretary-Treasurer.. DELLA Frances Norruery, State Supervisor of School: ibrariesi sss erlcretenereis ener orsieiereusieleiaisieiispe Indianapolis, Ind. Music Education Ba CStA GHB are <'s'01s:0:,055 Grenn H. Woops, Director of Music, Public z, & ScCHOOMS:, souj-s:3: agiteusan esate Peeters Pee nr spe enero nena Oakland, Calif. “ce-President Seva /ay ater TERESA ARMITAGE, Author and Lecturer......... Chicago, Ill SCCTEPAEM ere cites talelete MaseL_te GLENN, Supervisor, Public School Music, Kansas City, Mo Normal Schools President. SPae, stare J. C. Brown, State Teachers’ College............ St. Cloud, Mi Vice-President....... JOSEPH Rosier, State Normal School............ iulinGat W. Vv, Secretary). .ose.sn0e ERNEST SILVER, State Normal School............ Plymouth; No HL. Physical Education President .si< caters ETHEL Perrin, Assistant Director of Health Edu- CABOTA” Cecetayers e siers,ev0 i ile er i Pe Pn ee Detroit, Mich. : esident....... oycE R. Lone, Colorado Teachers College..... Greeley, Col Secretarvemers osc ce WitttiaM Burpicx, State Supervisor of Physical . 7 ae Education Baltimore, Md. OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 27 Rural Education EVOSUCO WE. (ele) otete toteotis..< C. G. Sarcent, Agricultural College............. Fort Collins, Colo. Vice-President....... Amaia M. Beneston, Superintendent of Schools, AVE AEM OUMIMUE VE Tosaye ence lave bis.sieis ie ereisteysiel cee c ies Olivia, Minn. DECTETUPYS =. ketene Maset Carnety, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- NASERSNILNY? E23 3.508) tte CaeRCR RC tu) oh 6 Rae New York, N. Y. LT EGSBKEN ac as we oa « Wririam McKrniey Rosinson, Principal High Scho oleae uj so otEre: DEON ok eee Orleans, Vt. Ernest BurnuamM, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. Executive Commit- Cuart O. WILLIAMS, Superintendent of Schools, tee—Members-at- Shelby MCOGHty: os<.a51eene eae eA eR tebe oi Memphis, Tenn. HOT ee Bate tae e bore Lee L. Driver, Department of Education....... Harrisburg, Pa. FV) SOG EU Norn al SCMOOlly. ae -ceske@la)s\0 a) 50\<10) Aberdeen, S. D. Secondary Education PHESUUEME sae eels aie. E. E. Crawrorp, Principal, Idaho Falls High SVEN) WNW, nin 5 etait SERIO © OG BRS nia Cotten oe mero Idaho Falls, Idaho Vice-President...... . R. R. Coox, Principal, Topeka High School...... Topeka, Kans. WIGEE LOT asceitalctsysic~ « Mary Sawyer, Girls’ Adviser, Brookline High : SMOG SAS A SS ee are Boston, Mass. School Administration PUESUU CHT agi stete D MEAN WES Mint WG Elia oe cts ahaya.'2ve a. eceneaerste @ iete Wee oaes steovarerd Charleston, W. Va. SORT AMD Em eS ROE W. C. Bruce, Editor American School Board DETR SU ODO oc: SO ERASED. OO eG ORD ENTER ee TORT Milwaukee, Wis. Science Instruction VAHEStDE IE «is ohn los ete Lestig O. Jounson, Head of Chemistry Depart- ment, | Aiigh SSchool..... ..aatemehisreci & is) ake oar eT RT 111,310.54 150,900 Appropriations: core committees. .4). yee ee 7,827.02 16,600 AUGITING SACCOUNtGe Eien eae <:. oh) as, Joma mentee 592.35 600 Unclassifiediiexpenseswmmmtn...0 ana acc eice o ebm oe 461.16 500 Ofhicesfixturesmandmennnnitube sy...) oo eee ee 844.50 3,000 Anna laeconiy. ctl 0 lemrmnemrercs-ices, bic eet ere 5,439.99 6,000 Departments iacpesreer meee tina: «o's obama aces 8,366.62 17,500 Other-exp énses:-caeewriestt ccs sk 64 ss ach met te te ee ee 8,000 ‘To. . meet ehcit eeepc cls dicate aeeenee anes 10;877.69 = earner “Total Weis taectie eae stole. Derek, Le Ae $205,991.02 $285,700 Surplus. rand Remolyane ilundises. 1. sa 6. aeee oe 27,877.67 24,300 Saupe: 0 Cente cre eee ae or) 2. Oe $233,868.69 $310,000 MINUTES OF REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 55) Il, EXPENSES OF THE GENERAL OFFICES The estimates for the expenses of the general offices of the Association as con- tained in the budget recommended above is $76,100. Upon recommendation of the Executive Secretary, the following itemization of this expenditure is approved by the Executive Committee. We recommend its adoption as the budget for the executive offices for 1922-23. Budget Estimate for the Secretary’s Office Estimated Paid out, expense 1921-22 for 1922-23 Saale SECLECALV ER gt Hck, ota tice + aisrels Slawielo evel «ers $7,125.00 $7,500 PG tel CMe Petey ey tras ais. wnonmnehe reer n hay 218 Sina lene's, ayapeyt a's 5,110.58 5,500 Melecraphwandsetelep honey creck mitosis aueieiSacsreesie paren 1,290.35 1,500 EXPE esSsmands LLei ghia tings «s)he, ctktod See ie ake 300.50 300 Wl eriCalMeSeLyi CES whee aeiek se s9s Sri Solsevaune coeds as 5 3 11,535.22 15,900 RenCwlight. eat, power janitors 2+. sess eecoe se 6,471.89 8,000 Stationery andfofiice supplies: 64.0.0 30s Se. 1,145.84 1,500 EREAV ELIE She ee tien rete hale sea cle cieiaectas ses 1,393.56 1,500 Miscellaneousmexpensers accuse scat celtic ck: 738.23 500 Field) Secretary's “Department.:)). 0.05.0 6%. 006.0% 13,727.56 15,000 Restarche i epartmentecdaics easier ects ena cars es 4,138.76 18,000 Insurance per ete ae oe eins ohooh teks. 125.40 200 Surety MVONGS Saree ha dere b ee Nusd On Peele 180.00 100 TRCETESt PANG MU ISCOUNL nce te acta See ee ees eee 570.11 600 otal Men cee aeceieee cists cle enon ee $53,853.00 $76,100 III. BUDGET FOR SPECIAL COMMITTEES Much work of the Association is done through the operation of the special committees appointed by the Association and its departments and affiliated bodies. In fact the accomplishment of the program to which the National Education As- sociation has pledged itself is to be brought about by the success of the work thus delegated to these special bodies. The Executive Committee recommends ap- propriations for the work of these committees as follows: Appropriation Appropriation 1921-22 1922-23 Wegislativies Commission mip cists pictcsicleleisiee isrt -p2icoie)-hsie $1,000 $2,500 Ra SANA BEL OTN ae ccs aME 0) oh acc Psy caca nt he be tyenls. exe ie cnn roe 8 600 800 Healthier ducationiras acyrekeicucseke denudopaseinyer ack cots * 1,000 1,000 : 1,500 * Salaries Menure, a PENSIONS \s ies slpicoialholdiea » 2-0 felshaicl alae 1,000 2,000 (To be divided into three committees) Iieeaaih ava efor ey ue aen cobs Moone toner sone coors 100 500 Reorganization of Elementary Education............. 1,200 LARD Waswaleiod ucation tsi, termes cclleude re 100 200 Coérdination of Research Agencies...... QS Soticae dn 2,500 2,500 Characteragnde Citizenship. cides oephureseelntie itachi 250 250 TAKE LACKS TELINE on oo Gb eee choos volume Ae 250 1,000 Tllitevacvamnmeriaic AP r es ERATE hs- Paes oo. ts3)- Ses» 2,000 1,800 700° Pinancing Of Delegatesse .clea. ctr acl crcesiccete om ye ret 100 Standardization of Schoolhouse Planning and Con- structions... 2 anwmeree dew: Apadtuc) Mette Medk titre Pirate aman ie 500 SPOUT E ERM waco erstateis tended eileen ene Mensa $10,900 $16,600 1 For publication of series of Health Curriculum Bulletins. 2 For reorganized committee as recommended below. ees 3 Not to exceed $1800 may be spent on not more than three illiteracy conferences, and $700 may be spent on printing the report of the committee. 56 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION Ow eee Se ee IV. APPROPRIATIONS. FOR DEPARTMENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION The activity of some of the larger’ departments of the Association has been a prime factor in achieving the present accomplishments of the reorganized As- sociation. Many of these departments have had entailed upon them, on account of the necessity for this activity, a considerable amount of very necessary expense. To meet the expenses of these important activities as carried on by these depart- ments, the Executive Committee recommends the following appropriations: Superintendence (appropriation amounting to one half the net profit from commercial exhibits held at Department meeting)............. Senet . $5,000 Elementary Principals.:..)......... AS ate RO TIO OE ii’ Und bn Ou: LESR ian 2,900 Classroom ‘Teachers esate cg... con ddseccdcedses sce. peau ee tae . 5,000* V. APPROPRIATIONS FOR WORK OF STATE DIRECTORS The great increase in the membership of the Association occurring during the past year has been due, in no small part, to the splendid campaigns carried on under the leadership of the State directors of the Association in their respective states. ‘The small appropriation heretofore allowed by the Association for the work of the directors has in no wise met this expense. The committee believes that a policy of meeting the expenses of these directors within a limit to be de- termined by the Executive Committee is one of the best investments which the Association can possibly make. We, therefore, recommend that the following appropriation be set aside to defray the necessary expenses of the respective State directors in conducting their membership campaigns and other necessary work of the office: Summary of Special Appropriations Special Committees... 25 5 «cigs sine ouusls cece ele Chen ake eee eerie $16,600 Departments.of the Association: .....% a. reecraecoihiie neice eae tier 12,500 State Directorships... os -.s..-.. Scie ise et Nelsitelanene Pe eee oe aa ee 2,500 VI. COMMITTEES FOR THE ENSUING YEAR The Executive Committee recommends the continuance of the following as active committees of the Association for the year 1922-23: Legislative Commission; Character and Citizenship; Foreign Relations; Sal- aries, Tenure, and Pensions (To be reorganized into three committees—action of Representative Assembly); Expenses of Delegates; Codrdination of Research Agencies; Reorganization of Elementary Education (to be reorganized as shown in statement 1x); Illiteracy; Health Problems; Thrift Education; Racial Well- Being; Rural Education; High School Libraries; Schoolhouse Planning and Con- struction; Codperation with American Legion; Codperation with Federation of Women’s Clubs; Codperation with American School Citizenship) League; Co- operation with Conference on Limitation of Armaments; County Superintendents’ Problems; Editorial Council; Visual Education; and Sources of Revenue, Hint VII. SECRETARIAL HELP FOR DEPARTMENTS, COMMITTEES, STATE DIRECTORS a - The Executive Committee recommends that the policy outlined by the Executive Secretary to render much-needed assistance to departments and “special com- mittees carrying a heavy burden of work as a part of the program of the Associa- tion be the recognized policy of the Association and that the Secretary be authorized to render such assistance as he and the Executive Committee deem necessary and to make such special assignments of heads of executive departments tAppropriation to pay expenses for regional conferences held by this department and ex- penses of executive officer assigned from executive office to this work. dei 3 ‘ . MINUTES OF REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY S/, or special secretaries of the Headquarters’ \staff for ‘this: “purpose as the work may, in his judgment, demand. VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COOPERATION WITH THE AMERICAN LEGION The Executive Committee recommends that the Americanism and Education program of the smenicas Legion in copeceanon qvith oe Association be approved. IX. REORGANIZATION OF COMMITTEE ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The Executive Committee recommends as follows: 1, That the completed reports of the Commission on the Reorganization of Elementary Education be accepted and published immediately. 2. That the present committee be discontinued. 3. That instead of one commission, four separate committees with clearly defined fields of work be constituted, the president to indicate the scope of the work of each at the time of polnement, 4. That these separate committees be as follows: (a) A committee to co- ordinate and supervise reports in fields of special education already completed and ready to be issued; (4) A committee on course of study in English in the elementary schools; (c) A committee on course of study in arithmetic in the ele- mentary schools; and (d) A committee on the social studies in the elementary schools including geography, history, and civics. 5. That the budget of $1250 recommended above for this reorganization com- mittee be itemized as follows: (a) $500; (b) $250; (c) $250; (d) $250. X. CHANGING DATE OF ANNUAL MEETING The Committee ‘was instructed to report on the question of changing the date of the annual meeting. It has not however been able to reach a decision on the question and therefore requests: an extension of time. Mr. Hunter then moved the adoption of the report of the Executive Committee. “The motion was seconded and the Chairman stated that it was open for general discussion. In the discussion which followed, and which was participated in by Miss Buchanan, Mr. McKenny, Mr. Hunter, and others, there seemed to be the feeling that further attention should be given to the matter of financing delegates to the convention, but no definite action was taken and the report was adopted by a unanimous vote. The President next called on Miss Cornelia $. Adair, Chairman of the Committee on the Financing of Delegates for the Representative Assembly, to present the report of the Committee. She discussed briefly the printed report which was in the hands of the delegates and then moved its adoption. (The report is printed in the volume of Proceedings. ) Miss Buchanan moved that it was the sense of this body that $25,000 be appropriated for the purpose of paying the expenses of delegates on a percentage of mileage basis, to be used as far as it will go. The motion was seconded. A point of order was raised to the effect that there was already a motion before the house. ‘The Chairman therefore ruled Miss Buchanan’s motion out of order but announced that she would recognize Miss Buchanan at a later time. Miss Buchanan changed her motion to the form of an amendment, and the question was discussed from that standpoint. A. motion was then made to table the amendment. It was seconded and carried. 58 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The question of receiving the report of the Committee was then voted upon and the report adopted. Mr. T. Marcelius Marshall, of West Virginia, was recognized by the Chairman, and stepping to the platform made the following impressive statement: If you have in your hands the “Charter, By-laws, Officers, Committees,” etc., that was given to you, and will turn to page 3 you will have before you the basis I wish to speak upon. The second Act of Incorporation of this body was by a special act of Congress passing a bill, that a committee from this body prepared, and in that bill and act there were named the officers, the life directors, the annual directors, etc., of this body. I was to present this at the close of the committee’s report on Obituary, but in the rush of business it was passed over. In looking at that you will see that a large number of those names are pre- ceded by a star, showing that they are dead. Except for Thomas W. Bicknell, who I believe now resides in Rhode Island, I don’t remember that there remains a single one of the old guard with whom I used to meet year after year in this Association. My attention was called to this about two days ago when I went over this report. I think out of the list thirty-six are starred, whereas fifty-nine are prob- ably not alive, though the Secretary, Mr. Crabtree, tells me that a number have died since this report was written. My purpose in appearing here is this: You have a very great organization in which you rejoice, and of which you are proud, and in which you believe you have great force for making educational progress, and these pioneers are re- sponsible for having brought you to this great estate of influence and wealth. Why, when [ first belonged to this body, we didn’t have money enough to print a copy of our annual report without having to raise a special fund for it. You don’t know the struggles through which we came to bring you to your estate today ; and I think it would be well, Madam President, if we should all stand for a minute in honor of otir pioneers who have brought us to where we are today. Miss Williams, the president, spoke as follows: “This National Association of more than 114,000 members will always remember with affection and reverence the vision and courage of those pioneers who started the educational progress of this country. It is most fitting to stand for one minute in their memory. Will you not stand?” The entire assembly stood as directed. It was an impressive scene. The Chairman then made the following announcement : In accordance with Article 5, Section 4 of the By-laws, the Chair will order a meeting of the Classroom section this afternoon at 2 o’clock at the Boston Trades School, and all classroom teachers whether delegates or not are entitled to attend that meeting and are urged to do so. The Chair will read Section 4: “The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of questions per- taining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with and under the general direction of the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session of business or in- formal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers.” A meeting was held by that section of the classroom teachers and they ad- journed without the election of officers. At the request of many members of that MINUTES OF REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 59 department, the Chair is ordering this meeting for 2 o’clock at the Boston Trades School at which the incoming President will preside and all classroom teachers are urged to be present. Miss Buchanan, of Washington, spoke as follows: “Madam President, would it not be possible to have that meeting at another time? The National League of Teachers Association has its meeting at that time, and there are so many classroom teachers who are affliated with the National League of Teachers that it would certainly make a great interference. Could we not have that at some other time— at the close of this meeting, for instance?” Miss Haley, of Chicago, in rising to a point of order, spoke as follows: I wish to state that such an order is out of order at this time, for the reason that the classroom teachers department at its session yesterday had before it a motion properly moved and seconded that when they adjourned it was to an adjourned session, the time and place being made, and that motion was voted down. A second motion was made to adjourn and another time and place named, and that motion was voted down. A third motion was made to adjourn without any qualification for fixing the time or the place, which means a sine die ad- journment for this session of the N. E. A., and that motion was carried. Now I submit, Madam President, that under the By-laws, when a body on its own vote closes a session that this section of the By-laws prevails,—that officers elected at the last formal session of the Association shall serve one year and until their successors are elected. I submit that the President, Vice-President, and Secretary of the Association elected according to those by-laws at the last formal session, in 1921, at Des Moines, hold over until their successors are elected and qualified; and I am doing this simply for the record, Madam President. I want the record to show that I have made this point of order, that a meeting called by the President at this time will not have the authority under this con- stitution and by-laws to conduct the meeting, to conduct the election and to place properly qualified officers in command. I submit that no meeting in that de- partment that will cause this kind of confusion should be held at this time without legally electing officers. It has legally elected officers now and I submit, Madam President, to you further that the wording of the constitution under which you are making this call is as follows: ‘Each department shall be limited to two ses- sions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association.’ Now, I submit that that does not give the President of this Associa- tion the power to call a meeting. It gives the President power to order a meet- ing; and if the President of this Association is acting under the authority con- ferred by this by-law in issuing a call, I submit, Madam President, you are exceeding your authority and that a call for this meeting cannot be made at this time in this way. If the President of this Association wishes to exercise her prerogative and order a meeting she may, and then the call must issue to the members of this Association, and I submit the members of this Association are not necessarily members of this body. This is a delegate body and they are all the members of the N. E. A. Many classroom teachers who attended that meet- ing yesterday went away from that meeting knowing that two motions to adjourn to a certain time and place were voted down. I submit that you are taking from those members rights which they have, and if officers are elected they will be elected illegally. I want to submit further that I don’t believe the President of this Association would go over the heads of the Department of Superintendence if they had ad- journed in the way that body adjourned yesterday after voting down twice a motion to hold an adjourned session. 60 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A point of order was raised to the effect that Miss Haley had spoken five minutes. The point of order was sustained, and the Chairman said that Miss Haley’s protest would be recorded in the minutes of this meeting, and that the Chair, in accordance with the wording of Secticn 4 of Article 5 would order a meeting of that department immediately at the close of this session, and that all classroom teachers, whether delegates or not, were invited to remain for the meeting. The President then announced the next order of business to be the con- sideration of amendments proposed. at last year’s meeting. The Secretary was asked to read the amendments. He called attention to the fact that these amendments were printed in the pamphlets in the hands of the dele- gates, and called attention to the pages on which they would be found. He mentioned the nature of each amendment and stated-that any delegate could call up any amendment that he desired to have considered. © Mr. Shaw, of Pennsylvania, moved that consideration of the first amendment be postponed for one year. The motion was seconded and carried. Mr. Stanton, of Ohio, moved the adoption of the amendment: found at the bottom of page 66 of the pamphlet containing the amendments. The Secretary was called upon to read the amendment. 2” The Chairman then recognized Mr. Stanton, maker of the motion, who argued in favor of the amendment. Mr. Engleman, of Illinois, Mr. New- lon, of Colorado, and Mr. Moore, of Illinois, spoke against it. Mr. Rosier, of West Virginia, spoke in favor of the principle of the amendment but thought it did not go far enough. He moved that the whole matter be laid on the table. . The motion was seconded and. carried. The following amendment was at this time proposed by Mr. Springer, of Michigan, for consideration at the next annual meeting: Madam Chairman, it is proposed to amend Section 3 of Article 6 to read: “Jt shall also nominate one person for trustee and one person for member of the Executive Committee, and shall report said nominations to the new Board of Directors at the first meeting held after said nominations are made.” Mr. Stapleton, of Minnesota, proposed the following amendment: “To amend Article 2, Section 8 by adding the words, ‘For determining the apportionment of delegates, an active member may be-counted in two affiliated associations, and no more; and that one of these shall be the State Association.’ ” : Miss Blake, of New York, made the following suggestion which the Chairman said would serve as notice for an amendment: I would like at this moment, while we are discussing the nominations, to make a suggestion. I would like to suggest to the consideration of this body a change. At present the President automatically becomes the first Vice-President. In other words, the President is put into the Executive Committee without an apprentice- ship and serves the apprenticeship after the office is taken. I would like to suggest that in any reconsideration of the By-laws the arrangement be reversed, eee first Vice-President we elect should automatically become President g served as Vice-President and become acquainted with the duties of the organization. It is really a suggestion. If the delegates choose to do so they can amend when they have unanimous consent. MINUTES OF REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 61 The Secretary read the following proposed amendments which had been handed to him: Article 2, Section 7 to be amended to read as follows: “Each affiliated local Asso- ciation shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association up to five hundred such active members and thereafter one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates.” Another proposed amendment is to establish a department of Visual Instruction. This request contains the required number of signatures, and will come up for consideration another year. At this point Dr. Chandler, of the College of William and Mary, of Vir- ginia, presented the following suggestion for the consideration of the Association : “T am very much interested in vocational education, and as I am desirous that all the societies interested in vocational education be brought together I offer this motion: That the Executive Committee be requested to confer with the National Society for Vocational Education and the Vocational Education Association, and other vocational associations, and if practicable to invite them to become a department of this Association. ‘The Executive Committee is hereby given full power to act. I ask for the adoption of that motion.” His motion was seconded and unanimously carried. Miss Haley called attention to certain amendments which had been proposed and had not been presented by the Secretary. ‘The Chairman, however, ruled that these amendments had been presented properly by the Secretary, but she indicated a willingness for them to be further considered, if desirable. The Secretary read the amendment to which Miss Haley referred in the three forms in which it had been presented. A motion was then made by Mr. Hunter that the amendment be indefinitely postponed. It was sec- onded and carried. Separate action was taken on each of the three forms that have been read. A motion was then made to postpone indefinitely proposed amendment 8 which reads as follows: Article XI.:These By-laws may be altered or amended at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly by unanimous consent, or by a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly if the alteration or amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announcement of the proposed action shall have been made in the official publication of the Association. The motion was seconded and carried, and the Chairman announced that the amendment had been indefinitely postponed. Miss Haley took the floor in order to enter a protest against the way in which amendments were handled. The Chairman stated that her protest — would be entered in the minutes. Miss Haley’s statement was as follows: Now, Madam President, I shall simply ask that my protest be recorded, and | this is my protest: On the. question of the interpretation of this section of the 62 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION By-laws, the President of this Association made a ruling—Mr. Hunter, last year, at the close of the session in a discussion on that ruling admitted that his ruling was wrong, but he ruled that way because he thought that was the way Illinois wanted it. Now, Illinois wants no wrong rulings, and we have an amendment to this by-law that makes it impossible for this body.to vote for any amendment to amend its by-laws except by unanimous consent, and the President of this Asso- ciation at the close of the session made that admission. That is not the way it was ruled on the floor, and I submitted then, Madam President, and I submit now that this Assembly should not be left in this situation. It was confusion then and there is confusion now, and I submit, Madam President, that opportunity should have been given here today for a ruling as to what this amendment means—whether it means that if you want to bring an amendment to the by-laws before this house that you must get unanimous consent to bring the amendment if no notice has been given, or whether you must have a unanimous vote to adopt the by-law; and I submit, Madam President, that with confusion and no ruling on that question and un- certainty about it, this body is not in a position to do business intelligently. That is my protest, and I Miss Haley stated further that she wished to give notice that she would re-submit the amendment that was submitted last year on the point of amending the by-laws. The Chairman stated that the amendment would be re-submitted at the next meeting. Mr. Stapleton gave notice that he would re-submit amendments 6 and 7 as found in the pamphlet to be voted upon next year. Mr. Pearse, of Wisconsin, then called attention to amendment 4 sub- mitted by Miss Haley last year and moved that it be adopted. The proposed amendment was as follows: “To amend Article XI, Sec- tion 1 by striking out the word “consent” and inserting, in lieu thereof, the word “vote.” The motion to adopt the amendment was seconded and carried. Miss Blake, of New York, made the following suggestion: Madam President, | was deputed by the Editorial Council to bring a certain matter before this body. I think you all heard what Dr. Bagley said the other day about the wonderful work done by Mr. Morgan, the editor I have been deputed to voice the feeling of the Editorial Council and of Mr. Morgan as to the wonderful work done by Dr. Bagley, and to offer as a suggestion to the in- coming President that we will be happy—for the Council, I believe, goes out of existence each year—if the incoming President would consider Dr. Bagley again as Chairman of the Council. We are moved to ask that by the extremely helpful work Dr, Bagley has done and by the modesty with which it has been done. His work has been of a character that words cannot be too strong to speak of. I offer this suggestion, Madam President, at the request of the Editorial Council. I don’t like to hamper the incoming President, but I would like to report that it was the sense of the Editorial Council that we would be very happy if Dr. Bagley would be continued as Chairman of that Council. A motion was made and seconded to adopt this suggestion as the action of the Representative Assembly. The Chair asked all to stand who were in favor of the motion, and then announced that the suggestion was adopted unanimously and that the incoming President would govern himself ac- cordingly. Dr. Bagley then moved that the following message of greeting, confidence, and good-will be sent to the Belgian teachers through Mr. Cove: MINUTES OF REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 63 The National Education Association of the United States to the Teachers of Belgium, Greeting: Through the courtesy of Mr. W. G. Cove, President of the National Union of Teachers of England and Wales, it is the great privilege’ of the National Education Association of the United States to send to the teachers of Belgium a message of fraternal affection and regard. While nothing that we could say would be commensurate with the supreme honor in which a democratic world will always hold the Belgian people, we wish to tell you that the American teachers are proud that it is their responsibility to —pass on to the children of our Republic that great lesson of heroic sacrifice for a great ideal with which the name of Belgium is forever linked. To the Belgian schools and the Belgian teachers, we are confident, a large share of the credit must be given for the development of the superb spirit and morale which made that lesson possible. It is our hope and prayer that peace and prosperity may always rest upon you and your people as a partial reward for the matchless service that you have rendered to humanity. We ask Mr. Cove to convey to you our cordial greetings and our heartiest good wishes. This motion was seconded and carried unanimously. The President then called on Professor Balys Zygelis, of Lithuania, who expressed the good wishes of his country to the National Education Asso- ciation. He gave assurance that his country would join in making the World conference on education a success in 1923. Mr. Carlson, of Minneapolis, called attention to the excellent reports of the convention by the Minneapolis Journal. Other delegates called attention to the excellent reports in the New York papers, the Globe, the Evening Mail, the Evening Post, and others called attention to the com- plete reports of other papers. Mention was also made of the full and accurate reports of the Boston papers. The Chairman then put the question to the audience, asking all in favor of giving an expression of appreciation and thanks to these papers to say “aye.” ‘The action taken was unanimous. Mr. Jose M. Galvez, of the University of Chile, was then called upon and expressed to the Association the best wishes of the educators and public officials of Chile. He presented suggestions concerning the World con- ference on education. “The Chairman expressed appreciation and _ stated that the Committee on Foreign Relations would have power to act upon the suggestions. The Chairman then called upon Mr. Maxwell, of Minnesota, Chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, who presented the report. (It is printed on page 43.) Mr. Maxwell then moved the adoption of the report. ‘The motion was seconded, and those in favor were asked to stand. Almost all of the delegates stood. The President then called on those who were opposed to the adoption of the resolutions to stand. ‘The President stated that there were only three or four standing in opposition to the motion and that it had been almost unanimously carried. The Chairman requested all seated with delegates who did not hold credentials to take seats in other parts of the hall. She stated that only delegates could vote and that it might become necessary in voting to poll delegations. 64 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION ee ee SS The Chairman next recognized Miss Snow, of Washington, who pre- sented the following resolution: Be it resolved, that the National Education Association establish a committee which shall make a thorough and scientific study of rating systems, with their possibilities or their inadequacy, and shall report to this Association at its next assembly the result of such study with any recommendations such committees may see fit to make. he findings and recommendations of such committee shall be in the hands of the Association at least one month prior to the date of the annual meeting. It was then moved, seconded, and carried that this resolution be adopted. The President announced that the next order of business would be the election of officers, and called upon the Nominating Committee to report, but at that moment Dr. Finegan asked for the floor and made the following statement and motion: Before this convention adjourns I think we should express our appreciation of the eminent service which has been rendered it for several years through the Field Secretary, who will soon retire. I, therefore, move that this Association extend a rising vote of thanks to Mr. Magill in appreciation of the service he has rendered the Association and public education in America. The motion was seconded and, the entire audience voting on the affirma- tive, it was declared carried by the Chairman. Mr. Pearse, of Wisconsin, gained recognition to make the following statement and motion. His motion was seconded and carried by unanimous vote. It seems to me this is a good time to make a beginning on something the As- sociation may from time to time be called upon to do. There has been a report freely circulated that in the city of Elgin a number of teachers were dismissed from service, the reason assigned being that they were affliated with an organiza- tion other than their own local teachers’ organization, and as a matter of fact the organization to which objection. was made is the National Education As- sociation. I wish to move that the Field Secretary and our Director of Research be authorized to inquire into the facts in this particular case and report to the Executive Committee, and that if the Executive Committee think wise the report be printed in the Journal. The Chairman again called for the report of the Nominating Committee to be presented by the Chairman, Dr. Chandler, of Virginia. He presented the report of the committee. (The list of officers is printed in the Journal and in the Volume of Proceedings. ) After presenting the report Dr. Chandler moved that the Secretary be authorized to cast the ballot of the Association for these officers. ‘The motion was seconded and unanimously carried. ‘The Secretary said, “I hereby cast the ballot for each of the persons named in the report.” ‘The Chairman announced that each of those nominated by the committee have been duly elected. The Chairman, Miss Williams, spoke as follows: We have about three minutes more that we may remain in this hall and so, since the incoming President is already on the stage, we shall not have to appoint a committee to bring him here. sa . ‘Minutes or Representative ASsEMBLY 65 I want to express my personal appreciation to every single member of the National Education Association for the whole-hearted support and coéperation you have given me in the past twelve months. It has in every sense of the word been a successful year. It has been a rare privilege to serve you. I can only pledge my support to the incoming President, and try to measure up to the splendid support which was given to me, as promised by the then outgoing president, Mr. Hunter, of California, on the platform at Des Moines last year. If I canbe as good a first Vice-President as Mr. Hunter has been I shall be very happy at the ciose of the next convention. : ; Now, I cannot use this gavel as a gift to the incoming President, because noth- ing would induce me to part with it, but I will use it as a symbol of authority in passing over to this member of the Association, who has been longer identified with the Association than I have been, the office I have held for the past year. He needs no introduction to this body of educators. It gives me very great pleasure to present to this house of delegates and the active members gathered here this morning the incoming President of our Associa- tion, Dr. Owen. I wish him the same spirit of service and codperation which you have shown to me. Dr. Owen, coming to the platform, was given an ovation and spoke as follows: Madam President, and Members of the Representative Assembly and of the National Education Association: I should like first to recognize the very gracious introduction of the retiring President and to say to her that I shall utilize her services to the limit. I should like to say just one word or two. It ’certainly would be ungracious for me if I did not say a personal word about the satisfaction that I feel in having been elected President of the National Education Association. The fact is that by a peculiar set of circumstances I have been called the President of the National Education Association for the last two or three days so many times that I almost feel as if I were closing my year of service instead of beginning it. But, seriously, I would rather be President of the National Education Associa- tion than to hold any other position in public education in America. I believe in this Association and its power to do good. I think it is our business to recognize the good that we can do, and I want to say to you officially that I will do all I can, with this thought in view, to build up the organization as such. I hope we will not go out from this Association underestimating the significance . of what has happened here. It is easy to come together and review certain things and then overlook the fact that the power of this Association continues and abides through the year; and I hope that every one of us goes away from this meeting with this thought—that if there is any weakness here we will make up our minds that we will try to remedy it instead of making capital out of it against the As- sociation. We haven’t begun to find out what this Association could do if it made up its mind to do it, but I hope we recognize that unless this Association leads in the National recognition of the American public schools there is no other existing agency to do it. I think the hope of the American public schools, not the only hope but the most fundamental hope, is a National organization of the teachers of America. They aren’t above law, they are the servants of the law; but they cannot act very effectively individually. It is a challenge to us to see whether we col- lectively have the intelligence and the patriotism and the self-sacrifice to learn how to act effectively. And so I want to ask just one thing—that you will forget the idea of a National Education Association being something different from the State and local associations, and you will think of the National Association, all of you, as being every one of you acting together. That means that every State Association ought to feel that that association is a tremendous factor in building up this great National Association. 66 NaTIoNAL EpucaTIoNn ASSOCIATION Now, I want to say one other word and I will stop. I am in favor of the Towner-Sterling bill in its fundamental policies, in all that it embodies of the program of the National Education Association. I am for anybody that is for it. I want to assure you that if I can do anything this year to help put as good a man in to: lead that fight as we have just lost I shall consider myself a very happy man. I am in favor of all the policies of the National Education Association as we have embodied them in our program, and I want to close with the hearty request, the urgent demand, and an invitation to all of you to help me make my year a success, because without you I cannot make it a success. I don’t believe in the National Education Association coming to consciousness for a week in some section of this country; | think we ought to be self-conscious all the time, and that is one of the things that we can accomplish. We should be alive, militant, and aggressive through all our elected officers and agencies. And so I thank you for the opportunity you have given me to serve you. I do not assess my ability as equal to that of my predecessors, but 1 am not going to yield to anyone and not even to them in devotion to and in belief in the possibilities of this great Association. Miss Hall, of Massachusetts, asked whether the Association stood for salaries regardless of sex, and was answered by the Chairman that the platform of the National Education Association stands squarely for equal pay for equal service without regard to sex. Dr. Owen was then recognized and made the following statement: “T would like the authority of the Association that the Executive Com- mittee of the Association may have the approval of the Association in making such response to the offer made by Mr. Hays last night as the Executive Committee will find desirable. I mean by that simply that you put it into the hands of the Committee.” A motion was made, seconded, and carried to put the matter in the hands of the Executive Committee for action-in accordance with Dr. Owen’s suggestion. The President then announced that the Sixtieth Annual Session of the National Education Association had come to a close and declared the meet- ing adjourned. J. W. CRABTREE, CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS, Secretary. President. COMPLETE REPORT OF THE AUDITORS Fiscat YEAR JunE 1, 1921, ro May 31, 1922 REPORT COVERS BOOKS OF THE SECRETARY, TREASURER, AND BOARD OF TRUSTEES ; ee ; June 26, 1922 Miss Charl Ormond Williams, President National Education Association of the United States Washington, D. C. Dear MADAM: In accordance with instructions received, we have made an examination of the cash receipts and disbursements of the National Education Association of the United States for the year ended May 31, 1922, and now submit our report thereon AupiTors’ REportT 67 SECRETARY’S OFFICE J. W. CRastrez, Secretary INCOME AND EXPENSES The following is a summarized statement of the income and expenses for the period under review: INCOME NMiembershipss from clea ylotae lala’ tla dl 2ay Mek 82.71 Total gett COM Carmeeke aby Lest Mc Rhoda eb lols lectsvanecgtiiel). sitlansed. oki $234,418.67 Board of Drustees—Expensesiace stes,- acacia oe oss oe $1,111.79 Executive Committee—Expenses ..............0005 4,186.03 General Secretary’s Office: Salaryeok, Secretaryacte.cceicos ees ee: $7,125.00 GCleticall® Services ese si00 0 a. eee 11,535.22 POSt Aer erpyassjaticrsns oe) ssa 2 ale aid. chars apsiaialle 5,110.58 Rent, Light, Heat and Janitor......... 6,471.89 Stationery and Office Supplies......... 1,148.24 Metephone and? Pelegraph............. 1,290.35 Era yelin PMAeKPCLSE cielo jsisiecedere ores soseves 1,393.56 TNterest were ete a ctatocate ete aticaa ae ee 570.11 MIS UT ANCE meee erent shovetel cise sis cataye! sivas 125.40 Bxpnessmande rer chit, 21-1. csc ess 610 eds eles 300.50 Surety, Bonds (Premiums)).(....-0....... 180.00 Repairs and Depreciation—Office Fur- Mitre: aN, sHIXeULES).|. spepaparcbeyehes« chester 1,444.50 Miscellancotieprs -Faacttect ccyooeasnmet 738.23 ie 37,433.58 Field Secretary's Expenses............%% PANS Research Department mr. tau ckwii 0002 6 4,138.76 Express and Freight (Distribution of Vi INITTES Meyers c, ake oie cuctRete MOE: + 08-6 ese orev opens 1,120.33 Prigdn pte eca Me PeadcGuihyt?.. 50.0 111,310.54 Special PApproprlatlons ea. ci silat ee 7,827.02 Department of Elementary School Prin- Cipals) ca epee ss coe aI esas 649.98 Auditing Accounts of Association........ 592.35 Annual sConventioni.so.- s.r. haere oe 5,439.99 Department of Superintendence.......... 8,366.62 Unelassified| Pxcpensesaeiy dec saeciitaciss «1 461.16 DRI S GANGES -ooausooemancocnghoop comer dss coed asuatogan ad 196,365.71 Surplus coum themyedintent staal rer cyterls nec cvercomye Oe sierele ne 2 « $38,052.96 68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The net financial results show a substantial improvement over last year in net income of $37,221.72. This is due to large increases from all sources of revenue, including $13,816.28 from memberships, N. E. A. Journal and $36,308.29 in expenses except in the case of printing. While a different met Secretary's Office produces expense the expenses of the General $50,302.12 from subscriptions to the from advertisements, with only small increases hod of allocating figures which if compared in detail would show variations of some size, they cannot be fairly com- pared except in total. The balance in the Surplus Account on June 1, 1921, was $2,815.73, which added to the net income for the current year results in a balance as of May 31, 1922, of $40,868.69. RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS The following is a summary of the Treasurer’s Account for the year: Cash Balance, June 1, 1921: Revolving Fund: On Deposit with Continental Trust Co., cluding $81.00 Trust Fund for Special Donations) pte where. 8: i aikuy aio, Oia) ©) 4) 08a eiawite. Onsuel ener ener senene! © cusicie eno: Aah eke 6-6; 6 Je/'e16 (evelou separ ey elena. Alien ence, Sassen 8 > 08, Special Account (In- wore er ensee Less Overdraft at Continental Trust Co. (Regular Account)... RECEIPTS Income as per Income and Expense Statement...... Less Accounts Uncollected...........+--sseeeeeees Loans from Continental Trust Co soe reece eeereesee DISBURSEMENTS Expenses as per Income and Expense Statement.... 1921 Bills Paid during Current Year Less: Bills Unpaid—May 31, 1922........... $20,807.83 Depreciation Reserved ............... 596.95 Payment of Loans from Continental Trust Co MUEnitur em andesbaxtules:./--.).tctousrtetelstenel stot reverent sfere oe Trust Fund for Special Donations Repaid $234,418.67 11,615.69 222,802.98 6,000.00 196,365.71 10,848.50 207,214.21 21,404.78 185,809.43 6,000.00 6,962.15 $1.00 PeCMC RCO CK at rT tt) ON CCC) CnC HCE erie? 0) Ces Tico ot jars cash receipts and disbursements of the $226.36 23.09 4,831.55 5,081.00 157317053 3,343.47 228,802.98 232,146.45 198,852.58 $33,293.87 $33,293.87 AvupDIToRS’ REPORT 69 Accounted for as follows: Revolving Fund: Transfer from Continental Trust Co., Regular Account, to re- PMD UTS BNO een ceee Yo ote Meley yi nierers. cin ce:- 9858 % siphtatylahte dekh web anc $10,567.69 Onis Hand wehiriab)-dopsrssier tte. cre tintrciste « Biciaiev ie eAenaeeer ds stntlle afate aiepeivio chs 28.93 10,596.62 Overdraft at Continental Trust Co., Special Account............ 596.62 10,000.00 Continentalarust CovpRepular) Account sian cee silane telecaster 23,293.87 PC DrAliee Aoe..ot gies Rierns... boatenic .cattikhe 08 cork ede $33,293.87 A thorough examination was made of the cash received, and so far as the system in use permitted, we have satisfied ourselves that all the funds received have been properly accounted for. No interest is being received on bank balances, which matter we have brought to the attention of your General Secretary. Vouchers in support of all cash disbursements were examined and found in order. The balances of the two accounts with the Continental Trust Co. were certified to by the bank, and the cash on hand was verified by count. ASSETS AND LIABILITIES The following is a statement of the assets and liabilities as at May 31, 1922, as shown by the books: BALANCE SHEET ASSETS Cash: Secretary’s Fund—In Bank, On Hand and to be Reimbursed from the Resulars Account. .inas saaueds « eek > krMnsee Pe eeto ate $10,000.00 Reptlar. ACCOUNC s.0 5, ci-+ a6 4,0, tye. 5104 0/0, 0f2,.45ous'nigs DRE siete ee eee 23,293.87 Peri aes tee MUM Mt ctstere ier lor sieve) eon soo a sib oo 1s-euslodalos shohaicneent Rane een 20.51 33,314.38 PNCCOUDLSMINECELVIAD] Cay) ite cicies oelei vas aaletalot sacl ell temas ae 11,615.69 Secuiitiesmat book. Value (Schedule) 07g oh oc rua hanbeotun akeunegouis 130,936.00 Real Estate: COUR « seca co caesar See Mit Ree eee a ane ne $98,000.00 Wessm Vat eas CRE AV ADO pensnetes one tese aticensisiennutetre toa xoiie 31,500.00 _— 66,500.00 Furniture and Fixtures: ExPeEnditures tO! May..5 1, L9QE vinci. cctele o 6 «cio Nar siagsiaeas 11,939.04 Expenditures during Year ended May 31, 1922...... 6,962.15 18,901.19 OldmVolumesrote Proceedings: oe mrs.cis sel eres aie vinlowenelernra c/o cho eamaelsussbiars 500.00 $261,767.26 LIABILITIES AccountsisbayablemsmncdtaeGmnacisaai tise ho saee nies tioaeyed, 20,807.83 Reserve for Depreciation on Furniture and Fixtures.............. 2,634.23 rust) Hund—Permanents Investment. 5.1. rermsenire- « olricsleseltlne © « 197,456.51 STRUTS “nis tea0 Co obaneoc9 con onn ath oon. Dk Ua Geogdts G mcadaar 40,868.69 $261,767.26 70 NaTIoNAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION We recommend that the accounts receivable be examined and that all old ac- counts, ascertained to be uncollectible, be charged off. The real estate is carried at cost and the amounts owing on mortgage have been certified to us by the holder. The additions to the Furniture and Fixtures Account during the year were examined and found in order. The old volumes of proceedings are carried at an arbitrary value of $500. We are informed that there are in the possession of the Association some 23,000 volumes which cost between $.85 and $1.10 per volume to publish. As these publi- cations appear to be in demand, the value is considerably higher than that shown on the books. We made a sufficient check to satisfy ourselves that all the liabilities are shown on the books, and in addition obtained a certificate to that effect signed by the Assistant ‘Treasurer. We again recommend that a sufficient balance be carried in the Special Account so that the proper use of the “Regular” and “Revolving Fund” may be strictly adhered to, and that all income and expenses be allocated between the years to which they apply. As instructed, no detail audit was made of the funds re- ceived by the Departments of Superintendence and Elementary School Principals. These records are not kept at the Washington Office and the Association books record the receipts as reported to them by these departments. TREASURER’S REPORT CorNeELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer From June 1, 1921, Tro May 31, 1922 Deficit brought forward from Treasurer’s Report for year ended. Miays 31)< 192 leanne metate 1 atcet ei ctetctele tener rerio $1,737.53 RECEIPTS Brom Annual Meeting) sacs 36 elser Gein cia lacs ee debe eit 3,755.00 From Department of Superintendence...............---.--------++-08 2,830.00 From Department of Elementary School Principals.................. 1,035.28 From Secretary’s Office during the Year: IMembersitipmneces seer riieutet: irate seersteenarrterctere tor $91,443.00 SubSCHIptiOMs) COV. cio OWT IAL astelel ate ntetotetereleleleneicls 72,793.12 Sale’ of= Volumes of) Proceedings e.. ---mpiasoieie 1,352.00 Sales of. Special Reports mts ce) ieee eee ieee tots 271.02 Special ™Contributvouses. s.r e re cieriere eens 20.00 165,879.14 Prom income on bermanent) Mundin mre cite 7,629.20 Brom, Commercial exhibits (Net) eneeeetaeiee creel: 10,558.17 From Advertising in N. E. A. Journal (Net)........ 31,084.28 From Loan from Continental Trust Company...... 6,000.00 From Miscellaneous Income (Exchange, etc.)...... 61.91 221,212.70 $228,832.98 ‘TREASURER’S REPORT 71 EXPENSES Boardsoim bcustees=—byxpensessaeerayssiciau: sac sei son oo ssc ee SONIA $1,111.79 Executive Committee: President fMreHunte n2ats Boome: . $446.98 } 2,519.89 UMass) Walliams ree: cscscse ses 2,072.91 § Birst@ Vice-President) &ftucescac c c22-05.0 1H ee...0 577.36 PLE ASUE ECE Meera ie cgi al-rotarmstasttee ter. s Pe ee TY 396.37 Chairman; Boards of*-Drusteessas:taccassteeedt ete 376.96 Member byiBlection. casas s2ts4 scene cc cS Ree. 315.45 4,186.03 General Secretary’s Office: Salat ARO LMI SCCLOLATY mere tetas eres) sclejacnie 0-4 aye.e eae 7,125.00 ROSES. ola oip:o, doatdia OL OkN NT ERREAE ECR Ol RRA ROTC ga aaa 5,110.58 ‘Melephonesmanwim LelegramS a... ccs. sc ol) soe + ae tein 1,290.35 EE PHCSSMAUDCMPLINCLOUE MN Saeed ac seses teks ses eee ote 300.50 OTN ICA MO CL y ACCS mete Pmt ere ese cleus: aos) > sre egonayenty e.g one 11,535.22 Rent; Light,sPower, teats and Janitor...) 00.002... 6,471.89 Stationexymand Office Supplies... 2.2.2.2... 5.0000 1,148.24 BE naive iin wear ta Vomit: Sesto he wR MelePoty o's ‘als le ae Glee een 15399756 Instinanheced «Gericom craw See te ous s Das eleke alo leis Gees 125.40 Repairs—Office Furniture and Fixtures............ 847.55 SULEL ODS, oo 5c. eins PI hina och totter tiitelets iss Toh laGh ever 180.00 Interest and. Discounts:-allowed...... 00... 20:%.04% + 570.11 Miscellaneous, Expense¥.Gh....0%% 5.080. nears 738.23 36,836.63 Field Secretary's Office: Salarye ofeuieldmSechetatyarieer «5 ser dan: $7,200.00 ASSIStANt Oe SCCRCCALY igs 5 tieterko ears «oy © 1,860.00 Traveling; Clerical Services, etc......... 4,667.56 ——___ 13,727.56 Research Department: Salary of Head of Department.......:... 1,225.00 ClenicalmSerydCes,= ClGiy ere cio crore ss ss mass 2,307.05 Miscellaneous—Supplies, etc. ............ 606.71 — 4,138.76 54,702.95 Express and Freight: DTS EIU UbLOMMO PMY ON UITILE Siig tian, 0501/512 ceceova foie 1 dusiispale.t° Committee on Health Problems........---++++++++++ Committee on Organization of Elementary Education. Legislative Commission .........-+-- Ae A ete ont Illiteracy Commission ..........+--+seereeeeeeeees Illiteracy Commission (1920-21) ......--..+sesesees Committee on Teachers’ Salaries (1920-21).......-- Committee on Rural Education (1920-21)........-- Auditing Accounts of the Association.......+.++++++++: Unclassified Expenses: Press) Clippingsie.. +l feeds eater ttr sae cere $139.82 Conference on Disarmament.........-.--++: 40.62 Purchase of Volumes..........-++++eee+s>- 15.00 Subscriptions to Journals.........-..-++++++ 12.00 Maps and Colored Slides..............-+:: 86.52 Fertilizing Lawn at Association Bldg....... 20.00 Identification Certificates, Boston........... 95.00 Miscellaneous Expense ..........--++--+--0- 52.20 Annual Convention: Department Expenses (2.5.2 4.0006 -- «0s ae aye eiel (Vries IDMdanGpa 6 poon ed oUmeeo saben abocaucsococecon Clerical Services: Repistrations buneaueeeee eee eae $459.65 Stenographicm Ser viceuma-ciese dete tere tre 335.21 Pub licitypeaasstte enter er here aeaete Kes ootecn eon opsloaverereea Printing: Programs @ aise. sania ora icyersiiorsys ets $525.74 Muscellancotsetasts sas tr ce = ocusierci cee 553.05 ‘helephoneswandmalielep Rams emetic) oielaitelact Miscellaneous: Speakersonmeropram:: yeas ssmeeritass $746.24 Mapssand! Slidesiiv.. crac «ras osetia 56.75 Whi tay coe o aia eigen OOO camaene Gdode tor 150.00 Sipnsyuetc.gp. < Heinerihiste deste oe tsps ater: 67.90 Badgesie wriac «.e stniektpacste tat ie cieie cele = 41.00 Identification Certificates .............. 126.00 Miscellaneous Expense ................ 73.40 Carried forward 461.16 429.25 701.77 794.86 1,141.46 1,078.79 30.57 $172,461.64 7,827.02 1,053.51 5,439.99 $186,782.16 ‘TREASURER’S REPORT 73 Brought. Lorw.ard seas ee SMM dss. See wia cee $186,782.16 Department of Superintendence: Expensess of presidents rat asimisw ole sobre bi «shoxejoeys $161.60 Expenses of Secretary’s Office...............00e00. 1,238.89 Traveling Expenses of Secretary................... 476.69 Honorarium paid to Secretary... .. 0.652.000 cues 500.00 Clerical Services at Convention: Registration Department .............. $196.19 Stenocraphic Service scares sc cms 164.75 ———— 360.94 PATER x soma ea bese ren eee 1,211.19 Printing: HELOG LAIN Seay slevencteyans sai aio eters ts aa. aysre axons) $840.25 Miscellaneouss oc, Miee' Masiensicct crete corte ob $88.65 ee 192590 dielephoness and wl clegramsisjas «505 co s.s.08s cline ess 57.80 Miscellaneous: : Music (Cleveland Meeting, 1920)...... $132.60 Badges (Chicago Meeting, 1922)....... 131525 Speakersyon, Programe stiri ocps (ger francs 857.84 MUrsiCasnerd- PERE oi denrtict idan pistads io oshae 258.50 Conference of Executive Committee..... 317.83 DriGondon!suExhibitin./xtcoewierrs« aie 932.59 — 8,366.62 Department of Elementary School Principals.................6.... 649.98 Payments on Loans from Continental Trust Co..................5. 6,000.00 Putchase_ of; Office. Furniture and) Fixtures..0.o. c.0 40.05 syineee ne aels 6,962.15 Depreciationgon’ Furniture and) Pixturesaq..4.).mc a) ad-sesn ess. - eerie 596.95 $209,357.86 SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURES Expenditures made during Year for Current Expenses, Repayment on Loans, and. Purchase) of Equipments... o..Wie ei. ee $187,953.08 Depreciation Reserved, ters Gu slates craks hs Salat Ableta Has Sala aisles Se 596.95 Expenses of Current Year unpaid on May 31, 1922................. 20,807.83 $209,357.86 CASH SUMMARY Peceiptn foreveeriended May 21) 1922.2, ofeoe: cscev.. tee. $228,832.98 (Oxeanelaarte oowtaleny: Gly Mikes 555 oid Nowa bo oo vaspeadoneDoude ido coat 1,737.53 227,095.45 Disbursements for the Current Year’s Operations....... $187,953.08 Disbursements for Bills for Previous Year’s Operations.. 10,848.50 Transferred to Increase Revolving Fund............... 5,000.00 203,801.58 Balance on hand May 31, 1922............. Sect oe TE $23,293.87 74 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ee CERTIFICATE or AUDITORS To the President of the National Education Association: We have audited the accounts of the National Education Association, and of the Treasurer, and of the Secretary, for the year ended May 31, 1922, and certify that the foregoing statement of Income and Expenses is correct, and is in accord- ance with the books of the Association. The Secretary’s Working Fund of $10,000.00 has also been verified by us. Marwick, MITCHELL & Co. 40 Exchange Place, New York, June 26, 1922. BOARD OF TRUSTEES CarRROLL G. PEARSE, Chairman PERMANENT FUND We have audited the receipts and disbursements of the Permanent Fund and have inspected the securities in the custody of the Trust Officer of the Continental Trust Co., Washington, D. C. Details of the securities are given in Schedule “1,” showing par value and cost, the market value not having been ascertained. The cash on hand in the Permanent Fund at June 1, 1921, was $420.51. The 414 per cent Los Angeles School Dist. Bond became due during the year and was paid ($1,000.00), and $100.00 was received for one life membership, making a total of $1,520.51. Of this amount $1,500.00 was expended in reducing the mort- gage on the real estate owned, leaving a cash balance at May 31, 1922, of $20.51. The permanent investment at June 1, 1921, was $197,425.80, to which was added $100.00 for the life membership fee and from which was deducted $69.29 for the loss sustained in retiring the Los Angeles School Bond, thus leaving a balance in the fund at May 31, 1922, of $197,456.51. The cash balance has been certified to by the depository. The income from investments and the disbursements for the period may be summarized as follows: RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS—PERMANENT FUND Receipts: : Interest from Securities Owned (Schedule “1”) .....+¥+eseeseeee es $5,580.00 Interest from Securities Retired and Paid during Year.......+---- 22.50 Rentals Received from Real Estate Owheds rss ak tS oe 5,875.00 ; 11,477.50 Disbursements: Taterestuon Wlarteages.« <6 uo eo eure a ee es $2,310.00 Repairs to Building.......---++++++++++> pn BES Aare Siar 1,078.27 Timstees’ Commissions ~.....-.---.+ > S8eh «Si-mp i -Byos 460.03 3,848.30 Surplus Transferred to Treasurer’s Account........-+-+++++5 7,629.20 $11,477.50 The receipts were properly accounted for, and vouchers were produced in sup- port of the disbursements. Commissions paid on rental receipts, etc., which are not specifically covered in the contract with the Trustee, should be approved by the Trustees of the Associa- tion. We recommend that a new contract be drawn up with the Trustees, covering all remuneration for its services. ‘TREASURER’S REPORT 75 eee a es PRINCIPAL AccouNT (As prepared by the Trust Officer) Cash balance on hand as per last account................ $420.51 . $1000 4% per cent Los Angeles School Dist. Bond paid... 1,000.00 W. A. Cook, Life Membership ar aryi warn ge hoes A a 100.00 $1,520.51 . National Savings & Trust Co. on Account of loan secured Dur iwG to .ot (Ota VU... tie hee. aldgvan .-seessaal ot $1,500.00 Cash balance on hand............. 31-30. dex an’. 606) $20.51 Securities on hand: Ten $1000 4% per cent Salt Lake City 20 year Water Bonds, Series “F” due July 1, 1934, Nos. 310 to 319 inclusive. Interest payable Januaryee sande july 1.70. 8 Serer ys $10,000.00 inclusive, 3133, 3135, 3136, 3190, 3191, 3192, 3200. Interest payable January 1 and July 1 10,000.00 Fifteen $1000 4 per cent Terminal R. R. As- sociation of St. Louis, Gen. Mtg. Ref. Sink- ing fund bonds maturing January 1, 1953, Nos. 16311 to 16325 inclusive. Interest pay- ablepjanmany 2 and»July 1) .597,900\....... 15,000.00 Five $1000 4 per cent St. Louis San Francisco Rwy. Prior Lien Mtg. Series “A” bonds maturing July 1, 1950, Nos. M56051 to 56055 inclusive. Interest payable January 1 and Wath yay Megat Peete INE Eoin os cysisedersarccceseg 5,000.00 One $250 Same Now Mal 52s. oikettiose «tenes 250.00 Ten $1000 4 per cent Chicago, Indiana & Southern R. R. Co. 50 year bonds of 1906, maturing January 1, 1956, Nos. 11386 to 11394 inclusive and 13786. Interest payable Januaryad sand July 1... ... esdaswalt bas. 10,000.00 Two $1000 4% per cent Los Angeles City School Dist. Election 1914 bonds Nos. 571 and 572, maturing July 1, 1922. Interest Payable -Januaryalsand! Julyalent aes 2,000.00 One $1000 5 per cent city of Clearwater Public Utilities Sedgwick Co., Kansas bond, dated August 1, 1912, No. 18. Interest pay- able February 1 and August 1, maturing PNUS US ClO reed COR ei wy ak, 1,000.00 Two $1000 Same, maturing August 1, 1931, INOS Le Sate) eth RAMA And eae Sonica oe 4 2,000.00 Three $1000 Same, maturing Aug. 1, 1932, Nos. AWE Ik OG, Sy geen cane ceed dahil 3,000.00 Two $1000 5 per cent Maine Real Estate Title Co. First Mortgage bonds, maturing August 1, 1932, No. 151 and 152. Interest payable Hebitiaryaleand eausistada sen renee 2,000.00 oe eats 60,250.00 (Canpnial saya ipa i cic Gare ceo Ae eee $60,270.51 76 NatIOoNAL EDUCATION AssOCIATION Brought! forward ef. = sy -Menectae- egestas ene Ten $1000 4% per cent Seattle School Dist. Series 11, maturing March 1, 1931, Nos. 586 to 595 inclusive. Interest payable March 1 and September Ii. .ee- esis 008 ss siemens $10,000.00 Ten $1000 4 per cent Atlantic Coast Line R. R. Co. 1st Cons. Mtg. 50 year bonds matur- ing July 1, 1952, Nos. 5130, 6494, 11639, 14335, 14339, 17579, 11638, 24601, 37565, 50251. Interest payable March 1. and September 1 ..-..--+-++. Ry OcdOD EDDC UGaS Or 10,000.00 One $1000 6 per cent St. Louis San Francisco Rwy. Adj. Mtg. Series “A” bond, maturing July 1, 1955, No. M-14552. Interest payable > April 1 and October 1......+-++-++++-ee* 1,000.00 One $500 Same, No. D845....-+-++sseereres 500.00 One $250 Same, No. Y1033....+.--+s++++e0'* 250.00 Four $1000 4 per cent Manhattan Rwy. Co. Mtg. bonds, maturing April 1, 1990, Nos. 2843, 6522, 16083 and 16087. Interest pay- able April 1 and October 1.....---++++++-> 4,000.00 Twenty $1000 4 per cent Baltimore & Ohio R. R. Co. (Pittsburgh, Lake Erie & W. Va. System) Ref. Mtg., maturing 1941, Nos. 13496 to 13500 inclusive, and 21236 to 21250 in- clusive. Interest payable May 1 and Novem- Pernt [er 4) GA oeoO Hao. GIs DOU icK LOS 20,000.00 December: “sone chisewacce sie sitiele 4 eieleln nie ole 10,000.00 Eight $1000 44 per cent certificate of corpora- tion Stock of the city of New York to pro- vide for supply of water (issue of February 1908) maturing November 1, 1957, Nos. 554/W-6 to 561/W-6 inclusive. Interest payable May 1 and November 1.........- 8,000.00 Nine $1000 4% per cent certificates of corpora- tion stock of New York (issue of February 1908), maturing November 1, 1957, Nos. 26816/V-7 to 26824/V-7 inclusive. Interest payable May 1 and November 1......-.-- . 9,000.00 Total principal on hand.......-..-ess+eseeeeeeees Real Estate—1201 16th Street, N. W., Wash- ington, D. C., carried at purchase price.... $98,000.00 Subject) toy trusts... <0. 05-5901 nine 31,590.00 (This property now worth in neighborhood of $150,000.) INcoME AccOUNT Income from Securities: $10,000 Salt Lake City 4% per cent: Tnterestudues July wdyel921)...)..). .orvste ckrerta terete $225.00 Interest due January 1, 1922...............2.+.00s 225.00 $60,270.51 72,750.00 $133,020.51 66,500.00 $199,520.51 $450.00 TREASURER’S REPORT 77 $10,000 School District of Kansas City 314 per cent: Interesteduemy uly = 1,92 [ep cee nears eee etek Rene $175.00 Interest udwelfpanuarvelel922- cei ee ny.) ee 175.00 $350.00 $15,000 Terminal R. R. Assoc. of St. Louis 4’s: : Enteresteduewmeuly lato Zee een nee See ee 300.00 Inteccstra wen andar yee 922 nme meena een ete ae 300.00 600.00 $5,250 St. Louis San Francisco R’w’y 4’s Prior Lien: Inferestedtre syulyausy 192iereenta tes ws eet e te cee. 105.00 Interestadue. januaryel e19220.7 sc. cst kee 5. cht. 3 105.00 210.00 $10,000 Chicago, Indiana & Southern R. R. 4’s: Interest due July 1, 1921...... ae TRETIG, Ree Ke | 200.00 anferestmauem| ANWAT Yel MIO 22.4, <1) ss .sc.+ «sco tietowot 200.00 400.00 $1,000 Los Angeles City Sch. Dist. 414 per cent: Interest#iduesfuly sed 921A Ree kes a. 22.50 $2,000 Los Angeles Sch. Dist. 434 per cent: Interestudiiem | alyaelsn 1921b,. Sehie oh. ic n.c dso. 0.0 att hbhes 45.00 Interest duey) ANUATY ll L922 i nvery-srstorrtels bh eeerets Ze 45.00 : 90.00 $1,000 City of Clearwater Pub. Util. 5 per cent: Imterest*due; August-1 p19 2ieq-ee ena ee eee 25.00 Interestidueshebruary 780.00 National Education Association: Rent for 12 months to May 31, 1922........+-.-++--> 3,600.00 $5,875.00 Repairs and Interest: 1921. June 27. F. P. Gilliam, elevator.......-..++++++- $15.00 July 6. Nat’l Sav. & Tr., 6 mos. int. on $33,000 ELUSED ceetehucdo eh Liens tetera Otero tate ets sttehtonets 1,155.00 Aug. 17. Henry F. Allen, plumbing..........-.-. 10.30 Aug. 17. F. P. Gilliam, elevator..........-..++ 21.20 Sept. 15. F. P. Gilliam, elevator..........-.+-+5 30.00 Sept. 16. Henry J. Allen, plumbing.............. 23.80 Oct. 16. W. F. & E. L. Smith, decorating......... 24.00 Oct. 27. Frank Elec. Shop, electrician........... 19.70 Nov. 12. Julius T. Becker, plumbing............ 78.00 Nov. 12. W. F. & E. L. Smith, decorating........ 40.70 Nov. 12. A. S. Johnson Co., furnace...........-- 150.00 Nov. 29. Frank Elec. Shop, electrician........... 15.00 1922. Jan. 5. Nat’l Sav. & Tr., 6 mos. int. on $33,000 tr. MN Soc Ba wis aiavet titiote oitehorholenereneyons 1,155.00 Jan. 9. W. L. Cary Co., plumbing...........-. 161.00 Jan. 13. Frank Elec. Shop, electrician........... 61.30 Jan. 24. Nat’l Sav. & Tr., insurance............ 137.20 Feb. 24. Frank Elec. Shop, electrician........... 133.03 Mar. 14. Frank Elec. Shop, electrician........... 103.44 Mar. 17. Henry J. Allen, plumbing.............. 24.10 Apr. 12. Henry J. Allen, plumbing.............. 30.50 May 31. Commission at 5 per cent on $5,875.00 rents collected 3,682.02 $400.00 360.00 405.00 $5,602.50 2,192.98 $7,795.48 TREASURER’S REPORT 79 SCHEDULE “T” SECURITIES ON HAND AS ON JUNE 12, 1922 MUNICIPAL AND SCHOOL BONDS Par value Book value Income City of New York 4% per cent Corporate y tock due 1957, Nos. 554 to 561....... $8,000.00 $8,510.00 $360.00 Cit® of New York 4% per cent Corporate hy Stock due 1957, Nos. 26816 to 26824. 9,000.00 9,810.00 405.00 Kansas City, 0., School District 3% per cent Bonds due 1925, Nos, 3127 to 31209, 3133, 3135, 3136, 3190 to 3192, 3200.... 10,000.00 9,500.00 350.00 Clearwater, Kansas, Water Works Bonds 5 per cent due 1930, Nos. 18 to 23..... 1,000.00 1,000.00 50.00 Clearwater, Kansas, Water Works Bonds 5 per cent due 1931, Nos. 18 to 23..... 2,000.00 2,000.00 100.00 Clearwater, Kansas, Water Works Bonds 5 per cent due 1932, Nos. 18 to 23..... 3,000.00 3,000.00 150.00 Salt Lake City, Utah, Water Bonds 4% per cent due 1934, Nos. 310 to 319..... * 10,000.00 10,000.00 450.00 Seattle, Washington, School Bonds 4% per cent due 1931, Nos. 586 to 595........ 10,000.00 10,266.30 450.00 Los Angeles, California, School District Bonds 4% per cent due 1922, Nos. BBG 72 weave > a te 2 a N “i 4 ue am | | 9 tae fe fees | epee eae = a 1910 is 192 1913 (914 195 196 1917 198 199 1920 1924 1922 Figure 1. GRowTH IN Active MEMBERSHIP, 1910-1922 in securing increased salaries for teachers and in promoting the interests of the profession established it more certainly in the affections of teachers everywhere. The field work, the office correspondence, THE JOURNAL, and the gen- eral publicity, which supply teachers and the public with reliable informa- tion concerning the schools, have impressed the teachers of the Nation with the Association’s great mission and with the high type of its service to the profession. The reorganization, on the representative basis in 1920, pro- vided a method of selecting delegates from all sections of the country and from all ranks of the profession to transact the Association’s business. It provided an adequate scheme of organization for growth and expansion. The membership is practically three times what it was when the new plan of organization was adopted. Teachers are professionally-minded The need of a high type of team- work has been felt more strongly year by year in every vocation and pro- fession. There has been an exceptionally marked awakening among teach- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 95 ers as to the need of effective organization, not only in this country but in other countries as well. In America the growth in numbers and in the extent and quality of service is as striking in State and local associations as in the National Association itself. There has thus grown up during recent years a new sense of obligation to the profession and hence to the Association which promotes the interests of the profession. ‘There has been developed a greater pride than ever before in the best professional standards and ideals. As teachers have be- come more and more professionally minded, they have naturally had a greater desire to become members of their professional association and to lend their support to its growth and success. While the new professional spirit is in part due to the work and influence of the Association, it also has been a leading factor in the unprecedented growth in membership. The all-inclusive National Association—Formerly teachers did not ap- preciate the advantages of team-work in a large way. They sought to do big things working separately. More recently came the idea of working together in classes in various lines of work—or in local organizations, each having worthy ends in view and making honest efforts for needed improve- ment. We are now in a period when classes and groups as well as indi- viduals realize the wisdom and value of codperation through the all-inclu- sive organizations. ‘The ties in each of the associations—the local, the State, and the special or departmental—have become stronger as the bond which holds them in the all-inclusive group has become more effective. It might have been possible earlier to destroy the all-inclusive character of the Association, but since the need of team-work is so well understood and the desire for it so firmly established, it would require much more than personal grievances or differences on small issues to break the unity of effort which now operates through the National Education Association and which gives size and permanency to the enrolment. The Association is entrenched in the confidence of the public. It has the goodwill and support of professional and other organizations. It uses its good offices to establish a more cordial cooperative feeling between teachers and community. It helps the public to appreciate the work of the schools. This is the greatest service which it can render to the profession and is no doubt the real underlying cause of recent growth and development. The appeal that wins—lIn soliciting memberships, the Headquarters Staff has kept in mind the high standards and ideals of the Association. It has not made appeal to the selfish interests of teachers by promising personal benefits of various kinds, but instead has appealed to the professional pride of teachers, promising only such personal rewards as come from the eleva- tion of the profession as a whole and from the general educational uplift which combined effort alone can give. “This type of appeal has met with a response which indicates that the teachers of the United States are willing to give their support to the cause of the profession from the broader point of view. 96 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION While each member receives in the sixty-eight page JOURNAL, which reaches his desk each month, more in value than the amount which he pays in membership dues, this advantage of membership is not strongly urged, because it means more to the Association and more to the individual member to have the incentive for becoming a member professional rather than personal. COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF TWO NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS A member of the Headquarters’ Staff is making a careful study of the national teachers’ associations of other countries with the idea of profiting from their experiences. The plan is to give the results of the study in the Secretary’s Report for 1923 for the information and use of members and delegates at the time of the World Conference on Education. Permit me, however, to present at this time some of the information which has been collected concerning one of the associations. I wish to show the compara- tive growth of the National Union of Teachers of Great Britain and our own Association, and to point out a few similarities and differences in the policies and methods of these two leading organizations. SG Ss a Ss fate eee) 1) Se eS o » 1910 [19li [1912 [1913 [1914 [isis] 1916 [1917 [1918 [1919 [1920 [1924 Figure 2. COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF THE NATIONAL UNION oF TEACHERS AND THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The National Union of Teachers of Great Britain is recognized as the largest all-inclusive association in the world and as one of the most demo- cratic in organization and management. ‘The accompanying chart shows the comparative growth of this and our own National Association since 1910. It is of interest to know that the purposes and platforms of these REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 97 associations are strikingly similar, that the National Education Association was organized in 1857 and the Union in 1870, and that each has had an enviable record of achievement in its own country. Ideals and differences—Although alike in certain high standards and ideals, the two organizations are unlike in the way in which some of their ideals are carried out. “The Union calls special attention to what it does for the individual member, while the National Education Association takes pride in what it accomplishes for the profession as a whole. ‘The difference in the conditions under which teachers work in the two countries accounts, in part, for the difference in methods of work. There is little demand in this country for legal help,for teachers. The Union paid approximately $50,000 in 1920 for legal assistance to members. The Union supports members who suffer in defense of their professional rights. The sustentation grants in 1919 amounted to over $250,000. The Union has given much attention to questions of unfair dismissal of teachers, while our Association has laid more stress on strengthening the ties between the public and its schools. Leadership in legislation—Both associations assume leadership in im- portant educational movements and give time and attention to national legislation for education. ‘The National Union promoted the passage of the Fisher Bill which became a law in 1918. Having a membership of over 100,000 when the Bill was before Parliament, the Union exerted a powerful influence for its passage. “This law does for England what, in a general way, the Towner-Sterling Bill, if enacted into law, would do for the United States. “The recent growth of the National Education Associa- tion now gives it power similar to that of the Union at an earlier date, and gives tremendous force to its legislative program. Civic organizations in England fought for the passage of the Fisher Bill as civic, fraternal, and patriotic organizations are now working for the passage of the Towner- Sterling Bill. COOPERATION WITH AFFILIATED AND OTHER AGENCIES Affiliated agencies—TVhe following plan has been started and will be continued with greater success with the aid of the new Research Depart- ment: (1) to present to each affiliated State and local association and to each codperating agency at the beginning of the school year, a list of prob- lems for investigation and study and to ascertain the items and problems to which each will give special attention; (2) to keep all associations which are studying the same problems in touch with each other; (3) to gather and summarize results or have this done by some other agency and to give out the summary to all codperating associations and to the members of the Association; (4) to submit questions pertaining to the work of committees for the consideration of these agencies; (5) to submit in a similar manner emergency problems on the request of affiliated associations; and (6) to call on all these organizations for help on important matters of legislation and to extend help to them as needed in the solution of their local problems. 98 Nationa EpucaTion ASSOCIATION, Other agencies—The National Education Association has the codpera- tion of leading National civic, patriotic, fraternal, and religious organiza- tions in carrying out the fundamental planks of its platform. The relationship of codperation is definite, and though not so binding as afhlia- tion it is perhaps equally effective. In affiliating, the organization pledges aie Figure 3. NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS CoOPERATING WITH THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION itself in advance to give support, because in affiliating it becomes an integral part of the Association itself. “The connection through codperation secures support only as the cause is worthy of support. It means that the Associa- tion must tise care in deciding on the planks which it puts into its platform. It means that the codperating organization will give stronger help because of giving it from the standpoint of conviction and genuine interest. The present plan is highly satisfactory to codperating organizations and should be continued indefinitely. Coéperation with the American Legion—A joint program of work was outlined a year ago by the Committee on Education of the American Legion and the Board of Directors of the National Education Association and was adopted by the Representative Assembly at the Des Moines Meeting. It REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 99 placed the American Legion squarely behind a few essential educational policies and pledged the fullest codperation of both organizations in the promotion of the interests of the public schools. American Education Week, December 4 to 10, which was observed throughout the Nation, was an important part of the program. Civic, fraternal, and religious organizations participated in calling the attention of the public to the needs of the schools and urging that these needs be met. The Association can hardly fail to see the importance of the movement which has been started. It is significant that practically all great National and local organizations and agencies have centered their interest in the public schools and that they are now codperating with the National Educa- tion Association to acquaint the public with both the work and needs of the schools. Never before in the history of the Nation has such importance been attached to the public schools by leading social agencies. A low estimate of the results of the efforts of the American Legion and the Association to secure the observance of American Education Week throughout the Nation were in brief: The codperation of 200,000 mer- chants, 20,000 moving-picture theaters, 9000 Legion Posts, 1500 Chambers of Commerce, 14,500 newspapers, 2000 women’s clubs, and 50,000 local fraternal, civic, commercial, and religious organizations; this vast under- taking reached directly and indirectly more than 25,000,000 people. Ina few States, exercises were held in practically every school district. In many States, over half of the cities, villages, and community centers carried out definite plans and programs. Mr. Alvin M. Owsley, of the Americanism Commission of the Legion, in speaking of the first American Education Week said: “The policy of holding American Education Week annually has been adopted, and this ac- ceptance marks a step forward in the educational world for America. We shall work unceasingly until within our borders every tongue shall speak the English language, until every intellect shall know something of our institutions and history, and until every heart shall grow to love and respect our flag.” RELATION OF DEPARTMENTS TO THE ASSOCIATION The relation of the departments to the Association has not been fully determined. “The amendments to the By-Laws, which were adopted at the Des Moines meeting, giving broader powers and responsibilities to the de- partments are considered adequate, but the departments have not yet worked out satisfactory plans and regulations under the new code. The Department of Superintendence has gone farthest in its plans. It adopted a constitution and by-laws and provided for an executive committee and other officers including a full-time secretary. It decided upon a fee of $5 to be paid by its members in addition to the regular N. E. A. member- ship dues. One meeting has been held under the new plan. Members of staff as department secretaries—lIt is believed that few, if any, of the departments will be able permanently to support a full-time secretary and also do enough research work to satisfy its members. The 100 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Department of Superintendence is perhaps the only one which could hope to do so at the present time. A feasible plan would be for a member of the Headquarters Staff to serve as secretary or assistant secretary of each department. Inasmuch as the work of no one department will require all the time of a secretary, the same person might easily serve as the secretary of two or more departments and also do much other work for the As- sociation. The Board of Trustees has made Mrs. Helen T. Hixson Assistant Treasurer, assigning to her the routine work of the Treasurer. She is a regular member of the Headquarters Staff and does a large amount of other work for the Association at the Central Office. Mr. Magill is Secretary of the Legislative Commission. Mr. Norton is doing much of the work of important committees in the preparation of reports for the Boston meeting. A department might similarly have its regular officers—president, vice- president, executive committee and secretary—and have in addition a mem- ber of the Headquarters’ Staff assigned to it to serve as assistant secretary. The assistant secretary would do the work which should be done at the Central Office. One member of the Headquarters’ Staff might be made the secretary or assistant secretary of the department even though acting in the same capacity for other departments. When a department has a full-time secretary, it must also have stenographers, typists, and other help. ‘The expense for this office help could not’ be less than the salary of the secretary. “There ‘are more than twenty departments. The combined salaries of secretaries of the depart- ments, if all should have paid secretaries, would be not less than $60,000 a year and the total expense of the office force including the salaries of secretaries would be not less than $120,000 a year. By having all this work brought together and done by the general office force, thus avoiding the wide duplication of work caused by departments working separately, there would be a saving of at least $50,000 a year. This saving could be used to advantage for important investigational and research work and for special attractions for meetings. An outstanding advantage of having this work in the Central Office, besides the saving in funds, would be the contact of the departments with the work of the Association as a whole. I, ‘therefore, recommend that the Executive Committee and Representa- tive Assembly authorize the Secretary to provide the necessary secretarial help at the Central Office for each department desiring such help, and to do so at the expense of the general Association. I make the recommendation in the interest of economy and efficiency in the departments. I make it because the department needs its own fees for special research work and because I believe the expense of this phase of work belongs properly to the general Association. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 101 | fete IMI] F bas ES | vowunes | VOLUMES u 2 saan 2= === | =a=e ‘| VOLUMES ll JANITOR'S ==) BULLE TIN co | APARTNEN FURN =| ACE = -— _— __|yournats =A. ——————— COAL ! VOLUMES BASEMENT Figure 4. BASEMENT PLAN OF THE HEADQUARTERS BUILDING HEADQUARTERS BUILDING The headquarters building was purchased in 1919 and occupied by the Association in 1920. The purchase price was $98,000. It would sell now for $150,000. At first, space was leased to the Swedish Legation and the National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations. In 1921, the Swedish Legation purchased a building of its own and gave up its lease on space in our building. Owing to growth in membership, it was neces- sary to use this additional space for the work of new departments and di- visions. It is generally understood that the National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations will be permitted to retain its head- quarters in this building as long as possible because of the relation of its policies and purposes to those of our own Association. Additional space needed—By examining the charts which show the uses made of the various rooms, and by taking into account the rapid growth in membership, it will be seen that not only the rooms now occupied by the National Congress of Mothers but additional space will soon be necessary to meet the growing needs of the Central Office. Now is the time to provide for this space. ‘There will be a large apartment house built north of our building and an immense hotel just across Sixteenth street. All property on Sixteenth street has increased greatly in price during the past year. Although property lying just back of this building can yet be pur- chased for a reasonable sum, this is the last chance to secure adjacent ground. Although the buildings on this adjacent property are old, they would serve for a few years for the storage of volumes, for mailing and shipping, for multigraphing and printing, and for other similar purposes, leaving the THE LISRARY HUMB@LDY STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE AMD JUNIOR COLLEGE 102 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION ee fer feevme! TITEL | cu oni coon] | p | | __ 5 _ Pash ate -——1 | CONFERENCE ROOM | TOILE a z = AND =< ae! 4) FOMAILING 2 ii LIBRARY ‘ REIL | Li RECEPTION ASST. TO SEC. | FOLDING DIVISION HALL MISS CHASE = MRS. THATCHER : faa = a = MAILING — [lASsisTA iran || SECRETAR SHIPPING — |{MISS WINN MR.CRABTREE eae —a SS FIRST FLOOR Figure 5. First-FLoork PLAN OF THE HEADQUARTERS BUILDING present building for the main offices of the Association. Within five or ten years there will be the need of constructing a fine building on this site or an enlargement of the present building, which is rated as one of the best office buildings in Washington. It would be both economical and wise to make this purchase, and I recommend that steps be taken at the earliest moment to contract for it. HEADQUARTERS ORGANIZATION Plan of organization—There are now five well-organized departments in the headquarters organization: Records and Accounts, established in 1917; Field Work, established in 1918; Business, established in 1919; Publica- tions, established in 1920; and Research, established in 1922. ‘There are two assistant secretaries with the same rank as heads of departments: One has charge of the business interests of the Association under the direction of the Secretary and the other assists in the general correspondence and has special charge of important phases of the work with affiliated asso- ciations. In the larger departments, the one next to the head or director has the rank of assistant. In the department of Records and Accounts, the position is Assistant Recorder, in the Department of Publications, the position is Assistant Editor, and in the Secretary’s Office, the position is Assistant to the Secretary. As other departments develop and the number of employees increases, the rank of assistant will be given to others. The larger de- partments are divided into divisions, the head of the division holding a place of responsibility. With the growth in membership, the number of these divisions will increase. Division heads rank next to head assistants. arte? ue, CM REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 103 The present plan of organization is economical and effective. It groups the work in five departments with the necessary subdivisions and enables a comparatively small force to do an enormous amount of work. It re- quires only a few men and women on high salaries, thus making it possible on the limited income of the Association to provide adequate clerical help. Appointment and tenure—There are now in the central office a secre- tary, five heads of departments, two assistant secretaries, three chief as- sistants, three heads of divisions, ten expert stenographers, and twenty-five or more typists and clerks. At times during the year, additional help is needed. The number of typists and clerks will be increased to forty or more for next year in order to care for the additional work due to in- creasing membership. The Secretary is elected by the Board of Trustees for a term of not to exceed four years as provided in the Charter and By-laws. The Field Secretary is elected by the Executive Committee for a period of four years also. All other members of the staff are elected for one year and then re- elected without specifying the time for which elected. ‘They are subject to the ordinary tenure regulations. Just as boards of education elect principals and teachers on the recom- mendation of superintendents, so the Executive Committee elects members of the Headquarters’ Staff on the recommendation of the Secretary. Were the Executive Committee to elect on its own initiative, responsibility for weaknesses in the office force would not be definitely fixed. ‘The present plan places the responsibility for results on the Secretary, where it properly belongs. The tenure ideals of the Association are essentially the same as those of the best public-school systems. Although formal rules have not been adopted, the practice of electing employees on the recommendation of Sera tes tS WZ RESEARCH DEPT, = | DIVISION 0 5 maa — MR. NORTON | racial ea aa man | RECORDS DEPT. il AND HALE SUPERINTEN DENCE ACCOUNTS «me MR. SHANKLAND MRS. HIXSON lear RTS ~Tfosistant ee ll MISS WRIGHT CON~ Se FERENCE MR. MAGILL COM. EXHIBITS ROOM || MR ERLANDSON SECOND FLOOF ; Figure 6. SEcoND-FLOoR PLAN OF THE HEADQUARTERS BUILDING 104 NationaL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION the Secretary and of observing proper tenure regulations has become an established policy of the Association. The staff and election of officers—The Association has in a short time grown to remarkable proportions. Its income has increased until it now receives a large amount annually. Herein lies the danger of the immediate future. The offices, the resources, the power of the Association cannot escape notice and might easily become the objects of designing persons. They may be exploited even by thoughtless friends of the Association. As positions of honor become more and more in demand, the help of the Headquarters Staff will be sought more insistently in the contests for office, unless it is clearly understood that under no circumstances will members of the staff participate in the selection of officers of the Association. The fact that candidates have not in the past embarrassed the Secretary by call- ing for the help of the office, does not mean that designing men and women may not do so in the future. It is well known that members of the staff are in a position to give special help to candidates. Ethically, the staff cannot give such help. Members of the staff as now constituted are decidedly opposed to interest- ing themselves in the election of officers. The sentiment of the members of the Association is strongly against such participation. No action on the question has been taken by the Executive Committee or the Representative Assembly ; owing to the well-known policy of the Central Office action has not been considered necessary. The jdeals and standards of teachers are high. Teachers are not in- clined to use questionable campaign methods or to use their professional association to promote personal ends. Our Association may, for this reason, escape from some of the usual experiences of other organizations. NATIONAL CONGRESS eae MOTHERS OFFICE ADDRESSOGR APH DIVISION CLOSET || TOILET ll NATIONAL CONGRESS OF i EDITORIAL DEPARTMENT L} MOTHERS MISS ROBBINS RECEPTION ROOM MR. MORGAN ASST, : oe - MRS. WATKINS Ss a a THIRD FLOOR Figure 7. THIrRD-FLooR PLAN OF THE HEADQUARTERS BUILDING REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 105 (FT TELEVATOR LU MULTIGRAPH a | | HHT. | tte! pats DIVISION ont | TYPEWRITING | = ee == AND Ta Rees, FOLDING Ieee | = = HALL CLOSET MISS i ribet bial ] : A || APARTM Ed sl SECRETARY'S TYPEWRITING ll | : PRIVATE DIVISION ' OFFICE U r—{ COE — ose SO aes FOURTH FLOOR Figure 8. FourTH-FLoor PLAN OF THE HEADQUARTERS BUILDING To prevent the Association from being injured by designing people, and to keep it on a sound basis under sane leadership is the paramount duty of officers and members. ‘Therefore, in order to establish permanently a wise administrative policy for the Central Office, and to further safeguard the future of the Association, would it not be well for the Representative Assembly to take formal action on this point? Formal action by the As- sembly would put the Association as well as the Secretary’s office behind the policy. The observance of such a policy very properly goes hand in hand with the observance of wise tenure regulations. The new Research Department—The U. S. Bureau of Education, the Government’s agency for supplying statistical information on education, has not been able to publish current information to meet emergency demands. Its staff includes the Commissioner and specialists of recognized ability, but although much good work has been done, funds have not been provided for extensive investigations by these experts. Even more discouraging is the fact that the printing fund is so meagre that comparatively few of the important reports can be published. Many of them lose their current value in the long delay in their publication. This neglect of education on the part of the Government is most re- grettable. It results from having the Bureau hidden away in the Depart- ment of the Interior. The Secretary of this Department having no special connection with education and having many other bureaus and divisions in which he is interested can hardly give more than passing attention to the needs of the Bureau of Education. Because of this situation, it became necessary for the National Education Association to establish a Research Department of its own to furnish edu- 106 NatTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cational agencies with necessary ‘nformation which could be secured from no other source. This department was established in March. It has been in operation only a third of a year, yet by reading the report of the head of the de- partment which is a part of this report, it will be seen that it is rendering a most valuable service to the educational interests of the country. It has already issued information of distinctive current value. The funds for this service come largely from the membership fees of teachers whose salaries are so low that they can hardly make ends meet. All feel, however, that no wiser use of membership dues can be made than in doing this emergency research work. ORGANIZATION OF COMMITTEE WORK Special attention is called to the new plan of having committee work function through the Research Department. The plan came as a result of a resolution introduced by Dr. William B. Owen and adopted by the Representative Assembly at the Des Moines meeting. Definite recom- mendations will be made by committee chairmen to encourage all com- mittees, whose reports require investigational and research work, to adopt this plan. The investigational work will thus be done by the Research Department under the advice and direction of the committee. This plan will probably result in smaller committees and in holding meetings of committees only at the time of the general meetings of the Association. Other committee work can be done through correspondence. This arrangement will be effective and economical and might well apply to nearly all committees. Committees have often felt it necessary to hold meetings at the expense of the Association. But the expenses of the members of any large com- mittee for one meeting amounts to more than $1000. The total would soon reach high into the thousands. Owing to the conditions of the cur- rent funds, the Executive Committee has formed the practice of not allow- ing committee appropriations to be used for paying traveling expenses. A few committees have been permitted for good reasons to pay traveling ex- penses out of committee allowances. If one committee, however, is. given that privilege, other committees can claim the right to use their appropria- tions in the same way. Because of the large number of committees and the large membership in each, the practice of bearing traveling expenses would: in a short time bankrupt the Association. It is proper for certain committees to have their traveling expenses paid by the Association because of the nature of their work, but neither the Secretary nor the committee should have the responsibility of deciding the: question. I am, therefore, recommending that in asking for appropriations, committees state definitely the purpose for which funds are desired and that these purposes be named in the statements to be acted upon by the Repre- sentative Assembly when the appropriations are made. Report OF THE SECRETARY 107 NEED OF INCREASING THE PERMANENT FUND The successful development of the Association depends not only upon the character of its professional ideals and educational standards, but also upon the efficiency of its business management and the certainty of its financial resources. The Association has had for many years two main sources of income, one from membership dues and the other from the interest on the Perma- nent Fund. When there were only 7000 to 8000 active members, the in- NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION CHART SHOWING RECEIPTS BY MONTHS [920 I 7tges 921-1922 40000 36000 32000 28000 24000 20000 16000 12000 8000 4000 Le] m (sx ce > = 7 Mm BD = DQ == => vo ra) =< => = 0 JUNE JULY AUC. SEPT OCT NOV —— 1920-1921 == {PN Figure 9. ReEcEIPTs OF THE ASSOCIATION BY MONTHS come from the Permanent Fund of $200,000 constituted an important part of the total income of the Association. Now that there is an active membership of over 100,000, the interest from the Permanent Fund covers a much smaller fraction of the operating expenses. It would require a permanent fund of more than $2,000,000 to serve the larger Association as well as the Permanent Fund of $200,000 served the smaller Association. This fund formerly provided income to tide over the years when annual meetings were not held and when the receipts from membership dues had dropped very low. It made it possible to put the annual membership dues on a $2 basis. It gave business standing and enabled the Executive Com- mittee to borrow money at the time when the epidemic of influenza had cut off practically all receipts from membership dues for a period of six months. It made a permanent home possible and carried the Association NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 108 (111 aded ‘Tt a] qB 1, 298 ‘gyep 10q) SNOILVIOOSSY IVNOLLYN ANY dLVLG dO dIHsuasWaYy ONIMOHS avW ‘OL 21nd = bee Se a \ \ATEH3SS¥ IMLVINISIUdIY OL §31V93130 — UIOWNN CUTHL ’ \ ySANNP TLS NI SyIgWIW VIN-UIGWAN GNOIIS =o seswar 1€9 : ' iSee ‘STOOHIS mand NI SUIHOVIL - UISWNN 1suld Id 2 me 7 Go ee ee ee z0/ : 9Ll : VSVIV 9 4 ee! 928, HIVMVH OOIXIN MIN pe one hice A a oD WS ee ee a) ere i) bsg 929! ‘ Seana Aree 90d ! Bf H Geol order SYSN I 43a 8999 eA TaNOSsIS, SNYY dae ' gLeol . abe BEN Cea seer 206 iveceer scams Soe ’ OdvuOT0D eqee ft \ 6 fb SIONITIL | ' v gl et OS eee YISVYS IAN =) YAO! PEE eae Sh eae asa ueer a= rd oa erey : Srl | NISNOOSIM ;* REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 109 over many bad places, but owing to the recent growth in membership it can no longer meet these emergency needs. Contributions and life memberships—Steps were taken at the Des Moines meeting to increase the Permanent Fund through a plan of life memberships. It was arranged for active members to take out life mem- berships on the payment of $100. Owing to the business depression during the present year, the Secretary’s office did not promote the plan. It is intended to give time and attention to this item during the coming school year. It is believed that a large number of teachers will annually take advantage of this opportunity to help the Association. Among other means which might be used for increasing the Permanent Fund are the following: (1) To retain all interest from invested funds in the Permanent Fund instead of using it to pay current expenses; and (2) to extend to men and women of means who are interested in education the opportunity of making donations. Looking far ahead, the suggestion comes to encourage our own members and the friends of the cause of educa- tion to arrange in their wills for gifts to the Association. If these suggestions were adopted, the interest on the permanent fund would add $8000 to $12,000 a year. Life memberships might add from $5000 to $15,000 annually. The amount from donations would likely not be large at first, because donations cannot be accepted from agencies desiring to control the policies of the public schools. The time must never come when the Association will accept donations with strings to them. Its members must never be dominated by organized moneyed interests. It is believed, however, that men and women may be found who will make donations, trusting to the Association to use the income for the promotion of the best in education. Would it not be wise to authorize the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees to make an effort to add as large an amount as possible each year to the Permanent Fund? AMOUNT OF THE MEMBERSHIP FEE Permit me again to remonstrate against increasing the membership dues and to give reasons for so doing. , The membership fee of $2 appeals to teachers as being reasonable. There is now the opportunity of paying $5 annually and receiving the volume of proceedings and all publications of the Association, yet few superintendents and college presidents and practically no teachers pay the higher fee. A fee of $4 for enrolment and membership was tried out for years without apparent success. ‘Teachers on low salaries manage to spare $2 a year for membership dues, and yet those on higher salaries are slow to pay more than that amount. It must be remembered that this $2 is in addition to local, district, and State membership dues. It must be re- membered also that departments are now adding a departmental fee of from $1 to $5. 110 NationaL EpucaAtion ASSOCIATION If the fee is too large the membership will be small. If the fee is small and yet large enough to be respectable, the enrolment will be high. The $2 fee has proved to be a popular sum. It has been successful. It is in- creasing the membership of the Association. It purchases office supplies, pays for THE JOURNAL, covers the expenses of committees, provides for research work and pays for other valuable services. It is the goose that lays the golden egg. The $2 fee will not cover the expenses of delegates to annual meetings. A $5 fee would likely provide less funds for this purpose than the $2 fee because the enrolment would be much lower. It will be better in the long run for the local and State associations to increase fees for this purpose than for the National Association to do so. Teachers will pay larger fees to the local than to the National Association. It is only natural that they should do this. The $2 fee, which maintained the Association during the period of busi- ness depression, rendering remarkable service in maintaining and even in increasing salaries for teachers, should accomplish even more for the Associa- tion as cost of paper and printing reach a lower level. In my judgment, the $2 fee is ample. When I say that the $2 fee is ample I am taking for granted that The Journal will become more nearly self-supporting as it grows in the confi- dence of advertisers, the income from commercial exhibits will largely pay the expenses of programs; the place where the meeting is held will continue to bear the expenses for entertainment, to provide assembly rooms and rooms for the officials, and to supply clerks for registering and stenographers and typists for publicity work; the State, city, and county school systems will be encouraged to send representatives to meetings and to bear certain ex- penses of associational work for which direct benefits are derived; men and women will as in the past consider it an honor to give their services in addressing conventions and contributing articles for The Journal and other publications; and that communities will increasingly take pride in helping defray the expenses of delegates to the annual meetings. THE BUDGET SYSTEM RECOMMENDED FOR AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS The budget plan was recommended for schools and associations in the report of the Treasurer, Miss Adair, at the Des Moines meeting and adopted by the Representative Assembly. A few school systems and local associations have put it into effect and a much larger number have decided to begin its use next September. It will require time to secure its adoption in all schools and will only become effective as teachers appreciate the importance of membership in local, State, and National associations. The recommendation has come from local associations to arrange to pay dues under the budget plan through the principal’s or superintendent’s office, because there are a number of associations in many school systems. It is planned to continue to urge all schools and associations to adopt the budget system. It pays to urge its adoption, because when once in general Report’ OF THE SECRETARY Abt TABLE 1 Aap ad, vovr oy eng wl sé ae Sects, bos ye ee sees | eer ele States and Territories @) 84 a * 4. oO LUE oa att Beeeeea ese. | ae om oe fat pte Euan | gage a Z Z 7 7, (HELE AN Ta Bs | 663,092 | 108,474 271 13523 1,001 SE ee ees | 12,562 705 5 29 7 AN a Re. 5 3 Bn Sie aes 176 102 0 2 0 PATIZONAM Ee cole. Se 2,048 1,116 6 40 5 ATKCATISA SU sth Petit «fate ater 9,898 227, 2 + 9 Calitornia shock ce so Ser | 17,276 8,491 19 112 34 COLOrAUO rere tier he re | 7,242 3,715 11 113 30 Wonnecticutta dite 6:97, 1,134 6 16 13 Delaware isc cscs = te igew 2 1,066 386 4 3 4 District of Columbia....... 1,828 543 5 0 3 Florida eeeer eee ck hae. es 5,898 232 2 0 7 Georgia Abele cet face 15,054 218 2 8 4 Ha walthcee arts aicwieys head: 1,334 739 6 21 4 Ud ahs gecesi gD says 3,847 526 5 7 11 LUURTYOY IC gy 8 iene i og Sites eres 33,653 9,089 21 110 41 Indianatie: acc. osee oe 16,990 2,798 9 54 | 31 LOW a mevcaserny ors Sasha aa ee | 23,560 5,853 15 HOW 4) 29 IS ANISAS « afveyae rats Bue: watt hes | 16,398 1,311 6 30 29 Kentucky sence eer cc ck | byes 430 4 3 13 ouistalay wocer Wie corse 6% 7,908 970 6 8 5 Diane OA Ane etl, 5.833 2,136 8 127 27 Waryland ar rmpenenc te fcc. I) 5,565 532 5 0 15 Massachusetts cone. ..>.:.- 19,637 6,505 12 166 65 Mitehi ga nite ts svaa arenes 22,462 6,208 16 98 41 Maine SOUA xe Saris reeeaciee: 18,768 2,342 9 18 23 DMassissippiemnyn. aun: ste +: 11,611 157 2 0 i IMassouiiit wah Meniy Puss 9 oe « 20,740 3,220 11 72 45 Montana gb ayok.nuetieta = 5,781 422 5 Or 3 Nebraskajes. sinawklenctas a: 13,248 2,459 9 Aire || 18 Nev add gaa Meretectensing scarce ecsusis 582 344 4 4 | 2 New Hampshire’.......... 5,128 428 + 6 8 INiew WEXSEVecticls smilie ee. 6 | 16,676 3,319 11 24 64 New. ¢Mexiep pect. sj. nteossyhae | 2,534 368 4 1 10 New GY OFK ae. accberrgrie sae © is | 526777 8,611 12 43 80 North) Carolina?...: 5) <<:0' | 15,241 313 3 0 14 INerth pe akotal fac. 2. sca s. regi 470 6 6 4 ORO Stal. poeree es es ea fuse 32,138 7,851 19 49 42 Olea howma sc gros 0s edt 14,181 941 6 AIEEE | 17 SUS ie, 2 ieee le 6,354 651 5 0 9 IPENNSYAV ANIA) cepae s/s eh oc 44,466 5,435 14 45 49 Philippine Islands ......... 22,927 531 0 1 4 Rhodetislagd +m... scenes ns | 2,694 134 0 Open] 4 SUCH C aroliawias ees | 8,596 82 1 One 5 South akota wee cree a 7,380 851 6 bx 14 M@nnessee teacurtic es ceres ko. 12,947 741 6 1 18 BEC AS ater Gir xa diacclnha cate air 29,001 1,085 7 ut yl 20 italy eetecesreceschsvet teins ticnass4aye-6 3,449 2,932 10 AN | 16 Wiermont acs ccunevre grr ire « | Pei 345 3 oa 8 WiF inlay norte scr aoe» 13,904 1,085 6 Sioa 30 Washington gy. 0 ate 9,222 2,966 10 30) 23 Wiest dig Una werys rage 10,978 599 5 12 6 WISCONSIN a clots eisanrctes cists | 16,745 4,513 12 35) 23 WV.VOMMIN Rene ae etc cteice eo 1,891 1,087 6 34 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TAZ [ GNV SNOLLVITIGay ONIMOHS AVY “TT ainBIyf (11T eBed ‘T 21qe,], 298 ‘gyep 10) SIOOHIS LNID Wd 00 yooy —SNolLyITssv WLOL hae oes - SWOHIS %00! WLOL \ \ aX SNOLLvIQ0SSY GBLVINIIIV ~ YISHNN ONODIS : ‘ RE ts, ¢ BIOCHOR, % ool HARI suis sa eee ee 2 SyaL Wisvv eos ae v ve HIWMVH WN Cee eaee ah Bo oe ore iat Sete re s / ey rif Sy ey { 62 ' H 5 Cadadiee = | eh aes : Eee See Lk Hi ; rh os 0€ i : ; Lop oe pee tee ! >, \YNOSSIW ' SVSNV ! oe ! i ay i 7 i vl iin Ae i By eee See oe *¥ Evy ; 91 A * ; Clye emir aes setae ae EOD = oil be ig cee) ea es i i AYA WWNWIGNT SIONITT a sa SNOILVIMS SV ONV SINIWIOUNS DNIMOHS dVW we REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 113 See coo eseg A Seo see a ne cee use throughout the schools of the country it will not only add to the permanency of membership in the Association but it will lead to more sys- tematic and careful work in all professional organizations. BUDGET ESTIMATE OF THE ASSOCIATION FoR 1922-23 It was estimated a year ago that the total income for 1921-22 would be about $200,000, but it was $233,868.69. The membership increased be- yond what was expected and the income from advertising was more than double the amount of the estimate. The estimate for 1922-23 is based on an expectation that there will be a 25 per cent increase in membership and more than 50 per cent increase in the amount received from advertising. _After having viewed the situation from different angles and after having given consideration to the probable income from other sources than from membership dues, it has been decided to estimate the total income for 1922-23 at $310,000, which is perhaps as accurate an estimate as can be made at this time. Tables 2 and 3 show the income and expenditures for 1921-22 and the estimated income and expenditures for 1922-23. TABLE 2—INcOME For 1921-22 anp EsTIMATED INCOME FOR 1922-23 Receipts for Estimated receipts 1921-22 for 1922-23 Promvannudlemecting s.\...ch 0+ somes. cee ae $3,755.00 $4,000.00 From meeting, Department of Superintend- US ITS Ce Se OO De sor ac rane en ote ae 2,830.00 13,000.00 Eromemenmbership) dues... .. 00600 0ee oes e.. 164,336.12 200,000.00 Hromvéalefofsvolumes..<... o.. 0s. eenec es 1,696.50 2,000.00 From: sale! of special reports............... 361.07 400.00 From special contributions................. 20.00 100.00 Brommmiscellancous ts ---cctect feet cee 62.71 100.00 From interest on Permanent Fund.......... 7,629.20 8,300.00 From commercial exhibits.................. 11,303.67 10,000.00 Prom binteredt \and- discounte el s§)..< cc. scne |) ireowahe tl 100.00 From Journal advertising......... BoE ars 41,489.12 70,000.00 From Department of Elementary Principals 385.30 2,000.00 a phOsal receipts... Has keds bo cae wien e ce $233,868.69 $310,000.00 Rapper Mahe. £3 4 een Bee, PL 114 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE 3—EXPENDITURES FOR 1921-22 AND LEsTIMATED EXPENDITURES FOR 1922-23 Paid out, _ Estimated expense 1921-22 | for 1922-23 — = = — ——_ ae S| Board of Triisteesss) utes je ot OA Fs ee | S101 2079 ae $1,000.00 Executive Committee ......-s+s++-+++r eso” 4,186.03 4,000.00 General Secretary’s office....------+-+777"° 53,853.00 76,100.00 Express and freight.....---+++srrsrssret"' | 1,120.33 1,500.00 PHintingwe tte eee ose ee ee SS 111,310.54 150,900.00 Appropriations for committees.....-.-++85+5 | 7,827 .02 16,600.00 Auditing accounts ......++e+ssrerersrrett | 592, Some 600.00 Unclassified expenses ...----.---sssscrtees 461.16 500.00 Office fixtures and furniture....---+++++++5 844.50 | 3,000.00 Annual convention, ...%8.. 9225.0 Fr yer a? 5,439.99 | 6,000.00 Departments. .....--+- +--+ cesses int: | 3,366.62 17,500.00 Generhexpelisee@e tert rat se kk aun s S| ag oe te oa 8,000.00 To mect: Gehcite crises» Haelsels sell ee 10,877.69 A 1a? Lae eee NSIS Mea BOC erS $205,991.02 | $285,700.00 Surplus and Revolving Fund........++++-+- 27,877 .67 24,300.00 Grand. totaling g sae ous veal orem $233,868.69 $310,000.00 THE EXPENSES OF THE SECRETARY S OFFICE In the estimated expenditures above it will be observed that $76,100 is estimated for the operation of the Secretary’s office in 1922-23. Since this is one of the large amounts let us show how it is to be distributed. Table 4 also shows the expenditures for 1921-22. TABLE 4—BupcetT EstIMATE FOR THE SECRETARY'S OFFICE Paid out, Estimated expense 1921-22 for 1922-23 Salary, Secretary .....-.+-eeeere recesses $7,125.00 $7,500.00 Postage, pasqebire =: tae Whiten e eee 5,110.58 5,500.00 Telegraph and telephone....-.-----++----> 1,290.35 1,500.00 Express and freight......----++++s+++se0es 300.50 300.00 Clerical services ...-..-+2-+2+sseeeerereees 11,535.22 15,900.00 Rent, light, heat, power, jamitor.........--- 6,471.89 8,000.00 Stationery and ofhce supplies.....-...-++-+++ | 1,145.84 1,500.00 Pp ravelin gate citi clei tie: peices aie 1,393 . 56 1,500.00 Miscellaneous expense ...--.--+-sseeeerees 738 .23 500.00 Field Secretary’s Department..........-+--- 13,727.56 15,000.00 Rescaich Depart cntwene itnas2 s mimeee 4138.76 13,000.00 Raed brleoe een Onin cicrcidiesc ran cromccrow os CG 125.40 200.00 Surety bonds ©. 06... + es nore eee isle 180.00 100.00 Interest and discount.....:.....%.+----es-« 570.11 600.00 AMER Re poh oad «oe lone mee. | $53,853.00 $76,100.00 Arrangements have been made for an expert accountant to make a care- ful investigation of the system of records and accounts and to recommend modifications which have been made necessary by the recent growth of the Association. One of these changes will doubtless be to have the books REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 115 show accurately the cost of operating each department at the central office. A beginning has been made, but action will need to be taken by Executive Committee on the advice of a recognized expert in order to adapt the sys- tem fully to these new points. It will be observed in the budget estimate that $15,000 is given as the estimate for the Field Secretary’s department for 1922-23, $13,727.56 hav- ing been used for this service last year, and that $18,000 is the amount estimated for the Research Department, $4,136.76 having been used in this work since March 1. It is advised that the amounts in these estimates be appropriated to these departments and the Executive Committee authorized to add to appropriations if necessary. The Association has had the practice for a number of years of appropri- ating definite amounts for the use of committees. The estimate fixes the total amount for committees at $8000. This amount would be low except that a large part of the investigational work of committees will be done in the Research Department. Salaries of the office force—The estimate for salaries for 1922-23 covers a fair increase in pay for members of the headquarters staff and provides for a few additional clerks. Although the Executive Committee increased the pay of many members of the staff last year, the salaries of all are still too low. Some of the men and women have had the refusal of better-paying positions in other organizations and in business. They have been willing, because of their interest in the work of the Association, to remain in the Headquarters’ Staff. I trust I have the fullest approval of all active members as well as of the Executive Committee in promising that increases in pay will be granted from time to time until salaries are on a more satis- factory basis. THE WORK OF THE STAFF Permit me to commend the work of the members of the Headquarters’ Staff. These men and women are particularly suited to their respective lines of work. ‘They are able and successful. Hugh S. Magill’s work as Field Secretary has been the greatest factor in giving standing to the Association. It is well known that there is only one Hugh S. Magill in the country. The auditors give Mrs. Helen T. Hixson the name of being exceptionally accurate and efficient in handling the funds and in keeping the records and books of the Association. ‘They give her first place in this important line of work. Ray S. Erlandson in handling the commercial exhibits and advertising and in managing the business of the Association has a Nation-wide reputation, which few men of his age have achieved. Joy E. Morgan, Managing Editor, besides being resourceful and having great ability, has had the advantage of two years’ training under Dr. W. C. Bagley, who is recognized as the leading editorial writer in education in the United States. Mr. Morgan’s work has already given him a place of out- standing prominence. John K. Norton became Director of Research only four months ago, yet his work has already interested the research experts of the country as well as the educators who make use of the valuable in- 116 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION formation which he prepares for them. Miss Agnes S. Winn began her services as Assistant Secretary in February and is rapidly establishing her- self in the confidence of teachers of all ranks in the profession. The heads of departments have repeatedly called attention to the efficient work of their chief assistants and other help. Those working under the immediate direction of the Secretary are deserving of special mention also. Miss Harriett M. Chase, who has filled one of the most responsible positions of the Central Office in a faithful and efficient manner, is most deserving of high commendation, as is also true of those assisting her in the office work. Without this faithful support, the departments could never render the maximum of service however able and worthy their managers might be per- sonally. “The workers in associations as in business who cheerfully co- operate in carrying out policies and plans and who go through the daily grind and the drudgery with loyalty and devotion are always deserv- ing of the larger credit for the success of the enterprise. I join the heads of departments in the expression of appreciation for the loyal and efficient work of the first assistants and other help. THE LARGER PROGRAM There is need of a larger educational program than has ever been made. The Association’s platform points the way. ‘This larger program should be prepared by the best talent in the Association and affiliated units with the codperation of all agencies. It should include the adaptation of the course of study for the public schools to the current political, industrial, com- mercial, economic, social, and moral needs. It should include the use of measurements, intelligence tests, and other devices as their values are de- termined and properly demonstrated. It should utilize the film in educa- tion as commerce and society utilize radio. It should provide for a study of school buildings from the standpoint of use and long-time economy. It should make adequate provision for the development of a thoroughly trained, democratically organized teaching force. It should provide for a wise legislative policy in each State and in the Nation. It should define as definitely as possible the interest and the responsibility of locality, State and Nation for maintaining educational enterprises of various Minds arid should suggest measures and means for meeting that responsibility. It should be well balanced, sane, comprehensive, and genuinely reprsehiative of the best educational thought of the time. ‘The world conference on education to be held next year could well afford to give special attention to the principles and policies which would determine the character and outline of this larger educational program. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 117 REPORT OF FIELD DEPARTMENT HUGH S. MAGILL, FIELD SECRETARY We are pleased to submit a brief summary of the work of our depart- ment for the past year, with a few suggestions and recommendations for your consideration. Our efforts have been devoted primarily to the promotion of the legis- lative program of the Association now pending in Congress, and to the development of a greater interest in the teaching profession and in public education, not only among teachers, but particularly among the great civic and patriotic organizations of the country. In our report submitted one year ago we discussed the situation existing at that time with respect to the Towner-Sterling Bill. We explained that this measure in revised form had been introduced in the House and Senate at the opening of the special session of the 67th Congress in April, 1921, and had been duly referred to the Committee on Education of the House, and to the Committee on Education and Labor of the Senate. We called attention to the effort being made at that time by persons in positions of influence and authority to displace our Educational Bill with what was known as the Public Welfare Bill, creating a Department of Public Wel- fare, in which education was to be included along with other interests. By the united and determined opposition of the friends of education, the inclusion of Education in the proposed Department of Public Welfare was prevented, and no further action has since been taken on this bill. The friends of the Towner-Sterling bill have tried diligently to have it reported favorably by the Committee on Education of the House. In their efforts they have had the consistent support of Congressman ‘Towner, and a majority of the Committee are favorable to the bill, but action has been prevented by the movement for the reorganization of the Executive ’ Departments. It will be recalled that one of the announced policies of the present administration was the reorganization of the Executive Depart- ments of the Government. A bill was passed creating a committee con- sisting of three Senators and three Representatives, to consider this important subject and report thereon. Later the bill was amended to provide for a personal representative of the President on this joint com. mittee. This Reorganization Committee was organized about a year ago by the election of Honorable Walter F. Brown, the President’s personal representative, as Chairman. It was agreed that Mr. Brown would bring to the committee a suggested plan for the reorganization of the Executive Departments representing the wishes of the administrative branch of the Government, and that the committee would then take the subject. under consideration and make recommendation thereon to Congress. More than a year has passed since the creation of this Reorganization Committee, and up to the present time the Chairman has not submitted a formal report, although it is understood that he has made an informal recommendation to the President. When the friends of the Towner- 118 NATIONAL EpucCATION ASSOCIATION Sterling bill have urged action on their measure, they have been told that they should await the report of the Committee on Reorganization of the Executive Departments; that since the Reorganization Committee will sub- mit a plan for the reorganization of all the Executive Departments, the Towner-Sterling bill, creating a Department of Education, should not be advanced until this reorganization report shall have been made. For months we have been repeatedly assured that the President would submit to the Reorganization Committee in a short time his recommendations on the reorganization of the Executive Departments and the creation of such new department or departments as he might think advisable. Reports in- dicate that action by the President has been delayed by a lack of agreement among the heads of departments regarding the allocation of certain existing bureaus. This explains why action has not been taken on the ‘Towner- Sterling bill. We have been told that. the President desires that no action be taken until he shall have perfected his reorganization plans and sub- mitted his recommendations for the reorganization of the Executive De- partments. On May 5th, by special appointment, a committee consisting of Dr. George D. Strayer, Dr. Thomas E. Finegan, Mrs. Frederick P. Bagley, of Boston, and the Field Secretary called on the President to ascertain if possible his attitude. This committee was received most cordially by the President, who assured the members of his interest in the program of the National Education Association. “The President declared that it was his intention to make a recommendation within a few weeks on the reorganiza- tion of the Executive Departments, in which education would be given distinctive recognition. Information was given the committee from a re- liable source that the President planned to recommend the creation of a Department of Education and Welfare, in which Education would hold the first place, and that the extension of the principle of Federal aid for the promotion of certain phases of education would be conceded. Just what attitude the National Education Association and other allied organizations supporting the Towner-Sterling bill should take toward the proposed recommendation for a Department of Education and Welfare can- not be determined until the plan has been submitted and its exact pro- visions known. In the meantime we should continue to work unitedly for the Towner-Sterling bill. We might consistently welcome any action that would bring us nearer the realization of the objectives for which we have worked, but we should not accept any compromise that would prevent the ultimate realization of our purposes, or make their attainment more difficult. The annoying and disappointing delays that have been encountered dur- ing the past year in advancing the Towner-Sterling bill have been more than counterbalanced by the very effective support which the bill has gained. This is particularly marked among lay organizations. A score of National organizations, representing more than ten million voters, are giving the measure their loyal and unwavering support and will resist any unfavorable compromise. ‘The bill has been fortunate in its foes. While it is not REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 119 claimed that all of its opponents are enemies of public education, there is an abundance of accumulated evidence that the avowed enemies of public education are its most violent opponents. ‘This fact has rallied to its sup- port millions of friends of public education who might not otherwise have become so deeply interested in the subject. The alignment of forces for and against this measure is becoming more definitely drawn. The friends of public education in America are more numerous and more powerful than are its enemies. When these forces, united and determined, shall bring their influence to bear directly upon Congress, there can be but one outcome. Public education will receive the just recognition which it has so long been denied, and another great forward step will be taken in the promotion of America’s most cherished institutions, the free public school. The Field Secretary has devoted only a minor portion of his time, how- ever, to the promotion of the Association’s legislative program. His prin- cipal, if not his most important work, has been in the field. He has traveled during the last year more than forty-one thousand miles, spoken nearly two hundred times, and addressed approximately one hundred thou- sand people. Many of these addresses were delivered to State teachers’ associations and other educational gatherings, but more of them were to civic organizations and public meetings. We are convinced that it is of the first importance that the people generally should be awakened to the vital relation of public education to the welfare of the community, the State, and the Nation. With this in mind, we have embraced every possible oppor- tunity of bringing to the public the message expressed in the platform and program of the National Education Association, and it may be said that the people have received this message gladly.. We believe there is nothing more important for the welfare of the teach- ing profession and the promotion of education than to keep constantly be- fore the public the simple facts that the public schools belong to the people; that they were founded and are supported by the people to do the people’s work; that if they function effectively, the people will reap the benefits in the proper training of all the children and the development of a stronger, more intelligent citizenry; that if they fail to function properly, because of a lack of public interest and public support, the people themselves will suffer an irreparable loss which will fall most disastrously upon the children of the community, the State, and the Nation, who, because of such neglect, will be denied the educational privileges which should be guaranteed to every child beneath our. flag. In carrying forward our work in the field we have come in touch with educational conditions in every part of the country and with the forces which promote or retard educational progress. We have tried always to consider the work of the Association in its broadest aspects ; to keep in mind its fundamental purpose as set forth in its charter granted by Congress, “To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of education in the United States.” We 120 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION are convinced that if the National Education Association is to measure up to its possibilities and realize the worthy purposes for which it was founded, it is absolutely essential that there shall be unity of organization and effort ; that the Association shall codperate effectively with other organizations which are devoted to the promotion of education; and that it shall seek membership and support within the profession, and recognition and co- operation without the profession, on no other basis than that of devoted, effective service—‘‘Service to the teachers, service to the profession, service to the Nation.” Every department of the Association should be granted the fullest possible freedom in working out its own particular problems. “The amendments to the By-Laws adopted at the Des Moines meeting make this possible. But it should be kept constantly in mind that only through united effort can recognition for the profession be obtained and effective service rendered. To carry the recognition of departmental groups and classes within the pro- fession to the extent of weakening the unified strength of the Association will prove-disastrous to the working out of the Association’s great educa- tional program, and ultimately inure to the detriment of every department and every member. The Association is organized on the same general plan as our National Government. Its members give expression to their purposes through their chosen representatives, selected by them in their respective affiliated State and local associations. ‘The interests of the different groups and classes within the profession are given special recognition and consideration in the several departments of the Association. But the strength and influence of the Association, like the strength of our Nation, depend upon unity of purpose and action, and upon holding the welfare of all, the interests of the profession as a whole, above the interests of any class or individual. In the language of our platform, let us work for ‘The unification and fed- eration of the educational forces of the country in one great professional organization devoted to the advancement of the teaching profession, and through education, the promotion of the highest welfare of the Nation.” REPORT OF BUSINESS DEPARTMENT RAY S. ERLANDSON, ASSISTANT SECRETARY AND BUSINESS MANAGER I take pleasure in submitting the third annual report of the Assistant Secretary, embodying the activities of the Business Department during the past. year. : The department is divided into the following divisions: 1. The Journal 2. Educational and Commercial Exhibits 3. Conventions 4. Office management: (a) purchasing, (d) shipping and mailing, (c) departmental budgets, (d) employment, (¢) building supervision. : REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 121 General growth of department—During the past year the Business De- ~ partment has grown extensively in the service it renders and the income it produces. When organized in 1919 the activities of the Business Manager consisted chiefly in the purchasing of paper, materials and office equipment, and in assisting in the management of the convention. With the rapid growth of the Association these two activities have not only been enlarged but new duties have been added. In 1921 the Commercial Exhibit which formerly was managed by an outside organization was taken over. The Journal of the National Education Association was established, also neces- sitating the opening of an advertising division, and in September, 1921, a division of typing was created. Whereas at the time of its establishment none of the income of the As: sociation was attributable to the work of the Business Department, yet during the present year the total income from commercial exhibits and ad- vertising—the two principal sources of revenue outside of the membership dues—amounted to $63,000. ‘That this is an important factor in the service the Association is able to render can be seen by noting that the net profits of the Commercial Exhibits would pay the entire cost of maintaining the Research Department, and that the advertising receipts now pay ap- proximately eighty per cent of the printing cost of the sixty-eight page monthly magazine published by the Association. The purchasing and shipping divisions have also grown proportionately with the development of the Association. ‘The need for typing and clerical assistance was so great at the beginning of the present year that a new division of typists was created with Miss Mabel Wheelock in charge. At one time twenty-five girls were employed in this division to assist in membership drives and to supply the other departments with stenographic and clerical services as needed. TABLE 1.—The relation of advertising pages to reading pages, and the relation between advertising receipts and printing costs of The Journal Number of sete Number of | Advertising Month Number of copies Printag pages of receipts as pages printed cost advertising billed fj opten | | | | September .... 20 95,000 | $2,278.60 | 4 $1,099.55 October ...... 20 95,000 21327 126 4yy 1,210.75 November .... 36 95,000 3,557.85 4 1,034.50 December .... 36 95,000 3,59 mA0 7 1,636.50 1922— january a ..-. 68 100,000 6,929.86 22 DWP S}S} a February 68 95,000 6,696.18 25 6,534.05 Mareh iia vcs 68 95,000 6,655.75 23 6,043 .25 ADE odids wruse 68 105,000 7,301.53 20 5,029.62 Mia yite on titens store 68 125,000 8,357.61 22 5,426.45 June mith tae 68 125,000 8,397.70 25 6,550.80 we, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION I. THE JOURNAL Advertising—Table 1 shows the monthly receipts from advertising for the year as well as the number of pages of paid advertising, number of pages in each issue of the magazine, printing costs and number of copies printed. The total receipts from advertising for the year were $40,298.86. It will be seen that there has been a steady growth in the income from advertising during the year. In June the receipts reached the highest mark.. The February and March advertising were above normal because of the desire of commercial exhibitors to call attention to their booths at the Con- vention of the Department of Superintendence. With the increase in the circulation of ‘THE JOURNAL it is recommended that as soon as business conditions permit, the advertising rates be increased proportionately. Developing new advertisers—In the work of encouraging and developing new advertising accounts to use the pages of THE JOURNAL we have had the pleasure of discovering many commercial and industrial firms who never before had advertised in educational mediums. The Business Manager has made many personal calls upon such organizations and sold them on the value of educational advertising, not in THE JoURNAL alone, but in all similar State and National publications. It has also been possible to outline and assist in organizing advertising campaigns of new business firms who were beginning to market their products and who were looking for sug- gestions and advice in opening their publicity campaigns. Many of the ad- vertisers appearing in THe JouRNAL and other publications had never advertised in educational mediums until conferences with this department. It has been a source of satisfaction thus indirectly to codperate with them thereby generally stimulating advertising in the educational press of the country. ‘This plan can be still further developed as I shall suggest later. Plan of cooperation for educational journals—With the establishment of a National official educational magazine has come a desire from educa: tional advertisers and publishers alike, for the development of uniform standards in operation and arrangement among the educational publications, State and National. The National Education Association has been re- quested to give consideration to the complicated problems involved in an activity of this type. “There is no question but that the adoption of a uni- form page size would materially increase the amount of advertising now possible. Advertisers confronted with the necessity of making eight to ten different electros for a single advertisement to fit the many-sized maga- zines now in existence spend much of their appropriation each month in this way, which otherwise would go into the purchase of more advertising space. It is believed that all of the educational magazines would profit by the adoption of standard page and type-page sizes, a uniform number of columns per page and uniform column widths. ‘The same is true with the kind of paper used. If this were of a standard weight and finish it would be much simpler for advertisers and publishers alike. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 123 In view of the fact that most of the educational magazines are not large enough to maintain advertising Tepresentatives of their own in the larger cities, the question of codperation in advertising has also been considered. I am now making a comprehensive study of this question and later will be in a better position to make definite suggestions and recommendations. It may be said, however, that this is a complicated question. There is no doubt but that a pooling arrangement could be worked out with the various official State journals whereby the gross circulation of all would be sold at a fixed advertising rate. The overlapping circulation problem would not need to be considered. One of the difficulties in such an arrangement that would require careful study is whether or not advertising rates under this plan would be too high. For example, the necessary publication costs of a single magazine with 200,000 circulation might permit much lower ad- vertising rates than a pooled circulation of 200,000 of ten different maga- zines published in ten different places, each with its separate overhead costs. This question is one that requires careful and scientific investigation into operating costs. Another problem that would arise is the establishment of a single date of publication. Some magazines at present are printed on the Ist, some the 5th, some the 15th, etc. If a unified effort of soliciting ad- vertising is to be made it would be fairer to all publications that they be printed at approximately the same time. “Then too, it may be easier to sell circulation on the Pacific Coast and to such wealthy States, as New York and Pennsylvania, whereas a representative might have difficulty in selling space in those journals published in the southwest and a portion of the northwest. The utmost confidence in the management of a coéperative ad- vertising representation is necessary. Many State educational journals have more or less of a National or at least a sectional distribution. Whether or not they would be willing to enter such a scheme would need to be determined. As soon as magazines overlap State boundaries they classify themselves with National mediums and enter into competition with other National magazines. In this field the problems of codperation be- come more complicated because of the element of competition. This is par- ticularly true of the magazines appealing to the school administrators and executives. The Alumni magazines of the various colleges and universities of the country have organized a central advertising representative method and have pooled their circulation selling a gross circulation at a fixed price and then proportionately distributing the advertising obtained and dividing the net receipts in proportion to their circulation. ‘Thus far the plan has not been successful. On the other hand the Associated Business Papers, the Associated Farm Papers, and Associated Periodical Papers have organized, not to sell ad- vertising but rather to stimulate and encourage National advertising in their respective fields. “This encouragement is made through publicity cam- paigns, through the establishment of uniform standards, through the appli- cation of better business management by the individual members, and the 124 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION enforcement of a code of business practice or ethics which leads to confi- dence and support by advertisers and advertising agencies. As a beginning such a plan of an Associated Educational Press, a bureau proportionately supported by members to sell the value of advertising in educational mediums might be valuable. “The purpose and function of such an organi- zation would include such things as: (1) Encourage advertisers to use educational journals as mediums for advertising, by conducting a compre- hensive publicity campaign; (2) Establish uniform styles of type page SIZES 5 uniform dates of publication, a uniform quality of paper, etc.; (3) Work out principle or standard of practice to be followed by all member publications; (4) Maintain a joint collection service for hard accounts; (5) Act as a clearing house on such questions as the financial status of ad- vertisers, their ability of paying bills, and on general information as may be desired; (6) Work for fair competition, the maintenance of stable ad- vertising rates that are profitable, guaranteed circulation; (7) To establish a code of ethics for the organization, including such points as declining to publish advertising tending to mislead, refusing to publish “puffs,” free reading notices, or paid write-ups, keep reading columns independent of advertising considerations; (8) To avoid unfair competition; (9) ° Co- operative purchasing of paper, supplies, etc.; and (10) To supply all ad- vertisers with full information regarding character and extent of circulation statements. Such an organization doubtless could do much to build a larger advertising clientele in the various educational publications of the country. The establishment and successful operation of such a bureau promoting and seeking the good-will of all advertisers and especially educa- tional advertisers toward these mediums might well be the forerunner of a plan of actual solicitation among various non-competitive groups in the educational field. Indeed it may readily be seen how later departments of the Associated Educational Press might be organized by the publishers not competing with each other to solicit advertising. Such groups might roughly be classified as follows: Group 1. Official journals of State education associations and other State publications, one from each State. Group 2. National publications appealing to all interests. Group 3. National publications appealing to school administration. Group 4. National publications appealing to teachers. Group 5. Specialty publications as in psychological research, English, physical education, and the like. This classification is merely suggestive and neither comprehensive nor scientifically worked out. Financial statement of THE JOoURNAL—It is doubtless of interest to the members of the N. E. A. to know how Tuer Journat would fare if treated as a separate business project of the Association, crediting $1.00 of each membership to the subscription price of THE JouRNAL. No separate budget having been kept, the expense figures are estimated. pre tee REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 125 $9,000 - 3,000 $8357 6! ($8391 © 7,000 5 Waals er 6,000 d [ui Bias ala 777857332 Y Y Y) Y yj Y) - iy psc) 5,000 a / 7) V 4,000 $Y Y) Y Y 355785 wn Y Y Y) Y Y , ZO 700700 mere te enttollewhY Yiy7 YY 1,000 -77,8009 Yj 77 Sis Yj Y UY, GU UY Y LY Go OGUiOCCOWi*«OOY OG LUO 9at| 4921» 192 ger | iva 492-1999) 4902 1998 oes Figure 1—Cost OF PRINTING THE JOURNAL. OF PRINTING COST PAID BY ADVERTISING RECEIPTS THE SHADED PORTION SHOWS THE PART ~ INCOME Supseription: [92s 22irt mesh: atldne. Ged oe $72,793.12 AadwertisinglO21 222 vies als osha do. See. 40,298 .86 iss aide embihrseeniil 108\, sm suuile. itos1toothe, Sea Aez $113,091.98 EXPENSE gies ES Ce eS ee ae ers F $56,005 .04 Matinee. Tava C.. Annet eividils she Yas Te 13,304.00 Editoriale Ande COL AS cists ven din’ el sateeocaiy’s: “ee elt 22,000.00 NA TADS TS hE ACEC EC de comsby sine doitin-mrs fulabs bons 800.00 DEIOUCTH RN DOSAGE aos. cet ore vytan rm ods 10,500.00 BO VOT Ce ol Neth cece aniore ba lode busi Sic 3,000.00 CNG A at RAE le Pn corres, cnc vcstha denM Aub oleh tye $105,609 . 04 (NetearroltstOcry Pal tha scht fiom maidertt: settecukraa ta ab $7,482.94 EDUCATIONAL AND COMMERCIAL EXHIBITS The Boston exhibit is the eleventh commercial exhibit held by the As- sociation and the fourth managed directly by the Business Department of the Association. Figure 2 shows the gross receipts and net profits of these exhibits, 126 NatioNAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION a Department of Superintendence Conventions Annual Conventions i9IT $540.19 Kansas City 19\7 $20.03 Portland 1918 B szi9.36 Atlantic City 1918 No Exhibit Pittsburgh 1919 = Chicago 1919 $392.46 Milwaukee 1920 MB scicor Cleveland 1920 $230.26 Salt Lake City 192) oe Atlantic City _ 92t Des Moines i922 Chicago 1922 Boston Figure 2—NET PROFITS FROM COMMERCIAL EXHIBITS SINCE 1917 It is of interest to note that the Chicago exhibit in connection with the meeting of the Department of Superintendence, February 27 to March 3, 1921, was the largest exhibition of its kind ever held in the United States. Ninety-five thousand square feet of floor space on three floors of the old Siegel Cooper (Leiter) building were used. “This space was secured free rental through the courtesy of Mr. Joseph Leiter, the owner, who was glad to donate the $8000 rental charge to the cause of public education. The profits from the exhibits more than pay the convention expenses. In view of this fact, it is recommended that the profits after paying all convention expenses for the meeting of the Department of Superintendence be divided half and half between the Association and the Department. The educational feature—Since the N. E. A. has directly assumed charge of conducting the exhibits we have endeavored to emphasize the educational part. This was first effectively done at Des Moines when the entire bal- cony floor of the exhibit hall was turned over to a complete display of the work of the Iowa Consolidated Schools. Keen interest was shown in the many fine demonstrations of Iowa’s activities in this type of rural work. At the Chicago convention of the Department of Superintendence the educational part of the exhibits consisted of a demonstration of the Chi- cago method of teaching Visual Education under the direction of William Dudley Hayes, record and report systems in use by Chicago schools, and the exhibit of school architecture and buildings under direct supervision of Superintendent Condon of Cincinnati. Dr. Condon’s splendid display oc- cupied 10,000 square feet of floor space, with exhibits from the leading cities and rural districts of Alabama, Arizona, California, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Mon- tana, Nebraska, New Jersey, Ohio, New York, Pennsyly Wisconsin, and the District of Columbia. amen. The educational feature of the exhibits will be further Boston. All of the New England States are cooperating in display of the best work done. exhibit being ania, Washington, emphasized at a comprehensive Two buildings will be used, the academic housed in the Boston Normal School and the industrial exhibit REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 127 in the Boston Trade School. The Committee on Rural Education which makes its final report will also have an exhibit as well as the territory of Hawaii, which is sending six accredited delegates. It is recommended that the Association give more study to the problem of organizing and planning these educational exhibitions on a scientific basis in order that it may better serve in a definite way the needs of the delegates and members. CONVENTIONS With the growth of the Association the preliminary work of organizing the local arrangements for the annual conventions has become more com- plicated. The Boston convention is expected to be the largest in the his- tory of the Association since 1910 and the preliminary arrangements have necessitated more than a dozen trips in working out the details with the local committees. Perhaps in no city, however, has such enthusiastic co- operation been received. ‘The civic pride of New England has resulted in securing the business and educational leaders of community to serve on committees, and they have worked out a convention organization that will serve as a model for years to come. The convention budget of this local committee exceeds $20,000. The hospitality and entertainment planned is unexcelled. ‘The service to be rendered the visitors is organized to the finest detail. The halls provided for the many meetings have been selected with care. It is the duty of the Business Department to concern itself with the preliminary work of arranging for and setting up the organization of these conventions. ‘This consists in meeting the local leaders, conferring on neces- sary committee organizations, matters of housing, entertainment, meeting halls, exhibits, State headquarters, registration headquarters, local help, hotels, printing contracts, etc. In general the work necessary to the effi- cient operation of the convention constitutes an important function of this department. There has been a growing tendency among cities inviting the Association and its departments to hold these conventions, to issue a cordial and earnest invitation without making definite promise beforehand to supply the neces- sary and customary accommodations. As a result, the Association is in danger of putting itself on record by vote of wishing to hold its meeting in a city which might rightly refuse to supply proper entertainment. It is suggested that before a city can be considered to have issued an in- vitation to meet and before this invitation is placed before the delegates, it agree in writing to certain minimum requirements either financial or other- wise as may be determined by the Secretary of the Association. Orrice MANAGEMENT Purchasing—A reference to the report of the Treasurer and the man- aging editor will reveal the importance attached to the work of purchasing supplies and equipment for the Association as well as the contracting of the printing of the many publications which it now issues. 128 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The purchasing division operates similarly to that of any well-managed business office, all requests for purchasing being filled out in writing on regular requisition blanks, signed by the head of the department and sent to the business office where purchase orders are issued and purchases made. All bills are inspected and O. K.’d by the Business Manager before being passed to the Treasurer for payment. Shipping and mailing—It is a gigantic task alone to mail out each month 110,000 numbers of THE JouRNAL, but it is most efficiently handled with a minimum of cost under the present arrangement. More room is re: quired however, and unless the Association has its mailing done by the printer of THE JouRNAL additional space will be needed. During the past year the Association has grown to occupy practically the entire building. Much new equipment, such as multigraphs, addresso- graphs, graphotypes, typewriters, furniture, etc., has been purchased. Departmental budgets—The various departments are now taking definite shape with fairly stabilized personnel and operating requirements. Up un- til the present time the practice has been to charge all clerical, services, post- age, supplies, etc., to a single account in the general Secretary’s office. ‘This was necessary because the Association formerly did not maintain a depart- mental method of operation and all work was carried on by this office direct. Now that most of the departments are clearly outlined with definite policies and definite fields of activities it is suggested that they be placed on a budget basis and a definite accounting be made. ‘The Field Department, the Busi- ness Department, including THE JouRNAL, and the Research Department would first lend themselves to such a plan, and I suggest that a budget be planned for these departments. Later all departments can be organized on this basis. Much flexibility should be allowed, of course, because of the possibility of unexpected conditions arising. The budget should not be necessarily appropriated to the departments but should serve as a guide in determining the cost of the services rendered and in arriving at a more scientific basis of knowing what amount of money is needed to perform this service. It is believed also that if each department head had a definite plan of expense allowance, many small leaks in expenditures could be eliminated. Employment—A new division of typists and clerks was created this year, with Miss Mabel Wheelock in charge. All of the departments needed extra help at various times during the year and instead of hiring temporary help for each department as the need arose, releasing the employees when through, it was thought best to maintain a small force as permanently as possible, consolidated in a single unit from which the various departments could draw upon as needed. This gives a flexible as well as a trained per- sonnel under competent supervision, materially reducing costs and affording a much more competent service than the old system of spasmodic employ- ‘ment. It is difficult to measure the increasing service rendered by the Associa- ‘tion. Results in promotional work are always more or less intangible. Assuming that the staff, however, is constantly rendering the maximum of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 129 service, one of the most definite indices of a growing service is the increasing personnel. Figure 3 is interesting and valuable therefore in showing a comparison of the maximum number of employees each month this year as compared with last. v4 37 ay as a5 Sept. Oct. Noy Dec, Jan) | Feb: Mch. Apr. May June Figure 3—NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES AT HEADQUARTERS, 1921-22. SHADED PORTION SHOWS THE NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES, 1920-21 Building supervision—Visitors to Washington and the Association head- quarters are proud of the beautiful building in which we are housed. Since its purchase three years ago, the property has increased in value from $98,000 to $150,000. Many needed repairs which should have been under- taken sooner but were not made because of lack of funds, should now be made. More room is needed. ‘The department of records and accounts as well as the mailing division, and the multigraphing and addressographing divisions are badly crowded. There is no room to store volumes and other publications. The Research Department will soon require more room. There are two alternatives. One is to build additional floors, the other to purchase an additional building. ‘The latter is recommended for several reasons. To build higher might mar the beauty of the building. ‘The mechanical equipment with its irksome noises should be isolated from the office. The volumes and printed material of all kinds should be housed on the basement or ground floor, because of its weight and also because of constant danger of fire. The mailing and shipping division should be so arranged that incoming as well as outgoing shipments can be handled easily and with a minimum of expense. For these reasons I wish to recommend the purchase of the property lying on 1541-43 M Street, consisting of a three-story brick building and 2460 square feet of land, at a price not to exceed $40,000. That property values adjacent to the N. E. A. head- 130 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION quarters are constantly increasing is evident. At the present time a large eight-story hotel is under construction just across the street while on the vacant lot just to the north of the N. E. A. building an eight-story apart- ment house is now under construction. ; Figure 4. BUILDING ADJOINING HEADQUARTERS RECOMMENDED FOR PURCHASE Conclusion—The very efficient and thorough manner in which the detail work of the Business Department is cared for by the assistant, Miss Mar- garet Holden, contributes much to the successful operation of its many activities. It is naturally impossible for the head of the department to give more than general direction and supervision to the various divisions. The selection of competent division heads and the delegation of authority and responsibility to them is therefore essential. When the maximum of service is rendered with the efficiency, thoroughness, and minimum of expense that exists at Association headquarters it is fitting that those in charge receive due commendation. It is a pleasure therefore for me to express the deep REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 131 appreciation felt for the competent manner in which the work in the various divisions of this department has been dispatched—Mr. Reily in the general work of shipping and multigraphing, Mrs. Harriet Thatcher in the mailing room, and Miss Mabel Wheelock, who has had charge of the general typing and clerical work, have been most faithful and persistent in their efforts to serve the best interests of the Association. Indeed their inspiration has maintained a splendid ésfrit de corps throughout the entire staff, and has done much to maintain an atmosphere of codperation and mutual helpfulness that is unique. among the business institutions of the city. Under the continued leadership of the man who has been the guide and counsellor and leader of all of the activities of the Association—the general secretary—we look forward to a year of increased efficiency, greater useful- ness, and larger service to the great cause of public education. Summary of recommendations—1. That the Executive Committee be authorized to purchase the property consisting of 2460 square feet of land and the three-story brick building, Nos. 1541-43 M Street N. W., at a price not to exceed $40,000. 2. That the Association adopt the budget plan for the various depart- ments at headquarters as soon as feasible. 3. That the profits accruing from the commercial exhibits of the Depart- ment of Superintendence after the payment of all expenses be divided equally between the Department of Superintendence and the Association. 4. That the advertising rates be raised as soon as business conditions justify. 5. That the Business Department be authorized to co6perate with the State and National educational magazines in developing a larger adver- tising service. 6. Cities desiring to entertain the Association or its departments agree in writing to the minimum requirements before the invitation is placed officially before the Association. REPORT OF EDITORIAL DEPARTMENT JOY ELMER MORGAN, EDITOR The following report covers the work of the Editorial Department for the period between July 1, 1921, and June 30, 1922, under the headings (1) The Journal, (2) Proceedings, (3) Other Publications, (4) Public- ity, (5) Need for an Association Library, (6) The Work of the Depart- ment. I. THE JOURNAL Its rapid growth—The Journal of the National Education Association has grown during the year in size, in circulation, in the quality and variety of its content, and in the approval which it has had from educational work- si NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ers throughout the country. It 1s worth noting that it has reached its present stage of development at least a year sooner than could reasonably have been expected. This excellent progress has been made possible by the whole-hearted codperation of everyone connected with The J ournal, includ- ing the Business Manager, Mr. Ray S. Erlandson, the Editor-in-Chief, Dr. William C. Bagley, and the Editorial Council ; by the earnest work of other departments of the Headquarters Staff, and by the enthusiastic support of hundreds of leaders in education throughout the country, who have given help and encouragement in important ways. The growth of ‘The Journal ‘n size—which is a fair index of its growth in other respects—is indicated by the following table, covering the school year 1921-22. ‘The number of pages given includes the cover. Total number Number of text Number of Month of pages pages advertising pages Septembeteee a setter 20 16 4 October) sme octa aera 20 1B YY 41/2 IN Ove D CEs cierto ite 36 32 4 Decembersr errata 36 29 7 January: Monee ere 68 46 22 Pebruaryacns «sae 68 43 25 Mrarch eeji.- aciegaciectenatiens 68 45 23 Aprile. septate fvaha ehstenee 68 48 20 Miayirtidaiaets... .etawice. aerate 68 46 22 June oe je cesenc he ceases 68 43 25 The standard of sixty-eight pages in each number of The Journal should now be regarded as a minimum, with a possible maximum of not over 100 pages for the coming year. With a minimum of sixty-four pages it is possible to make plans and commitments sometime in advance. In the early days of I'he Journal it was not possible to ask for many articles on specific themes inasmuch as the limited space available gave no assurance that the articles could be printed when they had been prepared. Even in its larger form The Journal is able to print only a small portion of the material which is submitted for use in. its pages. It will become more and more necessary for plans to be made many months ahead if The Journal is to maintain uniformly high standards. Editorial policy—The Journal has endeavored to register the striking progress which has been made in education and to support vigorously the policies and programs of the Association. “There have been two meetings of the Editorial Council under the chairmanship of Dr. Bagley. A meet- ing was held at Des Moines July 3, 1921, and another in Chicago on March 1, 1922. Expressions of opinion obtained at these meetings, supplemented by correspondence with individual members of the Council, have served as a guide in the selection and interpretation of material and will become still more valuable as The Journal grows larger. It is not easy to set up standards defining the content of The Journal, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 133 or having established such standards, to obtain for each issue material that entirely agrees with our conception of what The Journal should include. The following types of material are described in the approximate order of their claim for inclusion. 1. Official accounts of the Association’s work and editorials designed to further its program. 2. Material relating to the organization and work of teachers’ associa- tions generally, more especially of State and local affiliated associations. 3. Accounts of educational legislation, administration, policies, plans, and scientific advance, thus making the best experience quickly available. 4, Material which because of the peculiar position of The Journal it can better publish than any other periodical. It should give special con- sideration to new movements in education and to matters of National and international concern which should be brought quickly to the attention of members. re The Journal and the Association—T he Journal will come more and more to represent the Association in the minds of the rank and file of the member- ship. The Journal’s most difficult problem is so to present the work of the Association that the individual member will appreciate the deeper meaning of the membership privilege. The Journal must come to reflect more and more largely the growing activities of professional organizations—National, State, and local—in such a way that their programs shall appeal to the great body of educational workers throughout the Nation as immensely worthwhile. Loyalty to the cause of education is a secure and abiding foundation upon which to build a great organization. Such a foundation is not to be compared with appreciation of mere benefits received. It is upon this rock of loyalty to the educational needs of democracy that the Association and its Journal may best be built. The judgment of the editorial force has been unfavorable to numbers devoted to special phases of education. While numbers thus specialized appeal strongly to a certain group, they appeal less strongly to the members of the Association as a whole. For the same reason the Editorial Council has felt that it would be unwise to give space to Departments as such in each issue of The Journal. For example, it is considered better to have good articles on rural education scattered throughout The Journal than it would be to give a specific page each month to rural education. In the first case, the article is directed to the Association’s entire membership, whereas in the second case it might appear to be of interest only to those members who are also members of the Department of Rural Education. What has been said with reference to departments does not apply to certain features which have come to be regarded as a regular part of each number. Included among these features are Enrolment and Affiliation, The Guide to New Books, and School Building Progress. It may be noted that these special features in reality take the place of a large number of notes which might otherwise be published under the heading, In the Field. 134 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The page of pictures is popular—Pictures enable leaders to know each other and supply a personal appeal without placing T’he Journal in a position of indulging freely in personal praise and comments. The por- traits used in The Journal have been standardized in two sizes—(1) a small size eight picas wide by nine and one-half picas long, (2) a large size fourteen picas wide by twenty picas long. ‘This practice makes it possible to use the same plate in several consecutive groups. In connection with the picture page there has been built up in the Editorial Department a considerable collection of photographs and informa- tion about leading educators. This collection, which has been in charge of Mrs. Bertha M. Robbins, should continue to grow until it includes photo- graphs of all well-known educational leaders in this country and even in the world. It is used in connection with general publicity as well as with The Journal. Enrolment and affiliation—This section gives deserved recognition to as- sociations and individuals who have rendered distinctive service in the promotion of professional organization and constitutes a record of the Association’s growth. Lists of enrolments and affiliations have been furnished by Miss Harriet M. Chase. Guide to books—This section was first undertaken experimentally in The Journal for October, 1921. It proved unexpectedly popular and with modifications indicated by experience has come to be a distinctive feature. The book section of the June number indicates the plan which represents the judgment of the Editorial Council and which promises to become more or less permanent. First, is a short list of books with notes selected from The Booklist of the American Library Association, which is compiled by experts on the basis of reports from the leading libraries of the United States. This list includes new books of general interest. Second, is the comprehensive list which aims to. mention without notes all important new books on education published in the United States. “Third, is a brief list of books, including descriptive notes, on a subject of special interest to teach- ers. These are three services which can be rendered by The Journal better than in any other way. It will be noted that where selection of books is made, the work is done by specialists who have the qualification and the opportunity to make careful estimates. School-building progress—The importance of school building was brought to the attention of the Association in the campaign to relieve un- employment which was undertaken by the Secretary of Commerce in October, 1921. A study of the situation revealed an enormous amount of school building in progress with a strong demand for additional building to compensate for the period during the war and after when virtually no con- struction was undertaken. As a means of systematically reporting school- building progress, facts have been gathered, compiled, and published in The Journal each month. While the school-building page may be re- garded as the equivalent of seventy or eighty news items, its comprehensive- ness gives it an additional value to persons interested in school building and related activities. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 135 Relation to other educational journals—The Managing Editor has ex- amined regularly all educational journals of importance published in the United States and has given much thought to their relation to each other and to The Journal of the National Education Association. It becomes increasingly apparent that the field of educational journalism is still com- paratively undeveloped. ‘There is enough educational thought in America to fill all journals which now exist, to improve them still further; and even to establish others. There is enough potential educational advertising to support much larger enterprises in educational journalism that have yet been undertaken. It is believed that The Journal of the National Edu- cation Association will greatly stimulate professional thinking and research. In fact, a considerable proportion of its articles are written specifically for it on the basis of subjects or outlines furnished from headquarters to persons of approved fitness to write on special subjects. It is also apparent that the advertising campaigns undertaken by the advertising manager of The Journal stimulate an interest in educational advertising and help other edu- cational journals tap resources that have hitherto been undeveloped. The Journal of the National Education Association will do its greatest work in full codperation with wide-awake, local educational newspapers, with State education journals fully alive to the needs of the teachers of their respective States, with National journals giving vigorous expression to independent educational leadership, and with special journals devoted to the development of special phases of education and to the improvement of special classes of educational workers. The Journal of the National Edu- cation Association seeks to encourage in every way possible the development of every worthy educational journal. Il. PROCEEDINGS The points in which the 1921 Volume of Proceedings differs from its predecessors are set forth in an editorial note at the beginning of the Vol- ume.. An effort was made to group the material according to a more or less logical arrangement and to publish the Volume in the fall rather than in the spring. In spite of delays which are unavoidable, because of the large number of authors involved, the volume was ready for distribution in November. Much of its excellence is due to the good work and co- operation of the University of Chicago Press, which has published the Proceedings regularly beginning in 1896. Although the growth of the Association and certain other considerations, have indicated that the 1922 volume should be published in Washington, the change has not been made because of any lack of appreciation of the distinctive service rendered by the University of Chicago Press over a period of a quarter of a century. The Proceedings for 1922 are being published by Messrs. Judd and Det- weiler, the publishers of the Association’s Journal. ‘The material from the Department of Superintendence and other meetings held at the same time are already in type and it is hoped that it will be possible to have the com- pleted volume ready for distribution by October 1. Much of the work on 136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Ee the 1921 Proceedings and most of the work on the Proceedings for 1922 has been done by the Assistant Editor, Miss Jessie M. Robbins. III. OTHER PUBLICATIONS Publications other than The Journal and the Proceedings have increased with the growth of the Association and of its departments, several of which have used the resources of the Editorial Department. The following list of publications issued during the year is here included for reference pur- poses. It does not include minor reports and bulletins issued during the meetings, press releases, and similar matter. Number | Number Total Title When. of pages of number published | in each | copies | of pages ae > —o Va le i | Addresses and Proceedings, 1921..... Noy., 1921 | 897 7,500 | 6,727,500 1921-22: ~| The Journal of the National Educa- | | tion Association ..o.-)0- 6 i. senriestie Sept. 20 95,000 1,900,000 Oct. (oe 2e 95,000 | 1,900,000 Nov. 36 95,000 3,420,000 Dec. 36 95,000 | 3,420,000 Jan. | 68 | 100,000 | 6,800,000 Feb. | 68 95,000 6,460,000 Mar. 68 95,000 | 6,460,000 Apr. 68 105,000 7,140,000 May 68 125,000 | 8,500,000 : June 68 125,000 | 8,500,000 Program of Des Moines Meeting..... July, 1921 64 8,000 | 512,000 Program of Chicago Meeting........ Feb., 1922 || 48 11,000 | 528,000 American Education Week, Bulletin 16 | Oct., 1921 | 4 10,000 | 40,000 Give a Job, Bulletin 17. ........0s0e8 Oct., 1921 | 4 2,000 | 8,000 Department of Elementary School ; Principals’ Proceedings, 1921, Bulle- | | eee Se ee oe Or A eee eR ne Jan. 1922| 46 1,000 | 46,000 Salary Schedules, 1920-21, Bulletin 19.|Jan., 1922 32 | 10,000 320,000 Serve Democracy’s Greatest Need.... | May, 1922 | 1 30,000 | 30,000 Ideals of Public Education for the De- | ; partment of Superintendence....... May, 1922 | 32 3,000 | Financing Public Education.......... May, 1922 48 soon erat Bulletin of the Department of Ele- | : : mentary School Principals.......... May, 1922 40 Yearbook of the Department of Ele- : a en mentary School Principals.... May, 1922 144 2 1 Frincipals.......... ) 000 288,000 R h Bulletin ........ 640, esearc plies 2 ae lio. 3 ee June, 1922 64 10,000 640,000 63,911,500 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 137 ae ne IV. PUBLICITY The publicity work done by the Editorial Department or under its direc- tion includes (1) publicity work extending throughout the year; and (2) special publicity in connection with the Association’s annual meetings and in connection with American Education Week. Press releases have been sent from headquarters at the rate of about one each week to the educa- tional press, to general magazines, or to newspapers. Editorials and other material from The Journal have frequently been used in this way and have been widely reprinted and used as the basis of editorial comment. ‘The importance of maintaining adequate salary standards and the legislative program of the Association have been especially emphasized. The amount of publicity obtained is probably twice that received in any previous year. The amount of publicity which the Association has had in the educational press is several times the amount heretofore received. This increased ap- preciation of material sent out by the Association indicates a growing appre- ciation of the importance of education on the part of editors of magazines and newspapers generally. Publicity for meetings—The method of conducting the publicity cam- paigns for the two major meetings of the Association is described in the report of the Editorial Department for 1921. Before the meeting in Des Moines considerable time was given to conferences with local newspaper representatives. ‘Their attention was directed to the importance of edu- cational news, to the aims and character of the Association, to the arrange- ment of the meetings including the relation of the departments to the general sessions, and to discussions of certain features of the meetings which would be of special interest to newspaper workers. This preliminary work included talks by Mr. J. W. Searson and myself to the entire staffs of two leading Des Moines papers. It is worth noting that one of these has since employed a regular school editor. Much of the effectiveness of the pub- licity at Des Moines was due to the work of Mr. Searson, who gave his entire time during the meeting. The Chicago meeting—Before this meeting there was a general feeling among the officers of the Association that Chicago newspapers had given far too little space to the Association’s meetings. Special effort was therefore made to secure more favorable treatment. Much preliminary work was done from Washington by the Editor and in Chicago by Mr. George A. King, who is regularly employed by the Teachers’ Council of the Chicago High Schools. Mr. King gave his entire time during the meeting to the writing of news for Chicago newspapers and press associations, acting as the special representative of City Superintendent Mortenson, who assumed personal responsibility for seeing that the meetings were given adequate publicity in Chicago. The publicity organization also included Mr. Charles H. Lake, assistant superintendent of the Cleveland schools, and Mr. Clyde R. Miller, of the Division of Publication of the Cleveland 138 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION schools, both of whom served as the special representatives of Superintend- ent R. G. Jones, president of the Department of Superintendence. The Boston meeting—Much advance publicity work covering the Bos- ton meeting has already been done and present indications point to a pub- licity organization which will be unusually effective. American Education Weck—TVhe Editorial Department codperated with the Publicity Department of the American Legion in the publicity for American Education Week. An enormous amount of publicity appeared in the newspapers, based on material sent out from this office as well as that sent out by the Legion and other organizations. As the purposes of the Week come to be better understood practically every educational organ- ization in the Nation may be relied upon to plan a special publicity cam- paign in coéperation with the Legion and the Association. V. NEED FOR AN ASSOCIATION LIBRARY The Editorial Department has used freely the library of the U. 5. Bureau of Education, the Library of Congress, the Public Library, and other libraries in the city, but it is now apparent that it will be necessary for the Association to establish a special library of its own. The purposes of this library should be so defined that it will never become unduly expensive or unwieldly. It should be in charge of a librarian familiar with the resources of other libraries and trained to organize material in the most approved and effective manner. It may well contain a small reference collection covering education in general. It will make large use of filing cases, organizing and preserving much material in pamphlet and typewritten form. In professional organization, educational legislation, and on other subjects covered by the Association’s program it should be the most com- prehensive library in existence. “The library will be used chiefly by the Research and Editorial Departments and might well be managed under the direction of a committee including the Secretary and the heads of these two departments. The cost of maintaining such a library for next year would probably include about a thousand dollars for furniture and equip- ment, a thousand dollars for books, and about two thousand dollars for service. fe sit atin re, fain a VI. THE WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT The Journal has come to be the most important single undertaking of the Department, and as such has chief claim to the time and attention of the Editor. With this thought in mind, effort has been made so to plan the work of the Department and of the publicity for the Association’s meet: ings as to leave the Editor free to devote the larger portion of his time to matters connected with The Journal. At the time of the Association’s meetings when it is possible to have conferences with many educational leaders it is desirable that a large amount of time be given to making plans for future issues of The Journal. It-now seems desirable to develop a publicity organization, which, while under the general direction of the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 139 Editorial Department, can operate without full attention from the Editor during the time that meetings are in progress. The plan which worked so well at Chicago may well be developed and extended. During this meeting a local newspaper man employed by the High School Teachers’ Council acted as a member of the publicity staff and wrote much of the news matter used by the Chicago newspapers. The city in which the meet- ing is held has so much interest in obtaining adequate publicity that it may well be expected to furnish such a member for the publicity organization. The staff of the Editorial Department now includes regularly four per- sons and calls upon the Stenographic Division for additional help as needed. In addition to the Editor the department includes an assistant editor, Miss Jessie M. Robbins; an editorial clerk, Mrs. Bertha M. Rob- bins; and a secretary, Miss Lillian B. Wheelock. The work of the various members of the editorial staff has been highly satisfactory. There has been growth in service and appreciation of the larger purposes of the work. The members of the Editorial Department value most highly the codpera- tion of all members of the Association’s staff and the sympathetic and con- structive leadership of its Secretary. REPORT OF DEPARTMENT OF RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS HELEN T. HIXSON, ASSISTANT TREASURER It again becomes my privilege and pleasure to submit to you and to the Executive Committee a report of the Department of Records and Accounts for the year 1921-22. . While the stress of work in our department con- tingent with the closing of the fiscal year has handicapped me somewhat in giving as detailed a report as I should like, I shall endeavor to make a fairly comprehensive survey of the year’s work, at the same time showing the growth of our department—which growth, I believe, is a good criterion of the rapid growth of the Association during the last twelve months. SYSTEMS OF RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS The simplified system of handling the funds of the Association and the record of its membership which was installed in 1919, still seems to operate advantageously in handling the membership records even with the large increase in membership. As yet we are unable to see where it could be improved to facilitate the work in this branch of the department, but we are rapidly outgrowing the handling of the funds of the Association through our bookkeeping accounts, owing to the addition of new departments and necessarily new accounts. Early in the new year it would be advisable for us to have expert advice as to how these accounts had best be handled, so as to cover our growing demands and also enable us to show the exact cost of operation of each department. Last year upon recommendation and approval by the Executive Com- mittee our Revolving Fund was increased to $10,000 to cover the operating 140 NaTIoNAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION expenses of the General Secretary’s office, and subordinate departments. During the greater part of the year we found that this was entirely adequate for our needs, and we were always able to close the month’s expenses with a small balance on hand in our “Special Account” to carry us through until our reimbursing check came to us from our “Regular Account,” but during the past two months (April and May) when our work has been unusually heavy, and our expenses have likewise increased for clerical service and supplies, we have realized that for the coming year we will need a Revolving Fund of at least $15,000. Otherwise it will be nec- essary for us to put through a bi-monthly expense bill to cover the expenses of the Secretary’s office, and this is not practical since the bulk of our ex- penses is incurred at the end of the month when the salary checks are made up. We could perhaps meet our expenses easily on the $10,000 Revolving Fund if the salary checks were all drawn bi-monthly, and then expense bills made up immediately after the 15th and at the close of the month. I think we should submit this to the Executive Committee for their con- sideration at the summer meeting. During the recent audit of the funds of the Association by Messrs. Marwick, Mitchell & Co., of New York, favorable comment was made concerning the handling of funds. While several suggestions were made whereby the work might be simplified or accounts readjusted, upon dis- cussing the matter in detail the suggestions were withdrawn. It may be that the auditors will have something favorable to recommend in their official report which may be helpful in the work. They again expressed the view that all membership receipts should be consecutively numbered and accounted for, but under our new system and with the large growth of the Association, we feel that this would be absolutely prohibitive, and when it came to auditing the records under consecutive numbering it would mean the work of several people for a considerable length of time. at heavy expense. Under our present system of handling the cash mem- berships, which is covered by a triplicate check, there is very little likelihood that bogus memberships might be issued. MEMBERSHIP According to our records for the year ending May 31, 1921, we had approximately an enrolment of 70,000 members, including institutions, or an increase of 25,000 over the preceding year. Our total Ha Se on June 1, 1922, was 108,474, an increase of approximately 40,000 during the past year. While our growth in membership during the coming years may be somewhat more gradual than during the past two years, we anticipate that through our affiliation with the State and local associations, which we hope may soon become operative through the “budget” sea that our membership will have an ever steady and increasing growth. ‘With this almost doubled membership during the year has come increased work in the handling of the records of membership, but we have endeavored to dis- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 141 patch the work as rapidly and efficiently as possible with a minimum of service. During the first seven months of the year we handled the work of the department without additional help, thus keeping the cost of han- dling the increasing membership down as low as possible, but since the first of January we have found it necessary to add six new people to our staff, as the major proportion of our memberships now reach the office during the last three months of the fiscal year. It is imperative that these memberships be promptly entered and the proper credits given as quickly as possible, in order that we may clear up the membership records before the close of the year, when the transfer of record cards and addressing plates is made to start the new year. In order that our members may be somewhat more conversant with his or her membership record, every one of which has a separate place in our “Membership Record” file, perhaps it might be of interest to follow “just one” of the 108,474 memberships that come to the office of the General Secretary through the process of recording. After the letter from a mem- ber has been opened in the Secretary’s office and the remittance attached to the transmittal blank or letter, it goes to the Cash Entry Clerk who enters same on the daily cash sheets, and at the same time these entries are consecutively numbered, which enables us very readily to trace any payment through our cash records. ‘These sheets, covering a day’s entries, then go to the cashier, or assistant treasurer, who detaches the remittances and prepares same for deposit in the regular banking account of the Asso- ciation at the Continental Trust Co., Washington. After the banking has been prepared, the cash sheets with remittance blanks are then passed to the head of the Record Department, and in turn each name is checked with our Membership Record file to ascertain whether or not the mem- ber is already enrolled as a member of the Association, and if he is, his record card is “pulled” so that the cash entry can be recorded, and the change of address noted when indicated. ‘The membership blanks then go to the addressograph operators, who prepare the plates for all new mem- bers and correct old ones where needed, and then the cards are run for the various files, the envelope for the return membership card, and the wrap- per for the Journals. While this is going on the individual membership cards are made up from the cash sheets, so that they will be ready for mailing as soon as the record is complete. These plates, cards, and envelopes are again checked against the remittance blanks and cash sheets, and the plates and cards are then ready for filing in our “paid” file. This indicates that each membership must be handled ten times before the transaction is com- plete and the record of a member’s payment duly recorded on the rolls of the Association. We often have memberships to adjust, many of which need an individual letter suiting the particular case, but out of the 108,000 members I think I am safe in saying that we do not have over 500 through- out the year, and these we are usually able to adjust consistent with their record in a manner satisfactory to the member as well as ourselves. Our 142 NaTIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION records are at all times open for inspection to our visiting members, and we take special pride in showing any who may call at headquarters his or her particular membership record and our system of filing. It is certainly very complete in every detail, and as yet we are unable to see how it might be improved even to meet the growing demands of the Association. In addi- tion to our membership record file, we have a complete alphabetical and geographical file, which is of great assistance in locating a member quickly, or in making comparisons by towns, cities, or States. Our records show that we have had a slower but steady growth in our $5.00 memberships, especially with respect to institutions and libraries, who desire all of the publications of the Association on the shelves of their libraries for use in reference work. We have noted, however, from the many inquiries that we receive regarding membership, that THr JouRNAL now seems to be filling a long-felt need, and that it is looked upon as a source of pleasure and benefit to the individual member. EXPENSE COVERING COLLECTION OF DUES We still have before us the problem of the enormous expense of collecting the membership dues, which we hope in the near future to eliminate, or reduce to a minimum, through the “budget” plan, codperating with the State and local associations. Under our present plan of collecting dues from each individual member, one can readily estimate the large expense involved in clerical services, and postage, in addition to the expense cover- ing the statement of dues and necessary enclosures. “This last year we sent out four notices to all unpaid members, or an equivalent of approximately 110,000 notices, and we still have 20,000 unpaid members on our rolls, the majority of whom will perhaps not pay until they have received the fifth call of dues in the early fall. You can therefore readily see what it will mean to the Association in revenue if we can have these dues collected and transmitted to us in bulk by the State or local associations. A large number of cities has already established this method of collecting dues, and in most of them it seems to be working out well. While we now and then have differences to adjust regarding the year which the membership is supposed to cover, in time this difficulty will no doubt be entirely eliminated. Thus far the only serious drawback that we have found in our department is that our rush of work comes at the end of the year, whereas formerly it was more evenly distributed throughout the year. This is probably because the dues are withheld awaiting a 100 per cent enrolment, and they reach Headquarters during the last three months of the year. A relief for this congestion, can and will no doubt be worked out as the plan is more fully developed. AFFILIATED MEMBERSHIP We have now been able to establish and maintain a membership record of all of our affiliated associations, and it is working out advantageously. On these record cards we keep an up-to-date record of the officers of the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 143 afhliated associations, together with their payments of dues as received. The plate for the publications is made up when possible in the name of the secretary. - MEMBERSHIP YEAR It was recommended last year that the Association year be changed to coincide with the calendar year, as it was thought that this would obviate the confusion arising over the exact period which a membership covers, and simplify the work in the Record Department. This we understand is not deemed advisable by the State secretaries if they are to work out the collec- tion of dues on the “Budget” plan, as they believe that the Association year must conform to the school year. This recommendation will no doubt accordingly be rescinded. NEEDS OF THE RECORD DEPARTMENT FOR THE COMING YEAR During the last year we have added considerable equipment to our de- partment in the way of steel cabinets for our addressing plates and files for the membership record, and we have also purchased another ad- dressograph and graphotype machine so that we feel that our immediate wants are perhaps provided for. We shall need additional equipment, especially filing cabinets, before the end of the year, and it might be well for us to obtain the approval of the Executive Committee to purchase such equipment as the growth of the Association demands. What we now need most of all is more room—floor space—as we have been working to a disadvantage under congested conditions for the last three months, and we shall need to work this out at the earliest possible moment, so that we will not be handicapped for room when our work begins in the fall. CONCLUSION In conclusion, permit me to say that while the year has been without doubt the most strenuous in the history of our department, it has been one of added interest and zest as well as responsibility, and I feel sure that each member of the department has felt satisfied and happy in their par- ticular work. We all appreciate the hearty codperation given us by all members of the office staff, and the occasional visits and words of encourage- ment from our President, Miss Williams, have been most helpful and in- spiring. In closing I wish to add a word of appreciation of my assistants and co-workers who have been most loyal and painstaking in their work, which has in a great measure facilitated the work, of this department. I appreciate and feel most grateful for their splendid support, and I believe their work is as fully appreciated by you and the other officers of the Association. 144 NatIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY AGNES S. WINN, ASSISTANT SECRETARY I take pleasure in submitting a brief report of my work since taking up my duties as Assistant Secretary, February 15, 1922. The work has been so varied that it is difficult to summarize its activities. They may however be classified under the following heads: . Annual convention . Standing committees . Affiliated associations . Publicity and field work . The president and headquarters . General correspondence The annual convention—A large share of the work and plans for the Boston meeting, including correspondence regarding the general program and with the heads of Departments and Allied Organizations, forty in all, was carried on. Answering letters requesting information concerning the meeting; the preparation of a bulletin giving this information, to be sent out in letters; looking after identification certificates; and working with the editorial department in assembling the general and departmental programs and the preparation of notes and announcements consumed practically the months of April, May, and June. Special committees—The responsibility of carrying on the correspondence with committees, notifying those that are to report at Boston and those whose reports are to be printed, has been assumed. If the work of special committees of the Association is to function it is necessary for the chairman to keep in touch with the Central Office and to keep the Secretary informed as to the results of the work. I would therefore recommend that next year a member of the headquarters’ staff be assigned to each committee to assist in whatever way may be necessary to make the work effective. Affiliated associations—Extensive correspondence has been carried on with leaders of local organizations for the purpose of strengthening the ties with the National Association of those already affiliated and of explain- ing the Association’s program of service to those not yet a part of the National organization. As a result many affiliations and renewals of membership as. well as new memberships have been received. In replying to letters no opportunity has been lost in getting the program of the Asso- ciation before the teachers of the country. It is hoped that more time may be given to this phase of the work in the future. Publicity and field work—Articles on special phases of the work of the Association have been written for the press as well as articles for organiza- tion publications. Letters have been sent to State directors, presidents and secretaries of State teachers’ associations, State superintendents of public instruction for the purpose of collecting information concerning their plans for the Boston meeting and its publicity. Calls for field work have been received, but it has not been possible to respond, owing to the amount of DOP WHD REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 145 work at headquarters. The Secretary hopes that the work will so shape itself another year that some calls of this nature may be accepted. The president and headquarters—The policy at headquarters has been to keep the President informed daily of all activities. It has been a privilege to carry out this policy during the present year at a time when a big program was evolved. _ General correspondence—The correspondence of a general character in- cluded requests for information concerning publications of the Association, its policies, its work, and history; inquiries about the salary question, pensions for teachers, lists of books, and legislative measures. It will be seen that the range of activities of this department is very wide. It has served to relieve the Secretary of many of the details of the organiza- tion and its various departments. These first few months at headquarters have strengthened my previous ideals for a great National Association,— an Association having the unique privilege of binding the teachers of the Nation in one great professional organization with a common purpose, with a common understanding, and with common ideals. It will be the purpose of this office to keep in touch with classroom teachers and administrators to assist in bringing about this professional unity. The unprecedented growth of the Association since its reorganization is largely due to its program of service, to the faithful and untiring work of its officers, as well as to the awakening of a professional consciousness among teachers. With this growth in numbers the Association must equip itself for a greater future service and for a more vital influence in the lives of its members than it has ever done before. It is hoped that it will be my privilege to make clear to the teachers through correspondence and personal contact the benefits that will accrue to them and to the teaching profession from membership in a great National organization and to encourage and assist local leaders in their local problems. To carry out this program of service the structure must be made so strong, so upright, and so enduring that the passing of the years will but strengthen its foundations. Were every member of this organization to bring to it his varied experience, and to try to interpret the aims and the aspirations of the American teacher it would help the Association realize these ideals. 146 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF RESEARCH DEPARTMENT JOHN K. NORTON, DIRECTOR I take pleasure in submitting a report covering the work of the Research Department since its establishment, March 1, 1922. I. ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH DEPARTMENT First attention has been given to organizing the Research Department upon an effective basis. “Che organization of such a Department is a task that requires considerable thought and time. Its future effectiveness will depend upon the foundation which is laid. ‘The following has been accomplished. Cooperative relationships have been established with a number of the research agencies of the country; contacts have been made with many of the excellent sources of information that exist in Washington. A beginning has been made in collecting a small working reference library. A simple but effective cataloging and filing system has been installed. Progress has been made in training two assistants to handle the detailed clerical, tabulating, and filing work of the department. After much correspondence and many conferences with members of the Association representing every field of educational endeavor, the policies of the department have been outlined, and a tentative program of work has been laid out for the coming year. We shall begin the year with a feeling of confidence that comes from having well-defined objectives. It is with satisfaction, therefore, that we report the Research Depart- ment ready to take an active part in the Association’s program of service. II. WORK ACCOMPLISHED SINCE MARCH 1, 1922 Concurrently with this preliminary work of organization it has been possible to complete several definite pieces of work. A brief statement of the work accomplished is given below under three heads. Work accomplished under the direction of committees of the Associa- tion—Approximately half of the time of the Department staff has been devoted to collecting data for use by a number of the Committees of the Association. In codperation with the Committee on Sources of Revenue data have been gathered concerning the methods used by the States in dis- tributing State school funds. Beginnings have also been made on a study which has the determination of better sources for school revenue as its objective. The'data being gathered upon these subjects are to be used by this Committee in the preparation of leaflets on school finance. The Department has worked in close codperation with the Commission on Coérdination of Research Agencies. Many valuable suggestions have been received from the Commission as to the proper functions of the De- partment. A tentative plan has been drafted whereby the Department, acting with the advice of this Commission, will attempt to bring about a better coordination of the educational research agencies in the country. With this end in view a sugyey of the most important educational problems REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 147 has been completed. A communication inquiring about these problems was addressed to a representative number of affiliated associations and individual members of the Association. The replies received to this communication were tabulated, and on the basis of this tabulation the most important problems of the coming school year were listed. The problems as tabulated fall under two heads: (a) School finance: methods of distributing funds, new sources of revenue, comparative budget statistics; and (b) teacher problems: salaries, training, pension, tenure. During the coming school year an attempt wili be made to bring about a better codrdinated attack of these problems by the educational research agencies of the country. At the same time much duplication of effort may be prevented on the part of research workers, and the volumne of ques- tionnaires sent out on these topics reduced. Much time has been devoted to gathering data for use by the Legislative Commission in furthering its work for the Towner-Sterling Bill. This Commission has just completed the preparation of a comprehensive, detailed statement supporting this important measure. The task of collecting and organizing much of the data upon which this statement is based was dele- gated to the Research Department. Much of the data so collected will be of value during the coming school year as a basis for a number of publicity leaflets to be issued as an aid to those responsible for “‘selling’’ schools to the general public. The Salary Division of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions in March outlined a program of work for the Research Department, in- volving the collection of information on salaries, supplementing that al- ready in the possession of the Committee. This work was completed under the direction of this committee, and the tabulations of the data re. ceived were completed and turned over to the Committee to be used as the basis of its report. Definite pieces of work have also been done in codperation with the Com- mittee on Foreign Relations and the Rural School Committee of the Na- tional Council of Education. Minor pieces of work have also been com- pleted for several other committees. Preparation of Research Bulletin Number One—A sixty-four page bul- letin, Facts On the Cost of Public Education, Research Department, Bulletin One, has been prepared and printed for general circulation. ‘This bulletin brings together information of value to those dealing with the edu- cational problems that are now of first importance. Data found in this bulletin on salaries make possible a comprehensive view of the salary situa- tion for a representative number of both urban and rural communities in every State of the Union. The contents include: (1) The Increasing Cost of Education; (2) Salary Tables; (3) Salaries and the Cost of Living; (4) Recent Tendencies in Salary Schedules; (5) Data Concerning Teacher Status; (6) Tenure; (7) Pensions, and (8) Reference Material. Most of the data of this bulletin are not accessible elsewhere. New methods are also suggested for the effective use of the facts presented. 148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ———— Data that will serve as a basis for several smaller bulletins, are already collected and will be made available for use by the members of the Associa- tion during the coming school year. “These pamphlets will contain reliable statistical information accompanied by sufficient discussion to make clear the source and meaning of the tables. General information service—No general announcement has as yet been made that the Department is ready to supply the members of the Association with information that will aid them in dealing with special local situations. Nevertheless, numerous requests for special service have reached the De- partment. It has been possible to answer satisfactorily a majority of them in spite of the fact that we have been in the organizational stage. In all, forty-seven special written requests have been answered. To gather the data used in meeting these demands has often involved several hours’ work. It has been the policy to reply to these requests promptly, giving at once the information desired if available. When it is not available it is later - furnished in as complete form as possible. A careful record has been made of all requests for such service, so that it may be accurately known just what information is in most demand by members of the Association and so that future needs of the members of the Association may be anticipated. Ill. LOOKING TO THE FUTURE On the basis of the past four months’ experience certain tentative state- ments concerning the policies and functions of the Department may be ventured. It appears that one of the first duties of the Research Depart- ment is to aid in bringing about a better coordination of the educational research agencies of the country so as to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort in collecting educational information. A second function has to do with the devising of machinery whereby current educational information may be promptly supplied to members of the Association when it is needed by them in meeting practical problems in the field. During the coming school year two types of information will be in great- est demand. First, that relating to the problems of public-school finance; second, that pertaining to the welfare and development of the teaching profession. One of the first duties is to provide information of value to those interested in the development of a better qualified and better com- pensated profession. Frequent bulletins will be issued containing valuable information for those striving to obtain better salary schedules and im- proved teaching conditions. The work in codperation with the committees of the Association will soon become a major function of the Department. It is believed desirable that the Department give special attention and help to the work of these committees insofar as their work involves the collection of research data. Following are some of the advantages that will grow out of this develop- ment: 1. The gathering of exact data as a basis for committee reports will be the first responsibility of a trained and experienced research worker, the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 149 Director of the Research Department, rather than the incidental duty of an already overworked school official or teacher. 2. Data may be gathered covering a period of several months in a compre- hensive rather than in a-hurried manner at the end of the school year as is so often necessary under present conditions. 3. Accurate statistical information will be available to committee chair- men in the preparation of their reports. . 4. Duplication of effort may be prevented and a coordination of the efforts of the various committees of the Association may be brought about. 5. Committee chairmen and members may be relieved of much of the personal expense and clerical work involved in the preparation of reports. The Research Department is so organized that it is in a position to collect economically such data as the Committees desire. Information so gathered can be tabulated in proper form and submitted to the Committee chairmen in duplicate for the use of their committees. 6. Committee chairmen will be left free to devote their time to the inter- pretation of the data gathered for them and to the organization of their reports. 7, At the same time the expense of financing the various committees may be reduced since less traveling will be necessary. ‘This seems desirable since last year nearly $3000 of the Association’s money and this year over $7000 of the Association’s money was used in financing the work of the various committees. A general information service to members of the Association will doubt- less soon be one of the Department’s most important functions. ‘The de- mands that have come to the Department during the past four months previous to any announcement of an ability to meet them and the experience of other research agencies justify this conclusion. ‘These demands, often of vital importance to large numbers of Association members, cannot be neglected. To meet them adequately often requires an expenditure of considerable time on the part of a trained research worker. A careful selection of ‘material for general bulletins in anticipation of coming needs will reduce the work of providing this service, but there will always be many demands that will require special work if they are to be properly handled. Furthermore, they must be met promptly. A delay of a few days or weeks means that the time will have been passed when the informa- tion desired is of most value. It is important, therefore, that we anticipate the demands that will be made upon the Department and take the steps that are necessary in preparing to satisfy them adequately. IV. RECOMMENDATIONS Having in mind the work that has been accomplished during the past four months and looking forward to the coming year, the following definite recommendations are submitted for approval. ‘They are made after much careful thought and with the general financial situation of the Association in mind. 150 NationaL Epucation ASSOCIATION 1. A trained research assistant should be added to the Research Depart- ment, as soon as the finances will permit. “This is necessary in order that the two main divisions of work of the Department may be adequately carried on. The work of the Department roughly divides itself into: (a) The preparation of bulletins of general and statistical information in anticipation of the needs of the members of the Association; and (b) The meeting of special demands made by individual members of the Association, committees, or affliated organizations. If the first duty is properly discharged, the second must often be put aside and neglected with the result that the members of the Association are disappointed in not receiving information of vital concern to the welfare of the profession. If the second is properly discharged, the first must be neglected with the result that vital information that might be extensively circulated is not made available, and the work of gathering information for committees’ use is neglected. 2. An appropriation for a reasonable amount should be made with the needs of the library of the Research Department in mind. This money should be used in the purchase of books and documents that cannot be ob- tained free. A small but up-to-date and adequate research library must be maintained if the Department is to be of maximum service. 3. Recommendations should be made to the Executive Committee that they encourage committees of the Association to function through the De- partment insofar as their work involves the collection and tabulation of educational data and information. 4. An appropriation should be set aside with the needs of the Research Department in mind sufficient to cover the budget given below: BUDGET ESTIMATE FOR RESEARCH DEPARTMENT, 1922-23 SET Talc aR ng Sa eae SPOR a0 the WR mayen Meee Te $14,400 Prt forte etc ce ak Re eee eee 1 2,000 Postage -and Oihce Supplies + - ee tt eee ©.5. 500 Jraveling sixpenses; 431 et ee ee ee 500 Ofice EGuipmient. «cts th a... ates em era eee 350 Lab Tar yn eee LRT FR PENNS aes Bs § Ja SE ge ee Peng 200 BASE Diese ae eee een tle WR EOR Sr a aeer $17,950 This budget will make it possible for the Research Department to make a substantial contribution to the Association’s program of service to the teachers of the Nation. STATE AND LOCAL ASSOCIATIONS AFFILIATED WITH THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Alabama Alabama Education Association, J. Alex Moore, President, Jasper; H. G. Dowling, Secretary, Cullman. BrESsSEMER—City Teachers’ Association, J. O. Sturdivant, Secretary. BirMiIncHAM—Birmingham Teachers’ Associa- tion, J. C. Powell, Secretary. FLorENcE—State Normal School Association, Cc. B. Collier, Secretary. Marion—Judson College Bower, Secretary. Montcomrery—The Woman’s College of Ala- bama, J. M. Dannelley, Secretary. Troy—State Normal School, Mrs. Owens, Secretary. Faculty, Mabel Arthur Arizona Arizona State Teachers’ Association, A. O. Neal, President, Tucson; A. lL. Jones, Sec- retary, Phoenix. FracstarrF—Northern Arizona Normal School Faculty, I. B. McMullen, President. PuHornix—Phoenix Teachers Association, Katherine Tulloch. Temre—Tempe Normal School Faculty, A. J. Mathews, President. Tucson—Public Schools, George Peak. Arkansas Arkansas Educational Association, D. T. Henderson, President, Lake Village; Irene Jones, Secretary, Leslie. FavyeTtEvitLeE—Faculty of University of Ar- kansas, W. H. Crorent, Secretary. Fort SmitH—Fort Smith Teachers’ Ruby Washington, President. Lirtts Rocx—Centennial Teachers’ Circle, Emmie De Neler, Secretary. —Garland School Improvement Association, Mrs. Edna Rollins, Secretary. —Mitchell School Improvement Association, Mrs, J. D. Lord, Secretary, — —Peabody Faculty, Delle Patterson, Sec- retary. - é 2 Club, —Principal’s Round Table, Emmie De Neler, Secretary. —Women Teachers’ Association, Mamie Gingles, Secretary. California California Council of Education, E. Morris Cox, President, Oakland; A. H. Chamber- lain, Secretary, San Francisco. BrerKetEy—Alameda County, California Edu- cation Association, Elizabeth Venard, Sec- “etary. —Berkeley Teachers’ Association, Frank R. Shallenberger, Secretary. —University of California, Sproul, Secretary. Cuico—Chico Teachers’ Club, Mary J. Ma- honey, Secretary. Corona—Corona Teachers’ Association, Mar- garet Horst, Secretary. FureKaA—Eureka Teachers’ Association, Miss T. Tomlinson, Secretary. GLENDALE—Glendale City Margaret Ball, Secretary. Lonc BracH—Long Beach Teachers’ Club, Ralph E. Oliver, Secretary. Los AncELES—Faculty of Occidental College, Robert G. Cleland, Secretary. —High School Teachers’ Association, Rmma Graves Conway, Secretary. —Faculty of The College of Liberal Arts, University of Southern California, Hugh S. Willett, Secretary. —Los Angeles City Teachers’ Club, Marie L. Brandt, Secretary. Oaxtanp—Oakland Principals’ Loges, Secretary. —The Oakland Teachers’ Association, H. D. Brasefield, Secretary. —School Women’s Club of Oakland, Irene Borwell, Secretary. PasapENA—California Institute of Technology, A. B, Sherer. Pomona—Pomona City Teachers’ Club, Lin- nie D. Savage, President. Rep Biurr—Tehama. County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, J. D. Sweeney, Secretary. Reponpo BracH—Teachers’ Club of Redondo Union High School District, Anna M. K. Hansen, Treasurer, SacraAMENTO—Sacramento School Women’s Club, Grace I. Maxwell, Secretary. San Bernarpino—San Bernardino City Teachers’ Club, Emma Knight, Secretary. San Dirco—San Diego Principals’ Club, W. S. Wright, Secretary. —San Diego Teachers’ Association, Eugenia Welker, Secretary. \ San Francisco—San Francisco Grade Teach- ers’ Association, Dorothy Farrell, Secretary. —San Francisco Principals’ Association, Mrs. R. B. Stolz, Secretary. San Jose—Faculty of San Jose State Normal School, Mary C. Sweet, Treasurer. —Santa Clara County School Masters’ Club, Walter L. Bachrodt, Secretary. —Santa Clara County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Lucile Snyder, Secretary. Santa Ana—Santa Ana City Teachers’ Leogde, Mary L. Harris, Sécretary. Robert G. Teachers’ Club, Club, Dora TU tStiee eee 152 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION we SE SS EE EES ee Santa Barpara—Santa Barbara City Teach- ers’ Club, W. J. Kircher, Secretary. Santa Monica—Santa Monica Teachers’ As- sociation, J. G. McNeely, Secretary. Srocxton—Stockton Elementary Teachers’ Association, Marie Meier, Secretary. VatitEyo—Solano Teachers’ Club, Olive Wil- son, Secretary. Colorado Colorado Education Association, R. J. Wal- ters, President, Rocky Ford; H. B. Smith, Secretary, Denver. AtamosA—San Luis Valley Teachers’ ciation, Geo. J. Saunders, Secretary. BoutpER—Boulder County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Anna J. Ewing-Bittner, County Sup- erintendent. —Boulder Teachers’ Club, Blanch Ricketts, Secretary. Bricuton—Brighton Associated Teachers, H. M. Brown, Secretary. Canon City—Canon City Teachers’ Millicent Steacy, Secretary. Cotorapo Srincs—Colorado Springs Federa- tion of Teachers, Dagmar M. Holm, Secre- tary. —Teachers’ Association of The School for the Deaf and Blind, Grace M. Beattie, President. Asso- Club, DENVvER—Aurora Teachers’ Association, Mrs. Marie Young, Secretary. —Denver Grade Teachers’ Association, Mabelrose Wildman, Secretary. —The Denver Senior High School Teach- ers’ Association, Emma B. Ecker, Secre- tary. —Denver Principals’ and Directors’ Asso- ciation, Genevteve Simpson, Secretary. —Denver Teachers’ Club, Charlotte R. Christian, Secretary. —High School Masters’ Guild of Denver, Wm. C. Twieg, Secretary. Fort Cottins—Faculty of The Colorado Agri- cultural College, L. M. Taylor, Secretary. —Fort Collins Teachers’ Club, Pearl Moore, Secretary. ~ GrEELEY—Colorado State Teachers’ College Faculty, W. H. Hargrove, Secretary. —Greeley Teachers’ Club, “sey I. Comin, Secretary. Gunnison—Faculty of the Colerado State Normal School, Eva Carpenter, Secretary. La Junta—La Junta Teachers’ Club, Mrs. W. H. Burrows, Secretary. Loncmont—Longmont Teachers’ Club, D. W. Spangler, President. MAanzaNnoLa—Otero County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Clifford A. Bushey, Secretary. MontrosE—Montrose Educational tion, R. R. Brown, Secretary. Pursto—The Pueblo Branch of the N. EB AS Maud Boreing, Secretary. Associa- —Pueblo County Teachers’ Association, Lillie O. Baker. —Pueblo Grade Teachers’ Association, Dis- trict 20, Ruby Lammereaux, Secretary. Rocxy Forp—Rocky Ford Teachers’ Associa- tion, Edith Selberg, Secretary. Srertinc—Federated Teachers’ Club of Logan County, Amy Dickinson, Secretary. TrintipaAD—Trinidad Teachers’ Association, Mary Rose O’Brien, Secretary. Wiccins—Morgan County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Lewis R. Owens, Secretary. Connecticut Connecticut State Teachers’ Association, Ed- ward J. Graham, President, Norwich; Sam- uel P. Willard, Secretary, Colchester. DansurY—Danbury High School Teachers’ Association, Harold I. Long, Secretary. Drerp River—Deep River Teachers’ Assocta- tion, Elma M. Tyler, Secretary. East Hartrorp—East Hartford Teachers’ Association, P. S. Barnes, Superintendent. GLastonBuRY—Glastonbury Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Florence E. Meacham, Secretary. Meripen—Meriden Teachers’ Association, Gertrude M. O’Connor, Secretary. RipGEFIELD—Ridgefield Parent Teachers’ As- sociation, Mable Roth, Secretary. —Ridgefield Teachers’ Association, Grace C. White, Secretary. SHELTON—Shelton Teachers’ League, Dorothea A. Vebrett, Secretary. StamMForp—Stamford Teachers’ Association, Harry T. Hart, Treasurer. StRATFORD—Stratford Teachers’ Association, Mary C. Nolan, Secretary. ‘THOMPSONVILLE—Enfield Teachers’ Associa- tion, Viola R. Allen, Secretary. Westport — Westport Teachers’ League, Theresa L. Custer, Secretary. Delaware Delaware State Teachers’ Association, Warren K. Yerger, President, Wilmington; Agnes Snyder, Secretary, Newark. BRIDGEVILLE—Sussex County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Anne Cahall, Secretary. MippLtEtown—New Castle County Teachers’ Association, O. EK. McKnight, Secretary. ~ Mitrorp—Kent County Educational Associa- tion, Robert E. Shilling, Secretary. District of Columbia Education Association of the District of Co- lumbia, Dr. W. C., Ruediger, President; Adelaide Davis, Secretary. WasHINGToN—Faculty of Georgetown Uni- versity, Thomas I. Gasson, Secretary. —xHigh School Teachers’ Association, Mrs. May D. Merrill, Secretary. AFFILIATIONS 153 Florida Florida Educational Association, C. R. M. Sheppard, President, De Land; R. L. Turner, Secretary, Inverness. BaRBERVILLE—West End Volusia County Teachers’ Association, Gertrude A, Scott, Secretary. Daytona—East Volusia County Teachers’ Association, Jenny Morrill, Secretary. DrELtanpD—Deland Teachers’ Association, B. F. Ezell, Superintendent. MiamMi—Royal Palm Education Association, Chas. M. Fisher, Secretary. PatmeTto—Manatee County Educational As- sociation, A. H. Flowers, Secretary. Ping CasttE—Orange County Educational Association, C. I, Darrance, Secretary. Georgia Georgia Educational Association, H. D. Knowles, President, Quitman; Walter P. Jones, Secretary, Macon. AtLanta—Faculty of Georgia School of Tech- nology, F. P. Branch, Secretary. CottEcE Park—Cowr College, George A. Hawkins, Secretary. FirzGErRaALD—Fitzgerald Teachers’ Julia Prentiss, Secretary. Council, Hawaii Hawaii Education Association, H. W. Wells, President, Wailuku; P. H. Cooley, Secre- tary, Lahaina. Hito—Hilo Teachers’ Union, Cecil Overend, Secretary. HonotuLu—Oahu Teachers’ Association, Ethyl I. Burgun, Secretary. WaituKu—Maui Teachers’ Association, R. C. Bowman, Secretary. Idaho Idaho State Teachers’ Association, Charles R. Frazier, President, Pocatello; Alice Beach, Secretary, Montpelier. BurLtEy—South-Central District Association, Mae Lowe, Secretary. CaLpwELL—College of Idaho Faculty, Paul Murphy, Secretary. —Southwestern Teachers’ Margaret Knowlton, Secretary. Caur D’AtenE—Ceur D’Alene Teachers’ Association, John H. McPhee, Secretary. Ipano Fatts—North Eastern Idaho Teachers’ Association, Coralie Lake, Secretary. Lewiston—Faculty of the Lewiston State Normal School, Katherine M. Vincent, Sec- retary. Nezperce—N. Central Idaho Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Madge Miller, Secretary. PocarELtLo—Pocatello Education Asociation, Ada R. Shuey, Secretary. Association, ,East St, —Southeastern Teachers’ Association, Clara M. Rector, Secretary. WatiacE—North Idaho Teachers’ tion, C. D. Brock, President. Associa- Illinois Illinois State Teachers’ Association, J. O. Engleman, President, Joliet; Robert C. Moore, Secretary, Carlinville. A.tton—Alton Public Schools, W. C. Reavis, Superintendent. Aurora—Aurora Teachers’ Association, Ve- ronica G. O’Neil, Secretary. Canton—Canton Teachers’ Association, Jessie G. Mercer, Secretary. CartHacE—Carthage College Senate, H. D. Hoover, President. : Cuicaco—Chicago Teachers’ League, Helen M. Rathbun, Secretary. —Head Assistants’ Association, Mrs. Mary Farnsworth, Secretary. CrystaL Laxe—lIilinots State Teachers Asso- ciation, N. &. Section, H. A. Dean, Treas- urer, Decatur—Decatur Teachers’ Sadie Fitzpatrick, Secretary. Louvis—East St. Louis Teachers’ Association, Elsie Tietze, Secretary. —Grade Teachers’ Fellowship Society, Jose- phine Lessley, Secretary. Eicin—Elgin Teachers’ Organization, Ethelyn J. Mitchell, Secretary. Evanston—E£vanston, Illinois, Teachers’ Club, Elizabeth Champion, Secretary. Farrsury—Livingston County Teachers’ As- sociation, EK. W. Powers. GaLena—Galena Teachers’ Association, Fred Seubert, Secretary. Association, GaLessurc—Faculty of Galesburg High School. —Galesburg Teachers’ Association, Mrs. Rose M. Hoben Welch, Secretary. GrENESEO—Geneseo Elementary Teachers’ As- sociation, Mabel C. Young, Secretary. GiEencon—Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Arthur B. Rowell, Secretary. GranviILLE—Upper Illinois Valley Division of the Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Mrs. Anna M. Holliday, Secretary. Jor1rt—Joliet Teachers’ Federation, Kathryn Kelly, Secretary. —Joliet Township High School Teachers’ Association, Gertrude Lawler, Secretary. Lepanon—The McKendree Teachers’ Club, Marie Shurtleff, Secretary. Lincotn—Logan County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Ruby Fahay, Secretary. Macomsp—Faculty of the Western Illinois State Normal School, R. R. Simpkins, Sec- retary. —McDonough County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Margaret Crain, Secretary. 154 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MonmoutH—Faculty of Monmouth College, M. M. Maynard, Secretary. Monticetto—Piatt County Teachers’ ciation, Charles McIntosh, Secretary. Normat—Faculty of the Illinois State Normal University, Edith I. Atkin, Secretary. Oak ParK—Chicago Public School Kinder- garten Association, Belle Booth, Secretary. —Oak Park and River Forest Township High School, Arthur G. Bobbitt, Secretary. Prexin—Pekin Teachers’ Club, Lucille Per- rill, Secretary. Prorta—School Masters’ Club Anthony Middleton, Secretary. Princeton—Bureau County Superintendents’ and Principals’ Association, Geo. O. Smith, Secretary. Asso- of Illinois, River Forrest—Proviso Township High School, J. I, Thalman, President. Rocxrorp—Rockford Teachers’ Club, Mrs. Jessie P. Lentz, Secretary. Rock Istanp—Twin City Teachers’ Club, Amelia Fraenkenschuh, Secretary. SatemM—Marion County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mary E. Burns, Secretary. SpRINGFIELD—Springfield Teachers’ Associa- tion, Ernestine Fetzer, Secretary. WauKxEecan—Waukegan Division of the N. E. A,, Mabel Ellis, Secretary. WavERLY—Sangamon County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Lillie C. Campbell, Secretary. Indiana Indiana State Teachers’ Association, Dr. H. Ll. Smith, President, Bloomington; Charles O. Williams, Secretary, Richmond. ' Bioominccon—Bloomington, Indiana, Teach- ers’ Association, E. FE. Ramsey, Superin- tendent. —Indiana University, Secretary. CoNNERSVILLE—Fayette County Teachers’ Association, A. C. Payne, Superintendent. CRAWFORDSVILLE — Crawfordsville Schools, Evelyn McFeeley, Secretary. East Cutcaco—Council of East Chicago Pub- lic School Teachers, May Swearingen, Sec- retary. ErxuHart—Elkhart City Schools, J. F. Wiley, Superintendent. ELwoop—Public School Teachers of Elwood, FE. B. Hargrave, Secretary. EVANSVILLE—Federation of Public Teachers, Lois Myerhoff, Secretary. Fr. Wayne—Ft. Wayne Teachers’ Associa- tion, Elizabeth G. Murphy, President. —Principals’ Club, Celia C. Foley, Secre- tary. GosHEN—Elkhart County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Fannie Sweitger, Secretary. HamMMonp—Hammond City Teachers’ ciation, Mary A. Dwyer, Secretary. Huntincton—Huntington City Teachers, J. M. Scudder, Superintendent. John W. Cravens, School Asso- InpIANAPOLIS—Teachers Association of Nor- mal School, Flora E. Drake, Secretary. JurFERSONVILLE—Federation of Jeffersonville Teachers, Maude Craig, Secretary. La Fayerre—Public School Teachers of La Fayette, Ella Thompson, Secretary. Locanseort—Logansport Teachers’ tion, Lida Fawcett, Secretary. Marrton—Federation of Public School. Teach- ers, Bertha M. Anderson, Secretary. Federa- —Marion City Schools, A. E. Highley, Secretary. Micuican Crtry—Michigan City Teachers’ Club, Henrietta Leusch, Secretary. Muncir—Muncie Federation of Teachers; Marie E. Williams, Secretary. New Arspany—Federation of New Albany Teachers, Jessie Lee Jones, Secretary. NosiesvitLeE—Noblesville High School, A. E. Harbin, Secretary. Prru—Peru City Teachers’ Association, Hester C. Wood, Secretary. Soutnu Brenpo—South Bend City Teéachers’ Association, Alice H. Ebeling, Secretary. TerrE Haute—Faculty Club. of the Indiana State Normal School, Mrs. Bertha Bur- ford, Secretary. —Terre Haute Teachers’ Federation, Jessie Andrew, Secretary. Urpranp—Faculty of Taylor University, Jacob Bos, Secretary. WasasH—Wabash City Teachers’ Club, Gladys Moody, Secretary. WasuHiIncton—Washington City Teachers’ As- sociation, R. N. Tirey, Superintendent. Iowa Iowa State Teachers’ Association, 1, H. Min- kel, President, Ft. Dodge; Chas. F. Pye, Secretary, Des Moines. AmEes—Ames Public School Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Mrs. Ora Anderson, Secretary. BoonE—Boone Teachers’ Association, M. Gwynne Ward, Secretary. Buriincton—Burlington Teachers’ tion, Nella J. Brydolf, Secretary. Crepar Fatits—Faculty of the Iowa State Teachers College, 1. H. Hart, Secretary. Cepar Rapips—Cedar Rapids Grade Teachers’ Association, Mary E. Paul, Secretary. CENTERVILLE—Teachers’ Federation of Center- ville, Mrs. Emma Barton, Secretary. CuHartes City—County Superintendents of Iowa, Mary D. Korinke, Secretary. Crirnton—Clinton Teachers’ Federation, W. B. McMahon, Secretary. CouncIL Biurrs—Council Bluffs Club, Minnie Hanson, Treasurer. DAVENPORT—Scott County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Harriet J. Koch, Secretary. Drs Morines—Bureau of Education, Des Moines Chamber of Commerce, Clay D. Slinker, Secretary. Associa- Teachers’ AFFILIATIONS 155 ee eR SOON —The Des Moines Teachers’ Federation, Hf. D, Ejichelberg, Treasurer. DusuguE—Columbia College Faculty, Rever- end Edward A. Fitzgerald, Registrar. —Dubuque Teachers’ Association, H. M. Stolteben, Secretary. FavettE—Faculty of the Upper Iowa Uni- versity, E. A. Billings, Secretary. Fort Dopce—Fort Dodge Teachers’ Federa- tion, Mrs. Myrtle Harmon, Secretary. GRINNELL—Grinnell Teachers’ Association, Mabel Kinsman, Secretary. INDEPENDENCE—Buchanan County Teachers’ Association, Yetta J. Vargason, Secretary. Kroxux—Elementary Teachers’ Club, Edith Jack, Secretary. MiLForp—Dickinson County N. E. A. Unit, Gladys Jarard, Secretary. Missourrt VaLtLtEY—Missouri Valley Teachers’ Association, Helen Giehm, Secretary. MuscatinE—Muscatine City Teachers’ Fed- eration, Anna M. Barr, Secretary. Newton—Newton Teachers’ Association, Marguerite Schmitz, Secretary. OsxaLoosAa—Oskaloosa Teachers’ Association, Margaret Lichtenheld, Secretary. OrrumMwa—Ottumwa Teachers’ Club, Ada C. Lindquist, Secretary. Stoux Criry—Sioux City High School Teach- ers’ Association, Troy Welker, Secretary. —Sioux City Teachers’ Club, Mary A. Lord, Secretary. WatERLoo—Waterloo Teachers’ Association, Catherine Lumry, Secretary. Kansas Kansas State Teachers’ Association, J. W. Miley, President, Girard; F. L. Pinet, Sec- retary, Topeka. ArcHison—Atchison Educational Association, Jane Holm, Secretary. CHanutE—Chanute Teachers’ Association, N. Pearl Killion, Secretary. Cotumsus—Cherokee County Teachers’ As- sociation, Elizabeth Hawkins, Secretary. EmporiA—Faculty Club of Emporia High School, Minta Queen, Secretary. Er1e—Neosho County Teachers’ Association, Ralph B. Garvin, Secretary. Fort Scort—Fort Scott Teachers’ tion, Mary D. Stevens, Secretary. Hays—Fort Hays, Kansas, Normal Floyd B. Lee, Secretary. HiawatHa—Brown County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Margaret EK. Funkhouser, Secretary. —Hiawatha Teachers’ Association, Daisy Moore, Secretary. Hutcuinson—Hutchinson City Teachers’ As- sociation, Isabel Kent, Secretary. - Tora—Allen County, Kansas, Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Lovonia M. Donica, County Super- intendent. —Iola Teachers’ Club, Laura Andruss, Sec- retary. Associa- School, Kansas City—Du Bois Teachers’ Club, May McClelland, Secretary. —Kansas City, Kansas, Grade Teachers’ Club, Eva H. Wolf, Secretary. —Kansas City, Kansas, High School, Alta L. Haynes, Secretary. —Principals and Supervisors, Elizabeth S. Miller, Secretary. LAWRENCE—Douglas County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Aimee Piper, Secretary. —Educational Council of Lawrence Teach- ers, Mamie Clare Walker, Secretary. LEAVENWOoRTH—Leavenworth Grade Teachers’ Club, Blanche Zapps, Secretary. Linrrar—Liberal City Teachers’ Association, Bertha L. Winters, Secretary. Manuattan—Manhattan City Teachers’ As- sociation, Gertrude May, Secretary. OLATHE—Olathe City Teachers’ Association, Doris Iles, Secretary. Parsons — Parsons Teachers’ Florence De Lay, Secretary. RosepaLtE—Rosedale Teachers’ Maude Clavin, Secretary. SaLina—Salina City Teachers’ Eva P. Smith, Secretary. SmitH CEentTER—Smith County Teachers’ As- sociation, William M, McMullen, President. WELLINGTON—Wellington City Teachers’ As- sociation, Marie Friend, Secretary. WinFiELD—Winfield Teachers’ Association, Cora Vaughn, Secretary. Association, Association, Association, Kentucky Kentucky Education Association, W. J. Craig, President, Bowling Green; R. E. Williams, Secretary, Louisville. AsHLtanp—The Ashland Educational Associa- tion, Edith A. Chapman, Treasurer. Brerea—Faculty of Berea College, Berea, Ken- tucky, M. E. Vaughn, Secretary. 30WLING GREEN—Graded and High School Faculty, Ried Potter, Secretary. IlenpErRsoN—Henderson City Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Mrs. Claire Hancock, Secretary. LovutsvILttE—Faculty League of The Girls High School, Lorena Dumeyer, Secretary. —Guild of Lowisville Teachers, Ethel A. Murphy, Secretary. —Louisville Educational Association, Anne Grunder, President. MayFieLp—First District Teachers’ tion, B. H. Hester, Secretary. MorEHEAD—Rowan County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, J. Harlin Powers, Superintendent. Owenssporo—Owensboro Teachers’ Associa- tion, J. W. Snyder, Secretary. Papucan—Paducah, Kentucky, Public School Teachers’ Association, Adah 1, Brazelton, Secretary. RicuMonpD—Faculty of the Eastern Kentucky State Normal School, F. C. Gentry, Secre- tary. Associa- 156 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION Ue ne ye ee Louisiana Louisiana Public School Teachers’ Associa- tion, W. S. Lafargue, President, Thibo- daux; L. J. Alleman, Secretary, Natchi- toches. Natcuirocues—Louisiana State Normal Teachers’ Association, A. G. Alexander, Secretary. New Orieans—Danneel School Faculty, Mariah D. White, Principal: —Faculty of Newcomb College, Pierce But- ler, Dean. —Mothers’ Club, Ellen I, Murphy, Sec- retary. Maine Maine Teachers’ Association, G. Herbert Foss, President, Fort Fairfield; Adelbert W. Gor- don, Secretary, Augusta. Anson—Western Somerset County Teachers’ Association, Mrs. Annie Savage Smith, Sec- retary. Batu—Sagadahoc County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Ellen R. Turner, Secretary. Betrast—Belfast Teachers’ Club, Mrs. Annie lL. Black, Secretary. —Waldo County Teachers’ Association, Grace A. Lord, Secretary. Carais—Calais Teachers’ Club, FE. Doreen Gregory, Secretary. Dan¥rortH—Eastern Penobscot Teachers’ As- sociation, Christina Reid, Secretary. East BrownFiretp—Saco Valley Teachers’ Association, Mrs. R. W. Giles, Secretary. FarmMincton—Franklin County Teachers’ As- sociation, Agnes Mantor, Secretary. HALLOwELL—Kennebec County Teachers’ As- sociation, Ada E. Edgecomb, Secretary. Hovutton—Aroostook County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Mrs. Belle Briggs, Secretary. KENNEBUNKPORT—York County Teachers’ As- sociation, Cora B. Littlefield, Secretary. Lewiston—Auburn Teachers’ Association, Frances Estes, Secretary. Macutas—Washington County- Teachers’ As- sociation, Mary McDonald, Secretary. Marieton—Mapleton-Washburn Teachers’ As- sociation, Marcella Hines, Secretary. Mecuanic Farts— Androscoggin County Teachers’ Association, Nancy B. Farris, Secretary. PirtsrieLp—Eastern Somerset County Teach- ers’ Association, Annie M. Fuller, Secre- tary. Porttanp—Portland Teachers’ Will O. Hersey, Secretary. Presque Iste—Presque Isle-Westfield Teach- ers’ Club, Rowena C. McGowan, Secretary. Rocxiranp—Knox County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Harriett Trask, Secretary. RumForp—O-xzford County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Edith Hanson, Secretary. Saco—Saco Teachers’ Association, Elvira J. Lord, Secretary. Association, SancERvILLE—Piscataquis County Teachers’ Association, Abbie M. Fowler, Secretary. Soutuwest Harsor—Hancock County Teach- ers’ Association, Nellie B. Michels, Secre- tary. Waxposoro—Lincoln County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Helen Sibley, Secretary. Wesrsrook—Westbrook Teachers’ tion, Mary S. Small, Secretary. Wooprorps—Cumberland County Teachers’ Association, Fannie B. Cragin, Secretary. Associa- Maryland Maryland State Teachers’ Association, Dr. Norman W. Cameron, President, Baltimore; Hugh W. Caldwell, Secretary, Elkton. BattrmorE—College of Notre Dame, Sister Mary Augustine, Secretary. —Faculty of Baltimore Teachers’ Training School, Norman W. Cameron, Secretary. —Faculty of Christopher Gist School, Ida Buchheimer, Secretary. —Faculty of The James Monroe School, Laura M. Mills. Principals’ Association of Baltimore, George W. Ebaugh, Secretary. Cuurcw Hitt—High School Teachers’ Asso- ciation of Queen Anne County, E. Clyde Walls, Treasurer. Freperick—Faculty of Hood College, W. Augusta Lantz, Secretary. Frostsurc—Faculty Beall High School, Marion Bell, Secretary. MippietowN—Frederick County Teachers’ Association, H. R. Shoemaker, Treasurer. RocxvuLE—Montgomery County Teachers’ Association, Eleanor L,. Smith, Secretary. Royvat Oax—Talbot County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Neva M. Jones, Secretary. Satispury—Wicomico County Teachers’ As- sociation, Alice Toadvine, Secretary. Towson—Maryland State Normal School at Towson, Lida Lee Tall, President. WEsTMINSTER—Western Maryland College Library, Dorothy S. McDaniel, Librarian. Massachusetts Massachusetts Teachers’ Federation, Mary McSkimmon, President, Brookline 46; Ernst Makechnie, Secretary, Somerville 44. AmEsBuRY—Amesbury Teachers’ Association, Louise M. Haines, Secretary. ARLINGTON—Arlington Teachers’ Club, Vera E. Libby, Secretary. AtTTLEBORO—Attleboro Teachers’ Association, Edith Benson, Secretary. BrvERLY—The Beverly Teachers’ Association, Alice M. Preston, Secretary. Boston—Boston Normal School. —Boston University School of Education, Arthur H. Wilde, Director. BrapForp—Haverhill Teachers’ Alice J. McAlister, Secretary. Association, AFFILIATIONS 157 BRIDGEWATER—Bridgewater Teachers’ Associa- tion, Ella S. Knight, Secretary. Brocxton—Brockton Grade Teachers’ Club, Margaret G. Whyte, Secretary. BrRookLinE—Brookline, Massachusetts, Teach- ers’ Club, John McGlew, Secretary. CaMBRIDGE—Cambridge Teachers’ Club, Eliza- beth M. Kline, Secretary. —Winchester Teachers’ Gorman, Secretary. CuHEtsEA—Chelsea Teachers’ Spence, Secretary. Concorp—Concord, Massachusetts, Teachers’ Club, Madalene B. Sawyer, Secretary. Datton—Dalton Teachers’ Association, Mrs. Ruth Knickerbocker, Secretary. East BraIntREE—Braintree Teachers, Nellie Bolles, Treasurer. EastHAMPTON—Easthampton Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Lucy E. Tripp, Secretary. EvereTt—Somerville Teachers’ Association, Annie G. Merrill, Secretary. Everett—Everett Teachers’ Club, Esther F. Tuckwell, Secretary. FAIRHAVEN—Fairhaven Union Teachers’ As- sociation, Elizabeth Graham, Secretary. GREENFIELD—Franklin County Teachers’ As- sociation, Mildred M. Hartwell, Secretary. Hoiyoxe—Holyoke Teachers’ Club, Pearl M. Scully. Hype Parxk—Needham Teachers’ Association, Lilian H. Totman, Treasurer. MatpEn—Malden Teachers’ Association, Helen A. Davison, Secretary. MarsLtEHEAD—Marblehead Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mildred P. Chapman, Secretary. Meprorp—Medford Teachers’ Club, Alma A. Thomas, Secretary. MetrosE—Melrose Teachers’ Wells, Secretary. Marrapan—Milton Public School Teachers’ Association, Bertha H. Jaquith, Secretary. Miiton—Massachusetts Schoolmasters’ Club, Leonard M. Patton, Secretary. Naticx—Natick Teachers’ Association, Cath- erine N. Quinn, Secretary. New Beprorp—New Bedford Teachers’ Asso- ciation, W. L. Lillie, Secretary. Newton—Newton Grade Teachers’ Club, Mar- guerite W. Greene, Secretary. NortH Anpover—North Andover Elementary Teachers’ Association, Zetta E. Dunn, Sec- retary. Norru Arriesoro—North Attleboro Teachers’ Association, Alice M. Hall, Secretary. Norru Easton—Easton Teachers’ Club, Lucy A. Money, Secretary. Prrrsrietp—Massachusetts State Kindergar- ten Association, Elizabeth J. Baker, Secre- tary. PrymoutH—Plymouth Teachers’ Thelma Hollander, Secretary. Quincy—Quincy Teachers’ Association, Marion Marion B. Reinhardt, Secretary. Club, Agnes J. Club, Louisa Club, Grace Club, A. READING—Reading Teachers’ Club, Margaret E. Whittier, Secretary. REVERE—KRevere Teachers’ Club, Celia Dear- ing, Secretary. Roxsury—Boston Teachers’ Club, Myrtle C. Dickson, Secretary. ; SatemM—Salem Teachers’ E. Jeffs, Secretary. SoMERVILLE—Somerville Teachers’ Club, Ber- nice Newborg, Secretary. SoutH WerymMoutH—Weymouth Teachers’ Association, Helen 1, Rockwood, Secretary. SPENCER—Spencer Teachers’ Association, Ellen M. H. Silk, Secretary. SPRINGFIELD—Springfield Teachers’ Economic Association, F. Herman Fritz, Executive Agent. STONEHAM—Stoneham Teachers’ Club, Carrie E. Crockett, Secretary. StoucHtoN—Stoughton Teachers’ Club, Agnes E. Murphy, Secretary. SwamPscott—Swampscott Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mildred C. Fraser, Secretary. TauNTON—Taunton Elementary Teachers’ As- sociation, Alice S. Dean, Secretary. —Taunton Teachers’ Club, Inez E. Bassett, Secretary. WakeErieLp>—Wakefield Teachers’ Association, Hester A. Walker, Secretary. WattHamM—Waltham Teachers’ George L. Ward, Secretary. WatertowN—Watertown Teachers’ tion, Louise G. Badger, Secretary. West¥FieLp—Westfield Teachers’ Association, Faye Keene, Secretary. West SpRINGFIELD—West Springfield Teach- ers’ Association, Mrs. Alice M. Titus, Sec- retary. WincHENDON—Winchendon Teachers’ ciation, Alice A. Davis, Secretary. WintHRop—Winthrop Teachers’ Association, Fannie G. Harlow, Secretary. WorcestErR—Clark University Summer School, C. B. Randolph, Director. —New England Association of School Sup erintendents, Harvey S. Gruver, Secretary. —Uwxbridge Teachers’ Association, Jane F. Ryan, Secretary. Association, Ruth Association, Associa- Asso- Michigan Michigan State Teachers’ Association, A. S. Whitney, President, Ann Arbor; Ernest T. Cameron, Secretary, Kalamazoo. Aprian—Adrian College Faculty, Charles W. Obre, Secretary. —Adrian Teachers’ Club, Esther Shepherd, Secretary. ALPENA—The Alpena Teachers’ Club, Orrin S. Rice, Secretary. Ann Arzsor—Ann Arbor Teachers’ Emma Weitbrecht, Secretary. Battie CreeK—Battle Creek Teachers’ Club. Lena Seas, Secretary. Club, 158 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Bay Crty—Bay City Teachers’ Club, Jennie B. Logan, Secretary. Bic Rapips—Big Rapids Teachers’ Club, Katherine McCormick, Secretary. Boyne Crtv—Boyne City Teachers’ Club, Agatha Manausa, Secretary. Capituac—Teachers’ Club of Cadillac, Edythe L,. Johnson. Cursoycan—Chebovgan City Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Carl Titus, Superintendent. CorpwatER—Coldwater Teachers’ Club, D. Bernice Lasenby, Secretary. Dwrroit — Detroit Teachers’ Association, Blanche E. Morris, Secretary. Dowactac—Dowagiac, Michigan, Teachers’ Club, Mrs. Maud Crawford, Secretary. EscanapaA—Escanaba Teachers’ Council, Char- lotte O’Meara, Secretary. Frint—Flint Teachers’ Club, Florence Hughes, Secretary. Granp Raprips—Grand Rapids Teachers’ Club, Mary Frances Hyland, Secretary. GREENVILLE—Greenville, Michigan, Teachers’ Club, Bess Hutchinson, Treasurer. Hastincs—Hastings Teachers’ Ciub, Louella D. Arnold, Secretary. Hicuitanp Parx—Highland Park Teachers’ Club, Mabel C. Willison. Hottanp—Holland Teachers’ Club, Evelyn M. Ewald, Secretary. Hoitty—Holly Teachers’ Club, Helen E. Stewart, Secretary. Ironwoop—Ironwood Teachers’ Association, E, Grace Peerles, Secretary. Jacxson—Jackson Teachers’ Club, F. Cort- wright, Secretary. KataMazoo—Faculty of Western State Nor- mal School, John C. Hoekje, Secretary. Lake City—Missaukee County Teachers’ As- sociation, Gertrude Fern, Secretary. Lansinc—Lansing Teachers’ Club, M. Lela Monks, Secretary. ManistEE—Manistee Teachers’ Berentsen, Secretary. MarguetreE—Northern State Normal School Association, W. F. Lewis, Secretary. Miptanp—Midland City Teachers’ Club, 'T. M. Armstrong, Secretary. MonroE—Monroe Teachers’ Club, H. Heath, Treasurer. Musxrecon—The Muskegon Heights Teachers’ Club, Mrs. Elizabeth Mcleod, Secretary. —Muskegon Teachers’ Club, Margaret Cooper, Secretary. NecaunEE—Negaunee Teachers’ Association, Gordon K. Lindley, Secretary. Owosso—Owosso Teachers’ Club, Esther A. Hade, Secretary, Sacinaw—Saginaw East Side Teachers’ Club, Minnie C. Ejinfalt, Secretary. Sau? STE. Marie—Sault Ste. Marie Chapter of the N. E. A., Hester Fuller, Secretary. Club, Adele Sour. Haven—South Haven Teacher's Club, Helen I. Monroe, Secretary. Traverse City—Traverse City Teachers’ Club, Mabel MacMichael, Secretary. Ypsttanti—Faculty of the Michigan State Normal College, Charles McKenny, Presi- dent. —Ypsilanti Teachers’ Club, Hazel O. Black, Secretary. Minnesota Minnesota Educational Association, Philip E. Carlson, President, Minneapolis; C. G., Schulz, Secretary, St. Paul. ALBERT Lwa—Teachers League of the Albert Lea Public Schools, Grace M. Rogers, Sec- retary. Bremipj1i—Bemidji Unit of the N. E. A., J. A. Elson, Secretary. Derroit—Detroit, Minnesota, Teachers’ Club, Mrs. Emma Shencup, Secretary. DututH—Atlantic Gateway Association, Alice M. Sullivan, Secretary. Hurcuinson—McLeod County, Minnesota, Teachers’ Association, James E. Gildea, Secretary. Manxato—Mankato Teachers’ Association, Minnie E. Parker. —Southwestern Division, Minnesota Edu- cational Association, Mrs. Ruth Drake Tuttle, Secretary. MinnEApotis—Augsburg Seminary Library and Faculty, J. I, Nydahl, Librarian. —Bookmen’s Department of Minnesota, Sam N. Hines, Secretary. —Grade Teachers Section of Minnesota Teachers’ League, Ora M. Rowell, Secre- tary. —Minneapolis Division of M. E. A., Myrtle U. Hooper, Secretary. —WMinneapolis Grade Teachers’ Association, Beulah Taylor, Secretary. —Minneapolis Principals’ Forum, Alice C. Warrington, Secretary. MoornEeap—WNorthwest Central Minnesota Education Association, Katharine Leonard, Secretary. NortHrigtp—Faculty of Carleton Dorothy Pattee, Secretary. RocuEester—Faculty of Rochester S‘chools, Mabel Seymour, Secretary. St. CLroup—Central Minnesota Education As- sociation, Karl I,. Adams, Secretary. St. Paut—Faculty of Haniline University, James S. King, Secretary. —Faculty of The College of St. Catherine, Sister Ste. Helene, Secretary. —The St. Paul Branch of N. E. A., F. J. Harrell, Secretary. STILLWATER—Stillwater Teachers’ Local As- sociation, Anna M. Curry, Secretary. Winona—Faculty of The College of St. Teresa, Sister M. Rachael Dady, Secretary. College, Public AFFILIATIONS 159 Mississippi Mississippi State Teachers’ Association, H. L. McCleskey, President, Hattiesburg; W. N. Taylor, Secretary, Jackson. AGRICULTURAL CoLLEGE—Faculty of The Mis- sissippt Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege, J. C. Herbert, Secretary. CortntH—Teachers’ Professional Study Club, Clara N. Ray, Secretary. GREENVILLE—Washington County Teachers’ Association, Herman W. Solomon, Secre- tary. Jacxson—Jackson Teachers’ wright, Secretary. Rocxprort—Copiah County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Nora B. Hood, Secretary. SwEeatMan—Montgomery County Teachers’ - Association, Mrs. Blanche H. Brown, Sec- retary. Club, F. Cort- Missouri Missouri State Teachers’ Association, Sam A. Baker, President, Jefferson City; E. M. Carter, Secretary, Columbia. ANDERSON—McDonald County Teachers’ As- sociation, Nota McBee, Secretary. AsHton—Clark County Teachers’ Association, Eugene B. Hess, Secretary. Brevier—Macon County Community Teachers’ Association, Myra B. Gibson, Secretary. CapgE GrRaRDEAU—Community Teachers’ As- sociation Number 1, Florence W. Walker, Secretary. —Faculty of The Southeast Missouri State Teachers’ College, Christine W. Randolph, Secretary. CHARLESTON—Community Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mabel Roberts, Secretary. Cui.LicotHE—Teachers’ Community Associa- tion, Kate G. Johnson, Secretary. Co_tumBi1a—Columbia Association, Sarah Dritt, Secretary. —National Academy of Visual Instruction, J. U. Ankeney, Secretary. —Stephens Junior College, James M. Wood, President. Dr Kats—Community Teachers’ Association of Buchanan County, Mrs, F. FE. Henzlik, Secretary. Hannisat—Hannibal Community Teachers’ Association, Eleanore Wisner, Secretary. Jorrin—Community Teachers’ Association of Joplin High School, Ione Elliott, Secretary. —Joplin Teachers’ Association, Kunice 'Tim- mons, Secretary. Kansas Crty—Association of High Women, Inula Kaufman, Secretary. —Coéperative Council of Negro Teachers, Percy H. Hill, Secretary. School —Elementary School Principals’ Associa- tion, Rose Wickey, Secretary. —Kansas City Teachers’ Club, Pearl F. Shaw, Secretary. —Schoolmasters’ President. —Schoolmen’s Club of Kansas City, Mis- sourt, B, F, Chambers, Secretary. KirksviLLE—Faculty of State Teachers Col- lege, John R. Kirk, President. —Senior Class State Teachers Bracy Cornette, Secretary. Kirkwoon—Kirkwood Community Teachers’ Association, Rose G. Hall, Secretary. MeEMPHIS—Scotland County, Missouri, Com- munity Association, Mabel Wildman, Sec- retary. Mongert—Monett Community Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Demmah L, Hamilton, Secretary. Nevapa—Public School Teachers, C. F. Daugherty, Secretary. —Vernon County Community Teachers’ Association, Chloe E. Millikan, Secretary. ParKvILLE—Parkville Community ° Teachers’ Association and Park College Faculty, H. H. Dean, Secretary. Porrar Birurr—Poplar Bluff Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Mrs. Vrances M. Kinder, Secre- tary. Sr. CHartes—St. Charles County Teachers’ Association, Erwin Tuepker, Secretary. St. JosEPH—St, Joseph Teachers’ Associa- tion, Charlotte Weddle, Secretary. Sr. Louvis—Arlington Community Teachers’ Association, Hester K. Kennedy, Secretary. —Blewett Junior High School Community Association, Charles J. Hosek, Secretary. —District Association, Missouri State Teachers’ Association, Jennie Wahlert, Sec- retary. —Elementary School Principals’ tion, Anna B. Boyd, Secretary. —Mound City High School Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Joseph H. B. Evans, Secretary. —St. Louis Froebel Society, Mary A. Flynn, Treasurer. ' —Teachers Fellowship Society, Helena V. Marshall, Secretary. SEDALIA—Community Teachers’ Association of Sedalia, Nina K. Slater, Secretary. SmitHton—Pettis County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Myrza Quaintance, Secretary. SPRINGFIELD—Community Teachers’ Associa- tion, Cora B. Ott, Secretary. WARRENSBURG—Teachers’ Community ciation Central Missouri State College, Bess Carter, Secretary. —Western Central Teachers’ Association, C. N. Phillips, Secretary. Wrst Prarns—West Plains Community Asso- ciation, Freda Taylor, Secretary. Club, W. H. Johnson, College, Associa- Asso- Teachers Montana Montana State Teachers’ Association, J. M. Hamilton, President, Bozeman. Burre—Silver Bow County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mary J, Quigley, Secretary. 160 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Missouta—The Missoula Grade Teachers’ Club, 169, Aurelia Boles, Secretary. Nebraska Nebraska State Teachers’ Association, WaneEL. Morton, President, Fairbury; E. M. Hos- man, Secretary, Lincoln. Avusurn—City Public School Katherine Webber, Secretary. CHapron—State Normal School, Amanda B. Osnes, Secretary. Exrcrn—North Nebraska Teachers’ tion, Ada M. Louneker, Secretary. Geneva—Fillmore County Educational Asso- ciation, Margaret E. Haughwatt, Secre- tary. GreeLey—Loup Valley Teachers’ Association, B. A. Kennedy, Secretary. Hasrincs—Faculty of Hastings College, Cal- vin H. French, President. Krarney—Faculty of The Nebraska State Normal School, and Teachers College at Kearney, Anna V. Jennings, Secretary. —Kearney Educational Association, Mabel P. Scoutt, Secretary. —Nebraska Woman’s Educational Mary Crawford, Secretary. Laincorn—Lincoln Kindergarten Association, Inez M. Kenagy, Secretary. —Lincoln Teachers’ Association, Jessie E. Keller, Secretary. —Nebraska Schoolmasters’ Bradford, Secretary. Netson—Nuckolls County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mildred J. Mauch, Secretary. Omaua—Faculty of the University of Omaha, William G. Macl,ean, Secretary. —Omaha School Forum, Ruth Rinehart, Secretary. —Primary Kindergarten Council, Orietta S. Chittenden, President. Wayne—State Normal School, U. S. Conn, President. Teachers, P. Associa- Club, Club, H. E. Nevada Nevada State Teachers’ Association, KE. L. McKeown, President, Carson; E. Otis Vaughan, Secretary, Reno. Carson Crty—Northern Nevada Teachers’ Association, E. Otis Vaughan, Secretary. New Hampshire New Hampshire State Teachers’ Association, Francis T. Clayton, President, Concord; Caroline E. Head, Secretary, Manchester. East Kincston—Rockingham County Teach- ers’ Association, Clara D. Merrick, Secre- tary. Lirtiteton—Littleton Teachers’ Club, Bertha C. Manchester, Secretary. MancuesteEr—Manchester Teachers’ Annabel D. Wyman, Secretary. —Merrimack Valley Teachers’ Association, Mary M. Morrill, Secretary. Guild, PortsmoutH—Portsmouth Teachers’ Associa- tion, J. Agnes Connors, Secretary. Satmon Fatts—Stafford County Teachers’ Association, Edith M. Austin, Secretary. Titron—Winnepesaukee Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mary E. Foss, Secretary. New Jersey New Jersey State Teachers’ Association, Pres- ton H. Smith, President, Bayonne; Henry J. Neal, Secretary, Collingswood. Aritincton—Kearny Branch of the N. E. A., Bertha McCaffrey, Secretary. Assury Parx—Asbury Park Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Olga G. Vannote, Secretary. Attantie Crty—Atlantic City Teachers’ As- sociation, Ida Stilson, Secretary. A —Madison Avenue Teachers’ Association, J. Gertrude Vance, Secretary. —Massachusetts Avenue School Associa- tion, Margaret Buchanan, Secretary. —Monterey School Teachers’ Association, Ida Stilson, Secretary. —New Jersey Avenue School, Waura C. Jackson, Secretary. —Pennsylvania Avenue School Association, Mary T. Buckley, Secretary. —Texas Avenue School Teachers’ Associa- tion, Blanche C. Rogers, Secretary. —West Side School, Elsie Weeks, Secretary. —Brighton Avenue School, Glenn C. Heller, Secretary. BayvonnE—Bayonne Teachers’ Josephine C. Griffith, Secretary. BetMar—Monmouth County, New Jersey, Supervisors Round Table, Roland Fenni- more, Secretary. BioomriELD—Bloomfield Teachers’ Associa- tion, Edith M. Albinson, Secretary. Bripceton—Academy High School, Brenner, Principal. —Bank Street School Faculty, Chester Rob- bins, Secretary. —Bridgeton Teachers’ Livingston, Secretary. —Irving Avenue School, Emma W. West- cott, Secretary. _—Monroe Street Teachers’ Horace M. Perry, Secretary. —Pearl Street Teachers’ Association, Hor- ace M. Perry, Secretary. —South Avenue- Teachers’ Norman A. Wright, Secretary. —Vine Street School, Clara T. Mulford, Secretary. CampEN—Camden High School Teachers’ As- sociation, Cora Jaggard, Secretary. Caristapt—Bergen County Principals’ Asso- ciation, George Kintner. CEDARVILLE—Lawrence Township Teachers’ Association, Edith Husted, Secretary. East OrancE—East Orange High School Association, Mark Club, Frances G. Association, Association, AFFILIATIONS Home--and School vistenintion, Mary P. Douglas, President. . —East Orange Teachers’ pecs INP: Hewitt, Secretary. —High School Teachers’ Association, Ger- trude F. Brittain, Secretary. E1izasetH—Association Public School Teach- ers of Crippled Children of New York, Mrs. Helen K. Travers, President. —Elizabeth Teachers’ Association, William M. Duncan, President. EncLtewoop—Englewood Teachers’ Club, Lu- ella Wohlfert, Secretary. Fremincton—Flemington Teachers’ Mrs. A. R. Stryker, Secretary. GarFieLp>—Garfield Teachers’ Elsie A. Farrell, Secretary. HacxensackK—Hackensack Teachers’ tion, A. F. Frost, Secretary. HapponrirLtp—Haddonfield Association of Teachers, J. Grace Mountz, Secretary. Irvincton—Irvington Public School Teach- ers’ Association, Miss Milligan, Secretary. Lopvi—Lodi, New Jersey, Teachers’ Associa- tion, Sara C. U. Mercer, Secretary. Lonc Branco—Long Branch Teachers’ Asso- ciation, M. Agnes Marsh, Treasurer. Mays Lanpinc—Teachers’ Association of Hamilton Township, S. G. Huber. MitivitteE—South Millville School, Ford, Principal. Montciair—Public School Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Gertrude H. Martin, Secretary. NewarkK—First and Head Assistants’ Associa- tion, Alice C, Campion, Secretary. —Grade Teachers’ Organization, Tucker, Secretary. —High School Women’s Association, Eliza- beth Waite, Secretary. Club, Association, Associa- Emma Cora —Newark Schoolmen’s Club, John J. Arnao, Jr., Secretary. —Newark Teachers’ Association, Elizabeth G. Haddow, Secretary. —Newark Women Teachers’ W. Nichols, Secretary. —Supervising Principals and Vice-Princi- pals, Margaret G. Horan, Secretary. Newport—Newport Public School, Ryan, Secretary. Paterson—Paterson Teachers’ Edith R. Shannon, Secretary. PemBerton—Progressive Teachers’ Ernest Y. Raetzer, Secretary. Pertn Amsoy—Perth Amboy Teachers’ Asso- ciation, J. F. Walker, Secretary. PLarnrietp—The Plainfield Teachers’ Kate M. Marsh, Secretary. Ranuway—Rahway Elementary Teachers’ As- sociation, Irene Vincent, Secretary. Rosette ParK—Teachers’ Association of Roselle Park, New Jersey, Edith H. Mc- Callion, Secretary. Guild, Mary Ethel Association, League, Club, -SuHtton—Shiloh School, 161 Ruruerrorp—Rutherford Teachers’ Associa- tion, Emily H. Cline, Secretary. W. Kelton Evans, Principal. SumMit—Summit Teachers’ Association, Jos- ephine F, Noyes, Secretary. Trenton—Mercer County Teachers’ J. M. Arnold, County Superintendent. WEEHAWKEN—Town of Union Teachers’ As- sociation, Margaret D. Kelley, President. Wrst New York—Faculty of Public School Number 1, Dolores Mulvihill, Secretary. —The West New York Teachers’ Associa- tion, Dolores I. Mulvihill, Secretary. West Orance—West Orange Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Sara M. Staats, Secretary. Club, New Mexico New Mexico Educational Association, Josie Lockard, President, Raton; J. W. Conway, Secretary, Tularosa. ALBUQUERQUE—Albuquerque Public School Teachers’ Association, John Milne, Super- intendent, Crovis—Curry County Teachers’ ' Association, E. W. Bowyer, Secretary. DexteR—Chaves County Teachers’ tion, Ellen Stone, Secretary. Hraton—McKinley County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Lilian M, Wilson, Secretary. Las Cruces—Dona Ana County Teachers’ As- sociation, Fannie French, Secretary. Lincotn—Lincoln County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mabel J. Burleson, Secretary. Raton—Raton Teachers’ Association, 1. C. Rhoads, Superintendent. Associa- RoswELL—Roswell City Schools, Virginia Weleorn, Secretary. Sitver Crtryv—New Mexico State Normal School, Isabel I, Eckles, Secretary. New York New York State Teachers’ Association, John A, De Camp, President, Utica; Richard A. Searing, Secretary, Rochester. AtBany—Faculty New York State College for Teachers, John M. Sayles, Secretary. Ayrrep—Faculty of Alfred University, W. C. Whitford, Secretary. AmsterRDAM—Montgomery County Teachers’ Association, Evelyn M, Kavanaugh, Secre- tary. ANNANDALE-ON-Hupson—President and Fac- ulty of Saint Stephens College, B. C. Cook, Secretary. Ausurn—Auburn Branch of New York State Teachers’ Association, Marion E. Hoskins, Secretary. Avrora—Wells College Faculty, Bliss, Secretary. BincHAMton—Binghamton Teachers’ Associa- Mildred Smith, Secretary. Clara A. tion, 162 Brockport—State Normal School Faculty, Alfred C. Thompson, Principal. Brooxtyn—Association of Public Schools 148 and 55, Rufus A. Vance, Principal. —Association of Teachers of Districts 32, 36, New York City, Mrs. Minnie Swain, Secretary. —Bensonhurst Teachers’ Association, Fran- ces Rathgeber, Secretary. ; —Brooklyn Teachers’ Association, Kmma,F. Germann, Secretary. —Faculty of Adelphi College, James W. Park, Secretary. —Heads of Department Association, Fanny A. Wilson, Secretary. —Lou Wallace Junior High School, Lillian Canfield, Secretary. Maxwell Pedagogical Association, Ella P. Merrill, Secretary, —-Professional Study Club of Model Teach- ers of the Maxwell Training School for Teachers, Jeannette Brinckerhoff, President. —Public School 103, Francis W. Powers, Principal. —Public-School 112, Thomas H. Hughes, Principal. i —Public School 152, Assistant Principal. —Teacher Clerks’ Association of New York, Lavalette McCann, Secretary. —Training School Teachers’ Jessie ‘I’. Coddington, Secretary. —Unit of Public School Number 122 and Public School Number 33, Blanche I,. Dun- kly, Secretary. —William J. Morrison School, Canfield, Secretary. BurraLto—Buffalo Federation Educational As- sociations, Richard R. Dry, ‘Treasurer. CLaRENCE—Frie County Teachers’ tion, F, A. Weeks, Secretary. FLoripa—Orange County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mrs. Mary I. Dusinberre, Secretary. GrnEsKo—Faculty of The State Normal School, R. I,. Countryman, Secretary. HempstKEav—The Public School Kindergarten Association, Helen Coe Clowes, Secretary. HILisDALE—Columbia County Teachers’ Asso- ciation of Third District, Irving M, Deane, Secretary, JAMESTOwWN—Jamestown Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mildred B. Willson, Secretary. Tacona—Teachers of First Supervisory Dis- trict of Oswego County, Anna J. Hollis, Secretary. Lone Istanp—Local Association of Public School 93, Queens, Mary R, Daly, Secre- tary. —4esociation of Teachers of Classes for Blind and Sight Conservation, Florence A. Collins, Secretary, —Public School 80, Borough of Queens. —Teachers’ Association of the Borough of Oueens, Etheld Curry, Secretary. Jeannette Borchers, Association, Mary V. Associa- . MamaroneckK—Mamaroneck Teachers’ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Asso- ciation, J. V. Kennedy, President. Mount Vernon—Mount Vernon Teachers’ Association, Emil Nielsen, Jr., President. New York Crty—American Social Hygiene Association, Donald R. Hooker, Secretary. —Association of Model Teachers in Train- ing Schools, D. E. Harrison, Treasurer. —Association of Teachers of Districts 1, 5, and 7, Katharine School, Secretary. —Districts 17 and 18, New York City, Mary G. Spillane, Secretary. —Faculty of Teachers College, C. B, Up- ton, Secretary. —Junior High School Faculty, Johanna P. Light, Secretary. —Music Teachers’ Association of New York City, Ethel V. Cooledge, Secretary. —National Conference on Educational Method, James F. Hosic, Secretary. —New York City Teachers’ Association, Daniel B. Lane, Secretary. —New York Principals’ Association, Jessie B. Colburn, Secretary. —Public Schools 6 and_ 53, O’Hagen, Secretary. —Public School Number 27, Arthur G. Gor- ton. ft —Public School Number 30, Borough of Manhattan, Albert Loerrithon, Principal. —Public School 38, Manhattan, Margaret Mclaughlin, Secretary. —Public School 5, Chankin, Principal. —Public School Numbey 119, Harriet A. Tupper, Principal. —Speech Improvement Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mrs. Edna. McCord, Secretary. —Special Teachers of Physical Training, Martin Rodgers, Secretary. —Teachers’ Association of District 6, New York City, Jessie B. Colburn, Secretary. —Teachers’ Association of New York Train- ing School for Teachers, Mildred A, Bailey, Secretary. —Teachers of the Deaf of Public School 47, Beatrice M. Velten, Secretary. —Teachers of Public School Number 44, The Bronx, Maria W. Greenhalgh, Secre- tary. —Ungraded Teachers’ Association, Florence J. Clark, Secretary. —Vocational School for Girls’ Teachers’ Association, Bessie Abrams, Secretary. Nracara Farts—Niagara Falls, New York, Teachers’ Association, Clark J, Peet, Secre- tary. NortH Tonawanna—North Tonawanda Teach- ers’ Association, Mary C. Pruyn, Secretary. Norwich—Norwich Teachers’ Association, Lillian O. Ford, President. Port CHESTER—Port Chester Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Mildred E. Wilson, Secretary. Margaret Manhattan, Joseph AFFILIATIONS 163 Rockaway Bracn—Rockaway Beach Branch of the N. E. 4., Hannah M. Gutman, Sec- retary. Rye—Rye Teachers’ Association, J. Strattan, Secretary. Sac Harsor—Pierson® High School Teachers’ Association, Mary Stuart Monson, Secre- tary. Edward SCHENECYapy—City Teachers’ Mary E. Clark, Secretary. Association, Staten Istanp—Association of Supervisors of Drawing, Adeline Mills, President. —The Staten Island Teachers’ Association, Lucy Lomax, Secretary. Waterrorp—Waterford Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mary D. Ameden, Secretary. WarERLOO—Teachers of Waterloo Public Schools, Elizabeth Staley, Secretary. WELLSVILLE—Wellsville Teachers’ Association, Bernice E. Gigee, Secretary. YonkErRs—Vonkers Teachers’ May B. Archer, Treasurer, Association, North Carolina North Carolina Teachers’ Assembly, Charles E. Brewer, President, Raleigh; E. J. Colt- rane, Secretary, Roanoke Rapids. - Arvex—Wake County Branch of North Caro- lina Teachers’ Assembly, May Adams, Sec- retary. Burtincron—North Carolina Teachers’ As- sembly, 3 Local Unit, Susie Stafford, Sec- retary. Concorp—Concord Teachers’ Assembly, A. S. Webb, Secretary. DurHAM—Durham City Teachers’ Associa- tion, Dora ‘I. Armistead, Secretary. Erion CorrEcE—Llon College Faculty, A. Hook, Secretary, Macon—Warren County Local 113, North Carolina Teachers’ Assembly, Mrs. H. V. Scarborough, Secretary. REIDSVILLE—Reidsville Unit, North Carolina Teachers’ Association, Bessie Bennett, Sec- retary. RosMAN—Tvansylvania County Teachers’ As- sembly, J, FE. Ockerman, Secretary. SaLispury—Salisbury Local of North Caro- lina Teachers’ Assembiy, Sadie B. Klutz, Secretary. Wasuincton—Washingion Local Branch 65, Mrs. E. IT. Campbell, Secretary. West DurHamM—Durham County Teachers’ Association, Unit Number 4, D. F. Stutts, Secretary. Witmincton—New Hanover County Teach- ers’ Association, Julia H. Hill, Secretary. Winston-SaLeEM—Winston-Salem City Teach- ers’ Association, Anna T,ula Dobson, Secre- tary, North Dakota North Dakota State Teachers’ Association, Nelson Sauvain, President, Devils Lake; R. L,. Brown, Secretary, Valley City. Granpn Forxs—Faculty of the University of North Dakota. Minot—Minot Education Association, Hazel McCulloch, Secretary. Vattry Crry—State Teachers C ollege Faculty, C, I,, Kjerstad, Secretary. Ohio Ohio State Teachers Association, W. H. Kirk, President, East Cleveland; Frank E. Reynolds, Secretary, West Park. AKron—Akron Teachers’ Association, Grace Hirleman, Secretary. AvHEens—Faculty of Ohio University, H. R. Wilson, Secretary. BELLEFONTAINE—Logan County Teachers’ As- sociation, Margaret H. Wallace, Secretary. BerEA—Faculty of Baldwin Wallace College, C. W. Hertzler, Secretary, Biurrron—Faculty of Bluffton College, Na- omi Brennenman, Secretary. CuHatrigLp—Crawford County Rural Super- visors’ and Principals’ Association, H. W. Bowersmith, Superintendent. Cincinnati—Cincinnati Association of Pub- lic School Teachers, May Connor, Secre- tary. The Cincinnati Principals’ F, EK. Reszke, Secretary. —Cincinnati Schoolmasters’ Stewart, Secretary. CLEvELAND—Cleveland School of Education Facully, Harry N. Irwin, Secretary. —Cleveland Teachers’ Federation, I), McKay, Secretary. ~—-Cuyahoga County Teachers’ Association, Wisie IL, Cleverdon, Secretary. —Western Reserve University, Sidney S. Wilson, Secretary. CLEVELAND HerricHts — Cleveland Heights Teachers’ Association, Arthur J. Mattox, Secretary. Cotumsus—Columbus Teachers’ C. C. Montgomery, Secretary. Dayton—Daylon Teachers’ Club, E, Richmond, Secretary. DrLAwarE—Ohio Wesleyan sell B. Miller, Librarian. Kast Liverpoot—Hast Liverpool Teachers’ Association, Eva A. Shaw, Secretary, E.yrta—Elyria Teachers’ Club, Nellie Man- tle, Secretary. FinpLAY—Findlay Organization Affiliated with the N. &. A., Margaret Crohen, Secretary. Ironton—Lawrence County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Sara Ross, Secretary. TAKE Woop—Lakewood Teachers’ Hazel Clark, Secretary. Association, Clib, ie =P: Mamie Federation, Grace University, Rus- Federation, 164 NatIoNal. EpucATION ASSOCIATION Locan—Southeastern Ohio Teachers’ Associa- tion, Minnie Moore, Secretary. Loratn—Lorain Teachers’ Club, Chloe E. Keller, Secretary. Marion—Marion City Teachers’ Association, Grace D. Wingett, Secretary. Norwoop—Norwood Teachers’ Louise M. Jackson, Secretary. NorwatK—Huron County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Sara D. Knapp, Secretary. OzsEerLIn—Faculty of Oberlin College, George M. Jones, Secretary. Oxrorp—Teachers College of Miami, H. C. Minnich. Association, SpRINGFIELD—Springfeld Teachers’ Associa- tion, John 'T, Shumaker, Secretary. —Wittenberg College Faculty, Rose Cadwgan, Secretary. Torupo—Toledo Teachers’ Association, Lucile Manton, Secretary. University of the City of Toledo, Lucille I. Mack, Secretary. Toronto—Jefferson County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Clara Boyer, Secretary. Ursana—Champaign County Public Schools, A. G. Welshimer, Superintendent. Wrst Parx—West Park Teachers’ Associa- tion, W. S. Ogilvy, Secretary. Woostrer—Faculty of the College of Wooster, Mary Rebecca Thayer, Secretary. Yettow Sprincs—Antioch College, Philip C. Nash. Youncstown—City Teachers’ Association, H. K. Rayen. : —The Youngstown Education Association, Cora Z. Parsons, Secretary. ZANESVILLE—Zanesville Teachers’ tion, Alice S. Gillespie, Secretary. Oklahoma Oklahoma State Teachers’ Association, N. O. Hopkins, President, Okmulgee; M. A. Nash, Secretary, Oklahoma City. Atva—Northwestern State Teachers College, Minnie E. Schockley, Secretary. AnaparKo—Caddo County Education Associa- tion, R. E. Forbes, Secretary. ArpMorE—Ardmore Teachers’ C. H. Woodruff, Secretary. Broken Arrow—Tulsa County Education As- sociation, Pearl Linkhart, Treasurer. Durant—-Southeastern State Normal School, H. G, Bennett. IpasEt—McCurtain County Teachers’ ciation, Vesta Kilgore, Secretary. InDIANAPOLIS—Custer County Teachers’ As- sociation, Florence I, Nash, Secretary. Mapitu—Marshall County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Effie Butler Jones, Secretary. NorMAn—A dministrative- Council, University of Oklahoma, Emil R. Kraettli, Secretary. OxmuLcEE—Okmulgee City Teachers’ Associa- tion, Leta Brooks, Secretary. Associa- Association, Asso- SaLLIsaw—Sequoyah County» Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Wade H. Shumate, President. SuawnEE—Shawnee Teachers’ Association, Bula Barnard, Secretary. TAHLEQUAH—N orthwestern Oklahoma Educa- tional Association, Lura Mount, Secretary. TisHominco—Johnston County Education As- sociation, W. C. Herring, President. Tursa—Tulsa Public Schools, E. E. Ober- holtzer, Superintendent. WEATHERFORD— Southwestern Oklahoma Edu- cation Association, T. H. Reynolds, Secre- tary. Wirtsurton—Latimer County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Ora Dollins, Secretary. Oregon Oregon State Teachers’ Association, C. A. Howard, President, Marshfield; E. D. Ressler, Secretary, Corvallis. Asuitanp—Ashland Teachers’ Association, 1. C. Wilson, Secretary. Asrorta—Clatsop County Division of Oregon, State Teachers’ Association, A. C. Strange, President. Forrest GrovE—Washington County Teachers’ Association, N, Y. Fenenga, Secretary. Meprorp—Grade Teachers’ Association, Fern Daily, Secretary. Portitanp—Portland Grade Teachers’ ciation, Anne Bieson, Secretary. —High School Teachers’ Association, Louise Watson, Secretary. Asso- —Portland Principals’ Association, C. E. Ferguson, Secretary. Rosepurc—Roseburg Grade Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Eva Wa Ljiberti, Secretary. Pennsylvania Pennsylvania State Education Association, H. W. Dodd, President, Allentown; James Herbert Kelley, Secretary, Harrisburg. ALLENTOWN—Allentown Branch Pennsylvania State Education Association, Mabel M. Heberling, Secretary. Arroona—Altoona Teachers’ Institute, S. H. Layton, Secretary. —Blair County Teachers’ Institute, John Hennen, Secretary. ArpMoRE—Ardmore Avenue School, Edgar Robinson, Principal. Bioomssurc—Bloomsburg State Normal School, Helen H. Babb, Secretary. BrappocK—Braddock, Pennsylvania, Teach- ers’ Association, T. G. McCleary, Superin- tendent. ] CarsponpaLE—Carbondale Teachers’ Associa- tion, May Pengelly, Secretary. CuEsteER—Chester Teachers’ Association, Joline Beggs, Secretary. Kaston—Easton Teachers’ Association, Maud H. Peet, Secretary. AFFILIATIONS —Lafayette College Faculty, William S. Nall, Secretary. East Srroupssurc—East Stroudsburg State Normal School, Frank E, Baker, Principal. Epinsoro—Edinboro Teachers’ Association, Harriet Chapman, Secretary. Eitwoop City—Ellwood City Branch of Pennsylvania State Education Association, Achsa Jackson, Secretary. Er1e—Erie Teachers’ Association, G. R. Fisher, Secretary. FRANKLIN—Fyranklin Teachers’ Association, Frances EF. Baale, Secretary. GrantHamM—Faculty of The Messiah Bible School, Clara E. Hoffman, Secretary. GREENVILLE—Greenville Teachers’ Associa- tion, Emily A. Couse, Secretary. Harrispurc—Harrisburg Teachers’ Institute, Erma Ellenberger, Secretary. HazELton—Hazelton City Teachers’ Institute, Hilda Wosnock, Secretary. HomestEaD—Homestead Teachers’ Association, © Ira C. Lackey, Secretary. InprianAa—Faculty of The State Normal School, Mary R. Lowman, Secretary. Kane—Kane Teachers’ League, Agnes Rock- well, Secretary. Kutztown—Keystone State Normal School Association, C. L. Gruber, Secretary. Lewissurc—Bucknell University Library. —Bucknell University, W. E. Martin, Li- brarian. - Mount Union—Mount Union Teachers’ Club, Clara Barclay, Secretary. Norristown — Teachers of Montgomery County, J. Horace Landis, Superintendent. Om Ciry—Oil City Teachers’ Association, Jean Mackenzie, Secretary. PHILADELPHIA—High School Men’s Associa- tion, J. Howard Longacre, Secretary. —Philadelphia Teachers’ Association, Emely M. Renshaw, Secretary. —University Council of Temple University, Milton F. Stauffer, Secretary. PirtspurcH—Faculty Association of The University of Pittsburgh, A. P. James, Secretary. —Pennsylvania College for Women. —Pittsburgh Teachers’ Association, Ida Gealey, Secretary. —Principals’ Round Table of Allegheny County, W. H. Sprenkle, Secretary. PortstowN—Pottstown Teachers’ Association, Florence Newlin, Secretary. PortsvitLE—Pottsville Teachers’ League, A. E. Booth, Secretary. Reapinc—Reading Teachers’ Association, Celia Weightman, Secretary. SHEFFIELD—Sheffield Township Teachers’ As- sociation, F. S. Heinaman, Secretary. SuEenanpoaH—Mahanoy Township, Sallie B. Greener, Secretary. Suippery Rocx—Slippery Rock State Normal School, D. C. Murphy, Secretary, 165 Sunpury—Teachers of Sunbury School Dis- trict, Elizabeth F. Keithan, Secretary. TUNKHANNOCK—Wyoming County Teachers’ Association, Mae 1. Pettebone, Secretary. Upranp—Delaware County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Jennie Mahon, Secretary. VILLANOVA—A ugustinian College of Villanova, Francis A. Driscoll, President. Wasuincton — Washington, Pennsylvania, Teachers’ Association, Everette E. Moore, Secretary. WiLLiaMsport—Williamsport Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Marguerite I. Quigley, Secretary. WILKINSBURGC—Teachers’ Institute, Mrs. Al- meda C. Challinor, Secretary. Philippine Islands Casti_LEsos, ZAMBALES—Zambales Teachers’ Association, Marcelo H, Acavan, President. Laoac, Inocos NortE—Governing Body, Ilocos Norte Teachers’ Association, Mariono S. Lopez, President. Tatrzon, BoHot—Talibon Teachers’ Associa- tion. Usay, Bonwot—Ubay Teachers’ Association. Rhode Island Bristot—Bristol Grade Teachers’ Association, George F. Hopkins, Secretary. CrentraL Fatts—Central Falls Teachers’ As- sociation, Norman EF. White, Secretary. ProvipENcE—Cranston Teachers’ Association, Elfa H. Streeter, Secretary. —Public School Teachers’ Association, Katherine U. Pierce, Secretary. South Carolina South Carolina State Teachers’ Association, A. M. DuPre, President, Spartanburg; R. C. Burts, Secretary, Rock Hill. BeauFrort—Beaufort High School Teachers’ Council, Beulah Davidson, Secretary. OrancEBuRG—State College Faculty Associa- tion, J. T. Williamson, Secretary. Rock Hirt—Winthrop College Faculty Asso- ciation, J. E. Walmsley, Secretary. SparRTANSBURG—Converse College Faculty, Robert P. Pell, President. South Dakota South Dakota Education Association, Emry, President, Madison; A. mour Secretary, Aberdeen, ABERDEEN—Aberdcen City Teachers’ Associa- tion, Maebell Jarman, Secretary. —Northern Normal and Industrial School, J. Willard Thomas, Secretary. Brookincs—Association of Teachers’ Brook- ings City Schools, Agnes Sleander, Secre- tary. Burxe—Gregory County Teachers’ Reading Circle, Mary E. Ward, Secretary. June H. Sey- 166 Hecra—Hecla District of Brown County, Mrs. N. J. Wilmensen, Secretary. Mapison—Eastern South Dakota State Nor- mal School, B. M. Lawrence, Secretary. —Madison South Dakota Federation of Teachers, Elsie Hardy, Secretary. Mitcurett—Mitchell Teachers’ Association, Gertie Belle Rogers, Secretary. Murpvo—Jones County Education Association, Mrs. Olga I. Johnson, Secretary. Pirrre—Central South Dakota Education As- sociation, Charles EF. Booth, Secretary. ReprieLp—S pink County Educational Associa- tion, G. Helen Wilhelm, Secretary. SprincrieLp—Southern State Normal School, C. G. Lawrence, President. VERMILLION—Clay County and Vermillion Teachers’ Association, J. S. Bjornson, Sec- retary. Tennessee Tennessee State Association of Teachers, R. I, Jones, President, Murfreesboro; P. L. Harned, Secretary, Clarksville. Aspen Hitt—Giles County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Mrs. John J. Butler, Secretary. BiountviLLE—Sullivan County Teachers’ As- sociation, J. C. Akard, Superintendent. Bristot—Bristol, Tennessee, Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Helen Bowyer, Secretary. Buena Vista—Carroll County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Lilly A. Turner, Secretary. CievELaAND—Bradley County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Ruth Robertson, Secretary. Drespen—Weakley County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, F. Y. Fuqua, Secretary. DyerspuRCc—Dyer County Association, N. Dorah Bowen, County Superintendent. HowHENWaALp—Lewis County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Mrs. C, Baker, Secretary. Hunvtincpon—Carroll County Teachers’ As- ciation, D. ‘IT. Barnhill, Treasurer. Knoxvitte—High School Teachers’ Associa- tion of Knox County, William L,. Stooks- bury, County Superintendent. —Knoxville Teachers’ League, J. W, Trot- ter, Secretary. LAWRENCEBURG—Lawrence County Teachers’ Association, Sadie Looney, Secretary. MapisonvittE—Monroe County Teachers’ As- sociation, H. I, Calihan, County Superin- tendent. MaryvittE—The Blount County Teachers’ Association, Agnes I, Nuchols, Secretary. MempHis—Shelby County Teachers’ Associa- tion, John George, Secretary. NasHviLLE—Faculty of George Peabody Col- lege, Bruce R.- Payne. TrENtTON—Gibson County Teachers’ Associa- tion, F. I, Browning, Superintendent. Texas Texas State Teachers’ Association, W. H. Moore, President, Fort Worth; R. T. Ellis, Secretary, Fort Worth. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Avustin—Austin Teachers’ Association, Alice S. Harrison, Secretary. Bretron—Bell County Rural Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Mrs. Ralph M. Butler, Secretary. Canyon—West Texas: State Normal College. Dattas—Dallas Grade Teachers’ Council, Beulah Keeton, Secretary. Denison—Denison Teachers’ Council, W. J. Christian, Secretary. Ex Paso—Teachers Association of El Paso, Texas, Kathleen Eglar, Secretary. Fort Wortu—University Faculty of Texas Christian University, Colby D. Hall. Freeport—Freeport Teachers, O. A. Fleming, Secretary. Gatveston—Galveston City Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Alice Block, Secretary. Hovuston—Houston Teachers’ Edith M. Bradley, Secretary. HuntsvittE—Sam Houston Normal Institute, H. F. Estill, President. Karnes Crty—Karnes County Rural Teach- ers’ Association, I, P. Lightsey, County Superintendent. KaurmMan—Kaufman County Teachers, Mary E. Nash, Secretary. MrineraL Wrtis—Mineral Wells Teachers’ Association, Jno. D. Porter, Secretary. Prairie VirEw—Prairie View State Normal and Industrial College of Texas. San Antonto—San Antonio Teachers’ Coun- cil, Frances Lonecker, Secretary. SprarMAN—Hansford County Teachers’ Insti- tute, Lenita Fay Walker, Secretary. UvatpE—Trans-Medina-Pecos Teachers’ Insti- tute, A. W. Evans, Superintendent. Association, Waco—Waco Grade Teachers’ Association, Merle Fleming, Secretary. Utah Utah Educational Association, B. Roland Lewis, President, Salt Lake City; J. M. Adamson, Secretary, Salt Lake City. AMERICAN ForK—Alpine Teachers’ Associa- tion, Irving 1,. Pratt, Secretary. BountiFuL—Davis County Teachers’ Assocta- tion, Jessamine Shepherd, Secretary. BricHam Ciry—Box Elder Teachers’ Associa- tion, Alf I, Freeman, Secretary. Detra—Millard County Teachers’ Association, Reva R. Beck, Secretary. Heser—lWasatch County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Board of Education. Kamas—South Sumit Educational Associa- tion, Howard V. Alston, President. Locan—Utah Agricultural College Teachers’ Association, W. J. Vickers, Secretary. Locan Crty—Logan City Teachers’ Associa- tion, Agnes K. Dewey, Secretary. Mr. Preasant—North Sanpete Educational Association, J. Elmer Johansen, President. Price—Carbon County Teachers’ Association, Mary F. Mathis, Secretary. Sat Lake Crty—Granite Teachers’ Associa- tion, Laura Christensen, Secretary. —Salt Lake Teachers’ Association, George R. Archibald, Secretary. Sanpy—Jordan District Teachers’ Association, E. Ray Beck, Secretary. SpanisH Forx—Nebo Teachers’ Association, J. Ralph Wilkins, President. VERNAL—Uinta County Educational Associa- tion, A. M, Goodrich, Secretary. ” Vermont Vermont State Teachers’ Association, Etta Franklin, President, Rutland; Alice Chand- ler, Secretary, St. Albans. BrattLEsoro—Brattleboro Teachers’ Associa- tion, Mary Croker, Secretary. Buriincton—Burlington Public School Teach- ers’ Association, Kathryn M. Coventry, Secretary. CastLETON—Vermont State Teacher Training Course, Grace Wright, Secretary. Newsury—Caledonia County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Anna I, Atkinson, Secretary. RicuFrorpv—Richford Teachers’ Association, Miss L. M. Cowan, Secretary. SHELBURNE—Vermont Women Teachers’ Club, Mary M. Deyett, Secretary. Winpsor—South Eastern Vermont Teachers’ Association, E. K. Boak, Secretary. Virginia Virginia State Teachers’ Association, J. A. C. Hurt, President, Wytheville; William T. Sanger, Secretary, Richmond. ALEXANDRIA—Arlington County Teachers’ As- sociation, Vinnie Wait Watson, President. Beprorp—Bedford County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Bessie Coppedge, Secretary. BrRIDCEWATER—Rockingham Teachers’ Associa- tion, Lina E. Sanger, Secretary. —Bridgewater College Faculty, Mattie V. Glick, Secretary. Bristot—Bristol, Virginia, Teachers’ Associa- tion, Fannie K. Godsey, Secretary. CuatHam—Pittsylvania County Teachers’ As- sociation, W. D. Peake, Secretary. CHERRYDALE—Arlington County Teachers’ As- sociation, Helen H. Rains, Secretary. DanvittE—Danville Teachers’ Association, Mrs. Lily F. Walton, Treasurer. East Raprorp—Radford Normal Teachers’ Association, F. B. Fitzpatrick, Secretary. FREDERICKSBURG — Fredericksburg Normal School Teachers’ Association, A. B. Chand- ler, Jr., President. Hampron—Elizabeth City County Teachers’ Association, Garland 1,. Straughan, Secre- tary. —Faculty of The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, William H. Scoville, Secretary. Harrtsonpurc—Harrisonburg Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Ethel Spilman, President, AFFILIATIONS 167 Lesanon—Russell County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Eula Wilson, Secretary. Lexincron—Faculty of Washington and Lee University, IL. J. Desha, Secretary. Lyncusurc—Faculty of Randolph-Macon Woman’s College, B. W. Arnold, Jr., Sec- retary. —Lynchburg Teachers’ Tucker, Secretary. Newport Nrws—Newport News Teachers’ Association, Eline Krisch, Secretary. NorrorK — Norfolk Teachers’ Association, Joseph E. Healy, Secretary. PortsmoutH—Portsmouth Teachers’ Associa- tion, George B. Ish, Secretary. RicHMonD—General Faculty of The Univer- sity of Richmond, F. W. Boatwright, Presi- dent. —Henrico County Teachers’ Lottie M. Evans, Secretary. —League of Richmond Teachers, Emily C. Royall, Secretary. RoanokrE—Roanoke Colored Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Marian Bowden, Secretary. Staunton—Staunton Teachers’ Association, Jonnie Hiner, Secretary. SuFFoLK—Suffolk Teachers’ Association, Net- tie Parker, Secretary. University—General Faculty of The Univer- sity of Virginia, John S. Patton, Librarian. Club, Mary Tou Association, WiLLiAMsspuRG—College of William and Mary, K. J. Hoke. Wisre—Wise County Teachers’ Association, J. J. Kelly, Jr., Secretary. Washington Washington Education Association, Minnie D. Bean, President, ‘Tacoma; Arthur L,. Marsh, Secretary, Seattle. ABERDEEN—Aberdeen Teachers’ Association, Richard R. Balkeman, President. BEeLLINGHAM—Faculty Forum of The State Normal School, Arthur Kolstad, Secretary. —Grade Teachers’ League, Sue M. Stewart, Treasurer, Curnrty—Cheney, Washington, Unit of the N. E. A., W. E. Haeseler, Secretary. —Faculty Association of State School, Nettie Goodman. Crm Erum—Cle Elum Teachers, Alice Stach, Normal Secretary. Dayton—School District Number 2, J. W. Dill. Kyerert—Everett Grade Teachers’ Club, Nan Skalley, Secretary, —The Everett High School Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Edna E. Bowman, Secretary. Hoguram—Hoquiam Teachers’ Association, Ruth Birks, Secretary. SrattiE—Seattle Grade Teachers’ Club, Myrtle Whitham, Secretary, —Seattle High School Teachers’ League, Marion McdAllaster, Secretary. 168 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION —Seattle Principals’ Association, Anna May Matheson, Secretary. SpoxanE—Spokane Education Irene B. Hunt, Secretary. —The Spokane Grade Teachers’ Assocta- tion, Gertrude Stroud, Secretary. TacomMa—Tacoma Grade Teachers’ tion, Leah I. Olsen, Secretary. —Tacoma High School Teachers’ Associa- tion, William M. Jolliffe, Secretary. —Tacoma Principals’ Association, M. Reed, Secretary. Watta Watia—Associated Teachers of the City of Walla Walla, Grace McVicker, Sec- retary. —Teachers League of Walla Walla, G. Mc- Vicker, Secretary. Yaxtma—Yakima Grade Teachers’ tion, Alpha Roberts, Secretary. —YVakima High School Teachers’ Associa- tion, FE. Tempie Spaulding, Secretary. Association, Associa- Jennie Associa- West Virginia West Virginia Education Association, George M. Ford, President,. Charleston; W. W. Trent, Secretary, Elkins. BuckHAannon—Faculty of West Virginia Wes- leyan College, Thomas W. Haught, Secre- tary. ELxins—Elkins Teachers’ Club, Mrs. C. H. Hamill, Secretary. KeyseEr—Mineral County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Myra M. Nefflen, Secretary. Weston—Lewis County Teachers’ Institute, Wade Linger, Secretary. Wiiiiamson—Williamson Teachers, Mabel Robinson, Secretary, Wisconsin Wisconsin Teachers Association, Thomas W. Boyce, President, Milwaukee; M. A. Busse- witz, Secretary, Milwaukee. AsHtanp—North Wisconsin Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Lida E. Doolittle, Secretary. Brto1t—Beloit City Teachers, Harriet Cham- berlain, Secretary. Eau CrarrE—Eau Claire Public School Teach- ers’ Association, Jennie Hogan, Secretary. —Northwesitern Wisconsin Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Charles Beardsley, Secretary. Fonp Du Lac—Fond Du Lac Council of Ed- ucation, Josephine R. Tallmadge, Secretary. Green Bay—North Eastern Wisconsin Teach- ers’ Association, C. F. Cole, Secretary. Kauxauna—Teachers Council of Kaukauna, Tessie O’Keefe, Secretary. KenosHa—Kenosha Teachers’ Club, Rosa M. Bufton, Secretary. La CrossE—The Teachers’ Club of La Crosse, Mary Shane, Secretary. —Western Wisconsin Teachers’ Assoctation, I. H. Kircher, Secretary. Maprison—Southern Wisconsin Teachers’ As- sociation, Mary Hargrave, Secretary. Manitowoc—Manitowoc Teachers’ Associa- tion, C. W. Meisnest, Secretary. MarinettE—Marinette City Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Henry E. Hansen, Secretary. MILWAUKEE—Faculty of the State Normal School, George E. Teter, Secretary. —Milwaukee Teachers’ Association, Mima S. Griffiths, Secretary. RacinE—Teachers' Council of Racine, consin, Mrs. H. J. Cadwell, Secretary. SHEBOYGAN—Schoolmasters’ Association of Sheboygan, O. J. Sieker, Secretary. —School Men’s Association, N.. A. Peter- son, Secretary. | StEvENS Point—Stevens Point Normal Teach- ers’ Association, Ida M. Brevad, Secretary. Superior—Lake Superior Teachers’ Associa- tion, John H. Andrews, Secretary. Manitowoc—City Superintendents’ Associa- tion of Wisconsin, E. W. Waite, Secretary. Wausau—Central Wisconsin Teachers’ Asso- ciation, I. C. Painter, Secretary. Wis- Wyoming Wyoming State Teachers’ Association, Mrs. Katherine A. Morton, President, Cheyenne; J. C. McGlade, Secretary, Casper. DIAMONDVILLE—Southern Lincoln Local, Isa- belle Scofield, Secretary. Douctas—Converse County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Oliver W. Saul, Secretary. HiI.tyspaLE—Laramie County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Rose Alice Collins, Secretary. LanpDER—Fremont County Teachers’ Institute, Verna E. Wells, Secretary. RawLins—Carbon County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Helen A. Irving, Secretary. Rock Sprincs—Rock Springs Teachers’ Club, Mabel A. West, Secretary. Torrincton—Goshen County Teachers’ Edu- cation Association, Lulu C. Koenig, Secre: tary. Canada VANCOUVER, B. C.—Vancouver Schools Prin- cipals’ Association, William G. Gourlie, Secretary. DELEGATES TO THE SECOND REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS, JULY 3-8, 1922 Alabama Bowman, C. P., Birmingham Teachers’ Associa- tion, 1714 Pike Avenue, Ensley. Cross, JoHNNIE Mar, Birmingham Teachers’ As- sociation, 1330 North 3oth Street, Birmingham. Gienn, C. B., Birmingham Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of Schools, 2030 Park Ave- nue, Birmingham. Tuomas, Brooxig, Birmingham Teachers’ Associa- tion, 4809 Second Avenue, North, Birmingham. GREENHILL, N. F., Alabama Education Association, Guntersville. ABERCROMBIE, JoHN W. (Ex officio), State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, Montgomery. Honcrs, P. W. (Ex officio), State -Director, Secre- tary of Certification and Placement, State De- partment of Education, Montgomery. Alaska HeENvERSON, Lester D. (Ex officio), Commissioner of Education, Juneau. Lanz, Joun E., Alaska Association, Superintendent Public Schools, Juneau. Arizona Nasu, Lucy, Arizona State Teachers’ Association, Public Schools, Globe. FRoMHEITZ, RozALEE, Arizona State Teachers’ As- sociation, P. O. Box 785, Miami. Brown, Craupve S., Arizona State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Public Schools, Tempe. Lynp, Louise B., Arizona State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, State Normal School, Tempe. MattHews, A. J., Arizona State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, President of the Tempe Normal School of Arizona, Tempe. Brown, Herren L., Arizona State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Public Schools, Tombstone. Arkansas McCutston, Fred, Arkansas Education Association, County Superintendent of Schools, Hamburg. Evans, Brssizg (Alternate), Women Teachers’ As- sociation, 1004 McGowan Street, Little Rock. - GrirFey, G. ANNIE (Ex officio), State Director, Supervisor of Primary Grades, 2110 Battery Street, Little Rock. ; Hurt, Mrs. CarHarine (Alternate), Arkansas Educational Association, 1310 Cumberland, Little Rock. Metton, Minniz (Alternate), Arkansas Educa- tional’ Association, 108 Prospect Avenue, Little Rock. ‘ Mippteton, Orat, Women Teachers’ Association, 1615 West 23rd Street, Little Rock. Situ, Irene (Alternate), Women’s Teacher’s As- sociation, 119 East 25th Street, Little Rock. Vinson, Rutu, Women Teachers’ Association, 1710 Spring Street, Little Rock. WeEnNIGcER, Miss (Alternate); Women Teachers’ ' Association, 1617 Scott Street, Little Rock. Wuitcoms, Emma, Women Teachers’ Association, 420 East Ninth Street, Little Rock. Arxinson, J. H., Arkansas Eucational Association, Public Schools, Wilmot. California Hunt, Auice O., Alameda County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 2166 Clinton Street, Alameda. : SancueEz, Mrs. Lucy E., Berkeley Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 1600 Shattuck Avenue, Berkeley. Wane, May C., Berkeley Teachers’ 2400 Durant Avenue, Berkeley. Borpen, Neriie Gray, Fresno Teachers’ Associa- tion, 1623 J Street, Fresno. Hawkins, Litr1an M., Fresno Council of Educa- tion, 2247 Stanislaus Street, Fresno. Orr, Mary C., Fresno Council of Education, Pub- PS Tree Fresno. OBLE, CarrIE M., Glendale City Teachers’ Clu Public Schools, Glendale. a 3 Breep, LiLi1an _V., Long Beach City Teachers’ Club, 320 Junipero Avenue, Long Beach. McCurcuan, H. H., Long Beach City Teachers’ Club, 517 West Ninth Street, Long Beach. Bactey, Laura B., Los Angeles City Teachers’ Club, 456 East Thirtieth Street, Los Angeles. Barry, Kare §., Los Angeles City Teachers’ Club, 32342 West Avenue, 53, Los Angeles: Dorsry, Mrs. Susan M., California Teachers’ As- sociation, Superintendent of City Schools, Los Angeles. Iverson, Ipa Curistinr, Los Angeles Association, Hotel Trinity, Los Angeles. Jones, Eucenta West, Los Angeles City Teachers’ Ciub, Los Angeles, Joos, Mrs. Viora M., Los Angeles High School Teachers, 362 West 54th Street, Los Angeles. SmitH, Laura Grover, Los Angeles High School Teachers’ Association, 753 South Bonnie Brae, Los Angeles. SmitH, Marcaret H., Principals’ Association (Vic- toria), Los Angeles. Tuomas, EpytH, Los Angeles City Teachers’ Club, 1109 Ingraham Street, Los Angeles, WarvELL, Aticrk, Los Angeles City Teachers’ Club, Los Angeles. Wuitinec, LILvran, Club, Los Angeles. ARLETT, EvizaBeTtH, California Teachers’ Associa- tion, 24 Linda Avenue, Oakland. Baxter, Bernice, Oakland Teachers’ Association, 2558 Pleasant Street, Oakland. BRASEFIELD, H. D., Oakland Teachers’ Association, 460 Hanover Avenue, Oakland. CueLvannp, Lucite, Oakland Teachers’ Association, 1515 Webster Street, Oakland. Hunter, Frep M., (Ex officio), Vice-President, pu beepaeen cess of City Schools, City Hall, Oak- and, Jounson, Henrietta, California Teachers’ Associa- tion, 731 Henry Street, Oakland. LOepeey Jorn E., Oakland School Women’s Club, 3915 Greenwood Street, Oakland. Kortincer, E. W., Oakland Principals’ Club, Principal, 1526 Webster Street, Oakland. Mitier, Epcar E., Oakland Teachers’ Association, 3909 Linwood Avenue, Oakland. McGuire, Marcaret T., School Women’s Club, Hotel Athens, Oakland. Suetton, Lutu, Oakland School Women’s Club, 574 61st Street, Oakland. Vineyarp, Marcurrite, Oakland. School Women’s Club, Public Schools, Oakland. Hartman, Beurau, San. Bernardino Teachers’ Club, 223 17th Street, San Bernardino. ' SwaFer, Ina, San Diego Teachers’ Association, 3954 8th Street, San Diego. ery Arxins, Detta M., Oakland Teachers’ Association, 704 Bush Street, San Francisco. hrs. Boccrss, Maser, California Teachers’ Association, Assistant Secretary, 933 Phelan Building, San Francisco. j 3 bl, 5. 388 Brocan, Kare E., San Francisco Principals’ As- sociation, 795 Pine Street, San Francisco. Association, Los Angeles City Teachers’ [169] 170 Carmicuart, Besste M., San Francisco Grade Teachers’ Association, 954 Ashbury Street, San * Francisco. Dacre, Emma I,, San Francisco Grade Teachers’ Association, 45 Henry Street, San Francisco. Dary, Carrié, San Francisco Grade Teachers’ As- sociation, 1439 Oak Stréet, San Francisco. Dierte, Atice E., California Teachers’ Associa- tion, 951 Jones Street, San Francisco, Leonarp, Esruer, San Francisco Grade Teachers’ Association, 120 Church Street, San Francisco. Matanp, Emma, San Francisco Grade Teachers’ Association, 769 Page Street, San Francisco. Mooney, Mary F., San Francisco Grade Teachers’ Association, 2531 Missouri Street, San Francisco. Norton, Auice R., California Teachers’ Associa- tion, 378 Golden Gate Avenue, San Francisco. Crayton, W. M., Santa Ana Teachers’ League, Santa Ana. CARMICHAEL, CeceLia, Santa Clara County Teach- ers’ Association, 306 West San Fernando Street, San José. Morris, Mytrrva M., City Teachers’ Club, Edgerly Court, Santa Barbara. Pryor, Emity M., California Teachers’ Associa- tion, 1303 Lyndon Street, South Pasadena. Parton, Evten M., Elementary Teachers’ Associa- tion, 835 West Flora Street, Stockton. Colorado Barrett, H. M., Colorado Education Association, University of Colorado, Boulder. Sreacy, Mitiicent, Colorado Education Associa- tion, Public Schools, Canon City. Gaymann, Harrret, Colorado Springs Federation of Teachers, t015 Colorado Avenue, Colorado Springs. Murray, Lapa O., Colorado Springs Federation of Teachers, 1112 East San Rafael Street, Colorado Springs. Boccrss, Estette, Denver Grade Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 1638 Ogden Street, Denver. BrapsHaw, SaraH E., Denver Grade Teachers’ Association, 2171 South Columbine Street, Denver. Craic, Karuering L. (Ex officio), State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Denver. Drs Jarpins, May E., Denver Grade Teachers’ Association, 1177 York Street, Denver. FELpwiscH, BrErtHA, Denver Grade Teachers’ As- sociation, Denver. Force, Anna Laura, Colorado Education Associa- tion, Principal Iincoln School, 216 Sherman Street, Denver. Hatt, CuHartts D., The Denver Senior High School Teachers’ Association, Manual Training High School, Denver. Hinz, Sarre, Denver Grade Teachers’ Association, Plymouth Hotel, Denver. Hoop, Evitu, Denver Grade Teachers’ Association, 1025 East 9th Avenue, Denver. Jounson, Anna Louise, Colorado Education Asso- ciation, Denver. Moore, JosepH1InE G., Denver Principals’ and Di- vectors’ Association, 1369 Humboldt Street, Denver. 5 Morris, Mary E., Colorado Education Association, 1661 Harrison Street, Denver. McCiure, Avera, Colorado Education Association, Wellington Hotel, Denver. ; Nerr, Heren L., Denver Grade Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Plymouth Hotel, Denver. Newton, Jesse H., Colorado Education Assocta- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Denver. Suaw, Mrs. Epna, Denver Grade Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Denver. SmitH, H. B. (Ex officio), State Director, 332 Commonwealth Building, Denver. STEELE, James H., The Denver Teachers’ Club, 1041 Lafayette Street, Denver. Stevens, Maupe L., Denver Grade Teachers’ As- sociation, 1137 Clayton Street, Denver. NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION Watson, Grorcz I,, The Denver Senior High School Teachers’ Association, South Side High School, Denver. tee 3 Harcu, D. R., Colorado Education Association, East High School, Denver. CrassE, Dr. J. G., Colorado Education tion, State Teachers’ College, Greeley. FREED, CHARLES E., Pueblo Branch of the N. HE. A., Pueblo. Hornpercer, Henrietta, Grade Teachers’ Associa- tion, District No. 20, 507 West 11th Street, Pueblo. CAMPBELL, SapIE, Rocky Ford Teachers’ Associa- tion, P. O. Box 373, Rocky Ford. Lyris, Ruta, Rocky Ford Teachers’ Association, R, F. D. No. 2, Rocky Ford, Ritzy, Laura, Federated Teachers’ Club of Logan County, 113 Lincoln Street, Sterling. Cocuran, Joun I., Colorado Education Associa- tion, Public Schools, Yuma. Associa: Connecticut Merevrtu, A. B. (Ex officio), Commissioner of Education, Hartford. Moort, Maser 1., East Hartford Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 605 Main Street, Middletown. Settew, Epwarp B., Connecticut State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Middletown. CampsELt, A. L., New Haven Teachers’ League, 1218 Yale Street, New Haven. Wyman, Arice E., New Haven Teachers League, 1221 Chapel Street, New Haven. GraHam, Epwarp J., Connecticut State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Norwich. Roycr, Heten, Connecticut State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Public Schools, Norwich. Camp, Frep S., Connecticut State Teachers’ Asso- eee Superintendent of City Schools, Stam- ord. RICHARDSON, FLORENCE E., Stratford Teachers’ As- sociation, Washington School, Stratford. Hine, Eprtu M., Connecticut State Teachers’ As- sociation, 17 Cook Street, Torrington. Cuirrenpon, H. E., Connecticut State Teachers’ Association, 24 Fairview Avenue, Naugatuck. Garrison, Levi (Ex officio), State Director, State Supervisor of Schools, Willimantic. Delaware Hotitoway, H. V. (Ex officio), State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, Dover. SHILLING, JoHN, Delaware State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, P. O. Box 106, Dover. STau., H. E. (Ex officio), State Director, Director of Educational Research, State Department of Education, Dover. BrinsER, IrA S., Sussex County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of Schools, Lewes. Suitiinc, Rosert, Kent County Educational As- sociation, Superintendent City Schools, Milford. Heim, R. W., Delaware State Teachers’ Associa- ‘tion, State Director of Vocational Education, Newark. Barnes, Ina Grace, New Castle County Teachers’ Association, Rural Supervisor, County Building, Wilmington. Suaw, SaLuié R., Delaware State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 812 West oth Street, Wilmington. Warp, Davin A., Delaware State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Superintendent of City Schools, Wil- mington. District of Columbia Battou, F. W. (Ex officio), Superintendent of City Schools, Washington. CrastreE, J. W. (Ex officio), Secretary National Education Association, 1201 16th Street North- west, Washington. Davis, ADELAIDE, Secretary Education Associaiion of D, C., The Seward Apartment, Washington, DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY ENGLISH, Harry (Ex officio), State Director, Su- pied of Mathematics in High Schools, Wash- ington. GROSVENOR, Epitu L., High School Teachers’ As- sociation, Central High School, Washington. JENSEN, EMMA A. (Alternate), High School Teach- ers Association, Central High School, Washing- on. Jounson, Grack M., High School Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 413 Clifton Terrace, South, Washington. Laruror, Eprrn, Education Association of D. C., United States Bureau of Education, Washington. Ruepicer, Dr, Wittiam C., President Education Association of D. C., George Washington Uni- versity, Washington. Florida Burwity, Grace, West Volusia County Teachers’ Association, Daytona. Burwitt, Sara, East Volusia County Teachers’ As- sociation, Daytona. Turner, R. L., Florida Educational Association, Inverness. Hatuaway, F. A. (Ex officio), State Director, Su- perintendent of Schools, Jacksonville. Sueats, W. N. (Ex officio), State Superintendent, Tallahassee. Puitips, SHELTON, Florida Educational Associa- tion, State Rural School Inspector, Williston. Georgia Brittain, M. L. (Ex officio), State Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta. ALFRIEND, Kyte T. (4% officio), State Director, Bresident Georgia Military College, Milledge- ville. Knowtets, Homer D., Georgia Education Associa- tion, Superintendent of Schools, Quitman. Hawaii Crowes, F. H., Hawaii Education Association, Industrial Supervisor for the Island of Hawaii, Hilo. Hoopi, Wire K., Hawaii Education Associa- tion, Principal, Kahului Public School, Kahului, Maui. MarHeEws, Saran Jf., Hawaii Education Associa- tion, Teacher, McKinley High School, 752 King Street, Honolulu. Wetts, Henry Mivron, Hawati Education Asso- ciation, Supervising Principal, Hamakuapoko, Maui. ‘ Witcox, Etsix H., Hawaii Education Association, Commissioner of Public Instruction for Island of Kauai, Lihue, Kauai. ; WILson, ., Hawati Education Association, Principal, Liliuokalani School, Honolulu. Idaho Reprietp, Eruer E. (Ex officio), State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Boise. : Zimmers, P. J., Idaho State Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of Schools, Boise. Perry Winona M., Cour d’Alene Teachers’ Association, 719 Sherman Avenue, Cceur d’ Alene. SHank, THeovore B. (Ex officio), State Director, Superintendent of City Schools, Coeur d’ Alene. Crawrorp, &. E., Idaho State Teachers’ Associa- tion, Idaho Falls. ds Srpers, Waxrer R. (Ex officio), Member Board Trustees, Superintendent of City Schools, Poca- tello. Brecxenrivcr, J. L., Idaho State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 302 South Boyer Avenue, Sandpoint. Illinois Tomexins, Epitu J., Head Assistants’ Association, Berwyn. ; : : Moore, Rosert C. (Ex officio), Life Director, Secretary Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Garlinville. 171 Sotomon, Grorce W., South Central Division of Illinois State Teachers’ Association, 626 North Broad Street, Carlinville. Fritows, Mary E., Illinois State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 1922 Patterson Avenue, Chicago. Harey, Marcaret A., Illinois State Teachers’ As- sociation, 127 North Dearborn Street, Chicago. Haut, Aron §., Illinois State Teachers’ Associa- tion, 4349 Oakenwald Avenue, Chicago. FIARDEN, Frances, Iilinois State Teachers’ Associa- tion, 127 North Dearborn Street, Chicago. Harrietp, W. Wirsur, Chicago Normal District Teachers’ Association, Chicago Normal College, Chicago. Hays, Duprey Grant, The National Academy of Visual Instruction, 460 South State Street, Chicago. Mortenson, PrerEerR A., Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Chicago. Owen, Wit.taM B., ILilinois State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, President Chicago Normal College, Chicago. Ratusun, Heten M. (Alternate), Chicago Teach- ers’ League, 5026 Blackstone Avenue, Chicago. Ropcers, Mary E., Chicago Principals’ Club, 4047 Michigan Avenue, Chicago. STEPHENS, Mrs, Errizg JL. (Alternate), Head As- sistants’ Association, 5951 Prairie Avenue, Chi- cago. Witson, Litit1an M., Chicago Club, 4409 Malden Street, Chicago. Boyer, Epwin L,, Lake Shore Division of Illinois Teachers’ State Teachers’ Association, 29 McEldowney Street, Chicago Heights. GoopigeR, Froyp T., Lake Shore Division of Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Superintend- ent of Schools, Chicago Heights. Ranpie&, GirBert P., Illinois State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Superintendent of Schools, Danville. KEeRSHNER, GRACE, Decatur Public School Teach- ers’ Association, 444 S. Webster Street, Decatur. RoacH, Mary Marcaret, South Central Division Illinois State Teachers’ Association, 130 North Edward Street, Decatur, Parker, Leonora (Alternate), East St. Louis Fellowship Association, 1529 Gaty Avenue, East St. Louis. TRAMMELL, CynvrHia, East St. Louis Fellowship Association, Signal Hill, East St. Louis. TRIMMER, CarRMEN A., East St. Louis Teachers’ Association, 540 Veronica Avenue, East St. Louis. Hanarorp, Neue K., Elgin Teachers’ Association, 440 Prairie Street, Elgin. Wo aver, Frorence E., Evanston Teachers’ Club, 1734 Orrington Avenue, Evanston. SmituH, Earnest A., Illinois State Teachers’ As- sociation, Superintendent of City Schools, EKvans- ton, Baker, DELLA F., Geneseo Elementary Teachers’ Association, 245 East Palace Row, Geneseo. Burpeck, Lyp1a C., Black Hawk Division, Illinois, 243 East Wells Street, Geneseo. Encteman, J. O. (Ex officio), Vice-President, Superintendent of Schools, Joliet. Gitpin, Lucinpa E., Joliet Township High School Teachers’ Association; 111 South Eastern Ave- nue, Joliet. Hurp, Bertua, The Joliet Teachers’ Federation, R. eRe ass Joliet: McCrosxkty, SopHronta (Alternate), The Joliet Teachers’ Federation, 115 Illinois Street, Joliet. Joiner, C. E., School Masters’ Club of Illinois, Superintendent of Schools, Le Roy. Grotr, Caroxine, Illinois State Teachers’ Associa- tion, Dean of Women Western Illinois State Normal School, Macomb. : Morcan, W. P. Illinois State Teachers’ Associa- tion, President Western Illinois State Teachers’ College, 3047 North Ward Street, Macomb. OpvENWELLER, A. L., Illinois State Teachers’ As- sociation, 1029-17th Avenue, Moline. 172 Tracy, Rost E., Teachers’ Club of Rock Island County, 2129-7th Avenue, Moline. : Hawkins, May §., Illinois State Teachers’ Associa- tion, County Superintendent of Schools, Mound City. Kepeees Marrua V., Illinois State Teachers’ As- sociation, 222 East 7th Street, Mount Carmel. Feimuey, Davin, Illinois State Teachers’ Associa- tion, President Illinois State Normal University, Normal, He Go Davis, Acnes M., Oak Park and River Forest Township High School, Oak Park. |. . Courts, Bertua M., Lake Shore Division of Il- linois State Teachers’ Association, 617 outh Harvey Avenue, Oak Park. : Need McDaniéEt, M. R., Lake Shore Division. of Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Principal, 741 Oak Park Avenue, Oak Park. "THALMAN, JosErH L., Proviso Township High School Faculty, 128 Keystone Avenue, River Forest. . "Troomas, SARAH IL, (Ex officio). State Director, 401 Kishwaukee Street, Rockford. ake Fisuer, E. C., Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Superntendent of Schools, Rock Island. Gotpen, Maser, Teachers’ Club of Rock Island County, 4502-7th Avenue, Rock Island. Hut, Lypia, Twin City Teachers’ Club, 632-44th Street, Rock Island. Wasusurn, Justin, Illinois State Teachers’ As- sociation, 3228-8th Avenue, Rock Island. Horrman, U. J., South Central Division, Illinois meen Teachers’ Association, State House, Spring- eld. Pruitt, Epcar C., Illinois, State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, President South Central Division, County Superintendent of Schools, Spgs Id. ; Sutton, E. W.., IIlinois . State eachers’ Associa- tion, Public Schools, Vienna. Ketter, Paut G, W., Lake Shore Division , of Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Principal Township High School, Waukegan. Indiana Fry, Marrre B., Indiana State Teachers’ Associa- tion, 1316 Ohio Avenue, Anderson. Spice, Mary E., State Teachers’ Association of Indiana, 2313 Brown Street, Anderson. SMITH, Lester (Ex officio), State Director, Dean of the School of Education, University of Indiana, Bloomington. McCaucun, J. Z. A, Teachers’ Association, Bloomington. House, Carrié, Public School Teachers of Elwood, 1609 South E. Street, Elwood. (Alternate) Indiana State 600 East Second Street, Rosrnson, LuLu J., Federation of Evansville Public School Teachers, 11 North 7th Street, Evansville. Murpuy, ExizanEtH, Fort Wayne Teachers’ Ciub, Fort Wayne. -Mitter, Cuartes F., Elkhart County Teachers’ Association, County Superintendent of Schools, Goshen. ‘Burris, BENJAMIN J., (Ex officio), State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Indianapolis. diugBner, Exusa, Indiana State. Teachers’ Associa- tion, 2406 Penn., Indianapolis. Jamieson, CHartink, Muncie Indiana Teachers’ © Peae ree e: 54 Meridian Apartments, Indian- apolis. ®artow, Litirn, Indiana State Teachers’ Associa- tion, 1235 West Mulberry Street, Kokomo. Tuomas, Asa JANE, Federation of Public. School Teachers, 315 South Adams, Marion. VALENTINE, Kate P., The Michigan City Teachers’ Club, 825 Spring Street, Michigan City. Burns, Jennie, Indiana State Teachers’ tion, 215 Main Street, Monticello. Anperson, Litiian, South Bend City Teachers’ Association, 128 South Chapin Street, South Bend. Brown, Epyrut, Indiana State Teachers’ Associa- tion, 423. West La Salle Avenue, South Bend. Reamer, Frorence, South Bend City Teachers’ Association, 510 Main Street, South Bend, Associa- Nationa Epucation ASSOCIATION Hines, L. N., Indiana State Teachers’ Association, President, The Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute. : McIntosu, D. C., Indiana State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Worthington, Iowa Bryvotr, Nexra J., Burlington Teachers’ Associa- tion, 900 White Street, Burlington, Curips, Grace, (Alternate) Burlington Teachers’ ‘Association, 1301 Perkins Avenue, Burlington. DarikEs, CHRISTINE, tora i Teachers’ Associa- tion, 900 White Street, urlington, Cram, Frep D., Iowa State Teachers’ Association, Extension Professor, Iowa State Teachers’ Col- lege, Cedar Falls. DoucHerty, Mary C., lowa_ State Teachers’ As- sociation, Public Schools, Cedar Falls. Luss, Eva May, Faculty of Iowa State Teachers’ College, 2321 Walnut Street, Cedar Falls. SrrrLey, H. H., Iowa State Teachers’ Association, President Iowa State Teachers’ College, Cedar alls. GrisseLt, Evra, Cedar Rapids Grade Teachers’ As- sociation, 603 South 2nd Street, West, Cedar Rapids. Zyxa, Appin, Cedar Rapids Grade Teachers’ As- West, Cedar sociation, 510 South ist Street, Rapids. SamuELson, AcNES, Iowa State Teachers’ Associa- tion, County Superintendent of Schools, Clarinda. Morrert, ApalingE A., Clinton Teachers’ Federa- tion, 421-4th Avenue, Clinton, McCienauan, P. E. (Ex officio), State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines. . Pyr, Cuas. F., Iowa State Teachers’ Association, Secretary, 407 Youngerman Building, Des Moines. ; Luxe, Sapir E., Dubuque Teachers’ Association, 876 Delki Street, Dubuque. Dean, Ciara BesseE, Ft. Dodge Teachers’ Federa- tion, 2400-10th Avenue, North, Ft, Dodge. Minxeu, L. H. (Ex officio), State Director, Super- intendent of City Schools, Ft. Dodge. Tart, Lucy, Iowa State Teachers’ Association, Ft. Dodge. HeneLy, Eucrne, Iowa Siate Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Grinnell. SmitH, O. E., Iowa State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Indianola. Houcuton, JANE, Cedar Rapids Grade Teachers’ i Aseuisngns 171 West 2nd Street, Kenwood ark. McDowe tt, Lituian S., Elementary Teachers’ Club, 618 Bank Street, Keokuk. Weser, GERTRUDE, Iowa State Teachers’ Associa- tion, 528 Orleans Avenue, Keokuk. HorrmMan, Himena, Iowa State Teachers’ ciation, Leon. Vasey, Frank T., Iowa Staie Teachers’ Associa- eae Superintendent of City Schools, Mason ity. Harpy, Eprra, Sioux City Teachers’ Club, 1037- 12th. Street, Sioux City. ’ Garnes, J. F., Iowa State Teachers’ Association, County Superintendent of Schools, Sioux’, City. Gitsert, Frorence A., Siowx City Teachers’* Chub, - 514 Allen Street, Sioux City. NowLtn, GENEVIEVE, High School Teachers’ Organization, 1720 Pierce Street, Sioux City. McAnetty, J. R., Lowa State Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Spencer. Asso-> Hunt, Ciara, Wate!00 Teachers’ Association, 625 West Park Avenuc, Waterloo. Kansas Henverrx, S. D., Iola Teachers’ Club, 82 t Sherman Street, Hutchinson. es SHOWALTER, Cora, The Kansas City, Kansas, Grade eile Club, 818 Sandusky Street, Kansas ity. Corttins, Mary J., (Alternate Kansas, Grade Teachers’ Avenue, Kansas City. The Kansas City lub, 928 Sandusky DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 173 JouNston, EstrettE, Kansas City, Kansas, Grade Teachers’ Club, 1020 Park Ave., Kansas City. Kewier, Drusitia, Kansas City High School Club, 1121 State Avenue, Kansas City. ae Micxry, Jutia K., Du Bois Club, 1934 North 6th Street, Kansas City. ; Pearson, M. E. (Ex. officio), ‘State Director, Superintendent of City Schools, Kansas City. ~ Scuuacer, F. L., State Teachers’ Association, Principal Argentine High School, Kansas City. WEBER, AMANDA, Principals’ and Supervisors’ Clib Cee City, Kansas, Arnett Hotel, Kansas ity. Occ, “EstHER, Olathe Public Schools, Olathe. McCormick, Anna, Salina City Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 137 South 8th Street, Salina. Strout, A. J., Kansas State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, 1346 Fillmore Street, Topeka. FrencuH, Witt, Winfield Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Winfield. Kentucky Srewart, Cora Witson, (Ex officio) Vice-Presi- acing Chairman Illiteracy Commission, Frank- ort. Corvin, Grorce W. (Ex officio), State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, Frankfort. BraptEy, Mary, Kentucky Educational Associa- tion, County Superinten ent of Schools, George- town. Snyper, Marrua, Faculty League Louisville Girls’ ae h School, 1021 South Brook Street, Louis- ville. STEWART, JESSIE, (Alternate) Faculty League Louisville _.Girls’ High School, 1401 Hepburn Avenue, Louisville. : Wituiams, R. E. (Ex officio), State Director, Sec- retary of Kentucky Educational Association, 4518 Southern Parkway, Louisville. Ross, Mrs. James, Kentucky Educational Associa- tion, Maysville. Louisiana Boyp, Cor. T. D., Louisiana State Teachers’ As- sociation, President Louisiana State University oe Agricultural and Mechanical College, Baton ouge. SrepHEeNs, E. L., Louisiana State Teachers’ As- sociation, President, Southwestern Institute, Lafayette. : Bavcer, Rutu, Louisiana State Teachers’ Associa- tion, J. P. Benjamin School, New Orleans. Kennepy, ANNIE F., Louisiana State Teachers’ Association 2725 St. Claude . Street, New Orleans. LararcuE, W. S., President of Lowisiana State Teachers Association, County Superintendent of Schools, Thibodaux. - Maine CornFortH, Epna (Alternate),: Auburn Feachers’ Association, 99 Pleasant Street, Auburmric. _ Ranpatt, Henry H., Auburn Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of City. Schools, Auburn. Tracy, Mrs, Carrig W. (Alternate), Maine Teach ers’ Association, Teacher, R. F. D. No. 1, Auburn, We 3 Auuan, H. A. (Ex officio), State Director, State Agent for Rural Education, Augusta. : THomas, Aucustus O. (Ex officio), State Superin- tendent of Public Schools, Augusta. | ; Proctor, Crarence W., Maine Teachers Associa- tion, Principal, 485 French, Bangor. , McGounprick, FranK, Hancock County Associa- tion, Union Superintendent of Schools, Bar Harbor. é Witson, Crinton D., Sagadahoc County Teachers Association, Principal, 691 Washington Street, Bath. ; Wicut, Carrie M., Oxford County Teachers As- sociation, Teacher, Bethel. : fee Burritt, Frep W., Maine Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Brewer. Cong, Joun A. (Alternate), Maine Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Brunswick, GitpaTrick, Howarp, Cumberland County Teach- ers’ Association, Union Superintendent of. Schools, Casco. ; Re Hatt, W. D., Maine Teachers’ Association, Prin- cipal Eastern State Normal School. Castine. ' Jewett, Frances C., Maine Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Cherryfield. WENTWorRTH, SusiE (Alternate), Cumberland County Teachers’ Association, Teacher, 47 Lamb Street, Cumberland Mills. Corson, D. Herman, Eastern Penobscot .Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Danforth. HamMuin, James A. (Alternate), Penobscot County Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Dexter. Sanzorn, Cetia H., Saco Valley Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Union Superintendent of Schools, East Hiram. Matrett, W. G., Maine Teachers’ Association, Principal State Normal School, Farmington. Gtover, C. E, (Alternate), Maine Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Union Superintendent of Schools, Fort Fairfield. BotroML£&y, Witt1am M., Piscataquis County Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Foxcroft. Nickerson, FrepErick M., Waldo County Teach- ers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Frankfort. RussELt, W. E., Cumberland County Teachers’ Association, Principal Western State Normal | School, Gorham. SuHaw, CuHarirs (Alternate), Cumberland County Teachers’ Association, Principal, Gorham. PackarD, THomas P., Aroostook County Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent .of Schools, Houlton. Cuirrorp, H. B., Eastern Somerset Teachers’ As- sociation, Union Superintendent of Schools, Hartland. Goopricu, Merrton ‘T., York County Teachers’ Association, Union. Superintendent of Schools, Kennebunk, Grant, Greorcr, M. D. (Alternate), York County Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Lebanon. Fincu, ApELAIDE V., Androscoggin County As- sociation, Principal Dingley Normal Training School, Lewiston. Srincrarr, R..L., Washington County Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Machias. Wesser, Mrs. Extra C., Mapleton-Washburn Union Teachers’ Association, Teacher, Mapleton. Wesser, Ermer H.. (Alternate), Mapleton-Wash- burn Union. Teachers’ Association, Union Super- intendent of Schools, Mapleton. EnciisH, Frep C. (Alternate), Aroostook County Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Mars Hill. Marr, W. M., Maine Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Millinocket. MarsHaty, S. T., Franklin County Teachers’ As- sociation, Union Superintendent of Schools, New Sharon. CHask, Marton L, Penobscot County Teachers’ Association, Teacher, 167 Stillwater Avenue, Old Town. Wituiams, Eumer B., Pemobscot County Teach- ers’ Assotiation, Principal, Old Town. Cuasy, Emity E., Portland Teachers’ Association, Teacher, 128 Cumberlarid Avenue, Portland. Hutt, Harry C., Maine Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, Rockland. Hasxert, Cwartes B. (Alternate), Cumberland County Teachers’ “Association, Principal, 130 Grant Street, South Portland. d Kine, Hetan M., Maine Teachers’ Association, Sueerere Principal, 8 Walker Street, Port- land. ‘ 174 Ropinson, Hreten M., Portland Teachers’ Associa- Hon, Deputy Superintendent of Schools, Port- and. Sxriuincs, Marton, Portland Teachers’ tion, 147 Francis Street, Portland. Sretson,, Livira, Cumberland County Teachers’ Association, Portland High School, Portland. Winc, Wiriiam E. (Alternate), Maine Teachers’ Association, Principal of the Deering High School, Portland. Corrin, Aticek M., Aroostook County Association, Principal of ‘Training Presque Isle. ‘ McGowan, Rowena, Presque Isle-Westfield Assocta- tion, Teacher, Presque Isle. Associa- Teachers’ School, Oaxes, Ratew G., Kennebec County Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent Schools, Readfield, Kwapp, Cuartts B., Cumberland County Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of Schools, South Harpswell. Hamuin, S. M. (Alternate), Cumberland County Teachers’ Association, Union: Superintendent of Schools, South Portland. LeicuTon, RatpH W. (Alternate), Western Som- erset County Teachers’ Association, Principal, Skowhegan. TUTTLE jae. Westbrook, Boston, A. W., Maine Teachers’ Association, Principal, 725 Main Street, Westbrook. Pacxarp, W. F., Kennebec County Teachers’ As- Westbrook Teachers’ Association, sociation, Union Superintendent of Schools, Winthrop. / WoopruFrr, Marton P. (Alternate), Westbrook Teachers. Association, 58 Columbia Road, Wood- ord, Maryland Burpick, Dr. Wittiam, Maryland State Teachers’ Association, State Supervisor of Physical Edu- cation, 2014 Lexington Building, Baltimore. Cameron, NorMan W., Maryland State Teachers’ Association, President Teachers’ Training School, Baltimore. Coox, Aubert §., Maryland State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, 2014 Lexington Building, Baltimore. WEHLER, CHarRLES E., Hood College Faculty, Hood College, Frederick. Sratey, Raymonp E., Maryland State Association, Frostburg. Locan, M. Exien, Teachers’ Association of Balti- more County, Fullerton School, Fullerton. Cooper, CxiarENcE G., Maryland State Teachers’ Association, County Superintendent of Schools, ‘Towson. Hersuner, J. T. ciation, Towson. Teachers’ Maryland State Teachers’ Asso- Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Massachusetts Hinps, Ciara G., Boston Teachers’ Club, 120 Glenville Avenue, Allston, 34. FuLiLer, Frora E. (Alternate), Arlington Teachers’ Club, 33 Acton Street, Arlington. Rosinson, ArTHUR E,, Arlington Teachers’ Club, Arlington. Donan, J. Miss, Winthrop-Russell-Everett-Mather Teachers’ Association, 537 Talbot Avenue, Ash- mont. Davis, Joun C., Needham. Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Needham. Qurimsy, lL. May, Attleboro Teachers’ Association, 23 Third Street, Attleboro. Frenninc, Mrs. Joun E. (Alternate), Teachers’ Protective Association, 52 Street, Belmont. Apams, OnivE M., Beverly Teachers’. Association, 2t Central Street, Beverly. Cote, Jennie A., Massachusetts Teachers Federa- tion, Beverly. © BiceLtow, Cora E., Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, 36 Hancock Street, Boston. Parent- Clover NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BoypEN, Wa.iace C., Boston Normal School, Boston, 17. Fitzpatrick, Katurrtne L. (Alternate), Lyman- Grant Teachers’ Association, Theodore Lyman School, East Boston. Jones, Burr F. (Alternate), Massachusetts School- masters’ Club, Department of Education, State House, Boston. ; MaxkEcHINE, Ernst, Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, Secretary, 15 Ashburton Place, Boston. Murpocx, Anna C., Boston Teachers’ Club, 362 Longwood Avenue, Boston, 17. ES OppENHEIM, GERTRUDE O., Group of Boston Ele- mentary, Teachers, 1126 Boylston Street, Boston. Pace, Curistina D.,. Parent-Teachers’ Protective Association, 394 Marlborough Street, Boston. Recan, Karuering A, (Alternate), Dearborn— Hugh O’Brien, Julia Ward Howe Teachers’ Association, 49 Worcester Street, Boston. Situ, Payson (Ex officio), Commissioner of Edu- cation, Boston. ‘ WHEELocK, Lucy, Massachusetts State Kinder- garten Association, 100 Riverway, Boston. Wricut, Frank W., Massachusetts Schoolmasters’ Club, Department of Education, State House, Boston. . Day, C. Frances, Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, 7 Ferry Street, Bradford. Sruart, Firora M., Bridgewater Teachers’ Associa- tion, State Normal School, Bridgewater. Macuire, Emma, Brockton Grade Teachers’ Club, Brockton. Sampson, Rusy B., Brockton Grade Teachers’ Club, 93 High Street, Brockton. i Coss, BertHa V., Brookline Teachers’ Club, 235 Rawson Road, Brookline. y Miter, Erra M., Brookline Teachers’ Club, 1651 Beacon Street, Brookline. ; McSximmon, Mary (Ex officio), State Director, Principal of Pierce School, Brookline. Owens, JoserpH E. (Alternate), Brookline Teach- ers’ Club, 117 Kent Street, Brookline. Exiot, Cuarres W. (Ex officio), Life Director, Cambridge. Gorman, Acnrs J., Winchester Teachers’ Club, 63 Ellery Street, Cambridge. Wotrarp, Evita L,., Massachusetts State Uni- versity Association, 29 Everett Street, Cam- bridge. Coreman, Ll. EstHer (Alternate), Chelsea Teach- ers’ Club, 27 Gardner Street, Chelsea. Prerck, ADELAIDE, Chelsea Teachers’ Club, 20 Lawrence Street, Chelsea. ‘ Wivzpar, CHESTER H., Lyman-Grant Teachers’ As- sociation, 27 Gardner Street, Chelsea. : WoiaHan, Heren H. (Alternate), Peabody Feach- ers’ Association, 164 Sylvan Street, Danvers. Keere, Herren F., High School Women’s Club, 76 Mayfield Street, High School, Dorchester. McGratH, Grace A., Boston Teachers’ Club, 3 Castle Rock Street, Dorchester 25. Poor, Littian B., Massachusetts State Kinder- garten Association, 63 Tonawanda Street, Dor- chester. Wuiton, Priscizza, Boston Teachers’ Club, 122 Talbot Avenue, Dorchester. ; > Exuprinck, Autserto M., Massachusetts Teachers Federation, 590 Commercial Street, East Brain- tree. : Scortarp, ANNIE G., Boston Teachers’ Club, 11 Bowditch Street, East Braintree, 84. Hosss, AppiE B., Beverly Teachers’ Association, Essex. ArNotD, MeEtvirte A., Massachusetts Teachers Federation, Principal Horace Mann School, 20 Walnut Street, Everett. FreLtows, Mary §., Everett Teachers’ Club, 39 Lexington Street, Everett. MILLER, ISABELLE (Alternate), Everett Teachers’ Club, 116 Chestnut Street, Everett. Prior, Cuarres- F.,. Fairhaven Union. Teachers’ Association, Union Superintendent of Schools, 37 Laurel Street, Fairhaven. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY ROBERTSON, Mase. A., Massachusetis State Kinder- garten Association, Kindergarten Supervisor, Fall River. SMALLEY, Harry, Massachusetts Teachers Federa- tion, 611 June Street, Fall River. Smiry, Mary C., Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, 910 Main Street, Fitchburg. PARKER, Gxapys, Spencer Teachers’ Gleasondale. CENTER, SUSANNE, Gloucester Teachers’ Associa- tion, 20 Washington Street, Gloucester. Treranp, Rarpu P., Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, 1 Kent Circle, Gloucester, HARTWELL, Mitprep M., Franklin County Teach- ers’ Association, 45 Maple Street, Greenfield. GREELEY, EstHER M., Holyoke Teachers’ Club, 133 Chestnut Street, Holyoke. Harris, Hannan Marcaret, Massachusetts Teach- ers Federation, Hyannis. Harris, Henry H., Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, 93 11th Street, Lowell. WuippLe, Dr. Frank W., Massachusetts Teach- ers Federation, Ingalls School, Lynn. REED, Crara M., Malden Teachers’ -550 Main Street, Malden. Wicurman, J. Lewis, Malden Teachers’ Associa- tion, Malden. Merritt, E. W. D. (Alternate), Marlboro Teach ers’ Association, t94 Church Street, Marlboro. Hatcu, BertHa C., Melrose Teachers’ Club, 34 E. Emerson Street, Melrose. : Lyte, Cart D. (Alternate), Everett Teachers’ Club, 126 Green Street, Melrose: Oscoop, Lucy R., Melrose Teachers’ Club, 52 W. Emerson Street, Melrose. Bates, ADELLA W. (Alternate), Teachers’ Associa- tion of Milton, 63 Maple Street,, Milton, Prario, Henry T., Quincy Teachers’ Association, 54 Belcher Circle, E. Milton. Emerson, Grorcr W., Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, 10 Oakland Street, Natick. : .Coox, Raymonp H., Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, Principal James B. Congdon School, 303 Maple Street, New Bedford. Frencu, Mary Howard, Massachusetts State Kin- poearten Association, 18 7th Street, New Bed- ord, ReEep, Erner A., New Bedford Teachers’ Associa- tion, 61 Chestnut Street, New Bedford ; Dyer, Emiry J., Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, 56 Eldridge Street, Newton. Tanor, Frora A. (Alternate), Newton Grade Teach- -ers’ Club, 301 Lake Avenue, Newton Highlands. Tasker, Lorna B., Stoughton-Easton Union Teach- ers’ Club, N. Easton. Buck, F. H., Winthrop-Russell-Everett-Mather Associations, 100 Merrymount Street, Quincy. Keerr, Mary A., Quincy Teachers’ Association, 11 Woodward Avenue, Quincy. ; Nickerson, Frep H., Quincy Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Quincy. Barr, Mary H,. (Alternate), Winchester Teachers Club, 31 Highland Street, Reading. Emerson, Exveandr F., The Reading Teachers ~~" Club; 24 South Locust Street, Reading, : Wuirtemore, FANNIE Cuenry, Reading Teachers Club, 15 Harnder Street, Reading. ‘ é Morst, Frank -P., Revere Teachers’ Club, 15 Vic- toria Street, Revere. : . Anperson, -MaseL M., Massachusetts Teachers Federation, 28 Akron Street, Roxbury. Dickson; Myrtie C., Boston Teachers Club, 20 Whiting ‘Street, Roxbury, 19. © ta McGIntey, See ah ee Teachers’ Club, 2 St. James Street, Roxbury, 19. Haiti Marion, Union of High School Women, 14. Rockville Street, Roxbury. r Suutr, Mary C. (Alternate), Massachusetts State Kindergarteit Association, 331 Walnut Avenue, Roxbur F aor Museay > Mary C., Dearborn—Hugh O’Brien, Julia Ward Howe Teachers’ Association, 24 Besley Road, Roslindale. , Hecan, Ciara G., Somerville Teachers Club, 100 School Street, Somerville. Association, Association, 175 ABBOT, ARDELLE, Somerville y ARI . z Teachers’ Craigie Street, Somerville. Club, 71 Hosmer, Grorck M., Somerville Teuchers’ Club, _. 233 School Street, Somerville. SouLk, Mary B., Somerville Teachers’ Club, Somerville. Woopwarp, Annie C., Somerville Teachers’ Club, _2 Madison Street, Somerville. GoopELt, Zerma A. (Alternate), Springfield Teach- ers’ Economic Association, 15 Crystal Avenue, Springfield. — MacMoran, Grace, West Springfield Teachers’ RO oat oe 72 Wings’ Highway, West Spring- eld. MecDurrre, WaLter V., Springfield Teachers’ Eco- Hoene Association, 336 Central Street, Spring- held. Remy, Barrarp D., Springfield Teachers’ Eco- LV Association, 26 Kenward Terrace, Spring- eld. Ropinson,.CarroLL W., Springfield Teachers’ Eco- ee Association, 88 St. James Avenue, Spring- field. STEERE, JULIA E., Springfield Teachers’ Economic Association, 187 Pine Street, Springfield. Wuire, JosEPHINE A., Springfield Teachers’ Jico- nome Association, 178 Baudoin Street, Spring- eld. I;MERSON, CHaRrLes J., Stoneham Teachers’ Club, 23 Green Street, Stoneham. Doyize, BrancuEe E., Swampscott Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 149 Humphrey Street, Swampscott. THOMPSON, [LaeIGHTON (Alternate), Swampscott Teachers’ Association, 6 Prospect Avenue, Swampscott. O’Connor, Mary E., Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, 158 Highland Avenue, ‘Taunton. Davin, BEssiz E., Wakefield Teachers’ Association, 24 Richardson Avenue, Wakefield. Hatt, F. Joserpnine, Waltham Teachers’ Associa- tion, Chester Brook Road, Waltham. Jones, Katurrine D. (Alternate), Waltham Teachers’ Association, 40 Harris Street, Wal- tham. ParKER, Epna F. (Alternate), .Newton Grade Teachers’ Club, 185 Adams Street, Waltham. Ricker, Ipa A., Watertown Public Schools; Water- town, Kummer, Lucy, Boston Teachers’ Club, 15 Hast- ings Lane, West Medford. MevviisH, ANNE A., Boston Teachers’ Club, 17 Dickson Street, West Somerville, 44. Hawes, Marrua E. (Alternate), Weymouth Teach- ers’ Association, 21 Fairmont Avenue, Wey- mouth. ; SHEEHY, Mary I,, High School Women’s Club, 4or1 E. Broad Street, E. Weymouth. Wuire, Dora S., Weymouth Teachers’ Association, 30 High Street Place, E. Weymouth. Copy, Katuerine, High School Women’s Club, 325 Commercial Street, Whitman. Dyxeman, Grace, Winchendon Teachers’ Associa- tion, 18 Oak Street, Winchendon. BurnuaM, WiuiamM H., Clark University, Clark University, Worcester. Lyncu, Joun E., Massachusetts Teachers Federa- * tion, 9 Stoneland Road, Worcester. “O'Hara, Asrcary L:, Massachusetts Teachers Fed- eration, 20 Vernon Street, Worcester. Rucc, Grorcr, Massachusetts Teachers tion, 35 Somerset Street, Worcester. Federa- Michigan Hyprs, A. J., Adrian Teachers’ Club, 513 Clinton Street, Adrian. Sprincer, D. W., Michigan State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 857 Tappan Street, Ann Arbor, . Copy, FRANK, Michigan State Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Detroit. Evuiort, CHartes M., Detroit Teachers’ Associa- tion, Detroit. - Sropparp, Ciara B., Detroit Teachers’ Association, Speech Correction Department, 3779 Maybury Grand Avenue, Detroit. eet tore 176 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION Wo.rscutacer, Mrs. A. F., Detroit Teachers’ Association, 5840 Second Avenue, Detroit. Fink, Jesse M., Grand Rapids Teachers’ Club, 125 Union Avenue, N. E., Grand Rapids. Jewett, Carrie B., Grand Rapids Teachers Club, 152 Claremont Place, N. E., Grand Rapids. Coox, Marcaret C. Teachers’ Club of Muskegon Heights Public Schools, 419% Asylum Street, Flint. Beck, CHartes O., Highland Park Teachers’ Club, Highland Park High School, Highland Park. QuacxensusH, E. J.; Michigan State Teachers As- sociation, 127 Davidson Avenue, Highland Park. Knapp, TI. J., Michigan State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Highland Park. Srreator, Emma B., Michigan State Teachers’ As- sociation, 2900 West Grand Boulevard, High- Jand Park. Netson, E. H., Highland Park Teachers’ Club, 198 Highland Avenue, Highland Park. Wick, Corvetia C., Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo. Cameron, E. T., Michigan State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Secretary, Lansing, Correy, W. L. (Ex officio), State Director, Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing. ‘ Kayr, JAMES B., Michigan State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, President Northern State Normal School, Marquette. Futter, Eart G., Muskegon Teachers’ Club, 143 West Webster Street, Muskegon. Futter, Mrs. E. G., Muskegon Teachers’ Club, 143 West Webster Street, Muskegon. ’ Jerrers, F. A., Michigan State Teachers’ Assocta- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Painesdale. Morsr, A. HELEN, Sault Ste. Marie Chapter of National Education Association, 334 Maple Street, Sault Ste. Marie. Minnesota DrenFeLD, E. L. Miss, Aélantic Gateway Associa- tion, Lincoln School, Duluth. Matitory Cuariotre, Atlantic tion, Duluth, LinpLEY, Marcaret D., the N. E. A., Hopkins. Wiexry, N. J. G., N..W. Central Minnesota Edu- cation Association, Concordia College, Moorhead. Gateway Associa- Minneapolis Division of Bauman, Heven L., Minnesota Grade Teachers’ Association, 91 Ash Street, Minneapolis. Bett, Jane, Minnesota Education Association, 1115 West 26th Street, Minnea olis. Cartson, Puirie E., President Manes Edu- cation Association, 2547 toth Avenue, South, Minneapolis. Bookmen’s Department of Min- Crancy, A. W., South, Min- nesota, 2516 Humboldt Avenue, neapolis. Ger, Frorenct L., Grade Teachers’ Section o the Minneapolis Teachers League, Curtis fotel, Minneapolis. BuaispELL, Heten E., Minnesota Education As- sociation, 2877 Irving Avenue, South, Min- neapolis. Haney, Exvizasetu, Minnesota Education Associa- tion, 4837 Lyndale Avenue, South, Minneapolis. Kinney, Mrs. T. F., Minneapolis Division of the N. E. A., Minneapolis. . MacGrecor, Errie, Grade Teachers’ the Minneapolis Teachers’ League, Curtis’ Hotel, es ee LIpPITt, . ©., Minnesota Education Associa- tion, 2395 University Ave., St. Paul. SHEPHARD, W. Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education Association, 1115 Thomas __Ave., North Minneapolis. Murpuy, Mary V., inneapolis Grade Teachers’ League, 4109 Sheridan Avenue, South, Min- neapolis. Stewart, ANNA B. (Alternate), Minneapolis Principals’ Forum, Madison School, Minneapolis. Vertz, Mrs Leia, Grade Teachers’ Section of the Minneapolis Teachers’ League, 3730 Pleasant Avenue, Minneapolis. ; Brown, J. C. (Ex officio), State Director, Presi- dent State Teachers’ College, St. Cloud. Section of ° Graves, ETHEL, Central Minnesota Education Asso- ciation, ‘Teachers’ College, St.-C oud. | Barron, Nora M., Grade cachers’ Section of the Minneapolis Teachers’ League, 738 Cromwell, St. Paul. ; Donerty, AcnEs E.. (Ex officio), Board of Trustees, Central High School, St. Paul. | Honpo, Maser, Minnesota Edvication Association, 2395 University Avenue, Se Paulie : Srapteton, M, A., Minnesota Education Associa- tion, 102 Western ‘Avenue, St.. Paul. wank Hickey, D. E., Minnesota Education Association, Superintendent of City Schools, South St. Paul. : ¢ SN cope 4 Ss. O., Minneapolis Division of the : A,, 5660 1st Avenue, South, St. Paul. Maxwety, G. E., Minnesota Education Associa- tion, President State Teachers’ College, Winona. Mississippi Bass, E. E. (Ex officio), State Director, Superin- tendent of Cit chools, Greenville. CoLEMAN 3 ., Mississippi Teachers’ Assocta- tion, County Superintendent of Schools, Jack- son. Taytor, W. N., Secretary Mississippi Education Association, Jackson. Missouri: Srrena, JoserpH A., Missourt: State Teachers’ As- sociation, President Southeast Missouri State Teachers’ College, Cape Girardeau. Carrer, E. M., Secretary Missowri State Teachers’ Association, Columbia. a Wuutams, C. H., Missouri sociation, University of Missouri, Columbia. Brincrs, Heven, The Association o High School Women, 3536 Genesee Avenue, Kansas City. De Wirt, Marcaret (Alternate), The Association of High School Women, P. O. Box 599, Kansas City. Herrirorv, J. E., Council of Negro Teachers, 1217. Woodland Avenue, Kansas City. Latin, Nett E., Kansas City Teachers’ Club, 4518 Montgall Avenue, Kansas, City, LoncsHore, W. T., Elementary= Principals’ Asso- ciation, 520 West 4oth, Stteet, Gréenwood School, Kansas City. an : Moorman, Atris D., “Missouri State Teachers’ Association, Principal, 3404 St. John — Street, Kansas City. ois eg ee Banks, Cuartes, Northeast Missouri Teachers’ As- sociation, Superintendent of Schools, Kirkville. Kirk, Joun R., Missouri State Teachers’ Associa- tion, President Northeast Missouri State Teach- ers’ College, Kirksville. : ZetceL, WiitrM H., Missouri State Teachers’ a oe so2 South Stanford Street, Kirks- ville. Cramer, Detua, St. Joseph Teachers’ Association, State Teachers’ As- r1or Church Street, St. Hees PrererMan, May, St. Jose Teachers’ Association, tr1z South r2th, St. Joseph. THALMAN, JOHN .. Missouri State Teachers’ Toes Superntendent of City Schools, St. oseph. RIGHTMIRE, Berta, St. Joseph Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 1320 Francis Street, St. Joseph. Waricut, ELizasEtH, St. Joseph Teachers’ Associa- tion, 1320 Francis Street, St. Joseph. DrusHEL, J. ANDREW, Si. Louis District Associa- tion, Harris Teachers’ College, St, Louis. Grecxs, Titi C., Missouri State Teachers’ As- _ sociation, 911 Locust Street, St. Louis. St. Crair, Rosert, Elementary School Principals’ Association, Principal, 1344 Laurel Street, St. Louis. Grrenge, CG A., Missouri State Teachers’ Assocta- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Sedalia. Suater, Nina K., Missouri State Teachers’ As- sociation, 907 West 7th Street, Sedalia. TURNMIRE, aT UsGe Northeast Missouri Teach- ers’ Association, County Superintendent of Schools, Unionville. CrissmAN, Grorcr R., Central Missouri Teachers’ College Association, Superintendent of City Schools, 411 South Holden Street, Warrensburg. DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY CrissMAN, Mrs. G. R., Central Missouri Teachers’ College Association; 411 South Holden Street, ; ne HEnprIcks, - L., Missouri State Teachers’ As- sociation, President Central Missouri State Teachers’ College, Warrensburg. Montana Hamitton, Dean J. M, (Ex officio), State Di- rector, State College of Agriculture, Bozeman. MITH, FRANKLIN NO® ontana State Teachers’ Association, Public School, Missoula. Nebraska Stopparp, A. J., Nebraska State Teachers’ Asso- ciatign, Superintendent of City Schools, Beatrice. ELLiort, Rozsert E., Nebraska State Teachers’ Association, State Normal School, Chadron. Moopy, Le N. (Alternate), Nebraska State Teach- ers’ Association, 922-8th Street, Fairbury. Morton, W. _ (Alternate), Nebraska State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Fairbury. Stong, E. E. (Alternate), Nebraska State Teach- ers’ Association, Fairbury. WeriseL, L. W., Nebraska State Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of Schools, Geneva. Martin, Georce E., State Teachers’ College, 932 West 24th Street, Kearney. Pounp, Ouivia, Nebraska Woman’s Educational Club, 1632 L, Street, Lincoln. AvaMs, JENNIE B. (Alternate), The Nebraska Woman's Educational Club, Lincoln. ForuMer, KaTHERiInE, Lincoln Kindergarten As- Sociation, 1424 D Street, Lincoln. HosMan, M. (Alternate), Nebraska State Teachers’ Association, Secretary, Lincoln. Howett, Ciarence E., Lincoln Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 836 South 31st Street, Lincoln. Lerver, M. C., Lincoln Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of Schools, Lincoln. Lewton, Opar, Lincoln Teachers’ Association, 321 North 17th Street, Lincoln. MorcENTHALER, Enna, Lincoln Teachers’ Associa- tion, 300 South 16th, Lincoln. Ayer, Saran, Omaha School Forum, 2574 Pratt Street, Omaha. Brveripce, J. H., Nebraska State Teachers’ As- sociation, Superintendent of City Schools, Omaha. Bake, Cora, Omaha School Forum, 504: South 25th Avenue, Omaha. CHAPMAN, JOHANNA, Omaha School Forum, Ban- croft School, Omaha. Fopcr, MartuHa, Omaha School Pacific Street, Omaha. Hewitt, EvizasetH, Omaha School Forum, The Hamilton Apartments, Omaha. Forum, 3024 Knicut, Erua, Omaha School Forum, 4216 Harney Street, Omaha. | Kniperatu, G. T., President Omaha School Forum, 4003 Izard Street, Omaha. Lyue, Dorotuy, The Omaha School Forum, 5201 Underwood Avenue, Omaha. Ruunka, GeErtrRuDE, Omaha School Forum, 4816 Webster Street, Omaha. Scriven, E. PEARLE, Omaha School Forum, 2542 Capitol Avenue, Omaha. . Barstow, Louisr, Nebraska State Teachers’ As- sociation, Ord. Grecory, L. R. (Alternate), Nebraska State Teach- ers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Tecumseh. Nevada Smirn, Caauncey W. (Ex officio), State Director, Elko. New Hampshire MacLean, Danie, W. (Ex officio), State Director, Headmaster Berlin High School, Berlin. F Burterririp, E. W. (Ex officio), State Commis- i Education, Concord. sioner o , e Corton, RL, Merrimack Valley Teachers’ As- sociation, Superintendent of City Schools, Derry. 177 Tow1e, Cuirton A., Rockingham County Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of Schools, Exeter. Giucurist, Mrs. FRANCELIA (Alternate), Merri- Aa Valley Teachers’ Association, I,ondon- erry. Knapp, Mrs. M. Frorencr, New Hampshire State Teachers’ Association, Mascoma Sireet School, Lebanon. Barrett, Ganges, Winnepesaukee Teachers’ Asso- ciation, New LI,ondon. New Jersey Hamitton, Exia J., Atlantic City Teachers’ As- sociation, 39 N. Stenton Place, Atlantic City. Jounson, Atzerta M., Atlantic City Teachers’ As- Sociation, 3531 Pacific Avenue, Atlantic City. Uxsuarer, Cerry E., Texas Avenue School Asso- ciation, 143 S. Carolina Avenue, Atlantic City. VALENTINE, Mary B. (Alternate), Atlantic City Teachers’ Association, 104 S. Massachusetts Avenue, Atlantic City. Hanton, Nora F., Kearney Br. of N. E. A., 115 Beech Street, Arlington. Hunt, Katuerine, Kearny Br. of N. E. A., 115 Beech Street, Arlington. Acnew, THomas, Jr. (Ex officio), State Director, Principal Horace Mann School, Bayonne. SMmitH, Preston H., New Jersey State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Bayonne. LanpER, EpitH M., East Orange Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 39 North Burnett Street, East Orange. McCautirre, Kats, East Orange Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 39 North Burnett Street, East Orange. Scort, Crirrorp J., New Jersey State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of Schools, 10 Winans Street, Kast Orange. CouLter, J. Harvey, Englewood Teachers’ Club, 47 Park Avenue, Englewood. Conxiin, Marion GrrtrupE, Hackensack Teach- ers’ Association, 333 Park Street, Hackensack. SmirHicx, Atice C., Montclair Public School Teachers’ Association, Montclair High School, Montclair. Hanson, Franx H., New Jersey State Teachers’ Association, Principal Burnett School, 141 Heller Parkway, Newark. Jacoss, ZeLuA, Newark Teachers’ Association, 146 Johnson Avenue, S. S. High School, Newark. RicHarpson, Mrs., Newark Teachers’ Association, Girls’ Vocational School, Newark. JENKINS, ALBION U., Paterson Teachers’ Associa- tion, School No. 2, Paterson. SarcEant, Ine G., New Jersey State Teachers’ Association, Principal School No. 10, Paterson. Law_er, Mary E., New Jersey State Teachers’ Association, Teacher, School No. 12, Paterson. Wacner, Eimer, D., New Jersey State Teachers’ Association, Pennington. Dennis, Miss Emma T., Mercer County Teachers’ Club, 295 Rutherford Avenue, Trenton. Mortey, Maseu B., Mercer County Teachers’ Club, 372 Brunswick Avenue, Trenton. West, Roscoz L., New Jersey State Teachers’ As- sociation, Director of Elementary Education, Administration Building, Trenton. : Uncer, J. J., New Jersey State Teachers’ Associa- tion, County Superintendent of Schools, Vine- land. Lounssury, Witi1am, West New York Teachers’ Association, School No. 6, West New York. New Mexico McCotitum, J. R., Albuquerque Public Teachers, Albuquerque. New York Azrams, A. W., National Academy of Visual In- struction, State Education Pepa eens, Albany. Graves, Frank P. (Ex officio), State Commissioner of Education, Albany. ; : , Skinner, Cuartes R. (Ex officio), Life Director, Librarian, Legislative Library, Albany. Waker, Apam A., Faculty State College for Teachers, 46 Ten Eyck Avenue, Albany. School 178 Be Oo ee ee Luxe, Frances, Binghamton Teachers’ Association, Carrol Street School, Binghamton. Antues, Karuertne L., Bensonhurst Teachers’ Association, 2132-85th Street, Brooklyn. Bartow, ADA (Alternate), Rockaway Beach Branch of National Education Association, 442 Washington Avenue. Brooklyn, Cort, Ambrose (Ex officio), State Director, cipal Public School No. 73, Brooklyn. Doyie Mary C., Association of Public Schools 155, 25, 26, 144, 131 Gates Avenue, Brooklyn. Ennis, Isaper A., Federation of Teachers’ Asso- ciations, 274 Washington Avenue, Brooklyn. Fanry, Sara H., Manual-Erasmus High School Association, 191 Lincoln Place, Brooklyn. Fisurr, Lucy M., Public Schools 4, 11, 12, Brook- lyn, 884-71st Street, Brooklyn. Howarp, Mrs. Sarau L,, Association of Public Schools 1, 7, 8 9, 15 of District 27, Brooklyn, t2 South Portland Avenue, Brooklyn. McGuire, Anna I. (Alternate), Model Teachers’ Association, 613 Macon Street, Brooklyn. McKroucu, Etirn, Public Schools 3-44, 92 G Prin- ates Avenue, Brooklyn. Oaxury, Mary F., Brooklyn Teachers’ Assocta- tion, Districts 33 and 35, Public School No, 145, Brooklyn, Menpersoun, Henry, Association of Teachers of the Lew Wallace Junior Iligh School, 277 Kingston Avenue, Brooklyn. Reynoips, JAMES J., Textile School and Public School 28, Manhattan Borough, High School, Brooklyn, Ruoprs, Sara L., Association of Public 28, 84B, 113, Brooklyn, Public School Brooklyn. Smatt, Harem A., Association of Teachers of Public Schools, Nos. 136. 146, 154, Brooklyn, 1326 Bergen Street, Brooklyn. SprINGMEVER, CuHartEes E., The Franklin K. Lane School, 635 Evergreen Avenue, Brooklyn. Vancz, RuFus A., Association of Public Schools 148 and 55, Brooklyn, Public School 148, Brooklyn, West, Rose L. (Alternate), Association of Model Erasmus Hali Schools Nov.28; Teachers in Training Schools, 1131 Bargen Street, Brooklyn. Wincesacu, JosrpH F., Evening High School Teachers’ Association, New York, Bay Ridge East High School, Brooklyn. Hortis, Anna J., First Supervisory District, Oswego County, Lacona. Datey, Mary R., Public School 93, Queens, 42 Hanover Street, Elmhurst, Long Island. Jnrrorps, CiybE R., Elmhurst Teachers’ Associa- tion, Newton High School and Public Schools 80, 92, Queens, Newton High School, Elmhurst, Long Island. Kennepy, Acnes R., Public School No. 93, Queens Borough, 120 Hanover Street,-Elmhurst, L, Nicou, Lucire, Association of Assistant Princi- pals of New York City, 9105 97th Street, Wood- haven, Long Island. Troy, Hettna G., Public Schools 15 and 16, Queens, New York, 95 Gerry Avenue, Elmhurst, _ Long Island. VaucHan, Czurment L., The Training School Teachers’ Association, Hollis Court Boulevard, Borough of Queens, Long Island. Connick, MARGUERITE A., Mount Vernon Teach- ers’ Association, 190 Archer Avenue, Mount Vernon: Dayton, H. Wray, Mount Vernon Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 144 Stevens Avenue, Mount Vernon. SKEELE, Orts C., District 9, Manhattan, tor Hill- side Street, Mount Vernon. , Sanpers, A. Lourse, New Rochelle Teachers’ Club, 107 Winyah Avenue, New Rochelle. Bactey, W. C., Faculty of Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, New York City. Brake, Karuerine D., Association of Public Schools 53 and 6, Principal Public School No. 6, tor West 8sth Street, New York City. Broov, Anna P., Public School 38, Manhattan, 509 West rt12th Street, New York City. r Carts, Rurina A., Teachers of Districts 2 and 3. Public School No. 42, New York City. NatrionaL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION ide, a a oe Carney, Mazen (Alternate), Columbia University, 525 New York City. Couren, Herrn Louise, Schools 14, 19, 40, 47, 50, Trving High School, New York City. Cosrrcan, Dorotuy, Public School 184, Manhattan, 617 West 152d Street, New York City. Cronan, Frances, Association District 46, Queens, Public School 22, Queens, New York City. Crowr, Erne, H., Association of Public, Schools tr and 114, Manhattan, New York City, $75 Riverside Drive, New. York City.” Dononur, Mary, Association of Public Schools Nos. 4, 13, 20, % Principal Public School No. 4, 203 Rivington Street, New York City. Doyte, Jutta H., Affiliation of Public Schools 11, 8, and 95, Public School 11, 314 West 17th Street, New York City. Fieminc, ANNA, Affiliation of Public Schools Nos. 64 and 71, Hotel Judson, 53 Washington Square, New York City. Froop, Heten, Public School 55. Bronx, New York, 9s4 Grant Avenue, New York City. Ginmartin, Reena, Public Schools 150 and 121, rth District, 76 East o4th Street, Manhattan Borough, New York City. GranaMm, Frepprick B., Public School 35, Brook- lyn, 138 West 105 Street, Brooklyn. ; ; Wacur, Exizasetu F., National Education Asso- ciation, Public Schools 63 and 25 Manhattan Borough, 12t East 3d Street, New York City. Herrit, Hest. Public School 169 and Vocational School for Boys, Bronx, Public School 40, Bronx Borough, New York City. ; Hocxurimer, Rrta, Association for Visual Instruc- — tion, 157 Bast 67th Street, New York City. Hosic, James F., National Conference on Educa- tional Method, T-achers College, Columbia Uni- versity, New York City. : JerFeRY, Frorence A., Junior High School ¢6, 50% West 139th Street, New York Citv. } Jones, Orive M. (Ex officio), Vice-President, Prin- cipal Public School No. 120, New York City. KweaLs, Etta R., Public School 84, 93, Manhattan Borough, 40 Morningside Drive, New York ‘Citv. Teachers’ College, West rzoth Street, Association _ of Public Manhattan, Washington Lavers, Mary E., Public School 132, Manhattan Borough, 42 Northern Avenue, Apartment 54, New York City. ; ; Laueuiin, Hucu C., The New York City Teach- ers’ Association, 530 West 123d Street, New York City. ? LAWRENCE, Mrs. AMELIA, Public Schools 11, 40, Bronx Borough, Public School 40, Bronx Borough, New York City. LELAND, Dr. Assy PorTER, 17 and 18 District Local ‘Associations, 60 West toth Street, New York City. Loupersack, Jesste L., Public Schools 15, 105, 188G, 61, Manhattan Borough, Public School 15, 728 sth Street, New York City. MacFatt, Mary K., Association of 17th and 18th Districts, 425 East 145th Street, New York City. McCavutey, HLIZABeRE P., - Richman-Southerland Affiliations, 831 East 163d Street, New York City. ; atl 2 é “Ei pu Nage McCaucuern, Marcaret, Public Schools 8r. 165, 170, 172, Affiliations, Manhattan, Borough, -Public hae 159, Manhattan Borough, New York ity. : bass Mites, Dr. DupLry, Association Public Schools 6, 49, 58, Evander Childs High School, Bronx - Borough, New York City. oe. . Newins, JosEPHINE, District 45, Queens. Borough, Abe School 93, Queens Borough, New York ity. Newton, Mary W., The Protestant Teachers’ Asso- -iation, 211 West 56th Street, New York’ City. Parte, Atice, Public Schools 23 and 56, Manhattar Borough, 114 Morningside Drive, New York City. 244 PauL: Francis H. J., Dewitt Clinton High Schoo Association, 899 10th Avenue, New York City Prrixotto, Bripcet C., National Education Associa tion, District Associationy 43 and 44, 33: Toht Street. New York City. ; emer > DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY iS) Rak, Marcarer P., The Association of District Number 1, Manhattan Borou h, Public School No. 1, Manhattan, New York ity. RicHarpson, JULIA E., Public Schools 20, 23, 48 roux, 215 West 1o4th Street, New York City. Strayer, Grorce D. (Ex officio), Life Director, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. STEVENS, BP. Jr., Teachers Public School 44, The Bronx Borough, 3332 Decatur Avenue, New York City. Sten, HELEN A., District 14 and Public School 168, Manhattan Borough, New York City. Soron, Crciie, District IT,-50r West 138 Street, New York City. THompson, Mrs, Dora R., Washington Irving High School Association, Washington Irving High School, New York City. TREMPER, FroreNcE H., Public School 119, Brook- lyn, 434 West 120th Street, New York City. Weart, Mrs. Litvie M., Local Affiliation Associa- tion of Public Schools 156, 84G, 57, 137, New York City. WestPpHaL, FREDERICK N., William J. Morrison School, 447 East 89th Street, New York City. Witson, MartHa M., Association Public Schools 166, 141, 127, Manhattan Borough, Principal School 127, Manhattan Borough, New York City. GaLiup, Jackson, Rochester Teachers’ Association, School 18, Rochester. Stas, A. B., New York State Teachers’ Association, West High School, Rochester. Horn, Mary A., Rockaway Beach National Education Association, 44, Rockaway Beach. Comprs, Puasr A., District Association 43-44, New York City, Rockville Center. SmirH, Cuarres J., Mount Vernon Teachers, As- sociation, 311 Rye Beach Avenue, Rye. Branch ofthe Public School Conway, Mary M., Teachers of Public Schools 12, 13, 14, 15, 32, Borough of Richmond, Public School 15, Grant Street, Thompkinsville, Staten Island. Smitu, S. McKEE, Group 3 Staten Island Teach- ers’ Association, 111 Far View Avenue, Staten Island. Stockwe, H. S., Syracuse Teachers’ Association, 231 Cannon Street, Syracuse. Hart, Frorence E., New York State Teachers’ Association, Watertown. ; Prazopy, James E., Faculty, Morris High School, 93 Carhart Avenue, White Plains. ; ; BERMINGHAM, ENNIE, Riverside Junior High School, 186 Shonnard Terrace, Yonkers, Wricut, Grack R., Yonkers Branch of New Vork State Teachers’ Association, 8 Landscape Ave- nue, Yonkers. North Carolina Wricut, Rosert H. (Ex officio), State Director, President East Carolina Teachers College, Greenville. ; ; Brooks, E. C. (Ex officio), State Superintendent Public Instruction, Raleigh. North Dakota B., North Dakota Education As- Nievtson, Hazer, 1 1 jatic Department of Education, Bis- eg State marck, " = . Nizrson, Minnie J. (Ex officio), State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck, , Mancun, V. L., North Dakota State Teachers President Forestry State Normal ae . choo ottineau, WALKER, Mrs. Sapie A., North Dakota State ’ Association, 1209 7th Street, Fargo. ne. Acting State Director, North Dakota State Teachers’ Association, State Rural School Inspector, Towner. — Ohio Hawk, M. E., Akron Teachers - South Union Street, Akron. — Stanton, B. F., Ohio State Teachers Association, Superintendent of Schools, rors S. Arch Avenue, lliance. Association, 108 DIETRICH, H. C., Ohio State Teachers Associa- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Ashtabula, GARBER, ELizasrtru, Ohio State Teachers Associa- tion, Box 215, Athens. Marnis, Dr. S. K., S. . Ohio Teachers Associa- tion, Athens. Watson, Netrrg B., Ohio State Teachers Asso- ciation, Box 165, Athens. Moopy, | E., Ohio State Teachers Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Bedford. Huston, NELLir, Ohio State Teachers Association, 305 North Madriver Street, Bellefontaine, OGY, W. S., West Park Teachers Association, erea. EADY, ids 6. Ohio State Teachers Association, Gouaty, Superintendent of Schools, Bowling reen, Hawkins, Witson, Ohio State Teachers Associa- tion, 1024 23rd_ Street, Northwest, Superin- tendent_of Schools, Canton. Connon, Ranpatt J., Ohio State Teachers Associa- tion, Denton Building, Superintendent of Schools, Cincinnati. GerBer, Amy, Norwood Teachers 3316 Fairfield Avenue, Cincinnati. Macke, E. F., Cincinnati Teachers 3009 Clifton Avenue, Cincinnati, Association, Association, Merry, -_ M., Cincinnati Schoolmaster Club, Hughes High School, Cincinnati. Patron, O. M., The Cincinnati Principals’ As- sociation, Rothenberg School, Cincinnati. Peterson, ANNA L,., Cincinnati Teachers Associa- tion, 18 Haddon’ Hall, Cincinnati. Baker, Rusy, Cleveland Heights Teachers Asso- ciation, 1912 East 97th Street, Cleveland. CAMPBELL, IsaBELt, Cuyahoga Count Teachers Institute, 2249 East 83rd_ Street, Cleveland, Cannan, Erriz, Ohio State Teachers Association, 1762 East 80th Street, Cleveland. Evprepcr, A. C., Ohio State Teachers Associa- tion, Board of Education, Cleveland. GrirFitH, Barron, Cuyahoga County Teachers Institute, Brooklyn Station, Cleveland. THaze, R., Cleveland Teachers Federation, 871 Parkwood Drive, Cleveland. Kirx, W. H., Ohio State Teachers Associaton, Superintendent of City Schools, East Cleve- and. Cooxson, Cuartes W., Ohio State Teachers As- sociation, County Superintendent of Schools, Columbus. : Mixiican, Mrs. Crara F., The Columbus Teach- ers Federation, 642 Kast Rich Street, Columbus, Rozserts, Mary W., The Columbus Teachers Fed- eration, 548 Franklin Avenue, Columbus. Heiser, Bess M., The Dayton Teachers Club, 614 Grafton Avenue, Dayton. Lirren,, Anna H., Ohio State Teachers Associa- tion, No. 3 Forest Apartments, Dayton. Focarty, W. S., Ohio State Teachers Association, County Superintendent of Schcols, Eaton, JoserH, Epna, Ohio State Teachers Association, 435 West 6th Street, Elyria. SHELton, F. M., Ohio State Teachers Associa- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Elyria. Witiert, Grace K,, Elyria City Teachers Asso- ciation, 414 Sixth Street, Elyria. Green, C. R., Findlay! Organization of National Education Association, 129 Jeffras Avenue, Findlay. McDermort, Iva Iy., Ohio State Teachers Asso- ciation, 125 West High Street, Fostoria. Howe tts, Epitn M., Youngstown Education As- sociation, 123 East Wilson Street, Girard, CREAMER, F., Lorain Teachers Club, Washington Avenue, Lorain. Keiser, Cuarzes §., Lorain Teachers Club, x12 6th Street, Lorain. Datry, Exvizasern B., Marion City Teachers ee Ducan, Cora §., Harrisburg Teachers’ Institute, 729 Park Street, Harrisburg. ; Finecan, Tuomas E. (Ex officio), State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg. FIAIFLEIGH, CATHARINE (Alternate), Harrisburg Teachers’ Institute, 1115 Green Street, Harris- burg. Keitey, JAMES HERBERT, Pennsylvania State Edu- cation Association, 10 South Market Square, Harrisburg. Kerrn, Dr. Joun A. H., President State Normal School, Indiana. Cotes, WALTER F., High tion, Philadelphia. Apams, Epwin W., ciation, District Delancey Streets, Brown, Berssiz F. (Alternate), Philadelphia Teachers’ Association, Martha Washington School, 44th and_ Aspen, Philadelphia. Cuarp, AMY Philadelphia Teachers’ tion, South Philadelphia High, 2101 Broad Street, Philadelphia. ; Cuase, Maris F., Philadelphia Teachers’ Associa- tion, Martha Washington School, 44th and Aspen, Philadelphia. Coss, Mrs. A. Lou, Philadelphia Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 1305 Frazier Street, Philadelphia. Dapp, C. F., High School Men’s Association, Phil- adelphia. HAMILTON, Association, Philadelphia. Horsroox, Arice M., Philadelphia Teachers’ As- sociation, Girls’ High School, 17th and Spring Garden, Philadelphia. Ipg, Doctor Guavys G., Philadelphia Teachers’ ‘Association, Director Special Education, 17th and Pine Streets, Philadelphia Knowtes, Exvizasetu S., Pennsylvania State Edu- cation Association, 1733 Park Avenue, North, Philadelphia. Lanpis, HENRY G., Pennsylvania State Education Association, 4401 North oth Street, Philadelphia. LIPPINCOTT, FLORENCE M., Philadelphia Teachers’ Association, South Philadelphia High, 2101 South Broad Street, Philadelphia. School Men’s Associa- Asso- Philadelphia Teachers’ and Superintendent, Seventh Philadelphia. Associa- South Caroting V., Philadelphia Teachers’ zo14 Sellers Avenue, Bywood, . Montacus, EDWIN S., Philadelphia Teachers’ As- sociation, Blain School, 30th and Norris Streets, Philadelphia. McMiLuen, WALTER G., Philadelphia Teachers’ Association, District Superinten ent, 317th and Pine Streets, Philadelphia. Nuszaum, Louts, Philadelphia Teachers’ Associa- tion, Associate Su erintendent, 19th above Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. Suaw, Reusen_T., Pennsy vania tate Education Association, Principal West Philadelphia Boys’ High School, Philadelphia. Vat, Exizanrta J. H,, Philadelphia Teachers’ Association, South Philadelphia High, 2101 South Broad Street, Philadelphia. Wesp, C. A., Philadelphia Teachers’ Association, North East High, Eighth and Lehigh, Phila- delphia. ALTSMAN, HAZEL, Pittsburgh Unit-National. Edu- cation Association, Fifth Avenue High School, Pittsburgh. HOLLINGER, JoHN A., Pennsylvania State Educa Sede piacere 3418 Parkview Avenue, Pitts- urgh. ‘ AnrtHony, JouHn W., The Elementary Principals Pittsburgh. Boyce, Evta Ruts, Teaching Staff of the Pitts- burgh Public Schools, 4632 Centre Avenue, Pittsburgh. ; CritcHFIELD, C. R., Pennsylvania State Educa- tion Association, 311 Rochelle liver Boulevard, Pittsburgh. Garwoop, Dr. C. H., Teaching Siaff of the Pitts burgh Public Schools, Fulton Building, Pitts. burgh. Harris, Apa Van STonE, Penns Ivania State Edu. cation Association, Hancock School, Pittsburgh Lanc, X1na, Teaching Staff of the Pittsburgh Pub lic Schools, 1447 Alabama Avenue, Pittsburgh Street, Mount DELEGATES TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 181 Lyons, Anna (Alternate), Teaching Staff of the Pittsburgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh. f Swan, Grace G., Teaching Staff of the Pitts- burgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh. GoopenoucH, Marrua, Reading Teachers’ Asso- citation, 806 North 11th Street, Reading, Rhode Island Waite, Norman E., Central Falls Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 109 Cottage Street, Pawtucket. South Carolina Wesser, Grorce Harris (Ex. officio), State Di- rector, South Carolina State Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Beaufort. South Dakota Brown, JANE, Aberdeen City Teachers’ Associa- tion, 412 South 4th Street, Aberdeen. Wittiams, Lipa M., South Dakota Education Asso- ciation, Northern Normal & Industrial School, Aberdeen. Huntincton, Marcaret, South Dakota Education Association, Northern Normal & Industrial School, Aberdeen. Voss, Epwarp F., Spink County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of Schools, Doland. Emery, June, President South Dakota Education Association, Madison. Kineston, Acnes A., South Dakota Education Association, Madison. Montcomery, ALicke, South Dakota Education As- Association, Madison. © Brown, VetMa, South Dakota Education Asso- ciation, Pierpont. Martin, Bonnié (Ex officio), Acting State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, Pierre. Tennessée ZEIGLER, JoHN S., Tennessee State Education_As- sociation, Superintendent of City Schools, Chat- tanooga. Jones, O. H., Shelby County Teachers’ Association, P. O.. Box 144;° Lucy. Batre, RusyEe_A., Shelby County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 26 North Belvedere Boulevard, Memphis. Brown, Mrs. J. D., Tennessee State Teachers’ Association, Board of Education, Memphis. | Harris, Ciara L,, Shelby County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Court House, Memphis. Jones, Warton S., Tennessee State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Memphis. } : WitiuiamMs, CuHart O. (Ex officio),, President, N. E. A. Executive Comittee, Memphis. h Smit, S. L,., Tennessee State Teachers’ Associa- tion, Commercial Club Building, Nashville. Texas Moort, M. E., Jefferson County Teachers’ Associa- tion, Superintendent of City Schools, Beaumont. Hitt, J. A., Texas State Teachers’ Association, Canyon. ’ Kern, GertruvE M., Dallas. Grade_Teachers Asso- ciation, 1818 Bennett Avenue, Dallas. Witiams, Leta Len, Texas State Teachers’ Asso- |, ciation, 3210 Lemman Avenue, Dallas. : Gorsutt, CATHERINE, El Paso Teachers’ Associa- tion, Wallace Annex, El Paso. q on Hicerns, Gertrupe, El Paso Teachers’ Association, ro1s North Florence Street, El Paso. 1 Brziincton, F. ch Faculty of Texas Christian University, 'T. U., Fort Worth. Evans, C. E., Texas State Teachers’ Association, Fort Worth. : Marours, R. L., Texas State Teachers’ Associa- ion, Fort Worth. j wherrine Mamiz S. (Ex officio), State Director, 812 Bell Avenue, Houston. ; - Nusseaum, Iva R., Houston Teachers’ Association, Bender Hotel, Houston. : Buck, Nannie Mer, Texas State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Superintendent of Schools, Mercedes. Carter, E. e" Texas State Teachers’ Association, Port Arthur, “WoopruFF, CAROLINE ‘S. Gizzons, ApaH-D., The Teachers’ Council, .32 Martin Street, San Antonio. ie"? Jounson, Ora, Texas State Teachers’ Association, 332 Wilkens Street, San Antonio. ~ THurman, W. A., Texas State Teachers’ Associa- tion, County Court House, San Antonio. Utah Sxipmore,*C. H., Utah Educational Association, County Supt. of Schools, Brigham. McDonatp, Emity (Alternate), Utah Educational Association, Holliday. WesstER, EMMA JANE (Alternate), Utah Educa- tional Association, R, F. No. 7, Murray. Nurraty, L. J., JRr., Utah Educational Associa- tion, Director, Training School, Brigham Young University, Provo. Ferris, OxiveE (Alternate), Utah Educational As- eee tee 47 Buckingham Apartments, Salt Lake ity. Fretz, ExvizaserH V., Utah Educational Associa- tion, Salt Lake City. : Jennincs, Marrua B, (Alternate), Utah Educa- tional Association, The Bransford Apartment A, Salt Lake City. Jensen, C. N. (Alternate) (Ex officio), State Su- perintendent of Public Instruction, Utah Educa- tional Association, Salt Lake City. LYTLE, Saray J., Salt Lake City Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 950 Logan Avenue, Salt Lake City. SANDERS, . . (Alternate), Utah Educational Association, Salt Lake City. SmirH, C. ArrHur, Salt Lake City Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 622 Elizabeth Street, Salt Lake City. Van Cort, Oscar (Alternate), Utah Educational (Shae jell 1728 South Main Street, Salt Lake ity. Wuean, Litwian (Alternate), Utah Educational Association, 402 Belvedere Apartments, Salt Lake City. Vermont Erwin, C. lL. (Alternate), Vermont State Teach- ers’ Association, District Superintendent Schools, Bellows Falls. Eppy, Erne A., Vermont Women Teachers’ Asso- ciation, District Superintendent of Schools, Brattleboro. , CuHapMAN, Emma J., Burlington Public School Teachers’ Association, Burlington. IsHeM, ExizanetH C., Vermont Women Teachers’ Club, 323 Pearl Street, Burlington. Wuirtier, Joun D., Vermont State Teachers’ As- sociation, Burlington. Bowporn, L. A., South Eastern Vermont Teachers’ Association, Junior and Senior High School, Ludlow. DaniE ts, M. E., Caledonia County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, District Superintendent of Schools, Lyndonville. Farrcuitp, W. W., Vermont State Teachers’ As- sociation, Superintendent of City Schools, Rutland. FRANKLIN, Evra M., Vermont State Teachers’ As- sociation, Principal Lincoln School, Rutland. - JWitson, THropore H., Caledonia County Teach- ers’ Association, Saint Johnsbury. (Ex officio), State Di- rectos, Saint Johnsbury. Virginia Lepserrer, Vrota E., League of Richmond Teach- ers’ Association, Ford. Cuanvter, A. B., Jr., President State Normal School for Women, Fredericksburg. Krister, W. H. (Alternate), Virginia State Teach- ers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, Harrisonburg. Bryant, Mrs. E. P. (Alternate), Norfolk Teach- ers’ Association, Norfolk. ; Sweeney, Rosert, Portsmouth Teachers’ Associa- tion, 309 Dinwiddie Street, Portsmouth. BINFORD, H., League of Richmond Teachers’ Association, 412 North 8th Street, Richmond. Guy, Grorce W., State Teachers’ Association, P. O. Box 1667, Richmond. 182 Nationa Epucation ASsociATION Hancxet, Marion §., Virginia State Teachers’ Association, 2601 Stuart Avenue, Richmond. | Hitt, A. H., Virginia State Teachers’ Association, Superintendent of City Schools, North Eighth Street, Richmond. ‘ Tompson, Nannig W. (Ex officio), State Director, 120 Second Avenue, Richmond. , Vaucuan, B. F., Richmond Colored Teachers’ As- sociation, 608 North Second Street, Richmond. Winston, ExizasetH W., League of Richmond Teachers’ Association, 1607 Grove Avenue, Rich- mond. Jounson, G. L. H. Teachers’ Association, Schools, Taunton. ‘ Somers, W. E. (Alternate), Virginia State Teach- ers’ Association, Wachapreague. Aparr, Cornetia S, (Ex officio), Executive Com- mittee, Williamsburg, ‘ CHANDLER, J . C. (Ex officio), Vice-President, President of the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg. : Virginia State (Alternate), 1 of City Superintendent Washington Ricuarp, Marta E. A., Bellingham Grade Teach- ers’ League, 1315 West Hol y, Bellingham. SHowatter, N. D., Cheney Unit of National Edu- cation Association, President State Normal Normal School, Cheney. Meicuen, Z. May, Washington Education Associa- tion, Court House, Chehalis, Bracu, C. E., Washington Education Association, Supt. of Schools, Enumclaw. Preston, Mrs. JosePHINE Coruiss (Ex officio), Life Director, State Supt. of Public Instruction, Olympia. Apams, Kart F., Seattle Principals’ Association, Prin. of Lincoln High School, Seattle. Bucuanan, Nina O., ecatile Grade Teachers’ Club, Rainer Grand Hotel, Seattle. Cates, Cassiz C., Washington Education Associa- tion, 705 Lowman Bldg., Seattle. Daut, FLORENCE, Seattle Grade Club, Interlake School, Seattle. oe Rose, Seattle High School Teachers’ League, eattle. Green, H. J., Seattle High School Teachers’ League, 3143 West Laurelhurst Drive, Seattle. HERREN, Dora S., President of Seattle Grade Club, Green Lake School, Seattle. Marsu, ArtHur L,, Washington Education Asso- ciation, Secretary, 705 Lowman Bldg., Seattle. McCxiurs, WortH, Washington Education Associa- tion, Prin. of Gatewood School, Seattle. Snow, Myra _L., Washington Education - Associa- tion, 317 Central Bldg., Seattle. Witson, Maser V., Seattle Grade Club, John Hay School, Seattle. StUBBLEFIELD, FRANCES, Spokane Education Asso- ciation, Brunot Hall, Apartments L, Spokane. TRUMBELL, Appiz, Washington Education Associa- tion, 809 4th Street, Spokane. Yeacer, F. V., Washington Education Association, Co. Supt. of Schools, Spokane. Burr, Exsit, Spokane Grade Teachers’ tion, 1118 Knox Street, Spokane. Ricwarpson, Marcaret, President Spokane Grade Teachers’ Association, Stanford Hotel, Spokane. Bran, Minnie D., President of Washington Edu- cation Association, Co. Supt. of Schools, Tacoma. Grricer, Wititiam F., Washington Education Asso- ciation, Supt. of City Schools, Tacoma. ErswortH, IsaBELLa, Tacoma Grade Teachers’ As- sociation, ‘Tacoma. Grass, W. F., Tacoma High School Association, 9507 East EK. Pl., Tacoma. Hitt, Craupia O., President of Tacoma Grade Teachers’ - Association, 1105 North Prospect Street, Tacoma. MacDonaLp, Saraw (Alternate), Tacoma Grade Teachers’ Association, 623 South K_ Street, Tacoma, Maxam, Exsik, Acting State Director, 1132 North Oakes Street, Tacoma. Associa- West Virginia Myers, Racuet, Bluefield Teachers’ Association, Bluefield. t Foro, Grorcr M. (Ex officio), ent of Schools, Charleston. : Knicut, E. (Alternate), West Virginia State Education Association, State Asst. Supervisor of Schools, Charleston. Mutpoon, J. West Virginia Education Asso- ciation, State Supervisor of Rural Schools, Charleston, . Trent, W. W., West Virginia Education Associa- tion, Secretary, Elkins. 1 Roster, JoseeH, West Virginia Education Asso- ciation, Prin. State Normal School, Fairmont. Nereuen, Myra M., Mineral County Teachers’ Association, Keyser. f Parker, Firorence J. (Ex officio), State Director, Prin. of the High School, New Haven. Marsa, T. Marcertus (Ex officic), Life Di- rector, Stouts Mill. . i Jacos, S. S. Jr. (Alternate), West Virginia Edu- cation Association, Wheeling. Sarcrant, Neitz V., Williamson Teachers’ As- sociation, Public Schools, Williamson. State Superintend- Wisconsin Quiciey, Stcor1a, Wisconsin Teachers’ Association, Blue River. Hart, Nerriz, La Crosse Teachers’ Club, 1509 State Street, La Crosse. Hintcen, Josepuine, Western Wisconsin Teach- ers’ Associaion, 1233 West Avenue, S. La Crosse. CaLtaHaNn, JouHn (Ex officio), State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, Madison. Dicx, Grorce S.,. Wisconsin Teachers’ Associa- tion, State Supervisor of Rural Schools, Madison. Brown, Bertram E., Milwaukee Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 442 24th Ave., Milwaukee. CostELLo, Marcaret, Wisconsin Teachers’ ciation, 1305 Grand Ave., Milwaukee. GarpNEr, ErHer M., Milwaukee Teachers’ ciation, 308 4th Ave., Milwaukee. Herron, Scuuyier C., Milwaukee Principals’ As- sociation, Milwaukee. Marks, Hannan, Milwaukee Teachers’ tion, 254 Mason St., Milwaukee. Menzet, Frora, Milwaukee Teachers’ Association, 2228 Kilbourn Ave., Milwaukee. Asso- Asso- Associa- McMinn, Ameuia, State Normal School, Mil- see GC fi EARSE, CARROLL G. x officio), Life Director, Pres. State Normal School, Hae A : RosuntHaL, ANNETTE, Wisconsin Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 1419 Cedar St., Milwaukee. Loneanrcker, F. M., Wisconsin Teachers’ As- sociation, Supt. of City Schools, Racine. Ricuarps, Prart, The Teachers’ Council of Racine, 733 Wisconsin St., Racine. ANDREWS, JOHN, Wisconsin Teachers’ Association Prin., Superior. ‘ Sims, J. F. (Ex officio), State Director, President State Normal School, Stevens Point. SpinpLeR, F. N., Stevens Point Normal School Teachers’ Association, Stevens Point. Doupna, Epear G., Wisconsin City Superintend- ents’ Association, Supt. of City Schools, Wis- consin Rapids. Wyoming Hamitton, May, Wyoming State Teachers’ Asso- ciation, 931 South Durbin Street, Casper. Cooper, Jessiz, The Laramie County Teachers’ As- sociaiton, Cheyenne. Liston, Jussizy C., The Laramie County Teach- ers’ Association, 118 W. 26th St., Cheyenne. Huy, Ina_B., Sheridan County Teachers’ Asso- ciation, Sheridan. Porto Rico Huyke, Juan B. (Ex officio), Commissioner of Education, San Juan. GENERAL SESSIONS BOSTON ADDRESSES THE NEW EDUCATION W. G. COVE, PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAI, UNION OF TEACHERS OF ENGLAND AND WALES, RHONDDA, WALES In spite of grave difficulties immediately confronting the teaching pro- fession in Britain, the kind invitation extended to me by your President to be present at this conference was readily accepted by me, and en- thusiastically agreed to by the Executive of the National Union of Teach- ers. It was felt, and I believe rightly felt, that the organized bodies of teachers in the various lands have too long been strangers, and that nothing but good would accrue to the profession, education, and international understanding, from a coming together of those who are engaged in the work of education throughout the civilized world. It is my belief, ex- travagant though it may seem in the present state of national suspicions and antagonisms, that the educators of childhood and youth can, if they have the vision and the desire, be the strongest force for peace and good- will amongst the democracies. If in our collective and individual capaci- ties we rise to a concept of our world-wide humanist mission, we cannot but be a force greater than any that kings or statesmen can mobilize. There can be no doubt that the school is an international factor of potent force, and it is within the power of its teachers to use it for the destruction or the healing of the nations. It is a sacred trust, a dynamic concept, and if we are to be faithful to it, we must realize ourselves as world citizens whose task it is to integrate its moral and spiritual forces. We must banish from the schools a nationalism that does not find its highest expression in service to humanity. We must eradicate national jealousies, prejudices, and hatreds and let the spirit of common childhood, common parenthood permeate and brood over the schools. To us is given the privilege of seeing a common humanity sanctified and made pure in the child we educate. To us is given the honour of placing at the disposal of growing life the best of the inheritance of the past and the duty of nurturing the promise of things that are to be. The teachers of Britain welcome, therefore, in the spirit of common purpose and high endeavor, your kindly invitation to their President. I would, Madam President, that I could bring with me a message of hope and recorded progress from my native land. I would, too, that I could confidently state that the war had changed the heart of musty and cynical old Europe. But truth to observation and conviction compels me 1183] 184 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION to state that Europe is still riven with economic antagonisms and national suspicions. ‘The war has not cleared the path to a realization of a brother- hood of the nations. Our Prime Minister stated that an old man greeted him on his return from Genoa calling it Gehenna. “And,” said Mr. Lloyd George, “it was not far from it after all, for I felt there was but a slight partition intervening between us and that evil place. At times I could smell the very fumes arising therefrom.” And I want to say that I do not believe lasting peace will come to us on the plane of material concessions, political adjustments, and economic hegemony. Many of the chancellories of Europe are still drunk with materialism, and the democ- racies crushed by pessimism. ‘The integration that is sought is material and economic, and therefore unstable and transitory. The abiding in- tegration must be sought on a higher plane; the plane of intellectual, moral, and spiritual well-being. It is here that the school can play its great part. It must transform the materialist habit of mind of statesmen and of peoples. It must preserve, in the cross currents of materialism the kingdom of the ideal. I know that European cynical old age will laugh and mock, but as educators we have faith in childhood and youth, and we draw our inspira- tion from the future: Through the emotional appeal of the child we must bring about the triumph of reason. As educators we know our dependence upon world culture, and we must not let the dominance of finance capital prevent the children entering into their rightful heritage. As we look round at the effect of modern industrialism we note that one of its baleful effects has been the mechanising of life. ‘‘Mechanism domi- nates life and not life mechanism.” We have seen human personality dwarfed, stunted, and twisted into ugly shapes by the dominance of a mechanised industry and a mechanised society. Life has become, for mil- lions of men and women, purposeless, stale, and flat. We have thought in terms of material values and not in terms of human values. It is the purpose of the school to restore to us the correct content of value. It is our task to make society see the truest economy in happy childhood, growing life, and creative play and work. I do not bemoan the fact that modern civilization is based upon machine production. I have no regrets about the application of. science to the provision of man’s material needs. What I do object to is the mechanising of human life and the material appraise- ment of human personality. And there is no inevitable need that this should be so, for the school, rightly conceived by society and given its proper place and function in society, is capable of performing the task of preserving and conserving the intellectual, moral, and spiritual legacies of the ages. The school in modern society is the social unit for the exercise and de- velopment of all that we term humanism. And there is abundant evidence that the schools of Europe and America are realising their high mission and calling in the preservation of the human in this machine age. No longer do we regard the children as passive recipients of facts. No longer do we emphasize mere knowledge. We recognize variant individualities Tue New Epucation : 185 and unfolding personalities. We treat with reverence and wonder un- folding life. The escape for the child from a mechanised society is found in the spontaneous activities of the school. Not only is this true of our infants and junior schools, but it is increasingly becoming true of our senior departments. Further, if we are to preserve our adolescents from the banal mechanising of a machine age, we shall have to provide them with creative and recreative purpose in our schools. The logic of the machine is to negate skill for thousands of youths, and it is abundantly clear that the school must provide the educative purpose that industry ¢an no longer provide. I would point out too that moral derelicts are made in the leisure time of youths, in the reaction from the monotony of machinefacture. It is here that the school can provide the stimulus to creative activities, and thus give meaning and purpose to youth. There can be no doubt that the war ushered in a new era, and it did so by accelerating and intensifying the social tendencies that had already an incipient existence in industry and society since the industrial revolu- tion. We have, the world over, industry integrated and organized upon a vaster scale than ever before; we have combinations of industrial and financial groups unprecedented in. their industrial, financial, social, and political power. The world, as never before, is economically one. Yet in spite of the economic unity of the nations, there is no corresponding intellectual, moral, or spiritual appreciation of its implications for human conduct. Intellectually the vast mass of mankind, the democracies of the world, have not perceived the delicate and complex relationships of the modern society, much less have they any appreciation of its moral and spiritual significance. ‘The vastness and complexity of modern society with its subtle economic reactions, have left them dumb and passive. ‘The material progress of men seems to have outrun the intellectual, moral, and spiritual capacity of democracy. It is the school that must give democracy the power of adjustment to the new conditions. It is the school that must save personality from intellectual, moral, and spiritual passivity. There is nothing more tragic, nothing more dangerous to civili- zation than the mental stupor and moral inertness of masses of men. The passivity that gives its brains to the sensational press, the intoxication of gambling, and which allows its mental and moral fibre to be weakened by picture shows is a bar to all true progress. The school must save democracy and civilization for progress, by nurturing the constructive impulses of the common man. The greatest safeguard against future wars will be found in the intellectual perception by democracy of the unity of civilization, and the active participation of the common man in the social and _ political questions of the day. ‘The school must give the knowledge upon which sound citizenship is founded, and the moral fibre which active citizenship demands. I know that we have in the West political systems which we are pleased to term democracies, whether monarchical or republican. But has the part played by the people in them been an active one? Have not decisions of life and death been taken without reference to them, yes, and even 186 NarioNaL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION —— without reference being demanded by them? The dumbness of democracy has been tragic, and its passiveness will be fatal. If we are to have democracy in content as well as in form then this blind and ignorant passivity must give place to virile and enlightened activity. The economic transformation that has come through the forces of industrialism must be paralleled by a moral and ‘ntellectual transformation, and in this trans- formation the schools must play a major part. Industrial society gives no ennobling purpose to our tens of thousands of adolescents, and it can- not until it asks the schools to undertake the task. ; And the schools, especially the infants’ schools, have already perceived the dangers of urbanized industry with its division of labor and _ its sectionalization of life and human‘ personality. Human personality has been out of focus, and it is the task of the school to bring the whole per- sonality of the child within the focus of educational purpose. Our work we already perceive it not to pack the human mind but to develop human personality. ‘The passivity that makes of democracy an empty form will be banished in the self activities of the school. We put our faith no longer in receptivity but in purposeful activity. ‘The world-wide over, we cry for the concrete realization of personality in active construction. And this later movement in our schools, this vision of the unity and activeness of individual life, is of fundamental import to democracy and the new world movement. No autocracy can be imposed upon a race that has been trained to work out its own salvation in its schools. “Today men need not only the ability to understand the problems of industrial, social, and political life, they need the impulse to understand, the desire to know. The efficiency of democracy depends in the first place upon an enlightened interest in its problems. Its tendency has been to repose an ignorant trust ‘n those whose interests are opposed to democracy and to delegate its powers to those who are unworthy of its trust. No true democracy can persist by inertia. It is the work of the schools, by the quickening variety of their curricula and the stimulating methods of their instruction, to give to the masses the activity that is a basis of democratic government. And the significance to the new world which we have envisaged is that the new activities of the school are being purposely related to the vital and common occupations of men. The degradation of the workman has produced the nondescript citizen. The elimination of pride in craftsmanship has its complement in the absence of civic dignity. Your mechanised worker is your amorphous citizen. The common man must shake off his lethargy, must become proud of his workmanship, active in his citizenship, before we can have government of the people, by the people, and for the people. The activities of the school are of vital import in the creation of this activity, pride, and dignity, that are necessary for real democracy. The great war revealed also the weakness of precepts in the clash of economic interests, and national and racial prejudices. Men cannot be redeemed merely by maxims, neither can universal goodwill be achieved by preaching. Your moral edifice must be slowly and patiently built in the concrete. Your social consciousness must perpetually find its aware- THe New Epucation 187 ness in the actualities of social service. ‘The school provides the social organization for the exercise of a concrete morality and the realization of vitalizing social service. One of the distinctive marks of modern society is the cleavage between private and public morality. The ethics of private conduct are not the ethics of our business and social relationships or of our foreign diplomacies. This dualism, this cynicism of a commercialized morality, has been fraught, as the revelations of pre-war diplomacy revealed with nothing but evil consequence to men. Even now, there are cynical statesmen in Europe whose blighting ethic is that “might is right.” The school in and through its social relationships actively practiced in the con- crete, by the reaction of theory upon practice and practice upon theory, by the unified development of human personality, will be the strongest force for ridding the world of this pestilential ethic. The perception of unity of the human personality is the first condition for the achievement of the unity of the human race. The modern school has a vision of that unity. It sees in human personality, in the sum of its potentialities and achievements something more than a piece of mechanism, something more than a mere “hand.” It sees a living personality, in which body and soul are one, in which there is no divorcement of the inward convictions and outward actions, and in which full growth depends upon the balanced development of all its elements. In the relationships of the school, private and public morality are one. ‘The school,” as one has said, “is the idealized model of the world and the world must become the realized model of the school.” ‘This may seem visionary, but I am convinced that neither leagues nor conferences of nations can secure a permanent orienta- tion of world policy towards peace until we have ceased to sectionalize human personality into man physical and man spiritual; into man private and man public. In the constructive occupations of the schools, in their individual contributions to social tasks within and without the social unit of the schools, we have the training ground for social purpose in the spheres of industry, citizenship, and politics. The school is the microcosm that must realize itself in the macrocosm of the world. In the unification of physical and mental, in the unity of example and precept, in the supreme conception of man as the creature and creator of his environment we shall provide the world with the practical working faith that will give the world what it so badly needs, the dynamic concept of unity. There can be no doubt that the war has left the schools and universities of the world with a great choice. “They have to decide whether or not they will be the instruments of a narrow nationalism, a ruthless and ma- terial imperialism, and a cynical chauvinism. ‘The war has not rid the world of its damning philosophies and its vaulting ambitions. We will have statesmen who dominate the politics of Europe saying that ‘““We can only get what we can force,’ and who are applying in enlarged armies the cynical aphorism that the best preparation for peace is to prepare for war. We have to decide as educators whether we are prepared to teach this philosophy in our schools. ‘There can be no doubt that the schools of the world have been effective organs for the cultivation of national 188 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION consciousness. ‘They must now become organs of international conscious- ness, if the efforts towards peace are to be successful. We have to weave in our schools and universities the garment of a common humanity. In spite of the acknowledged international indebtedness in science and hu- manities; in spite of recognized commercial and economic dependence, we have not yet evolved a world consciousness of this essential dependence and unity. One of the noble tasks of our educational institutions will be to evolve this world consciousness. .We cannot do it by teaching an ex- clusive patriotism in our schools and colleges. We can, and must, aid the forces of peace and goodwill by evolving a world history and a-uni- versal geography. Acquaintanceship begets understanding and under- standing appreciation, and the generous mind of youth will respond to our appeal to a common humanity. We must girdle the world with the - imagination of generous youth. We must not only scrap our armaments but also our historical textbooks. May I suggest in this respect that as teachers we can render much aid to the new world movement for solidarity by ourselves working for the unification of our national systems of educa- tion from the infants’ school to the university, by the solidarity and unifi- cation of our profession, nationally and internationally. We have our na- tional councils and executives, why not an international council? Such a council by its efforts to garner and distribute the world fruits of educational endeavor would be a more powerful factor than any “Supreme Council” of statesmen in the cause of world humanism. Democracy needs to see the world in perspective. It is now the willing subject of unbalanced prejudices and sectional interests. ‘The schools and universities of the nations must take upon themselves the task of giving to democracy this sense of world perspective. They must “evolve an objective standard” for the aspirations and the testing of national conduct, and side by side with this as complementary and essential, the schools and universities must become the cultural means for its attainment in the conduct of nations. The reaction of the war has left democracy listless and without clear objectives. The passions of the past have left men dry; it is clear that in Europe, at least, men are merely creatures of blind economic forces. ‘There is an absence of urge—a lack of direction. It is our task in the schools to _restore vitality and give direction to the democracies of the world. Thus our task as educators in the new world of democracy is a supreme and sacred one. In an age that has become mechanically complex, that is dominated by a material conception of what is economic, we have to reassert the vital and the unity and dominance of personality. We must convince a cynical world that the laughter of childhood is truly economic and the free play of the constructive impulse of youth and man is an exercise in the truest form of economy. We must make the world ring with the laughter of childhood and the joy of youth. THE WASHINGTON CONFERENCE 189 THE FAR-REACHING RESULTS OF THE WASHINGTON CONFERENCE FREDERICK J. LIBBY, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE REDUCTION OF ARMAMENTS, WASHINGTON, D. C. Better international understanding was the greatest result of the Wash- ington Conference according to Secretary Hughes. ‘It has removed the jeopardy of war beyond our generation,” said Secretary Hoover. The Naval Limitation Treaty has made impracticable if not impossible a suc: cessful aggressive war on the part of any of the three great naval powers upon either of the others, according to our naval experts. China is better ofi—‘“The first time in the history of our relations with the western powers or Japan,” its spokesmen say, “that a conference has brought us good and not evil.”” A step has been taken in the Four-Power Pact toward insuring the peace of the Pacific. In addition to all this, a great hope has begun to crystallize into a momentous resolve to abolish war as an accepted insti- tution for the settlement of international disputes. The growth of the hope—Sir Harry Lauder voiced the hope in New York City early in the winter by saying: ‘“‘Great things are comin’. Great things will be done. Great things must be done. And there’s a way in. sight at this Washington Conference. There we can put an end to war, not for this generation only but for everlastin’ time.” . General John F. O’Ryan, a little later in the winter, expresses the next stage in the hardening of the hope: ‘The American people can end war in our time if they get on the job.” A little later still, William G. McAdoo, coming at it from a different angle, said in Kansas City: “The women will put an end to war. You will be told that it is impossible. “That is what they said about tunneling under the Hudson. ‘They produced the signed statements of engineers going to show that conditions under the Hudson are such as to make a tunnel there forever impossible. But there were men of faith and courage in New York City and there the tunnels are!” In October the word “peace” was practically taboo among us as the result of efficient war propaganda. ‘This spring every great National con- vention that has met, with one or two exceptions, has adopted resolutions looking to the outlawry of war. Doubts arise and are dispelled—But someone will say, “Every war brings good resolutions which evaporate in due time. We are not ready for the millenium yet. You can’t change human nature.” This last fallacy is frequently repeated: “You can’t change human nature.” But every church rests upon the faith that God can do this very thing—does do it in conversion. Curiously enough, the usual argument for universal military training is apt to be an argument that human nature in your country will change if you don’t take extraordinary precautions— change of itself and become unwarlike and peaceful, while remaining, of course, unchanged everywhere else. 190 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION For the purposes of our discussion, however, human nature does not need to change in order to permit peace to reign. Consider a little history. During the century of peace between the United States and Canada, there have been five distinct and serious causes of war. We have quarreled over boundaries. Economic disputes such as fisheries have divided us. The press has flared up on both sides of the border. Feeling has run high; yet without war. Human nature had not changed. We merely set up machinery for settling our differences in orderly fashion, and war became unnecessary and undesired. The limits of our task—We need neither to change human nature nor to attain the millenium in order to abolish war as an accepted institution for settling international disputes. We are not going to engender universal love and good-will in ten years. We are not going to abolish economic rivalries nor national misunderstandings. Fortunately for the human race and for our civilization, the abolition of war as a method of settling inter- national disputes is a wholly distinct problem. Private disputes and mur- ders are not linked in inseparable sequence. No more are the disputes of nations linked with war. It is war that we are attacking. It must be outlawed like the saloon, like slavery. It is in this limited sense that by united effort we can and must abolish it in our time. How we can abolish war—The Anti-Saloon League differed from the temperance societies that had preceded it not only in the restriction of its task to a concrete, if relatively superficial, undertaking but also in two other important respects: First, it was organized on a nation-wide scale for action; secondly, it had a practical program. If we would escape the futility of previous efforts to banish war from the earth, we shall do well to apply this object lesson to our own problem. I shall not have time here to enter into detail regarding the organization which I represent and with which the National Education Association has been connected from its inception. Your Field Secretary was one of the founders and is on our Executive Board with such leaders in organized progressive movements as Miss Katharine Ludington, League of Women Voters; Charles A. Lyman, Secretary of the National Board of Farm Or- ganizations; John A. Ryan, Director of the National Catholic Welfare Council, and Mrs. A. C. Watkins, Secretary of the National Congress of Mothers’ and Parent-Teachers’ Associations. Its Vice-Chairmen are equally well known. I have only to name Mr. Will Irwin, Mrs. Maud Wood Park, Mr. William Allen White, Miss Jane Addams, and Mrs. Thomas G. Winter. The Council started with seventeen organizations affliated in it and now comprises thirty, with nearly as many more codperating. “The com- bined membership of all these groups is between fifteen and twenty mil- lions. Most of the organized women, all of the organized farmers, the educators, some of the labor groups, all faiths are here. Groups that have never worked together on any other issue are united on this. It is a world movement. So much for the organization. Having proved its effectiveness as a THE WasHincron CONFERENCE 191 clearing-house to prevent duplication of effort at a time when so many groups are working toward a common end, and having aided in prevent- ing the nullification of the Conference whether by failure of the treaties in the U. S. Senate or by cynical disregard of them in our army and navy appropriations, it is now organizing State and local councils, formed like the National Council of organizations, in order that everywhere over- lapping may be prevented and coéperation may be complete. After the experience of 1914 no one will again expect that the world will drift into permanent peace. A practical program—Given a limited task and a live and efficient or- ganization, you will fail still unless you have a practical program. What is the program by which we may expect through our joint efforts to abolish the institution of war? It is a three-fold program. No part may be neglected. First, there must be world organization. We are not particular as to names. “League of Nations” or “Association of Nations”—names are nothing. But effectiveness is everything. ‘The main issue of world or- ganization for peace is above partisanship but the details of that organiza- tion, in so far as America participates in it, fall well within the scope of party discussion. We cannot abolish the war method of settling disputes without setting up a better method. ‘The institution of war must clearly be replaced by the institution of ordered government. But the scope and manner of that government are not yet determined for us nor finally for any nation. “The League of Nations is in the experimental stage. The Four-Power Pact is an experiment. It is fair to expect that two years from now the political parties will be competing as to which can offer you the most attractive and promising plan of world organization for peace. With world organization, reduction of armaments to police status is inseparably intertwined. This is the second part of our program. Not only are all nations wasting incalculable treasure upon armaments which they can ill afford, not only are these outlays disproportionate and yet inadequate if security is to be insured by this means, but military strength is a world menace and is so considered, regardless of the good intentions of the group that may at any particular moment wield the power. The final condemnation of armaments comes from the necessities of the world organization itself. A great army anywhere would threaten its stability. Hence all armies must be reduced to police status for the se- curity of all. Fortunately for progress in this direction, the time is not far distant in the economic race that lies before tis when release from the costli- ness of armaments will be competitively sought, and the nation with the lowest ‘‘overhead” will be deemed blessed. Education for peace—World organization, reduction of armaments, and thirdly, education for peace. We must by every means known to us wage peace among our own generation, and if our work is to last, we must edu- cate the children to hold what we get or they will be misled by the glamor of war, by the throbbing drums, and the tales of heroism, and throw it all away in another world cataclysm worse even than the last. 192 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION Tell children the truth about war. General O’Ryan, speaking in Carnegie Hall last winter, called it flatly “organized murder.” His division, the twenty-seventh New York, lost more than nine thousand men in casualties. -He knows war as it is. It was General O’Ryan who used the fine phrase, “Let us wage peace.” If you who teach history, wage peace instead of war, you will not preach a narrow nationalism, stimulate international hatred, and glorify and exaggerate the wars in our text- books. You will, in the spirit of the Washington Conference, promote better international understanding, point out great traits in other nations as well as in our own, and go behind the wars to the causes and the ways in which they could have been prevented, thus removing their sting. ‘Think what sectional bitterness could have been avoided if this had been the prac- tice in teaching the Civil War! You teachers of history have it in your power to poison with hate the sensitive souls entrusted to your care or plant seeds of good-will that will bear fruit unto everlasting life. You can wage war or peace. It is easy to show that geography cannot be well taught except by a teacher who sees the world in the modern light as one family with every nation contributing its product for the sustenance of all. Similarly, the teaching of languages, broadly conceived, ushers pupils into new realms of thought, into a bigger world than they could possibly know on the plane of their mother tongue alone. ‘The genius of every nation is revealed in its literature and in the idioms and word arrangement that distinguishes its language from every other. Good language teaching calls attention to idiosyncracies which translations cannot convey. “The exchange of teachers and students with foreign countries is greatly to be encouraged for this and other advantages that the custom offers. Correspondence between your pupils and the pupils of other lands through Junior Red Cross Chapters, for example, is likewise deserving of your encouragement. On July 29 of this year ten nations are going to.observe the anniversary of the declaration of war as “No More War’ day. Parades and demon- strations will be the leading features in Germany, England, and France. Here we are planning to write to the President on that day and tell him that we are ready for another step toward world peace. The recognition of the World Court would be such a step, and the time for such recogni- tion is opportune. Sweden is said to have two questions growing out of the war which concern her and ourselves alone. The press says that she wants to bring these questions before the World Court. The only ob- stacle is the fact that we havt yet to recognize this court. An American devised the Court. An American sits on it. Shall we not ask the Presi- dent to permit justice to be sought there? “There is every reason to believe that he waits only to know your will in the matter. Statesmen must often wait for public opinion to become articulate. It is no secret that the President in May thought the time not ripe for a world conference and frankly said so to a committee that called on him. But this committee went to work. State committees were organized. Senator Borah thundered in the Senate. Raymond Robins appealed to the teachers EpucaTioONAL Messace For 1922 193 ot Kansas to write to the President and to get others to do likewise. A few weeks later the time had become ripe and the invitations were issued. Step by step—In conclusion, I want to emphasize the importance of time in the achievement of our task. Even our limited task cannot be ac- complished in one year. We must be patient. We must be willing to proceed step by step, year by year. We must avoid the danger of haste with consequent reaction. Always going forward, consolidating our gains as we go, we can outlaw and abolish war as an accepted institution for the settlement of international differences in our time—and “for everlastin’ time” —“if we get on the job.” EDUCATIONAL MESSAGE FOR 1922 A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS Every one appreciates that the world is seething with restless human beings, as much in one nation as in another, with one race as with another. We need to realize that it is as much the mission of gravitation to fly airplanes as to hurl rocks down the mountain side. ‘This is the world’s most hopeful hour, if we will treat our opportunities as responsibilities, if we will use the restlessness for air flights insteading of allowing it to hurl us to the depths below. So long as it is good form for a member of the Cabinet to voice his dis- respect for the personnel of the Legislative Department and his greater disrespect for the laws enacted, is it any wonder that Mr. Gompers, who has for forty years presided over the largest organization of Americans, should express the disrespect his members have for the Judicial Department and its rulings? If men at the top speak in disgust is it any wonder that men at the bottom shout in disgust? The one sentence in all literature written for this hour is in the 72d Psalm, “He shall have dominion also from sea to sea and from the river unto the ends of the earth.” ‘To dominate is the vision of the Psalm. It is a warning against domineering, which was then terrorizing civilization. Domineering is the growling of aristocracy whenever democracy fails to obey orders. Aristocracy rejoices in exclusiveness, in the fewness of its members, in the limitation of its borders. It believes that the business of democracy is to serve, of aristocracy to be served. For the first time the public school is the only hope of the world. “The Rising Tide of Color” may be a tidal wave that no sea wall can withstand, or it may have the mission that the tide always has of keeping the harbor cleansed by washing it out twice a day. Aristocracy needs the cleansing influence of “The Rising Tide of Color’ much more than “The Rising Tide of Color’ needs to be harnessed so that it will cease to be any tide at all. Benevolent aristocracy is the greatest of perils because it wears the robes of saints. To pray for democracy in order to prey upon it to achieve 194 NatIonaL EpucATION ASSOCIATION some aristocratic influence is what our fathers used to call a weather breeder. Look out for a storm. The public school has the possibilities of dealing squarely with every child but the public school is in jeopardy, because there are those who claim to be 100 per cent for the public school when they are 100 per cent against it whenever it will not lend itself to their propaganda. The public school is the only real effort ever made to give the bottom an opportunity to come to the top without giving a guarantee of loyalty to some leadership, to some faction, to some domineering influence. The educational message of 1922 is for the public school and for all agencies seeking its promotion, especially the National Education Associa- tion, to protect itself from all insidious and ambitious attempts to domineer it in anything, anywhere, by anybody. PROFESSIONAL TRAINING FOR TEACHERS OF CITY SCHOOLS OLIVE M. JONES, PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 120, NEW YORK CITY Since I got to Boston I have torn my speech to pieces because of what a bright young teacher said to me on the street last night. I had told her my subject for today and when I said that I wasn’t sure that I was going to say the right thing she advised: “I'll tell you: tell the training-school principals to take the girls to the N. E. A. and get them into the spirit of their job.” So that is my text, after I had been groping around for it for months. I have collected piles of statistics about how training-school teachers are preparing teachers, the courses required, the years required, the admission requirements, and what is done for practice teaching. But I am going to use my ten minutes in telling how I believe training schools for teachers can do for student teachers what that California gitl told me to do—get them into the spirit of their job. That is the first aim in training teachers. A training school that does not send its students out into schools with a pride in their profession, a belief in teaching as a life career, a spirit of love and consecration to their work, such as the seminary does for the priest— that training school is a failure and is responsible for the unwillingness of young teachers to do the work of the rank and file—namely, the funda- mental job of the elementary teacher. Since I am a practical worker in the schools and not a theorist on educa- tion, I must speak from the point of view of what I personally believe to be the practical needs in the training of the young teachers who have come to me or under my observation. A training school must give first, a practical concrete training which will help the young teacher over the difficulties she must meet when the door is shut on her and she is face to face with fifty wise young street gamins taking her measure, of fifty sons of upper-tendom ready to treat her as a servant if she lets them. It is all very well to know the five formal steps TRAINING IN SERVICE 195 Sone ES i ae tee eetadiaterelinainlallaiaatarsed dahil of teaching and to be able to write a thesis on the project method, but what is the good of it all if those fifty boys are going to begin throwing spit balls before the teacher gets the first of the five formal steps started, and all because she did not know how to collect their caps or give out their paper. Second, the training school must make teachers; in the second place, see the difference between teaching a subject and teaching children. Many training schools are teaching students how to teach a problem in arithmetic so that the teacher’s interest is all in the subject and not in the child. The student teacher must learn the difference between teaching subject matter and teaching children to learn that subject. Third, the training school must make its student teachers value accuracy in the knowledge of subject matter. There should be review courses in the subject matter of the elementary school, and student teachers for the ele- mentary school should be required to pass tests in the subject matter just as the high schools require it for their special subjects. If the teacher is in- accurate in her knowledge of her own subject matter how can she make children appreciate and value thoroughness, a quality which lies at the very root of honesty and truth? Fourth, the training school must teach its students how to study and analyze a course of study and its syllabus. The teacher must learn how to interpret a course of study and to subdivide it into portions of time, else the entire term will pass and the teacher will still be at work on a single point. Fifth, lastly, the training school for teachers can make its students get into the spirit of their job by raising institutions for training teachers them- selves to a level that makes graduation from a teachers’ training school be regarded with the same pride as a college degree. There have been won- derful steps forward in this respect in the past two years, but still more can be done, and it is up to the training school for teachers in city schools, where the big masses congregate, to carry on the work. It is not yet a lifetime since a degree in civil engineering became a source of intense pride to the young men who hold it. Why not similarly a degree in education among teachers in city schools? IMPROVEMENT AND PREPARATION OF TEACHERS WHILE IN SERVICE | PETER A. MORTENSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Teaching is a profession. We do have a body of classified knowledge not common to all. ‘Teachers are selected with more than ordinary care, because of ability, fitness, and skill. In a most definite way, this technical knowledge and practical skill is applied to the service of the community as a whole. Because it recognizes the need of minimum standards of preparation for those entering this public service, the State certificates or licenses those who are to exercise their specialized skill, by that very act recognizing the members of the profession as serving a distinct social need. The educative process is the mental reaction of the pupil to the stimulus 196 NatTionaL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of the teacher or classmates. It consists in training boys and girls to live together effectively and happily in a more or less complex civilization. Education for the primitive life of our fathers was relatively simple; edu- cation to enable our youth to make their living together as efficient as possible in a complex organization, becomes in itself more difficult. Because this is true we not only provide professional training for the teacher of the class, but also for those who supervise the teaching. We have specialized in the art of building courses of study and in the technique of selecting textbooks for the classroom. We recognize the need of expert educational guidance in the planning of hygienic, well-arranged school build- ings, and in the accepted means for maintaining a modern, highly organized school system. Having conceded the imperative need of specialized training for service, let us consider the problem of maintaining professional growth while in service. ‘Teachers enter the work with a rudimentary conception of the standards that should govern a professional group as a whole. The obli- gation most easily grasped is akin to the primitive notion of self-preserva- tion. It is approached through organization to secure better working conditions, more adequate compensation, more certain tenure, and other conditions conducive to contentment and efficiency. It is but a step further to seek an opportunity for the discussion and exchange of the knowledge and experience of individuals through com- mittee meetings, conferences, journals, and teachers’ councils. It is difficult to conceive of adequate professional growth without these means of making available this common knowledge. Last, but not least, is the obligation, both from the standpoint of the profession and the good to the community, to insist upon high and grow- ing standards of preparation. ‘This obligation is common to all the learned professions. The problem is complicated by certain conditions and facts inherent to the teaching population. ‘Teachers enter at different levels of the school system, with varying degrees of preparation and various ideals. We have the rural school teacher, with little or no professional preparation, and the teacher with but a few weeks or months of training. The number of these is legion, but their professional influence is almost nil. ‘There are many such with latent ability or native skill, but the chances for develop- ment are limited by lack of opportunity or brevity of service, without organization or inspiration. In the larger cities, the accepted standard of preparation is two years of professional training beyond the high school, while the teacher begins her teaching in the high school with a college degree and little or no profes- sional training. In consequence, the elementary teacher is much better prepared in the technique, but lacks the broader culture of college life. Unit supervision is in the hands of a principal, with the basic training of the teacher somewhat extended, plus practical experience in administration. with more or less added professional training. The nature of the problem is further complicated by the fact that teach- ‘TRAINING IN SERVICE 197 ers within the system should and do seek promotion and advancement. The ambition to grow into wider spheres of usefulness, or to be promoted into fields for which one is better suited, or in which compensation or responsibility may be greater, is commendable, and opportunity to pre- pare for advancement should be afforded. Moreover, the rapid advances and the far-reaching changes in profes- sional aims require constant growth and development on the part of teach- ers, while actually engaged in service. ‘The new points of view in the older subjects, such as history, mathematics, English, and geography, require a constant readjustment of perspective in order to teach them in accordance with modern thought. The introduction of new subjects, such as thrift, community health, vocational and industrial subjects, plays, games, and the social studies, require that a teacher should either lead or lag behind. The teacher must be familiar with the distinctively new forms of edu- cational technique, developed by the profession, such as mental and achieve- ment tests, educational measurements, problem-project teaching, the social- ized recitation, and supervised study. ‘Thus do we differentiate between the progressive and up-to-date teacher and the typical school teacher of tradition and the comic supplement of yesterday. A young teacher apologized to her friends for her failure to keep up her correspondence during the year by paraphrasing, “I was not dead, but teaching.” Verily, ‘““They that watch over Israel neither slumber nor sleep’, and they must not be dead. A teacher comes into daily contact with minds that are inferior, from the standpoint of maturity and experience. She needs contact with her equals in class, committee, or council to prevent her from becoming critical, self-conscious, or superior. She needs these contacts with adult minds for her social good. In ‘“The Doll’s House,’ Nora maintains that until she is a normal human being, she is not fit to become a mother. ‘The teacher who is a normal adult human being is a better teacher because of it. Be- cause she commands social and professional respect among her adult equals, she acquires self-respect. The standing of the profession as a whole is determined by the average individual ethics of its members. ‘The greatest crime in ethics is stag- nation. ‘The ruts begin to form when study ceases; crystallization sets in when routine begins and teaching becomes irksome. Continued growth is a professional obligation. The problem is before us. Its solution suggests two alternatives: (1) Fixing requirements and leaving to applicants the responsibility of meeting them. ‘This can succeed only when a surplus of teachers is avail- able. It does not meet directly the need of stimulating and guiding the growth of teachers already employed. (2) Fixing the requirements at a definite level for those entering the system and then raising the requirements for those continuing and advanc- ing in the system, and providing opportunities for training while in service. This training may be enforced by making salary advances contingent on 198 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION further study in summer schools, extension courses, and during leave of absence for study. It may be definitely encouraged through educational leadership, through the above means, through committees formed to develop courses of study, syllabi, or methods; it may be extended by means of definitely organized teachers’ councils, engaged in the study of specific edu- cational problems. [ The fundamental position is that in the long run, the school system pays, directly or indirectly, for training of a teacher in service, just as it does for the training of those in preparation. PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR CLASSROOM TEACHERS JESSIE A. SKINNER, JEFFERSON HIGH SCHOOL, PRESIDENT OF THE PORT- LAND HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, PORTLAND, OREGON When I received this subject, I thought with Napoleon “Thirty cen- turies have the pyramids looked down upon you!’’ Professional Standards for ‘Teachers! It is like Sally Ann’s “old dress that has been turned wrong side out, and hind side before, and sponged and pressed and made over until you can’t tell whether it’s silk or calico or what.” It has been lengthened, shortened, narrowed, taken in here, let out there, combined with new material, panelled, ruffled, and frilled. Yet that same old dress has to be made over once more and made to look like new! Can anybody be deceived? Perhaps not. Only a few who have recently moved into the neighborhood. ‘The old timers know the dress by heart, can tell the color a mile away, distinguish the material in the dark, and recognize the pattern if they saw it in Vogue. It is the same old dress. A teacher knows—that is any one here knows—that she should have a high type of mental equipment; that she should improve by professional study; that she should have a fine attitude toward ‘her work; that she should be loyal to superiors; coéperate with all; give efficient service to community and State; be an example to all in word, in deed, in thought: so live, so die, go home to glory and wear a crown forever and ever. Teachers are of two classes, those who do not need a speech like this and those who do. The people who are here are of the first kind; they attend teachers’ meetings, read teachers’ magazines, know the creeds of professionalism. ‘Those of the second kind are not here—they do not care for educational meetings, will not read the magazines, and if they found this in their mail, would throw it in the waste basket. One who enters the teaching profession, if only for one or two years, until the law office can support itself or sweetheart earn enough to support two, should enter it with the idea of giving to the work all one has to give. In some way or other, such a person should be made to feel that there is an obligation to the profession more vital than her ability to draw a pay check. The teachers who are trying to do something for the schools, for the community, for the teachers themselves find such expressions familiar but tiresome. “Oh! That doesn’t make any difference to me. I PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS 199 don’t expect to be here another year.” ‘Tenure is all right for you people but it doesn’t interest me.” ‘A retirement fund is a good thing for the old teachers, but I don’t expect to teach all my life.” “Why should I join any teachers’ association? I don’t care anything about it. It doesn’t do me any good.” “Oh! don’t talk to me about school, I just hate it.” I should like to have this teacher change the “I don’t expect” into an “I do expect.’”” Let her say, “I may not be in this work long, but while I am in it, I expect to give to all phases of it, my interest and attention. Pll know everything I can about it. I’ll put my best effort into it, and in doing so, I’m sure I'll find it interesting and enjoyable. Perhaps, too, I can make a place for myself that will be worth while, so that when I leave, I shall feel I have done something to help along the biggest thing in the world.” What a joy, what an inspiration it would be, if we all talked like that! Too many teachers are ashamed of and decry their own profession. They will not talk shop because they do not want to be known as school teachers. Did you ever know a real doctor who wasn’t interested in his profession, in his patients, and who did not like to talk about them? Doctors talk operations; lawyers talk cases; engineers talk projects; business men talk business; society women talk bridge; married women discuss their maids and their children. ‘Talk shop?” Everyone talks shop. Why shouldn’t a teacher talk about school? It is the biggest business in the world and the one in which the most people are vitally interested. If this type of teacher would change her attitude toward the profession, be interested in it, and quit deprecating thé fact that she is a teacher, she would do much toward popularizing education with the public. Rudyard Kipling says that “a man who talks shop is always interesting because he knows what he is talking about.” The one who goes to the other extreme, who never puts on the exhaust with reference to school affairs, who carries a critical attitude wherever she goes, is as bad as the former. I can readily see why others would not care to be in the same class. She reminds me of the story of the negro servant who gave out with equanimity the same kind of feed to all the animals. “Jim,” said the farmer, “have you fed the horses?” “Yassir.” “What did you feed ’em?” “Hay.” “Did you feed the cows?” TNassiry “What did you feed ’em?” iHayl” “Did you feed the ducks?” e Vassirs: “What did you feed ’em?” “Hay .% “Did they eat it?” 200 ~ NatIoNAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION “Nawsir; dey didn’t zactly eat it, so far as I saw, but dey was talking about it when I lef’.” With all the routine of classroom work, with the weariness that comes at the end of the day, it is hard to keep up one’s general information, one’s interest in community affairs and community problems. But the teacher should establish as many lines of communication with the world outside of school as is possible. She should know her community and in what ways she can best serve it. ‘Too many teachers have their first introduction to the community when they ask for an increase in salary. To give efficient service, the teacher must realize the importance of her work and its far-reaching results; must realize also that much she does will never be paid for except in the satisfaction of well-rendered service. We have heard much of the glory of school teaching, of what a great and noble work it is, and sometimes we get tired of hearing about it. We'd like to have the public show that it really means what it says. We'd like to have it think as much of education as it does of its automobiles, of its tobacco, of its theaters. But what other occupation offers such opportunity for real service in helping to build the kind of citizenry the Nation needs ? St. Peter stood at the gate of Heaven receiving those who came and questioning them concerning what each had done. There was the lawyer, who with his record of fairness and justice had gained an enviable position in his town; the doctor, who with his skill had relieved the pain and suffer- ing of his fellows; the minister, who had guided their souls aright; the legislator, whom his townsmen had honored with a place in the law-making body of the State. Then the school teacher. “‘And what have you done ?”’ asked St. Peter. “I? Why I started each one of these on his way to success: I gave him the ambition to be a strong and useful citizen.” Can any work be more far-reaching in its influence? How necessary then that we give real service? Do teachers ever try to “get by”? Are we ever time-servers instead of service-givers? We should bhoe not merely serve time. An interpretation of service submitted by a postal carrier and given out by Ex-Postmaster General Will H. Hays, says, “One of the greatest hindrances to the smooth revolution of the in- dustrial wheel is the idea that a person’s time is worth so much an hour. One hour of your time or my time in itself is simply worth nothing. One hour of your service, one hour of my service—that’s a different propo- sition.” The nature of the educational system is such that it demands leadership and cooperation. A football player may think the quarterback would have done better had he called an end-run instead of a line-back: but it isn’t his job to do the signalling. It is his to play the game, play up, and play it well. If the teacher doesn’t know the joy of doing real team work, then it is time to get busy. If she cannot do it, then let her get a little business of her own, where team work isn’t essential. The teacher should be ready and willing to serve on committees when called on to do some important work outside of her own classroom. ‘True, PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS 201 it is easier not to; but whoever achieved anything without effort? The principal of the school in which I teach said to me not long ago: “Mr. S. is a wonderful man. I couldn’t get along without him. ‘That athletic work takes so much time, and he looks after it all. And Miss B. with the school magazine, Mr. R. with the band, Miss S. with the scholarship com- mittee—what would I do without them? I couldn’t run my school.” Then he turned to another and said “You'd better go home,” adding “I wonder how many principals have to tell their teachers to quit working?” We should not like to fail him or our school. Is such cooperation worth while? Of 217 students that were graduated from Jefferson High School this June more than 170 have signified their intention of continuing their education in higher institutions of learning. The teacher, and I may add the principal and the superintendent, should be fair and just and should deal out that justice without fear or favor. Our work should be bigger than our job and John should be punished or promoted according to his merits—not according to the position his father holds in the community. We have talked about this for a long time; but the fear of our position has made cowards of too many. It is im- possible to make honest citizens if we set an example of dishonesty. In all phases of her work, the teacher should be human. She should have such an attitude toward her pupils that would not make them feel as the little boy who in an essay on Gender wrote the following, “‘Gender is of three kinds, masculine, feminine, and neuter. Masculine is the man sect, feminine the woman sect, and neuter things having no life. Examples, hero, tigress, and teacher.”’ She should have a real human interest in boys and girls as such, not as so many containers to be filled with facts. She should be a student of psychology written and personality unwritten, re- membering that John and Mary, Chauncey and “Anne, spelled with an E,” Izzy, Ole, Anatole, are all problems that cannot be solved by the book. She should be a real human being in her relations to other people; should not get the idea that intellectuality will make up for everything else. She should avoid the critical attitude that makes people uncomfort- able in her presence. She should surround herself with professional books and magazines and command respect for herself and her profession. She should quit being sorry for herself, should like her profession or quit it, and serve herself and the cause of education by doing so. PRESENT-DAY OBJECTIVES OF AMERICAN EDUCATION JOHN J. TIGERT, U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. When etymological derivations were fashionable, we used to begin the definition of education by showing that the word is simply a transliteration of a Latin term composed of the preposition “e” (out) and the verb ‘“‘duco” (to lead). Education literally is “leading out” or developing the latent was wont to say, “Every boy or girl is a bundle of possibilities.” The 202 NATIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION function of education is to untie the bundle so as to get the maximum from its contents. Education consists in the most complete and harmonious realization of all the powers of man for the promotion of his own welfare and the welfare of his fellows. : It is confusing to some that education should receive a new definition in each new age and that educators should define it in such a myriad of ways. One element in education is perennial, but the other element is in a con- stant flux. The human element is unchanging, but the world in which we find ourselves is constantly changing. Hence, in a certain sense, education is always the same, it is always developing the individual; in another sense, it is always changing to adapt man to his shifting environment. The world has changed more, perhaps, in the past half century than in any equal period of its history. Thirty years ago no man had seen an auto- mobile. Today, he sees little else. Science, invention, and art have so transformed life that Abraham Lincoln, for instance, would scarcely be able to recognize this as the country in which he lived. Some of our fore- fathers would have difficulty in recognizing the planet upon which they lived. . Modern education consequently has been compelled to transform itself in accordance with these radical changes in our mode of living. Before the introduction of machinery and the industrial revolution, before the rise of democratic governments, education essentially sought different objectives from those of today. For centuries, its chief program was to cultivate “the humanities,’ to awaken within the soul and mind of man an ap- preciation and a love for literature, history, religion, philosophy, and art. Its ideal might be found in the most complete spiritual satisfaction, mental emancipation, and appreciation for the rights of others. The new world in which we live has added in manifold ways to the objectives of education. Education means today a preparation for living according to the highest standards of this age. It differs from the older education as modern life for which it is a preparation. If more emphasis is laid upon vocational, industrial, and practical business education today than formerly, it is because it is an age of new vocations, industrial expan- sion, and business opportunity. If education for life in a democracy has essential differences from education for life under older and less liberal forms of government, it is because it reflects a larger participation on the part of the citizen in the affairs of government,and a greater political right. and responsibility ; if education is more complicated and more exacting than formerly, it is because modern life is more complex and its needs cor- respondingly multiplied and varied and because modern invention has made the world a neighborhood. The exigencies of modern life with its variety of complex problems make new and greater demands upon the individual for mental and physical preparation. New crises are ever disclosing old weaknesses and unfolding new demands and possibilities. Education therefore must be evolutionary and plastic. It must be sensitive to changing needs but must never be decoyed from its path by wanton caprice or passing fads. : Present-Day Opsyjectives 203 The objectives of education in America at present are comparatively simple and well defined though plans for their accomplishment are not uniform and are somewhat intricate and hazy. We have committed our- selves unreservedly to a policy of universal education, with equal oppor- tunities to all. We have the most elaborate system for the education of our citizenship that any nation possesses and we spend more than a billion dollars annually upon it—far more than any other people. We have adopted the ambitious program of putting eight years of elementary and four years of secondary education within the reach of every child in Amer- ica. We have gone far toward compelling an elementary education by law in every State in the Union. We justify our program, first, because of the necessity of preparing a citizenship that is able to participate in our democratic government, and, second, because of the desire to provide for equality of opportunity for individual development for which our de- mocracy stands. Under older conceptions of government, monarchies, oligarchies, and aristocracies, only the leaders were educated, but in a de- mocracy where the people are the rulers, all must have education. We have boasted no little about our great public-school system, but we have only made a beginning towards uniform opportunity in this country. To put our dream into general and practical effect is the great problem that challenges educational leaders today. Modern education in our democracy means preparation for intelligent citizenship. We are coming to understand in all the practical difficulties that are arising in social, political, and industrial troubles that a democracy cannot be satisfactory without universal education. As has been noted frequently of late, it is as necessary to make democracy safe for the world as it is to make the world safe for democracy. We must teach the American people more generally and more effectively than we have been able to do in the past the duties and rights of those who share in the responsibility of government. I believe that the study of the constitution and the history of the United States should be made com- pulsory in our school curriculum. With the increased complexity of modern living and the more scientific and systematic character of present-day business and vocations, vocational education has become far more necessary than in the past. Certainly civilization should not lose its culture and refinement, but equality of op- portunity contemplates that everyone must have the means of fitting him- self for any occupation which is useful and lawful according to his choice. ‘This means that those who enter industrial, commercial, and technical callings are entitled to educational opportunity which will fit them for their chosen places as effectively as those who may enter the learned pro- fessions and the so-called higher walks of life. It has not always been so. While cherishing all the best fruits of the old we must give more effective training to those who must engage in the modern arts and crafts to make a living for themselves and their dependents. In the years just preceding our Civil War certain men wanted agricul- ture taught in the University of Michigan. ‘These men were ridiculed 204 NationAL Epucation AssociATION and they went up to Lansing to found the first agricultural college in this country. Since that day agricultural colleges and experiment stations have become general throughout the States. “The Federal Government greatly stimulated and encouraged the early growth of these colleges of agricultural and mechanic arts by grants of lands and has since continued to encourage them by annual grants of Federal money. Soil fertilization and conserva- tion, seed selection, intensive cultivation, study of markets, transportation, crop rotation have all been reduced to scientific procedure. Formerly, good or bad crops were attributed to the providence of God; today they are attributed to the knowledge and ignorance of men. Once the name “farmer” was an opprobrious synonym for ignorance. Today it connotes education. ‘he successful farmer today requires technical, scientific, and business training. The business opportunities in America were once so vast that a business man seldom failed. Business was almost fool-proof. Today competition has become keener, business has widened its scope, and the old haphazard methods are being abandoned. New means of transportation, large scale production, complicated systems of buying and selling, and the reduction of business to scientific methods, together with various other factors of expansion and improvement, have produced a necessity of specialized educa- tion for the best success in business. With the complete recognition of woman’s right to participate in the government, together with a widened participation of women in business and industry hastened by the war and the shortage of men during the period of the war, we have created a demand for a new type of education for the women of America. Home making has been and should always be, we believe, the life work of most women. For them our schools are offer- ing courses in domestic science and arts in the complicated fields of rearing, clothing, and feeding children, as well as in the economic and efficient management of the household. But the schools are likewise called upon today to provide opportunity to our girls and young women who must support themselves and seek their happiness in legitimate vocations and professions. Revelations during the war period have made many other demands upon our educational program. Perhaps the most appalling revelations were that one third of our young men were physically unfit to bear arms and one fourth of them were illiterate in a real and practical sense. “The dangers arising from an empire of heterogeneous races which have immi- grated into America and largely supplanted the original homogeneous stock have laid an additional burden upon education. We live in a world becoming constantly more and more taxing to body and nerves and which more and more confines our people to factories, desks, and shops. With one third of our people physically subnormal and no adequate provision for proper health and physical education, we shall certainly become a puny people. This must not be; the correction can only be found in an adequate program in our schools for developing strong MASSACHUSETTS AND Epucation 205 bodies and hygienic habits. Further, our program must include the pro- vision that boys and girls shall not grow up untouched by the school, ignor- ant of the English language, of our ideals and customs; that adults shall not continue to live in America in similar ignorance, and that these latter may find the means for further instruction if they are willing to pursue it. THE PROFESSION APPRECIATES FOUNDATIONS EARLY ESTABLISHED IN MASSACHUSETTS AND HER PRESENT INTEREST IN EDUCATION SUSAN M. DORSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA As representatives of the National Education Association we have listened with interest to the gracious words of welcome from citizens of Massachusetts. In turn we desire to express our sense of the honor and privilege extended to our organization of meeting in this city. This group of teachers always rejoices when Boston is the host. With respectful, yes, almost reverent attitude we approach your confines because we recognize that Massachusetts has been the “teacher of teachers” and that in coming here we are returning to the place of our educational nativity. The early determination of the colonists to compass the education of their children at all costs has been well set forth by one of your own great citizens, “The Pilgrim Fathers, amid all their privations and dangers, conceived the magnificent idea not only of a universal but of a free educa- tion for the whole people. ‘To find the time and the means to reduce this grand conception to practice, they stinted themselves, amid all their poverty, to a still scantier pittance; amid all their toils, they imposed upon them- selves still more burdensome labors; and amid all their perils, they braved still greater dangers. "Two divine ideas filled their great hearts—their duty to God and to posterity. For the one they built the church, for the other they opened the school.” In successive acts of legislation and in the admonitions given to magis- trates this persistent purpose, this undying aspiration to compass the educa- tion of their children are recurrent until they find complete and ex- haustive expression in the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780, a document that deserves to rank beside the great pronouncements of our ancestors. After specifying that the diffusion of wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, among the people is necessary to the maintenance of their rights and liberties, it prescribes that it shall be the duty of legislators and magis- trates in all future periods to cherish literature and science and especially the University of Cambridge and public schools, and not only that, but to encourage private societies and institutions by rewards and immunities for the promotion of arts, sciences, commerce, trades, manufacture, and the natural history of the country. Finally, in enumerating the duties of these same magistrates, there follows this injunction: “To countenance and in- 206 NatioNAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION culcate the principles of humanity and general benevolence, public and private charity, industry, frugality, honesty and punctuality in their deal- ing, sincerity, good humor, and all social affections and generous senti- ments among the people.” So exalted a sentiment of the duty of magis- trates in the education of the children could have been conceived only by a people whose genuine worth and downright earnestness are hardly equaled in human annals, One could wish that this provision of the Massachusetts Constitution might be transcribed as a frontispiece in every history textbook ‘1 the land so that the youth of America might know what manner of edu- cation our New England ancestors coveted for future generations. The incomparable argument for free schools, however, is attained by your Horace Mann, the greatest interpreter of public education our country has yet produced. His sublime conclusion in the whole matter of free public schools is this: “The successive generations of men, taken col- lectively, constitute one great commonwealth. The property of this com- monwealth is pledged for the education of all its youth, up to such a point as will save them from poverty and vice, and prepare them for the adequate performance of their social and civil duties.” Then follows the conclusion of the argument: “The successive holders of this property are trustees, bound to the faithful execution of their trust by the most sacred obligations ; embezzlement and pillage from children and descendants have not less of criminality, and have more of meanness, than the same offences when per- petrated against contemporaries.” We teachers of the twentieth century accept this conclusion of the great New England educator as the very magna charta of public education. Because this commonwealth has cher- ished education as the right of every child with the same inflexible purpose with which she has cherished liberty as the right of every man, we are here tonight. It may be added that only as successive generations accept this dictum—namely, that they are pledged to the education of the chil- dren of the next generation, can we hope to progress or even survive. In retrospect we skim the centuries through which generations of New Englanders wrought mightily against the stern forces of an unfavorable environment and everywhere we see the same unyielding purpose to start the next generation better equipped than the former. Not only in New England traditions, her laws, her institutions, but in her monuments and her memorials are evident the recognition of an educational duty to pos- terity and an inflexible purpose to discharge that obligation with full measure and in worthy fashion. Amid our own educational riches we sometimes almost marvel at the imperfect and insufficient tools with which our ancestors wrought. The common school with its hard benches and meager instructional equipment seems as naught compared with the palatial housing and the wealth of material of these later years. ‘To a generation that clamors unceasingly for new texts, new pictures, new devices, new equipment, it seems in- credible that a single book, the New England Primer, should for one hun- dred and fifty years have served as a veritable talisman of primary educa- tion. Perhaps it had merits that we moderns fail to appreciate. Like its MASSACHUSETTS AND EpuCATION 207 users it was a sturdy text with no easy devices, no soft doctrine of any sort. The very young child of those heroic days was faced at the outset, not with captivating fairy tales, but with the stern statement of his New England Primer: In Adam’s fall We sinned all. Its scanty illustrations, such as a woodcut of John Rogers burning at the stake while his wife and nine children gaze helplessly on, were not con- ducive to merry thought. Yet out of the common school of New England with such meager equipment there have come many generations of thought- ful men and women who have cherished public education and contended for it as the right of every child. With fervent gratitude we record the fact. Not merely free education but progressive education, the best to be had, has been the goal of New Englanders. In every type of school, from the primary grade to the college, Massachusetts has pioneered, placing the entire Nation under everlasting obligations for her successful educational ventures. We pause here to record another service. What words can stress the debt of this great Nation to the army of New England’s school teachers who have moved ever westward with the advancing people, imparting to successive generations the wisdom, courage, and character of the “Down- East school ma’am.” The graduates of ever honored Harvard and the galaxy of New England academies, colleges, and institutes have been in the van of civilization doing a man’s work. Under their trained leadership railroads have been builded, mountains leveled and tunneled, rivers spanned, farms have been tilled, deserts have been conquered and, better than all. the battles of freedom have been fought while equally well have they wrought in the tender ministries of the spirit for those who suffer in body or mind. The educational service of Massachusetts has not been confined to ac- complishments through the schools. Leave out of our history those teachers of the Nation who as bards, philosophers, historians, artists, scientists, re- formers, and divines have made New England famous, and measure, if you can, how much of wisdom, inspiration, and spiritual courage, yea how the very sinews of the soul would be gone from our National life. Lessons learned from The Quaker Poet of Whittier Land, The Seer of Concord, The Bard of Cambridge, the historians of Boston, “The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table,” the pre- and post-war orators, the Boston preachers of righteousness, the fighters of the battles of freedom, have been transfused into the very life blood of our Nation. That is the debt we owe to Massachusetts. This debt is not all to the past. The noble work of educating the people still goes on. Wherever courage, initiative, and a determined purpose directed to a worthy end are needed there are found today men and women 208 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION of Massachusetts. “There were giants in those days,” but history will record the same verdict of the Massachusetts men and women of today. These representatives of the National Education Association, gathered from the four corners of our land, from her cities and hamlets, from her vast prairies and lonely deserts, from her mountain sides and valleys, desire to acknowledge with grateful emotion the educational debt of America and especially the debt of the public schools to the Massachusetts Bay Colony, to Boston, and to the Massachusetts of the past and of today. May this great commonwealth never falter in the sublime task to which her founders dedicated themselves—namely, the service of God through the church and the service of posterity through the public school. THE DEMOCRATIC AWAKENING AND PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE SHELBY COUNTY SCHOOLS, MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE, PRESIDENT OF TEE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The National Education Association is most fortunate in meeting here amid scenes that mean much in our American life. It is a great privilege to meet in this city. We know that hearts and homes are open to us here today. We know that citizens have laid aside their usual work and pleas- ures to devote themselves to the preparations which make these great meet- ings successful. Some of us, who have been near these men and women as they have been doing their work, know-——as most of you cannot know— how great the effort has been. Recalling the inspiring leadership of Horace Mann and the men and women who have followed him, we had expected great things of Massachusetts, but the reality has exceeded our expecta- tions. Representing this great Association—this magnificent Assembly—I join Mrs. Dorsey in thanking you from our hearts most earnestly for this wonderful reception. We are entering upon a new era in education. The world is realizing more and more the primary importance of educated leadership and the fundamental necessity of intelligent citizenship. There is no other safe foundation for democracy. This fact places a new responsibility upon teachers everywhere. “he individual teacher has an opportunity for larger service than she has enjoyed in years gone by. “That opportunity has come in consequence of the development of a new idea in professional organiza- tion—the idea of representation. It took centuries of political experiment to develop the idea of repre- sentative government. Nations founded upon conquest came and went. Even the Roman Empire, which granted rights of citizenship to conquered peoples, failed to survive. Lacking the idea of representative government, it was unable to make the individual citizen responsible in the affairs of empire, Not until—in the thirteenth century—the principle of representa- PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION 209 tion had birth in England, not until in later centuries it was extended and developed in America, did it become possible to build a vast Nation in which the individual citizen had responsible part. This principle of representation which has had such great consequences in the development of modern democracies is now making itself felt as a powerful force in the professional organization of teachers. It was indeed an inspiration to see gathered at Des Moines a year ago the chosen repre- sentatives of the teachers of the Nation. It was a great satisfaction to realize that for the first time in American educational history there had been brought together a body of men and women, fully qualified to express the ideals and purposes of a membership of over 50,000 teachers. I am glad to report that growth in membership has continued and that you who sit here today carry the responsibility of acting for more than twice 50,000 teachers. What you say here and what you do here will be carried back to every community in the United States and will be a quickening influence in the lives of your colleagues who are not able to be present during these great days. Inspiring personal contact between teacher and pupil is the firing-line of education. Without it education cannot produce a great citizenship. “Time was when almost the entire attention of educational leaders was fixed upon these contacts within the schoolroom. Education carried much of the idea of cloistered isolation. ‘That day is past. The true teacher of today is great, because he brings into his soul touch with pupils the influence of a life rich in the inspiration and wisdom of the world of affairs. We are coming now to see that if the teacher is to be all that he should be in his relations with pupils, he must himself participate in the responsibilities of citizenship and must share in the improvement of his profession. Inspiration is the soul of great teaching. No one can estimate the inspiration that is generated by the National Education Association with its growing membership of over 100,000 teachers. We are proud of this great growth, but growth in membership is only one of the Association’s significant achievements of the past year. I need not describe these achievements in detail. They are fully covered in the report of the Secretary and in the reports of depart- ments of the Headquarters Staff. The development of this staff is itself an achievement of high significance. It is only a brief time since the head- quarters were moved to Washington, where Secretary Crabtree and a hand- ful of assistants were housed in rented quarters. Soon the Association added a field-secretary and an assistant-secretary. The next year it moved into its own home on Sixteenth Street. An Editorial Department was added. Other departments were further developed. During the past year a Research Department has been created. Now instead of the mere hand- ful of faithful workers of a few years ago, the Association has a well organized staff of from fifty to seventy-five employees. This staff works in offices fully equipped, according to the best practices of administration, to handle the growing work which the Association is called upon to do. Before I became president, I had been proud that the Association had 210 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION bought its own home in Washington, but I had not realized the vast extent of the work that is being done at Washington. I had not realized how fortunate the Association is in having a body of trained men and ‘women who bring to their work the accumulated experience of continuous service in the field of professional organization. I want to commend to this Rep- resentative Assembly the vision and the devotion of the Headquarters Staff. In making the program for this meeting we have taken council not only with the Headquarters Staff and with members of the Executive Com- mittee, but with other men and women from every section of the United States. We have endeavored to make the program represent education as it is today and forecast the needs of education as they will be tomorrow. It is natural and inevitable that the theme of these meetings should be Education and the Democratic Awakening. There is definite connection between the democratic awakening that followed the war and the intensified interest in educational endeavor which is sweeping the civilized world. The democratic awakening is affecting education profoundly. It is influencing the technique of instruction. Socialized recitation, project method, and other devices designed to develop individuality are being used more widely than in years past. The attitude which parents and teachers have toward children shows larger recognition of the child’s point of view. Superintendents are finding ways of utilizing the initiatives and originali- ties of the teaching force in the improvement of the course of study and school management. People generally are coming to understand that edu- cation for political democracy must be followed by education for social and industrial democracy, if the future of civilization is to be secured. The leaders of humanity are facing with new courage the task of reconstructing the world’s relationships, so that the interests of the common men and women shall receive larger recognition when world policies are shaped. These are some of the things that have come in consequence of the demo- cratic awakening. For education they mean a new perspective, new prob- lems, and new hope. ‘The thinking leadership of the civilized world is determined that every citizen must be educated for a place in peaceful society with as much thoroughness as in times of war he is educated for a place in the army. ‘The world is challenging its educational forces to pro- duce an education fundamentally sound in quality and abundant in quan- tity. Professional organizations have taken up the challenge and are des- tined to become the policy-determining agencies of the future. They have developed a new educational leadership—a new statesmanship. The sig- nificance of this new educational statesmanship is best seen in the light of history. Education in America has developed piecemeal. It is the product of experiments and rivalries—of enthusiastic and partial attempts to meet the educational needs of a democracy that has grown so rapidly in extent and complexity as to leave many educational plans out of date before they had become fairly established. “There have been movements for academies and Latin schools and brilliantly led efforts to develop elementary schools both public and private. Secondary education has been the chosen goal of PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION 2At one group of educational leaders, while the enthusiasm of another group has sought all it could get for the development of higher education. Other leaders, with a. vision of the importance of maintained intelligence among our entire citizenship, have worked for the establishment of free public libraries. Still other men and women have realized the importance of pro- fessionally trained teachers and have lent their energy to the development of normal schools and teachers’ colleges. Too frequently these leaders have worked at cross purposes. They have sometimes feared lest the success of another enterprise might interfere with the development of their own. They have not often enough been able to see that the education of a democ- racy is a great single comprehensive task. The new leadership is coming to see education in this broader and more fundamental light. It is only a matter of time until every State in the Union will have a program of education sponsored by the leadership of a great association designed to develop a system that will promote every type and kind of education. Educational leaders will have not less enthusiasm for their special work but more appreciation and more enthusiasm for edu- cational enterprise generally. It is only a matter of time until education will have larger National recognition and support, just as agriculture has grown in the support which it receives from the Federal Government. The Constitution of the United States gives the control of education to the various States. We could not if we would—and we would not if we could—change this fundamental principle of the American Government, but we must face squarely the fact that no one can be a citizen of the United States without first becoming a citizen of a State. If the United States is to have the kind of citizenship that its place in the family of nations demands, it must share with the States the great responsibility of public education. his responsibility is expressed in the Towner-Sterling Bill. This bill is sound. It is necessary. It represents the best educational statesmanship of our times. Daily it grows in strength with the people. A year ago the ultimate realization of its aims might have been doubted. To doubt it now would be to doubt the very tides. The leadership of America in the affairs of the world is the greatest opportunity that has come to a nation in all history. It has been the aim of this program to recognize this great opportunity and to discuss the fundamental things needed to develop an educational system that will enable the Nation to meet its growing obligations. Looking forward to the coming world conference on education, an at- tempt has been made to present the new world outlook in its relation to our educational problems. We are proud to have with us the President of our great sister organization overseas. We are proud of the record of that association with over a hundred thousand members. Education everywhere has been benefited by the fight that it made for the Fisher Bill and by its more recent fight for adequate salaries and improved conditions generally. You heard discussed this morning the problem of the training of teachers DAD NaTIoNAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION in its various aspects. We all have as a result of that meeting a new appre- ciation of the importance of the trained teacher. Failure in wartime to respond to the call for volunteers casts a stigma upon any community. May the day soon come when failure to send into the teacher-training institu- tions its proper quota of recruits will likewise be deemed unpatriotic. The teacher is the real maker of history, and no nation can rise above the vision and the character of its teachers. Rural life and education have been emphasized in this program. It would be folly to contend that our rural life is more important than our industrial and commercial life. The welfare of all is found in the pros- perity of all. But our rural life presents peculiar problems, serious prob- lems, which must find solution in education. A survey of the disgraceful conditions in tens of thousands of rural schools is ample evidence of the need for constructive work. ‘The farm boy and the farm girl are entitled to a square deal. The Nation cannot afford not to give them a square deal, for it is from the underlying bed rock of the common people on the farms that the leadership of the Nation is continually recruited. These are only a few of the problems that we are here to consider. We are here representing every portion of the Nation. We are here to meet together and to work together. We are here to get the inspiration of worthy ideals fostered by common action. We are here, because a country that is worth dying for is worth living intelligently for. We are here in the spirit that sent our fathers to these shores. We are here to forget self and to grow in service to the Republic. We are here representing that system of public education by which the Nation has been great. We are here to dedicate ourselves anew to the further improvement of that system to the end that education of the people, by the people, and for the people shall make good the glorious promise of democracy. DEMOCRACY IN THE CLASSROOM EFFIE MAC GREGOR, MINNEAPOLIS TEACHERS’ LEAGUE, MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA The great Theodore Roosevelt has said that we have before us the great task of “trying to save America,” and he adds, “we have a fifty-fifty chance.” ‘These are portentous statements. : } We are enamored with the words “to save America.” ‘That phrase carries with it the idea of dramatic action, of beautiful but self-satisfied heroism. Yes, we are all willing “to save America.” But what about this “fifty-fifty chance’? One must pause here and consider well when one remembers the broad and deep patriotism of the man who said these words. Here is an un-American idea, for it does not insure a happy ending, even hints at a possible failure. What is to be done about it? Shall we pause and then pass on, taking the happy ending for granted, or shall we stop and begin to interest our- selves in the constructive continuance of the foundation necessary “to save America?’ Democracy IN THE CLASSROOM 213 It is to be hoped that every American in every walk of life will stop and having stopped will take his individual place in the further construc- tion of this mighty foundation which was so courageously begun by our ancestors, in this very place, some three hundred years ago. Every American citizen should study and know his particular part in relation to the whole, and knowing, should, with deepest gratitude pledge his service to the construction of a safe National foundation. What serv- ice can the classrooms of the public schools of our country render democ- racy? Long ago the world’s greatest teacher said, ‘““Ye shall know them by their fruits’ (Matt. 7:16). We may hope for success in our experiment in democracy, we may talk about it, write about it, and even sing about it, but we shall have no democracy until we have demonstrated democracy. This may sound pedantic to the great majority of American people, but then the great majority of American people have not taught school in the greatest democratic institution on earth, the public school of the United States, so they cannot know that every classroom in our public-school sys- tem is at the present time a near demonstration of democracy. It was my privilege to attend the convention of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association, held in Chicago last winter. ‘There I heard a definition of democracy which exactly de- scribed my idea of democracy in the classroom. Dr. Aydelotte said, ‘“De- mocracy is the art of living together.”’ ‘This remarkable definition served to remind me that every classroom in our country is definitely working on just that project, “the art of living together.” If our project is to be a contribution from the classroom to this foun- dation which must be “built on a rock” if we are “to save America’ then, as educators, we must have definitely in mind just what is needed to insure the success of our contribution. The first requisite is a classroom teacher who has a definite idea of the meaning of democracy. It will, of course, be an individual idea, but to be of real service it must be all inclusive. She must realize that while she is teaching subject matter, she is at the same time living with a group of boys and girls who will strengthen or weaken our National foundation in proportion as they make this living together an art. She must then fully appreciate that the institution of public education in the United States is the great laboratory in which this tremendous experiment can be tried and proved. Further essentials to our project are the boys and girls who come from any and every sort of American home. Every classroom teacher knows that she must have three great objectives in mind if democracy is to succeed. Her first great objective is that of character building. She knows that the individual contributes power to self and to the Nation, only as he realizes that individuality and character are synonymous. She knows too, that the development of character is largely due to religious teaching. But she works in a country where liberty and license 214 NationAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION have been confused in several instances. To bring order out of chaos, in this instance, she remembers that we are proud to call ourselves a Christian Nation, so she boldly accepts St. John’s definition of Deity: “God is Love” ; and then proceeds to build character in the classroom on the two great commandments, “Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength” ; this is the first command- ment. And the second is like, namely this, “Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. There is none other commandment greater than these.” (Mark 12: 30-31.) And under her guidance every boy and girl learns that to be a “short sport” is simply not loving your neighbor as yourself. They — learn too that to be “‘square” one must necessarily give one’s neighbor con- siderable thought. In short, the second great commandment becomes the yardstick of all classroom codperation. By following this method more or less closely, character is strengthened in the classroom. It is to be hoped that some day soon our Nation may see the need of definitely admitting these two great commandments into the public school as part of our cur- riculum. The second objective of the classroom teacher is the development of civic responsibility. “The classroom teacher knows that if she is to throw weight on the side which will insure the safety of America she must instil individual and collective civic responsibility in the boys and girls with whom she lives. She must bring to the realization of every child that we live in a Nation having “‘a government of the people, by the people, and for the people” and such a government can only continue as every individual takes active part and serves, “with malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right.” And last, but quite as important as character building and civic responsi- bility, is the development of individual and collective social effectiveness. We live in a Nation which is much more impressed by speed than by grace, but nevertheless there can be no real harmony in living without grace. Included with love and service to our fellowmen must be an ap- preciation that living, itself, can and should be an art. Art of any kind comes into being through the love of beauty. We are teaching beauty when we teach love for our fellowman and when we emphasize the need of service in life, but added to these teachings must be the development of a real appreciation of the social graces. When we shall have learned in the classroom, in the home, in our busi- ness, civic, and social National life that we must follow some definite and inclusive rulé as a basis for character building, that civic responsibility begins with the individual and that a love of beauty is an essential to liv- ing harmoniously, then we shall have demonstrated democracy. We may then join Whittier in gratitude and in prayer: For art and labor met in truce, For beauty made the bride of use, We thank Thee; but withal we crave The austere virtue strong to save— The honor proof to place or gold, The manhood never bought or sold. THE New OvurLook 215 If the National Education Association can be the channel through which the American public may realize as never before that the institution of public education in our country is our greatest agency toward the demon- stration of democracy, then we shall have rendered the greatest service of all, not only to our Nation but to mankind. THE NEW OUTLOOK KATHERINE D. BLAKE, PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 6, NEW YORK CITY Three centuries ago a new outlook was given to the world by a group of men in the tiny cabin of a little ship anchored not far south of this town when they wrote and signed ‘“The Compact,” in which all men were treated as equals unlimited by restrictions of wealth, education, or religion. It is fitting that we educators on this historic ground near the Cradle of Liberty, should seek a new outlook for this troubled world. It is America’s gift to light the world to new things. ‘The document, the signing of which we celebrate today, so lit the world that despotism has been everywhere overthrown until today the republic is the rule among governments, and the monarch is the vanishing exception. Do we need a new outlook in education? ‘The whole world needs it! Schoolhouses are either crowded far beyond capacity, or empty because of lack of teachers. “Two million children in these United States annually repeat their grades, thus learning the lesson of failure in early life, to be hindered by it for the rest of their days. In New York City last year 50,000 boys and girls left school before completing their elementary studies to go to work—most of them without needing to do-so. Men, like Frankenstein, have created a giant to do their work, and unless controlled, it will destroy humanity. Steel rules the world today and “Standardizing” and “Efficiency” have been our watchwords till our schools are dangerously like factories where we try to make all children meet the same standard of knowledge. The scientific gardener knows that you can only improve plants by giving them food, sunshine, air, and room to develop. We must try to realize ‘that we are but a step beyond the plants and that the same things will develop the children—food, sunshine, air, and room—space for freedom. There is nothing the matter with our children. Daily I marvel at their intelligence and above all at their patience with grown-up ways. They are much more clever than we. ‘They are true democrats and recognize no class distinctions; no color line is drawn by children until taught by their elders to draw it. No wonder Christ said “Of such is the Kingdom of Heaven.”’ Some day we shall know enough to “let a little child lead us.” They have the new outlook if we have not, as Herbert Johnson has shown us. A generation or so ago the small boy sat up by the light of his lamp reading ‘““Deadwood Dick’s Defy.” Today with an electric bulb to light him he is studying “The Radio News” to find out how to’ make his 216 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION crackerbox radio outfit louder and better—and we still feed children foolish fairy stories instead of science. Let the little child lead us! How fast the child is leading us! Almost daily the papers tell us of some won- derful child: a four-year-old knows three languages and discusses current topics intelligently; a girl of eleven enters Columbia Law School in the fall. And we still measure education by hours! We study boundaries in geography when airplanes and radio are setting boundaries at naught and making brothers of the peoples of the ends of the earth. Our work is the most inspiring work in the world, yet adherence to tradition renders it drudgery. The teacher’s job should be the most enviable position in a civilized community. It is our duty to make it so, and in order to do this let us write tonight in our hearts a new Declaration of Independence—the Declaration of Independence for Children—the right of life, food, liberty, to learn the things suited to each one’s intelli- gence, and the pursuit of happiness, play space and the right to rove as youth always desires to do. Then having written this declaration let us demand and continue to demand for the future State builders. What is money compared with a thinking human being! Ambassador Sir Auckland Geddes recently said, ““An ambassador’s duty is to promote the cause of peace.’ How infinitely more is it the duty of the teacher. He added: “You and your companions in the teaching pro- fession have almost absolute control over the mental bias of the citizens of the future. If you are understandingly faithful to your trust, there will be new hope for mankind and for the peace of the world.” The peace of the world is in our hands. We can keep pure the waters of life, if we are faithful to our trust. With the peace of the world there will be no need to demand money for schools. Funds will-come as a natural right. Let us keep President Meiklejohn’s words in our hearts: “There is only one real vice, hatred; and only one virtue, love. Hate wishes to destroy; love would create. Where hate comes in, life fails. Where love comes in, life is sane.” With love as our guide, a new outlook will be ours, and the peace of the world will come. THE WOMAN OF AMERICA AND THE DEMOCRATIC AWAKENING MAUD WOOD PARK, PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL LEAGUE OF WOMEN | VOTERS, WASHINGTON, D. C. At the base of the belief in democracy lies the conviction that control by the whole people is better than control by a single group for the reason that each group brings to the task not only its own human qualities and in- terests but its special group experience. Necessarily each separate group has its special experience to contribute. Women, in one sense a group—the largest group any orderly government we WoMAN AND THE Democratic AWAKENING 217 has ever admitted at one time to a share in the conduct of national affairs— have certain ideas and tendencies, the result of racial experience, in com- mon with men. They have also special interests due to their special train- ing and they must contribute these wisely, advisedly, and sanely if they are to be helpful in political life. The enfranchisement of women, if it is to realize its potential useful- ness, must really be an awakening to three things, not merely to the pos- session of the vote. ‘There must be an awakening to the real meaning of the new opportunity—to an understanding of the common interests women share with men—and to an intelligent comprehension of women’s own special limitation as well as their own special qualifications. Women are the practical sex, the serious-minded sex. Except in- advertently we will not, as voters, contribute to the gaiety of nations. As practical persons women have had peculiar experience in matters concern- ing home-making and the care of children; as serious-minded folk we realize the defects in our education and are trying in all earnestness to remedy them that we may vote intelligently. Because of the special training life has given us, we realize better than men do the need for public education. I believe, therefore, that such an organization as the National Education Association ought to rejoice in the enfranchisement of women. We come into political life as a group whose interest in education is deep and whose knowledge of its need, intimate, for it falls to the home, and always will fall to the home, to lay the foundation on which the school erects its structure. I see in the enfranchisement of women and in the desire of every thinking woman to use her privilege and right of citizenship wisely and well, a more intelligent codperation between the home and the school, and for the work of formal education a more solid foundation. “The common interests of women will always be the child and it is the aim of the schools of citizenship conducted by our League of Women Voters to train women to such use of the franchise as shall make their vote the powerful and devoted ally of all forward-looking plans for education. MESSAGE FROM HONORABLE CHARLES EVANS HUGHES, SECRETARY OF STATE PRESENTED BY ANDREW F. WEST, DEAN OF GRADUATE SCHOOL, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY It is idle for those who are distressed by some of the tendencies of our time to indulge the notion that there will be a diminution of popular con- trol or increase of respect for mere tradition or authority. The will of the people will be expressed and slight hindrances will be interposed to the satisfaction of their desires. As the restraints we believe to be important to our security and progress must be self-imposed, there is no reason why we should entertain the delusion that democracy will confer blessings except in so far as it represents the rule of an intelligent and cultured people. 218 NatIioNaL EpuCATION ‘ASSOCIATION We cannot fail to be gratified by the evidence on every hand of an increased demand for educational opportunity, and it is most encouraging to observe the extraordinary efforts that are being made, especially in the field of higher education, to provide new facilities. Public funds are available to an unprecedented extent, while the outpourings of private benevolence have gone beyond anything that we have hitherto deemed possible. But it is also apparent that there is much confusion with respect to standards and aims and that there will be little gain in considering the mechanism of education until we have re-examined the more fundamental needs. It is not likely that there will be lack of opportunity for vocational education—for the sort of training which will fit men and women to earn a living. The exigencies of our complex life are too apparent and the rewards too obvious to admit of neglect; and we shall have whatever vocational or technical schools are required. But democracy cannot live on bread alone. It is not enough that one shall be able to earn a living, or a good living. ‘This is the foundation but not the structure. What is needed is to have life more abundantly. From the standpoint of the individual the exclusively materialistic view is inadmissible, for the individual life should be enriched with the ampler resources of a wider culture. What is most important, however, in view of our social and civic needs, is that the door of hope should be kept open by maintaining the opportunities and standards of general education—thus giving to those who start amid the direst necessities and with the most slender advantages the chance to rise. his is of especial importance to our working people, who are not to be viewed as mere economic units but as our co-laborers in the great enterprise of human progress. “Che Ameri- can ideal—and it must be maintained if we are to mitigate disappointment and unrest—is the ideal of equal educational opportunity, not merely for the purpose of enabling one to know how to earn a living and to fit into an economic status more or less fixed, but of giving play to talent and aspiration and to the development of mental and spiritual powers. It is impossible to provide a system of general education and ignore the need of discipline. ‘The sentimentalists are just as dangerous as the materialists. No one will dispute the importance of making study interest- ing, of recognizing the individual bent or special gifts. But the primary lesson for the citizens of democracy is self-control, and this is achieved only through self-discipline. As I look back upon my own experience I find that the best lessons of life were the hardest. Even along the line of special aptitude it is the severe mental exercise, the overcoming of real obstacles that counts. My mother’s insistence upon daily exercises in mental arithmetic has been worth more to me than all the delightful dally- ings with intellectual pleasures I have ever had. Life is not a pastime, and democracy is not a holiday excursion. It needs trained men to think, whose mental muscles are hard with toil, who know how to analyze and dis- criminate, who stand on the firm foundation of conviction which is made possible only by training in the processes of reason. The sentimentalists — e MeEsSAGE FROM SECRETARY HUGHES 219 must not be allowed to ruin us by dissipating the energy that should be harnessed for our varied needs. When we consider the true object of education, to give the training which will enable one to make the most—that is, the best—of oneself, we must realize that the foundation should be laid in a few studies of the highest value, in self-discipline, and that there should be supplied every incentive to attain that mental and spiritual culture which connotes, not merely knowledge and skill, but character. This means self-denial, hard work, the inspiration of teachers with vision, and an appreciation of the privileges and obligations of citizenship in democracy. In the elementary schools, it means that sort of training which insists, at whatever cost, on the mastery by the student of the subject before hina, on accuracy—the lack of which, I regret to say, is now conspicuous in students of all grades—the correct use of our language, and the acquisition of that modicum of information which everyone should possess. In the secondary schools (our high schools and academies) it means that we should stop scattering. There is at present a bewildering and un- successful attempt at comprehensiveness. It fails of its purpose in giving neither adequate information nor discipline. It asks too much of the student, and too little. I believe that we need to have a few fundamental, substantial studies thoroughly mastered. I am one of those who believe in the classical and mathematical training, and I do not think that we have found any satisfactory substitute for it. But the important point is the insistence upon concentration and thoroughness. ‘The function of the sec- ondary school is not to teach everything but really to teach something, to lay the basis for the subsequent, and more definitely specialized, intellectual endeavor. I think, also, that we have done too much to encourage intellectual vagrancy in college. Of course there should be opportunity to select courses having in view definite scholastic aims, but we have gone so far that a “college education,” outside of technical schools, may mean little or nothing. It is a time for reconstruction and for the establishment of definite requirements by which there will be secured better mental dis- cipline, more accurate information, and appropriate attention to the things of deepest value which make for the enrichment of the whole life of the student. We have given too scant attention to the demands of training for citizen- ship. This implies adequate knowledge of our institutions, of their de- velopment and actual working. It means more than this in a world of new intimacies and complexities. It means adequate knowledge of other peoples, and for this purpose there is nothing to take the place of the humanities, of the study of literature and history. When I speak of the study of history, I do not mean a superficial review, but the earnest en- deavor to understand the life of peoples, their problems and aspirations. And at this time it is not simply or chiefly the history of a distant past that it is most important to know; it is recent history, with sufficient acquaint- arte with the past to understand the extraordinary happenings and develop- e 220 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION ments which have taken place in our own time, so that through a just and clear discernment our young men and women may properly relate them- selves to the duties and opportunities of their generation. We must not forget the many schools of experience, in one or more of which every American must take his course, but what we have regarded as the American character, that which we delight to praise as the dominant American opinion because of its clear, practical, and intelligent view of affairs, has resulted from the interaction of the influences of the colleges and universities on the one hand and of these schools of experience on the other. We cannot afford to do without either. And the most pressing need of our day is attention to the organization of American education. THE PEACE-TIME PROGRAM OF THE AMERICAN LEGION ALVIN M. OWLSEY, NATIONAL DIRECTOR OF AMERICANISM COMMISSION, THE AMERICAN LEGION, INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA It is an honor and a privilege to address an audience such as this. I eagerly bring you a message from the American Legion. I pray inspira- tion for its delivery. Hear me in my cause! We cannot speak of a peace-time program without being mindful of those gallant and heroic men and women whose sacrifice made possible our peace. The outstanding and overshadowing problem of The American Legion and her first supreme consideration is to fight the peace battle for the blind, the insane, the sick and wounded, who now lie on beds of suffer- ing, and see that those yet unprovided for shall find their way to comfort and ease. “The great heart of the Legion bleeds to see these men and women shamefully neglected. I tell you tonight on good authority the Legion is not satisfied with the treatment of our sick and wounded. Con- fusion, red-tape, short-sightedness, public apathy, and selfishness have stood in the way of a speedy solution of our hospital situation. Nothing is too good for these men and women! Favorites of the Mother Country! Defenders of our homes and firesides! Lovers of Liberty! Soldiers of Ideals! Crusaders for all mankind! Your fight is our fight. It will end when you are returned well to our midst. Many friends say to me, “The American Legion was organized as a result of a war, a great and terrible war; what then is this Legion doing in time of peace?” ‘To these friends I am glad to answer, ‘“The American Legion is building a city. Like Legions of old Rome from which we take our name, on going into camp we are tracing the streets and walls of a strong fortress before the sun goes down.” What is war? It is the means of making a just peace, nothing more or less. ‘Therefore the organized Legion, be it Roman Legion or American Legion is primarily and fundamentally a forged and tempered instrument of peace. No better example can be found than in the glorious record THE AMERICAN LEGION’s PROGRAM 221 ot the first known legions and legionaires of history—those iron cohorts that established and guarded the majesty of the peace of Rome throughout the civilized world two thousand years ago, when the *» . . . Wild peoples of the North Stood fronting in the gloam, And heard and knew each in his mind A third great sound upon the wind, The living walls that hedge mankind, ‘The walking walls of Rome.’ The cities still stand that they builded in time of peace, those legions of the Pax Romana that stood guard from Edinburgh to the deserts of Arabia. Once I stood on the old city wall of the city of Chester in western England, a city whose streets still follow the lines laid out by the Romans who first camped there. At my feet I saw in crumbling stone an ancient anchorage for ships. Below this anchorage was meadow land. Two miles away today the river runs that had borne the galleys of Rome to that anchorage two thousand years ago. But the city stands and flourishes, whose very name of Chester harks back to the “Castra” of that legion of old Rome that marked it out. Not only in England, but across all Europe those legions have written their names in the proud appellations of pinnacled cities. Even the names have been distorted in the long passing years, till Caesarea Augusta has become stately Saragossa in Spain and white Colonia on the Rhine is called Cologne by us of English speech. But the cities abide and prosper, not unforgetful of that day long past that saw their birth—the armored soldiers carrying stone, the tents of the generals, the crested centuries, the engineers, and the cavalry. Those were the legions of Rome; they built cities and defended them. And we likewise of this Legion of America are building no small town today, but rather a high and holy city for the generations of Americans yet tocome. ‘There shall be white halls of council in this city, and pleasant parks through which the children stray. There shall be palaces of art and stately libraries, and above all there shall be homes—the homes of America—those homes whose four walls clasp and shield the strength and happiness of a nation. Not in any vain glory do I say this, but rather in great humility—we of the American Legion have turned from the dust of battles to build a city for the housing of the hopes of all mankind. ‘The watchword of this city shall be the word, Liberty, and across its loftiest archway shall be written the word, Law; and the name of the city is America. In this city shall be schools. In the youth of a nation is that nation’s hope; and it is the youth of the nation that shall inhabit that white city that is the America to be. We are not yet a nation of descendants, thank God, we are a nation of ancestors. The true American still dreams of the future of his children rather than of the past of his forefathers, however 222 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION eminent those may have been. The true American still regards himself as the founder of a family rather than the descendant of any family, how- ever honored. ‘The future of his children is his guiding star. From the dim beginnings of the Republic this white ideal has been the guiding light of all American activity. The American is a founder of schools. A cattle trail gave its name to the University of Oxford, and Cambridge speaks today of a river and a bridge; but from: Yale to Leland Stanford the high roll of American universities bears to a surprising number the names of the American men of affairs who devoted their private wealth to the founding of public institutions of learning, nor is that all. The history of the American Republic is the story of westward expansion across a continent, the story of the winning of a wilderness for civilization. It is the history of the pioneer walking westward into the far regions; the pioneer clearing forests for cultivation and driving his plow across in- numerable meadows; the pioneer-builder dreaming and creating farms and towns. But this American pioneer was a dreamer and creator of schools as well. Wherever this pioneer advanced into the wilderness, the school advanced into the wilderness. After provision for food and shelter, the elemental necessities; after the planting of the corn and the building of the log cabin, the pioneer’s first thought was of a schoolhouse for his chil- dren. ‘The history of humanity had never seen the like before; a great race of men who lived for an ideal, who faced and conquered hard seasons and crushing labors for the sake of generations yet to come. Driven by that deep thirst of knowledge that he had no hope of satisfying for him- self, the pioneer of America consecrated his life’s endeavor to the educa- tion of his children. “This is the glory of America. Let me tell you the dream of The American Legion, of this new Legion of soldiers carrying stone for the building of cities. This dream of ours is a vision of a white city with schools, down whose pleasant ways no child wanders in unwilling ignorance. We shall build this dream in stone for housing the fates of mankind. How shall we face this task, how meet and conquer it? By the strong and centered will of a million ex-service men whose posts are established throughout the land, whose influence extends into the remotest village, and who are available and eager to codperate with every American institu- tion and association that is forwarding the cause of education in America today. Let us take counsel together for the awakening of America to her educa- tional needs. Awakening is the thing that is needed; if the people have forgotten for a time the bright ideals of the pioneers who dreamed of cities and schools, let us bring them back to these worthy considerations from which spring the motive power of the world’s progress. It is for us to bring that time nearer. The laws still stand on the statute books of all the States that call for. the attendance of every child at school. In the constitution of every State of the Union is written a guaranty of adequate education for the youth of the land. These guarantees are idle THE AMERICAN LEGION’s PROGRAM 223 without their application; the latter is empty without the spirit. The constitutions and statutes that provide for the education of the youth of America are wise and proper, yet two children out of every five are not attending school. ; Are our constitutions empty words, are our statutes nothing but delicate pleasantries? Not so in this city with schools that we of the Legion have devoted ourselves to building. We have the word of the law; let us live in it. To the carrying out of the spirit and letter of the statutes that provide for the compulsory education of the children of America, the ~ American Legion is irrevocably committed. The education of American children must be an American education. It must prepare the children of America for American citizenship, and the high goal of American citizenship has not yet been reached. We Ameri- cans must know the details of our government and our history as well as we know the details of our daily lives, before we can fully and rightfully arrogate to ourselves the management of our national affairs. And for that, if for no other reason, must we have civil government and American history established as compulsory studies in our schools, and we must compel the study of these subjects till every American citizen-to-be has acquired a full knowledge and complete realization of the rights and privileges and duties of American citizenship. To this principle the American Legion in national convention assembled has thrice committed itself in no uncertain terms. It is our dream to see the schools of America set apart, in the minds of men as well as in the streets of the cities—set apart from and above the office building and the factory, in recognition of this their mighty function for the development of American citizens. And then it is my dream that every schoolhouse in this land shall fly from their staffs from dawn till set of sun the flag of this Republic. That mighty flag—that emblem of human liberty—must fly over every school- house as the symbol of that bright American ideal of which the school is the living spirit and the vital source. One flag floating above all the schools, as the symbol of a united nation—the sign of America made visible. And this brings with it as naturally as the sunrise follows dawn, the establishment of one language in all the schools for the expression of the soul of America. As the flag is America made visible, so the language of Jefferson and Lincoln is America made audible. Community of language is the strong fastener of the ties that bind man- kind. ‘The use of a common tongue overlaps political boundaries. When ancient Greece was divided into free states by the hundreds, still the soul of Greece was one; and in Athens or in Argos, in Corinth or in Syracuse, the command of the language of Homer and Demosthenes distinguished the Greek from the barbarian. And when the ordered Legions brought the great western nations under the rule of Rome, it was the Latin language that fused alike the Gaul and the Briton, the Bavarian and the Spaniard into the Roman citizen and the upholder of the laws of the Roman state. This America of ours was established by men of Saxon and Celtic strain who spoke the tongue of England. We have made that tongue our own. 224 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION More people speak this language in America than in all other countries of the world combined. It is the speech of the founders of the Republic. Our national constitution is written in this language, our histories and our literature, and the songs we sing of home. We turn to Greek for the origin of the drama, and to Latin for the origin of laws, and to French for the first beginning of modern thought; but on this, the anniversary of American freedom, I declare by the Goddess of Liberty we do not turn to Greek or Latin or French for. the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America! “That declaration and our Constitution com- prise our greatest national heritage; they are the twin sources of the great current of American life today. Shall those epoch-making documents ever be studied in our schools and interpreted to our children in any language but the original?. It cannot be. It must not be. One flag above our schools and one language in our schools, the flag and the language of America, of America one and indivisible— “Until God loosen over sea and land The thunder of the trumpets of the dawn.” I have nothing but praise for the program of education for the im- migrant that is now being attempted by the department of Labor. Never- theless I maintain, and all thinking people must agree with me, that here is an impossible situation and it must be remedied. Therefore, let me tell you tonight I have faith that the National Americanism Commission of the American Legion is going to recommend to the Legion in national convention assembled in New Orleans in October ot this year, that the Legion demand that this great national necessity of education be fittingly recognized ; that we no longer palter or equivocate; that a separate Depart- ment of Education be created by act of Congress; and that the head of this Department be seated in the President’s Cabinet. This message then I bring you from this Legion of the veterans of America who have consecrated themselves to the building of a city strong - against all disaster in the days to come. ‘This city of ours shall be a city with sentinels, and you of the Army of Education and we of the American Legion shall mount guard along its walls, vigilant alike against ignorance within and aggression from without. ‘This city shall be a city with towers, and you and we shall build it upward in the sunlight of that peace of which the price is eternal vigilance, till its high skyline traces across the very heavens the story of the greatest renaissance known to history, the American renaissance of art and knowledge under liberty. This city shall be a city founded on a rock, the rock of service willingly accorded a free nation by you who teach and by us who strive; by us who quarry the stone and bring it to you, who shape and set it in the walls. We bring you our sympathy and strong hope and the offer of the best in our power. May you say of us in the days to come, more even than men said of those Legions of old Rome—may you say: This is the American Legion; it defends cities and it builds them higher and lordlier for the generations to come. ee ania Neeps oF Rurav Lire Topay 225 OUTSTANDING NEEDS OF RURAL LIFE TODAY GEORGE A. WORKS, PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, NEW YORK Not even a birdseye view of this significant problem can be obtained in the limited space of fifteen minutes. It seems best therefore to make a brief and necessarily dogmatic statement regarding the farmer’s situation and with this as a background to develop more fully an aspect of the relation of the educational system to the present status of rural life. _ The outstanding needs of country life are fundamentally of an eco- nomic nature. ‘The farmer needs an opportunity to carry forward his vocation under conditions as well adapted to farming as the conditions which surround our industrial life are adjusted to its needs. He needs an opportunity to make a living with reasonable hours of labor and without exploitation of his children. ‘To be more specific the farmer needs a sys- tem of credit that shall be as fully adapted to farming as commercial paper is to the credit needs of the business man. He needs to have the way open for codperative enterprises that are as well adapted to the demands of his vocation as business corporations are adjusted to the great enterprises of our urban centers. He needs a tariff, or no tariff, that shall be as fair to his industry as it is to “infant” industries that function through and are responsible for our gigantic business enterprises. Furthermore, he needs to have those not living on farms know that these opportunities are not his under present-day conditions. ‘The farmer neither needs nor wants special favors for his chosen vocation. He knows it is basic to the country’s wel- fare, and he realizes that when he is given equality of opportunity with other business men farming will find its proper place in the Nation’s life. Equality of opportunity cannot be secured, however, unless there is recog- nition in legislation, and in the thought of the Nation of the fact that agri- culture presents its peculiar problems that can be met only by conditions adapted to the needs of the vocation. Turn now from this phase of the subject to the aspect with which this organization is primarily concerned—namely, education. What is the out- standing need of country life? The reply is the same as for the economic aspect—namely, an opportunity for the farmer to secure for his children education that will meet their needs as completely as the schools in the centers of population meet the needs of urban children. He is entitled to the privilege of such educational facilities under conditions of taxation and school support that do not impose a special burden on him, because he has chosen to render his social service through farming. ‘loday he lacks this opportunity. Much that in recent years has crept into the discussion of educational problems relating to the open country is both fallacious and pernicious. Reference is made to the idea so frequently heard from the platform and so commonly found in the literature treating of the so-called “rural prob- lem’’ that the rural school should be used to stem the tide of the move- ment from country to city. The advocates of this view would dedicate 226 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the country school to the task of keeping country-reared boys and girls on the farms. It is fully as unsound as the popular slogan “back to the farm.” Apparently this doctrine had its origin in one fact and a fallacious as- sumption: the “decline” in our rural population andthe conclusion that it was an evil. Both of these are of sufficient importance to justify con- sideration in detail. ‘Taking the definition of the Federal Census the change in rural popu- lation that has taken place in the last forty years is as follows: 1880, 71.4 per cent; 1890, 64.6 per cent; 1900, 60.0 per cent; 1910, 54.2 per cent, and 1920, 48.6 per cent. When the last census was taken, for the first time in our history, the majority of our population was living under urban conditions. Even more striking has been the increase in the proportion of the country’s population living in towns of 8000 or over. In 1790, 3.3 per cent of the people were living in such places, but by 1920 it had grown to 43.8 per cent. It has been assumed that this falling off in the proportion of rural to urban population is an unfortunate thing for the country. So general is this notion that it may be well to consider some of the elements involved. In discussing this aspect the following points should be borne in mind: 1. There has not been an actual decline in the number of persons living on farms in this country. The decline is in reality a failure of rural popu- lation to retain its relative importance as contrasted with the number of urban dwellers. The census for 1920 shows that during the preceding decade the urban population increased 25.7 per cent, while in the same period the increase in rural population was but 5.4 per cent. The so- called decline has in reality only been a failure of farming to increase, in the number of workers engaged in it, as rapidly as other industries. 2. The physical production of farm products previous to 1900 increased more rapidly than did our total population, and since that date it has kept pace with the increase in total population. Differently stated, during the past twenty years the farmers of this country have increased their produc- tion as rapidly as the demand for agricultural products has taken place because of growth in population. It is true that farm products have in- creased in price, but so have other commodities and such increase in price as has taken place has not resulted in opulence on the farmer’s part. Why has this marked decline in rural population occurred ? Primarily as the result of two fundamental changes that have taken place in farming. As a consequence there has been no place on the farms for all who were born and reared there. The relation of these economic forces is so sig- nificant in considering the educational needs of country life that they should have at least a brief consideration. (1) The introduction of im- proved machinery has reduced the proportion of the population necessary on the farms to produce the required food supply. A few illustrations will give concreteness to this general statement. In 1850 it required 57 minutes of man labor to produce a bushel of corn, but in 1894 only 22.5 minutes were required. In the period from 1850-1895 the amount of time in hu- man labor required to harvest a ton of timothy hay decreased from 21 hours NEEpDs oF Rurav Lire Topay 227 and 50 minutes to 3 hours and 56.5 minutes. In the production of a bushel of wheat the reduction was from 3 hours and 3 minutes in 1830 to 10 minutes in 1896; and in oats from 1 hour and 39 minutes in 1830 to 10 minutes in 1893. Quaintance, who made a study of this problem, com- puted the amount of man-power saved in the production of nine leading farm crops in 1896 as contrasted with the labor that would have been required to produce those same crops at periods ranging from 30 to 60 years earlier when hand methods prevailed. He found that it required only 21 per cent as much time in human labor on the farm in 1896 as would have been required at the earlier dates to produce the same crops. The introduction of farm machinery has resulted in an increase of the number of acres that one farmer can handle unless more intensive methods are used, and in an increase in the number of horses per worker. In 1880 the average number of acres in certain specified crops per worker was 23.3, and in 1890, 27.5 and by 1900 it had grown to 31.0. The increase in horses per worker for the same dates are furnished by the figures: 1.7, 2.2, and 2.3. An interesting illustration of the application of these forces is to be found in the period from 1900 to 1910. In that interval the most marked decline in the proportion of rural population took place in the most fertile farming sections of the country, and it was accompanied by a decline in the number of small farms in those regions. In 1900 there were in these areas 5.7 horses per hundred acres of crops, but by 1910 this number had increased to 6.5. It is an illustration of what has taken place generally during the past half century: the release of man power from the farms by the application of machinery and horse power. 2. The occupational geographical division of labor has stimulated the movement cityward. A century ago the farms were practically self- sufficing. Since that time a large number of activities has been transferred from them to centers where they can be so conducted that the desired prod- ucts can be more economically manufactured, or a better standardization secured. By this process an enormous amount of work has been removed from the farms with a consequent decrease in the labor demand on the farm. ‘The activities that have been taken from the farm are largely concerned with the production of commodities for which there is almost unlimited demand providing they have sufficient variety of form, are cheap, and there is adequate purchasing power. ‘This has left to the farm the pro- duction of commodities for which it is possible to develop only a limited demand. An increased call for the products of the farm is contingent upon growth in population, and as has been stated, the physical production in agriculture has kept pace with the increments in population. If those who believe the rural schools should have been u» d to stem this movement could have had their way it is very unlikely that they would have been able completely to accomplish their ends. If they had done so it would have been extremely unfortunate from an economic and social viewpoint for the country as a whole. Both country and city have had to face serious problems as a result of the migration cityward, but these prob- . 228 NaTrionaL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION lems are less momentous and less acute than the ones we would now face if the movement had been stopped in the suggested manner. The school system should never be used to hold children in the coun- try, because it is their place of birth any more than it should be an instru- ment for fixing other class distinctions based on occupation or social stand- ing. The basic factor that should and does determine the number of people on farms is an economic one. Men will engage in the farming vocations in adequate numbers when the financial and other rewards that one gets for service in them compare favorably with what his capacity, training, and effort will bring to him in other lines of human endeavor. In passing, it is interesting to note that the propaganda for peop'e to remain on farms comes primarily from city or town people. So pro- nounced is this that one is led to wonder if it is not largely the attitude of mind of those who think of farming in terms of its possibilities as a source of cheap food rather than as a basic vocation that conditions the life of millions of our people. The keen interest manifested by urban organiza- tions in putting funds into propaganda designed to retain young people in the country through artificial incentives is all too common evidence of this point of view. More surprising still is the fact that governmental agencies should be used for this purpose as they have been in recent years. It is to be hoped that there will be a-general awakening in the near future to the viciousness of activities of this nature. “he country needs capable men and women in its rural citizenship, but they should be there because of the conditions surrounding farming and as the result of the working of an educational system characterized by adequate provision for vocational guidance and not as the outcome of propaganda. This leads to the second aspect of the educational question. Does the farmer have school facilities that are adequate for meeting these problems? Again in order to save time it is necessary to be dogmatic and state that he does not. He should have a school system that will meet the needs of those of his children who decide to cast their lot with the city and it must also meet the needs of those who determine to render their service through farming. President Waters made from the platform of this association one of the most fundamental statements that has ever been made bearing on this question. He said, “Children born in the country are entitled to as much freedom of choice of occupation as are those brought up in town’ and are entitled to as substantial help from the public school in making an intelligent choice.” We must not lose sight of the fact that individuals and society will be best served when the school helps every child to find the place in which he can render the most effective service and prepares him broadly and effectively for that service. This is true whether he be country- or city-born. Even a cursory analysis will convince any one that the open country is not supplied with schools that can meet these problems. A general level of schooling has been reached such that the high school becomes an impor- tant factor in meeting the educational needs of country life. Yet this institution is 80 bound by tradition and the influence of college-entrance A County System oF ScHOOLS 229 requirements that it is falling short of meeting the needs of country life. Our systems of school support are such that the country is at a distinct disadvantage in furnishing to its children school facilities that compare favorably with those available to city children. For years the farmers have been exploited in the economic sphere by the urban interests and today our State systems of school support are exploiting him and his children in the educational sphere. If the virile men and women are to remain on the farms of this country these conditions must be remedied. In conclusion the outstanding need of country life today is clear thinking and fair action with reference to the country on the part of those who live under urban conditions. The farmer asks for no special concessions, but he does demand, and he is entitled to a chance to conduct his vocation under conditions as well adapted to his needs as other business interests have surrounding them. He should have a school system that will meet the need of his children regardless of where he choses to render his social service. “There is need for action in recognition of the fact that there is scarcely a State in which the school support is so organized that this can be done at present on an equitable basis. Unless these needs are recognized, in the long run the Nation as a whole will have to pay for their neglect. CONSOLIDATION, SUPERVISION, AND ADMINISTRATION OF A COUNTY SYSTEM OF SCHOOLS AGNES SAMUELSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF PAGE COUNTY SCHOOLS, CLARINDA, IOWA The time has come in our great national development for a consideration of the most outstanding educational problem facing our country today— that of the rural school. Involving as it does the education of half the children enrolled in the public schools, the industry in which one third of the people are actively engaged and all are materially concerned, the very “foundation of civilized society” as the inscription over the station in our capital city designates the farm, is it too much to say that the future wel- fare of our democracy depends upon our solution of this problem? ‘To rebuild the rural school to meet modern conditions and be restored to its place of pre-eminence in community life; to reorganize the county system of schools so that an efficiency competing with that of the best city school administration may be developed, is the task now demanding the focus of attention. “The National Education Association has emphasized the significance of this fact by the adoption of the rural-school problem in its major program and the selection for the first time of its president from the county superintendency—that group whose leadership should furnish the most positive contribution to the achievement of this imperative goal. Since the most insistent demand in this period of democratic awakening is for the improvement of rural education, it is of primal importance that modern efficiency standards be inaugurated into the business of the rural 230 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION school, and the position of county superintendent be elevated to its rightful professional standing. Not until ‘this is done can far-reaching results be obtained. ‘This means not simply to stop, look, and listen, but actually to start a program of educational reconstruction adequate to serve the new order of things in a modern rural world. ‘The industrial and agricultural revolutions have made miraculous changes in farm life; the rural school must keep pace with the call of the age for efficiency. This can no longer be done through the machinery of the district school system of organization, which served the oxcart days so satisfactorily, but is too cumbersome for this airplane era. The tendency now is for the establishment of a county unit system of administration such as is wholly or partly in force in twenty States. In this larger plan of organization, the general oversight of the schools is directed by a county board of education with the county super- intendent as the executive official. If properly developed and not too highly centralized, the county unit with its equalization of school taxation and educational advantages should be of substantial help in solving the rural-school problem by its making efficiency possible in the county schools through the facilitating of consolidation, the strengthening of supervision, and the unifying of administration. Consolidation should be of first importance in any rural-school better- ment program since it has made such strides in many localities that some policy of mapping out entire States into possible districts should be adopted in order to insure the proper distribution of territory and the best interests of all concerned. By consolidation in this connection js meant the uniting of districts into large enough areas to bring together enough children to maintain a twelve graded school, and sufficient funds to support the school and furnish transportation at reasonable cost. That no consolidated school has ever been dissolved by a vote of the people after operating a graded school is a telling endorsement of consolidation as the ultimate solution of the rural and village school problem. Many theories have been advanced and experiments tried in the attempt to continue the one-teacher school as the type of modern rural education. The enlargement of the curriculum to include vocational subjects and its enrichment by art and music; the serving of hot lunches; the participation in club work, recreational and community center activities; the raising of teacher qualifications through normal training; the development of excep- tional demonstration schools; the use of standard tests and measurements ; have all been strong factors in rural school improvement, while standardiza- tion of rural schools has brought the highest state of efficiency that it is possible to have in the ungraded school. But in spite of the transformation accomplished by these motivations, the fundamental weakness has remained ‘the same. ‘These splendid plans have aimed correctly, but have missed the mark in not providing any division of labor or graded school conditions. It is not a question of curriculum or equipment or teacher, but of a system that has outgrown its usefulness. The one-teacher school must give way to the consolidated A County System oF SCHOOLS 23) school as did the stage coach to the automobile and the tallow candle to the electric light. This new and larger school bringing better buildings and equipment, increased library facilities, improved sanitation, more reg- ular attendance, more skillful instruction through trained teachers and supervisors, direct community contact, gives the farmer’s child the same op- portunity to secure a high-school diploma at home as the favored city cousin and thereby equalizes their educational advantages. As the child is the reason for the school, so the equalization of educational opportunity is the reason for the consolidated school. Although the success of consolidation in every part of the country bears the searchlight of investigation, yet to convince the people to accept it is not always easy as any one who starts out as a Pied Piper to play the tunes of better rural schools soon discovers. “The Stubble of Indifference and the Briars of Selfishness beset the pathway ; the Bridge spanning the Stream of Tradition swelled by the Rivulets of Inconsistency and Sentiment must be crossed and the Mountain of Ignorance tunnelled. This often leads to the Jungle of Obstinate Opposition with its pitfalls which ensnare the incredulous, absorbing the “Yu-can’t-haul-’em”’ propaganda. Even then if the Piper’s song strikes a responsive chord in the community ear, sometimes legal talent will have rolled up red tape that has to be unwound via the Supreme Court route before the building can be dedicated to the cause of boys and girls. But over 10,500 of these splendid school plants attest the fact that Progress like Truth shall prevail whenever the opposing forces of any reform movement are met by the advancing armies of community cdoperation, clear-cut vision, and strong leadership. In striking contrast to these mighty bulwarks of American democracy marking the epochal development of rural education from the pioneer to the centralized-school stage, stand 210,000 one-teacher schools still in the second or box-car type of advancement. Not until the 170,000 of these schools are merged into consolidation areas, as is estimated can easily be done, and the remaining given the best that standardization can provide, will the equalization of educational privileges for the rural children become a reality. This leads to the question of whether this program of re-building the rural school should be left solely to the initiative of the community and the leadership of the county superintendents, or some plan of speeding and facilitating consolidation be advocated. Some assert that the first way is more democratic; others declare it is the duty of the State to legislate in behalf of consolidation, as waiting for all the people to be ready to vote for it is like waiting on the banks of a stream for all the waters to rush by before attempting to cross. Without the people is it impossible to make and hold substantial headway; on the other hand, while waiting for the favorable sentiment to crystallize into action, the present generation of chil- dren will have been thrown into life’s complex arena unable to cope suc- - cessfully with the issues of their work-a-day world because of the gross educational inequalities of their youth. Is this not a challenge to in- 232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION different and obstinate communities to measure up to their citizenship responsibilities? ‘The county unit is really working out in a democratic way by giving aid to weaker districts and expending funds in a wiser way. The county superintendent burdened with innumerable duties has been sounding the bugle call in no uncertain tones, but needs a more business- like organization through which to work, more freedom from details, and _ more time for aggressive efforts in educating the people and selling the schools to the public. Whatever plan is applicable to the present situation, it is indisputable that more favorable legislation, less legal entanglements, and proper distribution of territory by some given authority are essential factors in hastening the march of consolidation. “The end to be attained is the same—that of building schools befitting a democracy, so that the now remarkable schools may be in reach of every child. Great as is the drawback of the district unit for the spread of consolida- tion, its effect upon the status of rural-school supervision is even more con- spicuous. That the rural schools, taught largely by an inexperienced teach- ing force whose need for skillful direction is the most urgent, receive the least expert supervision is one of the incongruities of the public-school system. City school authorities have understood that it is as impossible to operate a school system without supervision as a factory without fore- men; that massive buildings, elaborate equipment, and normal-school graduate teachers are not sufficient to insure a good school, and have pro- vided for the supervision of instruction from the kindergarten through the high school. For the rural standards to be any less, is unjust, undemo- cratic, and un-American. Many conditions tend to reduce the efficiency both of administrative and instructional supervision to such an extent that not even the most competent superintendent without a staff of supervisors can do justice to the situation. Too many schools for one person to give effective visitation, the average being one hundred thirty-two teachers in eighty-four buildings, the juris- diction often covering six hundred square miles; the changing personnel of teachers with one third of them untrained and inexperienced each year; the inadequate equipment ; the heavy office duties ; limited authority in levy- ing and expending school tax; the responsibility for school law enforce- ment; the unwieldly number of directors; the inertia of the boards and the indifference of the public toward educational reform, are some of the handicaps that make it difficult to accomplish results. With enough duties to Keep four or five experts busy, the eighty-two per cent of the county superintendents who are without assistance are obliged to resort to circular letters and other indirect methods of supervision. The remedy is not hard to find; consolidation, to furnish the conditions for achievement of efficiency; a business-like unit of administration and a profession of county superintendents responsible for achieving that ef- ; ficiency. While waiting for these dynamic changes to materialize, it is unfair to neglect the one-teacher schools in which so many children are spending all their school days. Twelve States are blazing the trail in A County System or ScHOOLS 233 developing professional supervision by the helping-teacher plans, while some of the southern States are trying out the industrial supervision agencies. ‘hese plans are accomplishing not only schoolroom results, but also radio wonders in drawing the people of the communities together. A survey of the helping teacher method shows the success of supervision in im- proving the efficiency of the teaching body. The teaching quality must be of the finest type possible, so that instruction may be translated into an edu- cated citizenship—the foundation of any democracy. Raising teacher standards is not enough—this must be parallelled by provision for the improvement of teachers in service. “The yearly inspectional visitation by a county superintendent should be converted into closer constructive super- vision by well-trained supervisors—at least one for every thirty teachers. No one realizes this more keenly than the politically-elected would-be efficient county superintendent serving in States where the county is the unit for supervision and the local district the basis for administration. Since the type of the administration has a direct bearing on the quality of supervision and the time that can be given to it, better results might be expected if the unit for both purposes be the same. ‘The starting point is with the changing to the same system of organization that is used in all other county business. The district plan is linked with the ungraded school, and the case against it as conclusive: expensive, because of the small taxation possible; clumsy in operation, due to excessive number of school boards; undemocratic, as a result of these inequalities, and unprogres- sive, with generally incompetent officers. The local boards might well be retained to help adjust the traditional to the new system, but the entire school affairs of the county should be entrusted to one county board of education composed of members of sound business judgment. Authority to appoint the county superintendent from any locality and fix his salary; to select teachers; to levy and equalize the school expenditures; consolidate small schools should be delegated this board with a responsibility to the people directly for the success of the system. Furthermore, twenty-eight States continue to select their county superin- _tendents through party politics; eighteen have two-year terms and two allow two terms only. This condition along with the status of rural- school supervision has gradually developed with the growth of the rural school system and its efforts to adjust itself to a modern agricultural en- vironment. From a mere clerk for the early school committee and a keeper of records in the new States—a minor elective office usually held by a minister or an assessor or person of another calling—the county superin- tendency has evolved into a position of such large proportions as to warrant its being organized into a department of education. Every legislative ses- sion has increased its duties until it now requires initiative, executive, and technical skill rather than simply clerical ability. Since it is developing into the most commanding position in the public-school field, its election should be on the same plan as the city school superintendency and the high- school principalship instead of being tied to court-house politics. A con- 234 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION tinued dependence upon political affiliation rather than educational merit with consequent salary and tenure discriminations will tend to make the county superintendency too much of a blind-alley proposition to challenge high-class leadership to train for life service careers in this phase of rural education. ‘The position is of such pivotal importance that it should cease to be the football of politics or a stepping-stone to other positions. The efficiency of the rural schools will not go beyond his ideals for them, nor will the carrying out of policies of State departments of public instruction exceed his codperation. As chief executive officer of the county board. of education, he should have large powers in assigning teachers, establishing methods of instruction, selecting textbooks, preparing courses of study, superintending schools and formulating policies. Sufficient office force should be allowed to relieve him of the pressure of clerical demands and supervisors sufficient for efficient instruction. Being thus endowed with authority, recognition, remuneration, assistance, and re- sponsibility, the office should attract the best talent in the educational markets and more progress be made in a decade than is now possible in a quarter of a century. Since the county superintendent plays the leading role in this program of advancement, he should have peculiar qualifications for the work. His technical training will enable him to understand the principles of school- house construction, carry on building campaigns, prepare salary scales, plan budgets, and direct the procedure of consolidation, supervision, and administration with business dispatch. His background of experience will give sympathy and poise. In addition he will be strong in executive ability, progressive in forming policies and aggressive in promoting them; willing to work, ready to codperate with subordinates as well as superiors; broad in scholarship; spacious in mind; masterful in leadership ; expert in rural life matters. If the three thousand eighty-seven rural superin- tendents now in service were to be measured by this score card of personal and professional qualifications, the number rating above normal would be surprisingly large. The outlook is hopeful. With such reconstruction and leadership forth- coming, as the signs on the horizon indicate, the village and rural school of the future promises to be the rival of that in any metropolis; its super- vision as direct and its administration as easy. Then will the rural educa- tional deficiencies revealed by Democracy’s torch be wiped out and the rural child given the equality to. which his birthright under the American flag entitles him. That the public schools function alike for all the chil- dren of all the people is the vital fact in this democratic awakening, for the eyes of the nations groping for the light of democracy in order to find their way to a more. beautiful and enduring civilization are upon America. Thus will the principles of justice, fair play, and liberty become the compelling force for world betterment in so far as-they are reflected in our most democratic institution—the public schools. This is America’s challenge. STATE AID FoR TEACHERS’ SALARIES 235 STATE AID FOR TEACHERS’ SALARIES JAMES H. KELLEY, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE EDUCA- TION ASSOCIATION, HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA The present movement toward centralization in support and direction of public education aims at a better balance between central and local con- trol. Until quite recently education was considered a local function, but now it is commonly accepted that education is also a State function, and even of vital National concern. A little over one hundred years ago (in 1809, to be exact) the legis- lature of Pennsylvania passed an educational act to furnish gratuitous instruction to children whose parents were too poor to pay for it. To designate such children was humiliating; to place them in these pauper schools proved ineffective. It was not until 1834, only eighty-eight years ago, that Pennsylvania founded a system of free public schools. But when the enthusiasm of the moment had abated, that law, championed by Thad- deus Stevens, appropriating $75,000 of State money for public education, met with such a storm of criticism that at the next election nearly all the legislators who had voted for the bill were defeated. The following legis- lature was flooded with petitions from nearly three fourths of the sixty- seven counties asking for a repeal of the law. ‘The senate yielded and voted to return to the pauper act of 1809. But the Governor stood firm for the new bill and declared that through the new law ‘“‘the odious dis- tinction between rich and poor, wealth and indigence, which has heretofore precluded the children of many indigent, though honest and respectable parents, from a participation in the advantages of education under the present system, will be exploded; and the poor man’s child will be placed on an equality with that of his wealthier neighbor, both in the schoolroom and when indulging in necessary recreations.” ‘The act was saved by a vote of the house of representatives, but the heroic Governor went down to defeat. In the House the act was saved by a man who blazed forth like a pillar of fire, encouraging the weak-hearted friends of free schools and terrifying their opponents. “Chat speech laid the foundation of State sup- port in Pennsylvania for public education. The law of 1834 was saved for Pennsylvania and for the United States. The principle of State aid for public schools was established in the Key- stone State. Do you wonder that the education building authorized by our last legislature is to be called the Thaddeus Stevens Memorial ? The history of State support of public education may be represented by broken lines with a rapid rise here and there but with long barren, tedious plateaus in between. Recently, under the leadership of Thomas E. Finegan in an effort to boost Pennsylvania out of her rank of twenty-first among the States, we made another splendid ascent, and one of the out- standing features of the new legislation, comprised in the sixty educational laws enacted by the Legislature of 1921 and approved by Governor Sproul, is increased State support for teachers’ salaries. 236 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION A critical study of the principle of State support reveals: First, that it has both central and local aspects. ‘The authority to take private wealth for public purposes belongs to centralized government, yet such central authority should seldom if ever provide all the funds needed. It should rather supplement funds raised locally and leave to local officers the carry- ing out of tax laws. Second, since it is conceded that the State has the right to prescribe minimum qualifications for teachers, minimum salaries, and a minimum school year, the State must of necessity grant support because of inequalities of local districts in their ability to meet the standards prescribed. Third, if the local machinery breaks down in the education of future citizens, the State must step in and provide the necessary means. The principle of State support of public education is further justified by the protection it gives society from ignorance, by the leaders it develops, by the protection of children against unconscious injustice which backward districts unwittingly yet disastrously perpetrate and by the encouragement of vocational and special schools for the citizenship training of those who, in the late William Hawley Smith’s phraseology, are “born short or long.” As to the proportional amount of State support for teachers’ salaries, there is no well-defined ratio between the State’s contribution and the amount raised locally. It varies from a mere pittance, 4 per cent in one State, just enough to salve the conscience of legislators, to nominal grants paid to wealthy, progressive districts, up to 50 per cent of the teachers’ salaries in some States, but in the entire United States about 77 per cent of the total revenue for schools is derived from local sources. The greater the in- equalities in wealth and interest in education among the various districts of the State the greater is the amount of State support needed. The larger the income, inheritance, and business taxes collected by the State, the greater is the amount of State support, which the districts may justly claim. May I cite four specific cases: 1. The State of Washington is conducting a vigorous campaign “Thirty-Ten” to change the ratio between the State and the local support. At the present time the State Board of Equalization collects $20 for each child of school age in the State. Every County Com- missioner is required to collect $10 for each child of school age. The School District levies a mill tax on the assessed valuation of the district. It is proposed to increase the State’s contribution from $20 to $30. If this law is enacted next November, the State of Washington will finance about one half of the current running expenses of its common schools. The campaign is to re-proportion the school budget rather than to in- crease it. At present the State pays one third, the counties one sixth, and the local districts one half. Under the proposed plan the State will pay one half, the counties the same, one sixth, but the local districts one third instead of one half. 2. The State of New York is strongly committed to State support for public education. In a recent address Governor Miller said: “There is to be appropriated $44,000,000 directly by. the State to aid the schools =<, STATE Arp FoR TEACHERS’ SALARIES 23 of the State. It cannot be less. It is bound to grow more. The State relieves the communities that are suffering with heavy taxes and cannot afford to pay for education. 1 think the State will probably more and more have to contribute to localities which are suffering under a large tax rate, for maintenance of schools. “That is one of the reasons that I am so optimistic today that the race is getting better. We contribute most to education, which is a sign of betterment of the human race, and when we are aiding education we are aiding the influence which contributes the most to better government.” The amount to be spent next year in New York for the public school system is 33.7 per cent of the total amount of the State budget of $133,147,807. 3. The equalization scheme of State aid for teachers’ salaries has just been splendidly exemplified by the 1922 legislature of Maryland. In ad- dition to establishing a minimum salary schedule for teachers, a minimum school term of eight months, competent supervision for every group of forty elementary teachers, that body singled out fifteen counties that are unable to meet these requirements without confiscatory taxation and gives these counties adequate State support. Maryland has introduced two new principles in State aid. First, instead of enacting a general law tor equal- ization which always develops animosity between counties with rich cities that need no aid and counties with less wealth, she appropriates money specifically to those counties that unquestionably need a subsidy from the State. Second, instead of allowing all the State money to go for teachers’ salaries, she has specified that 24 per cent of it must go for current ex- penses other than salaries. She thus avoids the criticism that teachers work for State support in order that their own salaries may be increased. 4. In Pennsylvania the total State appropriations and the amounts ap- propriated biennially the past ten years range from $15,550,000 in 1911, which was 26.2 per cent of the amount appropriated for all purposes, up to $30,710,000 in 1921, which is 26.3 per cent of the total legislative appropriation of $116,700,000. Thus there has been a distinct gain of nearly 100 per cent in the amount of money appropriated for public educa- tion in ten years. “This seems like a splendid increase, and it is, but when we compare the amounts spent on education with the amounts spent by the State for all purposes, we see a net gain to the schools in ten years of only 1/10 of 1 per cent. Pennsylvania is not yet giving enough State support to the public schools. But when the allotment of State appropria- tions for teachers’ salaries in rural districts is studied, the real gain to public education is apparent. In 1918-19, in four rural counties (Bucks, Cameron, Centre, and Pike) the total salaries paid teachers was $282,333 of which the State paid $95,257. In 1920-21 these four counties. paid their teachers $473,400, of which $207,622 came from the State. Here is an actual gain in teachers’ salaries of 67.6 per cent in two years, much of which is due to the encouragement and support of the State. During that time the actual amount distributed by the State to these four counties increased by $112,365, a gain of 84.7 per cent. 238 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In Pennsylvania any rural (fourth class) district that employs a teacher of minimum approved qualifications, namely, graduation from a two-year State Normal School course after graduation from a full four-year high school course, must pay that teacher a salary of at least $100 a month. Of this amount the State will pay 50 per cent. These are minima require- ments. There is nothing to prevent such a district from employing a teacher of higher qualifications and paying as much salary as it considers the services of the teacher worth. The States have gradually won the right to prescribe minimum quali- fications for teachers, minimum salaries for such qualified teachers with reasonable increments from year to year for satisfactory service, a retire- ment age when teachers grown old in service must retire, a minimum school year and minimum standards in school building and playgrounds. Add to these requirements compulsory attendance, consolidation of rural schools under certain conditions, and standardized courses of instruction and we have a reasonably centralized State school system capable of ren- dering competent and efficient service for our citizens-in-training. For these requirements the State must and does pay. The efficiency of such a system of centralization of control and of support may well be gauged by the following criteria: (1) Does it promote local participation of citi- zens in school affairs? (2) Does it foster autocratic control by the State Department of Public Instruction or a spirit of helpfulness and encourage- ment? (3) Does it encourage the introduction of new features of school work where they would not be undertaken by communities of their own volition? (4) Does it reward districts for increasing the true tax rate and penalize those that lower it? and (5) Does it allot support according to the school units such as a teacher and her class and thus equalize the tax bur- den? State support of teachers’ salaries rightly administered is found to stimulate local initiative, to equalize the burden of taxation, to spur negli- gent communities, and to go far toward accomplishing our splendid goal of public education: equality of opportunity. Author’s Note.—Grateful acknowledgment is hereby made for material used in this paper to Frank P. Graves, Commissioner of Education, New York, Fred Englehardt, Director Bureau of Administration, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa., and Harlan Updegraff, Professor of Administration, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. NATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL SCHOOLS MABEL CARNEY, DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CrEY The weakest link in our whole system of American education is the rural school. So weak is it, indeed, that for thousands of children it is practi- cally a broken link barring them forever from their possible opportunities. IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL SCHOOLS 239 Those who question the truth of this statement need make but a cursory study of facts to be convinced. Thirty-eight per cent of all school children in the United States are in one and two-teacher rural schools. For these eight million children the per capita expenditure for educational purposes is $24 annually, while for city children the same figure is $40. For them also the annual school term averages 38 days shorter which means, in the large, that country children have an actual elementary school period of only six years whereas urban children under better teachers and better conditions have eight years. But this is not all. Even the meagre terms supported for rural children are but poorly conducted and less well attended. Country children lose 28 per cent of the seven months’ school term provided for them. Urban children lose a much smaller part, only 21 per cent of the nine months’ term provided in cities. So great is this handicap that illiteracy is twice as bad in rural areas as in urban districts, and child labor among country children three times as frequent as among urban children. Because of the heavy toll of manual labor upon the young people of the farms, high school advantages for rural youth have been sadly neglected and are esti- mated to be but one sixth as generous as those provided for urban youth. Most serious of all is the teaching situation. ‘‘As is the teacher so is the school,’’ Viewed from this angle but little can be expected of the rural school. Just half the rural teachers of the United States, or 150,000, have never completed a four-year high school. Ten per cent or 30,000 have finished only the eighth grade. Only 2 per cent are normal-school gradu- ates, and 15,000 (chiefly in negro rural schools) are no more than sixth- grade product. Contributing still further to the menace of this situation is the scarcity and inefficiency of rural-school supervision. Only twelve States provide professionally-prepared supervisors for rural schools, while the whole prob- lem is still further complicated in 29 of our 48 States through the political election of county superintendents on a basis of partisan politics. To vitalize these general facts take a few concrete illustrations. “High school ?” interrogated the 14-year-old boy who had ridden for a hundred miles directing us over the vast domain of his father’s cattle ranch in Southwest Texas, “Am I goin’ to the high school? I reckon not. Say, what is a high school, anyway ?” “Yes,” drawled the father of 10-year-old Mary with unworried com- placence, “Mary does real well. Hardly a day but she picks her 100 pounds of cotton just like any hand. School? Naw—she can’t go to school much. I need her too bad in the patch.” Very different indeed was the attitude of the young mother in Northern Montana who exclaimed with anxiety: “It’s snow in the winter, floods in the spring, and fires in the fall! But if the State doesn’t keep these roads open, so that our children can go to school and get a little education we are going to descend upon Helena in body. It’s no wonder that rural illiteracy is as bad as you say if many country children have roads like ours.” 240 NaTIoNAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ‘The scene shifts this time to New -England, with an intelligent city boy commenting upon school conditions in the rural neighborhood where he spends his summers: “Just wait till you see what these poor country chil- dren have to put up witl , 107 years old, set right along the side of the road-without an inch of ground for baseball or anything!” Small wonder that this lad should have been so unfavorably impressed with the school facilities of his rural companions. For had he not attended school in an iron-mining village of northern Minnesota where school reve- nue had been so plentiful that, after every conceivable investment for edu- cation had been made, funds still remained and were finally used for the placing of a $10, 000 painting across the front wall of the school audi- torium. Then again, in the Appalachian Mountains after two days spent in see- ing the most miserable and abject conditions of rural education that could possibly be imagined. “And just how did you happen to become county superintendent here?’ I finally inquired with as much grace as possible of the inefficient and disinterested youth, himself only 24 years old and but a ninth grade product, who held the destiny of 5000 school children in his untrained hands. “Well,” he explained with echoes of a grievous com- plaint still strong in his voice, “‘you see it was this way: I didn’t want to be county superintendent. I wanted to be sheriff. But they (the local poli- ticlans) made old Browne sheriff and they said I’d have to be county superintendent for a while.” And finally—this glimpse from the far South: “Yes,” continued the State Agent of Negro Education, a white man himself, of scholarly at- tainments and true democratic principles, ‘““we have in the. negro problem, so-called, one of the most significant aspects of rural education and an un- answerable argument for Federal aid to education. Eighty-five per cent of the 12 million negroes of the United States still live on the land, making this question very largely a problem of rural welfare. That the whole issue presents a situation for Federal subsidy you must agree, when I tell you that we have counties right here in this State which expend an aver- age of $28.42 a year for the education of each white child and only 87 cents a year for the education of each negro child. Of course as a matter of fact the negro children are simply not in school. But when one picks up a daily paper and sees all the unrest and race conflict which ignorance and prejudice have produced, he is well ready to try a program of education and enlightenment for a while. All this, as I have said, is very largely a rural problem and a question of Federal aid.” Let it not be inferred however from what has been said that rural education is making no progress. Indeed there is undoubtedly no field of education where greater strides have been made. Ever since the Report of the Country Life Commission in 1908 the upward trend in this field has been steadfast and pronounced. Even the gains of the last decade make a creditable showing. IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL SCHOOLS 241 In this brief period, consolidation, commonly regarded by all as the best and most universal solution of the rural-school problem, has increased no less than six-fold, making a present National total of 12,000 schools of this type. The county unit has spread from eleven States to twenty-one ; real professional supervision for rural schools has more than doubled in area and been greatly developed in technique; educational expenditure for rural children has increased from an average of $13 per capita to $24; rural-school nursing has been widely extended; rural illiteracy vastly re- duced; and high-school opportunity for country children many times in- creased. More significant still has been the advancement of standards for rural teachers and the general development of departments of rural edu- cation in normal schools and teachers’ colleges. Most noteworthy of all, however, has been the fundamental growth in scientific attitude and scholarly attainment which is rapidly transforming the whole rural field from a mere game of chance into a recognized and respected’ phase of the great profession of education. In all this, the Nation owes much to the modern pioneers who have fought the good fight and made these gains possible. Most indebted of all is it to that unsung and uncrowned hero, the typical county or rural super- intendent, who, when any good at all, is the best, most versatile, most courageous, and most worthy and wisest figure on the whole stage of American education. But with all that has been accomplished much remains to be done. Mountains of prejudice, both urban and rural, must be removed, and long days of labor lavishly expended before country children as a whole may receive the full measure of the birthright due them. In this greatest and most important task of modern education several needs predominate. Chief among these are the following: 1. First the definition and establishment of a sound philosophical basis. Some there are who would vocationalize the rural elementary school, limjt it to the contacts and ideals of the immediate community, select its teaching content in terms of adult needs, reduce its responsibility for per- petuating the world’s best social inheritance, and so restrict and blindfold country children as to force them of necessity, through ignorance or com- pulsion, into farming as a life vocation. Time forbids an elaboration of this point, but woe unto the govern- ments or to the people anywhere who fail to realize the dangers of this policy and to safeguard the youth of their farms from such exploitation. 2. Important also is the urgent necessity for the reorganization of rural education. Here the wide applications of consolidation, the necessity for a larger taxing unit, and the demand for a wise adjustment between lay and professional control, are all commonly recognized. 3. Important too is the third and unquestioned need for increased aid to rural education, particularly in its elementary and non-vocational aspects. The total biennial appropriation of the United States Government for general education Is $600,000. For agriculture and vocational education 242 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION the biennial appropriation is over 53 millions. So extreme is this situation that the Government seems to say in action if not principle: Would you be well cared for in the average rural community? ‘Then choose your career as a pure-bred pig or a Jersey calf and not as a free-born American child. Or if choosing childhood be sure to begin at about 15 years of age so as to avoid the neglect of early school life. 4. If reform is ever to be realized on the whole fundamental problem of rural education in all its significant aspects it must come largely through a general awakening of public sentiment and a great stirring of public con- science. 5. This, in turn, demands the training and development of a permanent leadership for the rural-school field, which is fast becoming a reality, and which must be the equal in every respect of the best lay and professional leadership now serving the most favored urban schools. With only one of these needs, however, are we primarily concerned tonight. This is the question of Federal aid particularly as outlined in our own Educational Bill now before the Congress of the United States. Not a feature of this bill but would mark a milestone in rural progress, not a feature but would enrich opportunities ten-fold for country children every- where—a bill, in fact, whose every provision was planned with the specific needs of country children clearly in mind. Literacy, Americanization, health, teacher-training, and the equalization of educational opportunity— who can question but that all of these are even more urgently necessitated by conditions in the open country than in urban centers? And with these needs and conditions of rural childhood thus plainly before us how can we pause, how lose heart, or quibble among ourselves over petty details and argu- mentative theories? While we hesitate and dispute eight million children are losing the opportunity of childhood which is rightfully theirs. The spirit of these children and of all that is fair and just and truly American calls directly to each of us in this great assemblage of educators to support this bill—to labor consistently, in season and out, until its fundamental measures are realized, and life for all children, especially country children, is thereby vastly enriched and enlarged. d NEW TYPE OF LEADERSHIP TO CARRY OUT THE NEW POLICIES MARY MC SKIMMON, PRESIDENT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS TEACHERS FEDERATION, BROOKLINE, MASSACHUSETTS The new policies to be incorporated into the educational life of America, might be counted in the aims and hopes of the forty-one departments that make up this program. If I understand the most significant of them they are these: 1. A well-trained, superior teacher in every classroom. At present, we New Type or LEADERSHIP 243 have some 30,000 teachers in our schools who have barely passed the eighth grade. 2. The elimination of illiteracy, of whose extent we were seemingly unconscious, till the revelations of the draft compelled us to stop bragging, and face the facts—sick at heart though they made us. 3. The need of finding out what we mean when we glibly talk of Amer- icanization, and broadcasting its principles when we have found them. 4. Teaching the fundamentals of citizenship throughout the elementary and secondary schools. If this is accomplished we may fervently pray for two results. First, that the best in intellect, character, and endowment of grace and power, may be led to enter the profession of teaching in our land, with the same glow and zeal that our boys went to war for the defence of her principles. Second, that the nation so taught and trained may learn to live at peace industrially. 5. Bringing nearer to reality the facts on which our government was based ; that all men are created equal, and have a right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, by starting children along that happy path, as yet seen only in dreams, of ‘Equal Educational Opportunity.” But perhaps what looks like an irridescent dream to economists and law makers, might become a reality, if we were only convinced where the country’s real wealth lay. These are some of the policies of today awaiting the new leadership. And first of all this leadership will help the well-trained superior classroom teacher to be a discoverer. We are told that the army intelligence tests revealed the fact that only ten per cent of the splendid intelligence of our soldiers was found among the college graduates. The rest of it belonged to the product of the common schools, some of the highest having left school at the fifth or sixth grade. Inspired by the new leadership, every youth of this grade A will be discovered and given a complete educational training of the best the land has to offer. So long as the money paid for chewing gum is still twice as much as the bills for textbooks, we feel sure that there is wealth enough scattered over our broad acres, to salvage the 90 per cent of highest ability, for the broad training of our universities, which, crowded though they may be, can still make room for this aristoc- racy of ability. Perhaps this 90 per cent could find work for their talents in the halls of legislature, not overcrowded with such qualities of lofty power. And, perhaps New England could avail herself of enough of it, to harness her tremendous wealth of waterpower, most of which today dances idly babbling to the sea, to light her cities, and give the power to her factories, and heat her houses, saving coal for less favored spots. Perhaps some of the 90 per cent can find out how to solve the racial prob- lems, and do away with the industrial horrors that have shamed us these glorious June days. But the new leadership has another task for the superior, well-trained teacher in every classroom. It must learn how to assure that American teacher of public respect. Is it not a curious state of things, that in a 244 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Democracy whose very existence depends upon the school-trained intelli- gence of its people, that the worst sneer the Chairman of the House Com- mittee of Ways and Means can fling at an invalid gentleman, once the President of the United States, is to call him a school teacher? and to recite the doggerel of a bygone generation of naughty boys: “Goodby scholars, goodby school ; Goodby teacher, you darned old fool!” Why should we wonder that the best and brightest of the college men and women. of this year’s harvest, ready to choose their life work, hesitate, refuse to enter a calling savoring of reproach and scorn a bit overdone for jailbirds. How many organizations of teachers have taken any united action in resenting insults to their profession? Certainly a new leadership is awaited who shall stand for a new loyalty to the good name of our calling, who shall know how to deal with the politician who sits in judg- ment on what the history teachers shall be allowed to discuss, or “what Albany incantation they shall be compelled to sign.” When the new leadership shows us how to establish the democratic principles through the work known as Americanization, perhaps it will teach us how to make the classroom a democracy, without the danger that the new freedom shall become anarchy. Perhaps it will show us how to make the knowledge and practice of citizenship, arouse as strong an appeal, and have the splendid value that athletics now have to the favored and selected groups that profit so well by them now. But if it is leader- ship of the best and truest American citizenship it will be very wary before closing any door of growth and development to the slowest child through the results of any one so-called “intelligence test.” America is opportunity and no intelligence quotient justifies the blotting out of hope from any child of America. “This leadership will see that the results of intelligence tests are not left to the moth and rust of classifica- tion, but are taken into the daylight where something is done about it. Reduce the number of children to the teacher by one half, O wise new Leadership, and see if you will not reduce the number of the mentally retarded in the same measure. ‘This is the first step, waiting to be taken in equalizing educational opportunity. This will give the lower part of the class a chance to find out what the teacher is trying to do, a chance for interest, and habit and initiative, and utilizing the socialized recitation, and supervised study, and the project method. But while we wait for the new leadership is it not already with us? How far have we gone in pursuit of the ideal that President Aydelotte gave us, when he told us that the crying need of the world is for us to under- stand each other? ‘To do this our youth must know how to talk and how to defend their own thoughts. To have imagination to understand the other man’s point of view. To develop the power to convince others of our point of view. How far have we gone in realizing Sir Auckland Geddes’ ideal in his Washington address, that the end of education is “‘to turn out minds that see facts in a certain color.” What have we done in ‘THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE COLLEGE 245 response to Dr. Spaulding’s inquiry ‘as to the pigments we have always put into the dye-vats of American education that he calls, “he deep all absorb- ing overwhelming color of individual success through individual effort for material prosperity.” How hard have we worked to change this color to “natriotism, honesty, sincerity, goodness, courage, sympathy 2” Who shall arise out of all the confusions of aims today to give us the sanctions for this teaching, since we are forbidden to teach them under the sanctions of religion? While we wait and hope for the light of the new leadership that shall stand as a beacon on our storm-beaten coasts, our spirits sing with joy at the brave, clear shining of ten thousand times ten thousand little candle lights gleaming bravely through the storms of contending factions. “They are the glowing hearts of three quarters of a million teachers, to each one of whom some little community group turns for leadership. While the world awaits the leadership of trumpet-toned authority this army moves to its work guided by the music of the marching of little children’s feet. Amid the confusion of tongues they hear again the voice of the poet, prophet, teacher, Emerson who has his greatest message for them: “To whatsoever upright mind, to whatsoever beating heart I speak, to you it is committed to educate men. By simple living, by an illimitable soul, you correct, you instruct, you raise, you embellish all. According to the depth from which you draw your own lite, such is the depth not only of your strenuous effort, but of your manners and presence. “And the passionate sea of controversy is hushed, and the classroom teacher, humble in her responsibility, speaks with a voice as calm as silence, “Give me my share of the work, O noble Leadership of the land, for the hardest gives me the sweetest joy.” THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE COLLEGE AND THE UNIVERSITY IN A DEMOCRACY HENRY W. HOLMES, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS William James once wrote of the effect of certain words and phrases on the human mind: They make people talk, he said, “‘as if they were going up in,a balloon.” Democracy is a word of that sort. It is hard to use the word or its derivative democratic without climbing onto mental stilts; and the reason for this is that the idea of democracy is actually exalted. It is natural to “talk big” when one talks of democracy, because democracy is big. But no man or woman of sincerity wants to take it out in “talking big.” Exaltation of any sort must leave us clearer about our duties or firmer in the accomplishment of them, or we had better avoid it altogether. That too would be, of course, a poor choice; for life without some occasions of 246 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION dedication, prophetic vision, and strong emotional response, whether to persons or to causes, would be not only ‘quiet and dull” but also fruitless and mechanical. In the economy of human nature, which conditions all social advance, emotion has its special and indispensable function, but we must make sure that it is refined by thought and checked by practical activity. May I take for granted, then, our common response to the emotional challenge of the word democracy, assuming that there is a genuine “demo- cratic awakening” in which we share; and may I therefore attempt here, not to stir you to renewed enthusiasm, but to deal with some of the prob- lems of thought and policy which democracy presents, especially in its demands on the colleges and universities of America ? Democracy, strictly speaking, is just a mode or process of government, to be contrasted with monarchy, oligarchy, or autocracy. It is govern- ment not merely with the consent of the governed, but by their mandate and subject to their control. Its basic principle is political liberty, its typical figure the free and responsible individual citizen, debating public issues, casting his vote, accepting the popular decision, serving in office. Taken merely in this sense, democracy is an achievement dearly bought, dificult to maintain, perplexing to carry forward under new conditions. It is a heritage which must be handed on to each new generation as a precious gift, with admonition as to its use and warning as to its dangers. It places a heavy burden on education, both systematic and informal, and particularly, of course, upon the common school. But the theory of democracy has a scope wider than politics and implies an ideal more fundamental and even more difficult to realize than the ideal of individual liberty. It was no accident that the nineteenth century saw democracy in government established here and in France and in Eng- land and saw also the birth and growth of a new social conscience, which seeks to improve the conditions of life and make it possible for men to live happily and worthily under the liberty their fathers won. The nineteenth century abolished slavery, reformed the prisons, established hospitals, asy- lums, and charitable enterprises in unprecedented number, expressed in prose and verse a new human sympathy, liberalized religion, and made education, at least in theory, a universal privilege. Democracy in its political form came as part of a more profound and more compelling movement for the betterment of the common life. It is possible, therefore, to speak of democracy as an effort to achieve social justice, which had its beginning in simple humanitarianism and has developed both in theory and in practice to our own day. It is democracy as a wider movement for popular rights and human good, over and above the suffrage and freedom under the law. Education is part and parcel of democracy in this humanitarian sense. We educate today that men may live a fuller life, and we call upon states- men and men of practical affairs to make good our effort by the applica- tion of the ideal uf democracy to social and industrial conditions. So THe RESPONSIBILITY OF THE COLLEGE 247 long as it is impossible to abolish child labor in the United States, democracy has an unaccomplished work to do in our own land. And this is but one among the many tasks of democracy on its humanitarian side. Have we exhausted, then, in these two ideas—political liberty and social justice—the meaning of democracy? I see an even greater thing, an obli- gation laid upon democracy by the whole process of history and by the present state of the world, a vision that has haunted philosopher, poet, theologian, and statesman since men first began to reflect upon their fate: the unity of mankind in the mastery of life. I can best begin by pointing out a defect in the ideal of democracy as I have so far presented it: namely, the lack of completeness, of final or substantive character, in either the political or the social definition of democracy. ‘There is an aesthetic or perhaps a moral fault in both, for dearly won and precious as they are, nevertheless they stand as means and not as ends. ‘They clear the way for democracy, establish it as a form, but do not tell it what to do. Will men be content that there shall be no interference among them with each other’s dues, no privilege or tyranny? Political democracy lies too close to the mere conception of individual rights to be a final social philosophy. It is not enough that men should stop tres- passing upon each other’s fields. If religion, especially Christianity, does not mock us, men have a work to do together, a work which transcends the personal fortunes of any single man, or all these taken in their aggre- gate as separate interests. Nor is it enough that every man shall have his chance. His chance for what? Have life and liberty no end but the pursuit of happiness? The canker of separateness and isolation lies at the heart of every individualistic theory of human good. It is not enough that the road should be open to talent. It is not even enough that each shall make the most of himself for the common good. "The common good must be known and consciously advanced: there must be participation in it and in the achievement of it. Political democracy emphasizes the dis- tinction between men as equals: to each his own, equality before the law. Philanthropic democracy calls for human sympathy and kindness: noblesse oblige. Each leaves us with a view of men struggling separately, individ- ually, either to maintain and advance their own purposes, although with fairness and even with kindness and helpfulness, or sacrificing themselves as individuals to other individuals. Neither presents a picture of men working together for universal ends. Completed democracy pictures a community of interest, not a uniform life but a unity of purpose, an under- standing shared by all, a fate which all help to advance, a mastery of nature and its own character on the part of humanity in common. The ideal of democracy finds its fulfillment, I submit, in the conception of mankind united in knowledge, in faith, in purpose, in action, and in command over the forces of life. This conception’ is not new, still less original. It is probably older than Christianity; it is certainly implied in Christianity; it is spread upon the pages of modern philosophy and sociology and the philosophic treatment of 248 NationaL EpucATION ASSOCIATION history and of biological science. You may find it in Hegel and in Comte, in Royce, and in H. G. Wells. It keeps various philoséphic company, but it is persistent and, unless I am mistaken, it has become clearer in the course of time. Democracy looks toward unity through the free choices and de- cisions of enlightened minds. It looks toward unity not by domination— but by a sharing of purposes and accomplishments among free men. And the ideal of democratic unity is not empty—the mere achievement of one- ness: it proposes the common accomplishment of substantial goods and the sharing of them—things material and immaterial, food and beauty, high- ways and justice, health and knowledge, enjoyment and peace. It is to be a unity both living and full. But this theorizing about democracy and unity, you will say, is a remote and speculative business. “The world is still far from being ‘united in any but the most external way. We are not even willing to make the League of Nations a solid-reality. What has the ideal of democratic unity to do with our present problems of education? It is a force that moves us in education more than we are often aware of, and especially, perhaps, in higher education. At Com- mencement the President of Harvard University admits the graduates of the college into the “fellowship of educated men” and the recipients of the doctor’s degree in philosophy into “the ancient and universal company of scholars.” What do we ask of education in the end if not that it shall lead men into a more rational loyalty to common aims? For what purpose do men labor for the advancement of science if not that we may be united in faith and power in the light of truth? The question, it seems to me, is not a question of the force and value of democratic unity as an ultimate ideal, an ideal to be achieved largely through education, but of our present responsibilities and duties. It is just because the full measure of democracy cannot be achieved sud- denly or by force, just because democracy in any of its aspects, but especially as it points toward unity, depends so largely on education, that educators may well ask themselves. in what way their present policies and programs serve to forward democracy at all. Let us admit that our children’s children will still be working:slowly toward a completed democracy. What is the step we ought to take today? If the ideal of democracy as I have sketched it finds any acceptance in your minds, how can it be brought to bear on any practical issues of the present ? In the first place, freedom-and unity, like charity, ought to begin at home. .I do not mean that we ought to have no care for international relations or make no effort to educate toward international understanding. On the contrary—but that, as Kipling used to say, is another story. Our chief duty now is to contribute through education to the development of a fuller measure of democratic unity here in America. Our peace is not secure ; we are not sufficiently productive nor economical of material things or human talent; we have not achieved equity, much less equality ; we sacri- fice beauty to machinery and organization. ‘These goods which we are so far from having are both the conditions and the fruits of a free, united life. Tue ReEspoNnsIBILITY OF THE COLLEGE 249 We have to develop a people that can work through them toward freedom and unity, and by freedom and unity secure and maintain them. I grant that education cannot do more than its part: social legislation, the restric- tion of immigration, sound economic policy, and at least eugenic intelligence if not measures of eugenic control—these and many other efforts must supplement what education can do. My point here is that the problem presents itself most pressingly at the moment as a national problem. ‘The ideal of democracy calls upon us now to serve democracy first in these United States. Here I must take a moment to urge the importance of national responsi- bility in education. I believe in the Towner-Sterling bill because I find in that measure'a justifiably limited provision for pooling national resources, both material and spiritual, for the stimulation and maintenance of educa- tion as a national interest. I would urge, too, the need of developing teaching as a profession. State action, in the general sense of public action, may stifle freedom in education if it is not corrected and held true to its course by the professional conscience and scientific knowledge of a united body of teachers. “Teachers as indi- viduals need more rest, more recreation, more pay. Education for democ- racy in America needs a body of teachers better organized to secure these things and at the same time to raise the standards of professional training until every teacher may be a skilled and intelligent practitioner at first- hand, not a mechanical worker under orders. Higher education has an almost unlimited number of duties, difficulties, and perplexities. I am not commissioned or prepared to deal with any of these except the general problems of policy which appear when higher educational institutions face squarely the ideal of democracy in this nation. Everyone knows how great is the present pressure on the coileges and universities. “Chey are called upon to receive students in numbers which tax their resources to the utmost. “This circumstance brings forward sharply the whole problem of the service higher education must render to the nation. If higher education is to do its part in the building of a free and united people for America must we not receive into the colleges, and somehow make provision for, every youth (and maiden) that applies? This is the problem of limitation of numbers or, if you like, of limitation of educational opportunity. It is not solely a problem of higher education, but of the regulation of education all along the line, most acute at the moment in the college. I find three chief questions involved in it: the economic question, the question of intellectual standards, and the question of racial adjustment. 1. If our social and economic organization were such that every boy and girl who can use profitably a college education could afford it, there would be no economic problem. It may be that Professor Carver is right and that no man is worth more than he has. It may be that the Socialists are right and that wealth ought to be distributed on an absolutely new basis. I am not an economist and I am not inclined to accept the socialistic doc- trine. The fact is that thousands of boys and girls do not get a college 250 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION — education because they cannot afford it, yet ought to have it for their own sakes and for the sake of the State. It is not a sufficient answer to say that a poor boy can earn his way through college. The founding of State universities will not solve the problem, for the greatest expense is not tuition, but maintenance. The experiment of President Morgan at Antioch College is the most radical and promising now in view, since he combines productive labor with edu- cation; yet not every college can be of the Antioch type. “The movement for “salvaging” gifted children for higher education, started here in Bos- ton by Mrs. Joseph E. Worcester, deserves the fullest support. Further endowments for scholarships are a necessity; State scholarships on a com- petitive basis are very desirable. The development of university extension, with the complete use of local facilities to minimize expense to the indi- vidual, should be carried forward. The problem is not,-of course, a prob- lem merely of expense to the individual; it is a problem of the financial resources of institutions—ultimately a problem of public wealth. Perhaps the most promising suggestion for its solution is to be found in the practice of the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration, wherein en- dowment takes care of research, tuition covers instruction, and a loan fund meets individual needs. I know of no social calculus by which we can determine how much of an individual’s higher education he ought to pay for himself and how much he ought to get from public or from semi-public funds. If there is any principle to be found under our present economic system it is probably the principle that the cost of higher education should be considered in part a gift to the individual, which he ought to return to his own college or to another, as and when he can. But the main fact to be kept constantly in view is that there is economic unfairness and waste in our present situation, which we ought to mitigate by any and by every means. College education is not uniting us as it ought to, because too many boys and girls are missing it for lack of means. 2. On the other hand, many who can afford it and are supposed to be getting it are actually missing it, even if they earn a degree. Some of them are intellectually incapable of profiting by it; some are playing with their opportunity and shirking their duty; for some the thing they get is unsuited to their powers, although they might profit by something else. Schools and colleges should maintain standards rigorously, select by every available means, including intelligence tests, and beware of condemn- ing any individual except on the basis of established fact. As to the waster, the boy or girl to whom college means athletics or a good time, cramming and tutoring and bluffing, we need only greater determination combined with a reasonable willingness to “save the pieces.’”’ The opportunity for higher education should not be standardized, bookish, or “highbrow”; it should be diversified and fitted to many types of mind; there is need for an even greater variety of collegiate institutions, with a common insistence on certain fundamentals—English, for example, and the social studies; and for educational and vocational guidance. THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE COLLEGE 211 eer ni se ee a ae 3. The most difficult question of all is the question of racial adjustment in our colleges. What ought the colleges to do, not to “assimilate” or Americanize” new races by bringing them into conformity with the man- ners, culture, and points of view of an older stock, quite probably itself provincial, but to contribute to the synthesis of races from which shall emerge a new and stronger people? ‘This problem is under consideration at Harvard College now. As a member of the committee which is to deal with it, I am seeking first of all for the facts of the situation as it there concretely presents itself. Here I can speak only in terms of principle. To return to the idea of democratic unity in its National application, we have to contribute through the colleges to the growth of a free and united American people. The immigrant races are here, demanding higher education. The problem must be faced as a National problem and as a problem of the future. Race prejudice must be set aside, and nar- row, personal, provincial views with it. We may urge the restriction of immigration, but that is not the problem as it faces education. What shall the colleges do with students of immigrant races as they stand? Well, first, in the large, there can be no race discrimination in higher education. Everyone that can prove his power to profit by it must have it, no matter what his race, color, religion, or previous condition of servitude. Nor can any single institution organize itself on the principle of ex- clusiveness without loss and shame. ‘To be true to its ideal as an institution of higher education in a democracy, every college must take its fair share of students of every race and take them as they come, rich and poor, culti- vated and uncouth, those that are easy to deal with and those that are not. Such tests of admission as are applied must be applied openly without dis- crimination and must measure the individual as an individual. I am now convinced that the question of racial adjustment in the colleges is not a question of discriminating between the “desirable” and the “undesirable.” No one, whatever his birth or station, should be admitted unless he is de- sirable in the educational sense—that is, unless he can be instructed and disciplined so that he may be graduated into the “fellowship of educated men.” But the problem presented by a large proportion of students of a single race is a different problem. Every one of them may be “desirable”; but in a college, as in a nation, there may well be the necessity of keeping the proportions of all the racial groups such that the entire student body may become and remain united. What is to be feared is segregation, the “lump- ing” of students of one race into a defensive, suspicious, separate group. That prevents unity in the college, works against it in the nation, denies it as an ideal. But if the limitation of racial groups in single institutions is undertaken at all, on this or on any other ground, it must be accompanied by certain efforts, made in all good faith, to prevent evils to which it may give rise. There must be conference among institutions to see that the total oppor- tunity for higher education open to every race is ample. Within the institution, in its classes and in its student activities, there must be constant 252 NaTIONAL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION effort on the part of authorities and students alike to mingle and unify the old and the new. ‘The college must influence preparatory schools. and student clubs to abandon exclusiveness and prevent segregation. There should be no jumping to the conclusion that limitation of racial groups is necessary anywhere. The problem ought to be faced squarely, not only by separate institutions but by all institutions in conference, not excluding State institutions. It is a social problem of National scope, not a question of maintaining a class tradition in a particular college or uni- versity. With due regard to the scope of its own work, its limitations of resources and possibilities, every institution of higher education in this coun- try should look upon all its problems with an eye single to the service of the Nation. oir IMPROVEMENT OF MOVING PICTURES WILL H. HAYS, PRESIDENT MOTION PICTURE PRODUCERS AND DISTRIBUTORS OF AMERICA, NEW YORK CITY The National Education Association holds its convention in the home of its ancestors. We remember the law passed in Massachusetts in 1647 which required each town of 50 householders to “appoint one to teach all such children as shall resort to him, to write and read,” and I approach your venerable family tree with a consistent humility, inasmuch as this instrument of education, the motion picture, has hardly reached the age of a high-school graduate. In a little over fifteen years it has grown from a naked idea until today it is the principal amusement of the great majority of all our people and the sole amusement of millions, one of the greatest industries in America, having an investment in real estate, studios, and equipment of nearly $500,000,000, with probably $50,000,000 paid annually in salaries, $200,000,000 spent annually in production, and $800,000,000 spent annually for admissions. A few years ago such a meeting as this would have been impossible. You would not have felt that you were warranted in taking time to discuss the motion picture in education. But today the educators of the country are appreciating its value, and it has been with peculiar pleasure that I have noted this interest as evidenced by the invitation that brings me here to the National Education Associaticn. There has been some query as to just what this new effort which the industry is making at this time is all about. It is simply that these men who make and distribute pictures have associated themselves together to do jointly those things in which they are mutually but non-competitively interested, having as the chief purposes of such association two great objectives—and I quote verbatim from the formal articles of association, which have been filed at Albany: “establishing and maintaining the highest possible moral and artistic standards in motion picture production, and developing the educational as well as the entertainment value and the general usefulness of the motion picture.” IMPROVEMENT OF Movine Picrures 253 This is the legal statement of a legal purpose by a legally organized body. It creates no super-court autocratically to pass upon pictures, nor does it place anyone in the attitude, and most certainly I shall not be placed in the attitude, of being the judge of the morals of those who are in the industry. The purposes of the association are stated in its articles, and no articles of association breathing a more important message could well be found. The importance of the association’s first great purpose, “to establish and maintain the highest possible moral and artistic standards in motion picture production” and the fact that its realization is now progressing can not be overestimated. And there is no group in this country more interested than are you teachers in its consummation. While this is true, you, of course, have a special interest in the second great objective, that is—‘‘to develop the educational as well as the entertainment value and general usefulness of the industry’—-and for the attainment of both ends I want your sympathetic codperation. The motion picture is essentially a source of amusement, and its im- portance in that regard is measured only by the imperative necessity of entertainment for our people. In all the big cities and maple-shaded towns and villages which comprise America there are perhaps fifteen thou- sand motion-picture theaters and in those theaters fifteen million seats. Taking into account at least two performances a day and applying the collected statistics, we estimate that within every twenty-four hours be- tween Maine and California twenty millions men, women, and children look for-an hour or two on the motion-picture screen. ‘They come with no preoccupation; not out of duty nor out of solicitation, but just in that mood of reception and relaxation, in that state of mind and emotion which a master psychologist, a great teacher, would want them to come, having the desire to make the strongest possible impression upon them. U. S$. Com- missioner of Education John J. Tigert said recently, “Within the celluloid film lies the most powerful weapon for the attack against ignorance that the world has ever known.” Obviously, it is true that the influence of the motion picture on our National life is, indeed, absolutely limitless—-its influence on our taste, its influence on our conduct, its influence on our aspirations, its influence on our youth, and its consequent immeasurable influence on our future. And so its integrity must—and shall—be protected just as we protect the in- tegrity of our churches, and its quality must—and shall—be developed just as we develop the quality of our schools. I. wonder if you realize, you teachers and all those who have at heart the general welfare—what the motion picture means to the youth of this country? I approach this subject not merely from the viewpoint of the men who have millions of dollars invested in the business, but from the viewpoint of the fathers and mothers who have millions of children in- vested in the business. We say 20,000,000 a day see motion pictures. Possibly half of this number are children. 254 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Above everything else perhaps is our duty to youth. To teachers I do not have to say that this industry must have toward that sacred thing, the mind of a child, toward that clean, virgin thing, that unmarked slate, the same sense of responsibility, the same care about the impressions made upon it that the clergyman, or the most inspired teacher of youth would have. So certainly is the improving of this industry a matter of immediate concern to everyone, that I earnestly ask and hope to receive the advice and cooperation of the public. Too much can not be expected too soon, either in the raising of the morals and artistic standards or in the develop- ment of the educational value. There can be no overnight miracle, but preferred attention is being given to purposes of the association right now in the pictures which are now being made. Every day there is opportunity in the studios to take that action at the place and at the only place where effective action can be taken. Responsibility for these pictures now being made by the members of our association can not be avoided. ‘They will be the proof either of our honesty of purpose or of our failure. ‘They will be the proof either of our ability to correct our evils ourselves or of our inability to run our own business. “Che members of this association, acting on that definite knowledge, are doing everything in their power at this moment to live up to their professions, and the pictures will soon show the results of their efforts. While asking for your aid and codperation I would like to ask, too, that you judge us by our actual performances rather than by any promises we may make. We are building this industry for years to come—for genera- tions to come, and though our progress may perhaps be slow at the be- ginning, the results, we are confident will be permanent and certain. It has been said repeatedly that certain objectionable pictures which have been made are the class of pictures the public wanted, this deduc- tion being based upon box-office receipts. One way for you to help us make good pictures is very easy, and that is by refusing to patronize bad pictures. I am not suggesting an alibi for the motion-picture business; I am only emphasizing that this is not a one-man’s job, nor the job of one group; it is the multitude’s job; in doing it there is work for all. One of the largest producers has told me that in his opinion the outstanding financial successes in the last eighteen months have been clean pictures. I may not know thoroughly the picture business, but I do know thoroughly the American public, and I know that its manhood and womanhood is sound and will support clean pictures. And the American public is the real censor for the motion picture, just as it is for the press and the pulpit. May I refer a minute to this question of censorship, which is an incident in the matter? The people of this country, of course, are against censor- ship fundamentally—are against censorship of press, against censorship of pulpit, and against censorship of pictures. But just as certainly, my friends, is this country against wrong doing—and the demand for censor- ship will fail when the reason for the demand is removed. As we move IMPROVEMENT OF Movinc Picrures 255 toward the consummation of the objects of our association so in like degree will recede all demands for censorship. I am against political censorship, of course, because political censorship will not do what is hoped for it in the last analysis. The motion-picture business objects to political censorship for one great reason—because the motion-picture business is an American business. But there is one place and one place only where the evils can be eliminated and the good and great advantage of motion pictures retained, and that is at the point where and when the pictures are made. And it can be done then and there, make no mistake about that. There is no twilight zone in the matter. Right is right and wrong is wrong, and men know right from wrong. The corrections can be made, real evil can and must be kept out, the highest standards of art, taste, and morals can be achieved, and it is primarily the duty of the producers to do it. I reiterate, it can not be done in a moment. It can not be done without the aid and support of the public, and that support I know you will give. And with the raising of the moral and artistic standard comes the develop- ment of the educational value of the motion picture. You are not un- mindful of the great educational value of the entertainment picture as such. It must be the purpose of the industry to strive continually to make presentations historically correct and give authentic portrayals of customs, costumes, and habits. In addition to the general educational value of entertainment pictures, we are together concerned, of course, with two additional phases, first the pedagogic picture and then the picture which is semi-educational and semi- entertainment. It must be that the motion picture is a distinct contribu- tion to visual instruction. ‘The quick way to the brain is through the eye. Scientific tests which have been made and which are being made and with which you are familiar seem to prove the value of the motion picture in the classroom. The producers are interested in this educational work. ‘They realize its importance and the industry is eager to help. Up to the present time it has been easy for producers to meet the requirements of the educational field, for the demand for strictly instructional classroom films has been small. Films are costly and unless a single film can be used over and over it can not be made without great loss. If educational films are to be produced accurately and in sufficient numbers, better methods of distribu- tion must be worked out. Again those who produced the films were not trained educators and therefore unable to produce pedagogically sound films, while at the same time the educators, whose advice has been avail- able, have too often proved unable to adapt themselves to the peculiar technical demands of screen production. Before great progress can be made there must be some method worked out to bring together the men and women who are skilled in the methods and mechanics of picture production. Much has been done with the motion picture already as an instru- 256 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mentality of instruction, but the surface has hardly been scratched. Cer- tainly the educators of the country are awakening to its possibilities. Four non-commercial magazines are or recently have been in existence, dedicated to the discussion of the problems of visual education.. Various museums of natural history have used films for lecture purposes in small museums and public schools. The educational value has been appreciated and tried out in various directions. Recently the American City Bureau inaugurated a film service on municipal and civic subjects. In Washington representatives of the National Academy of Science, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, The National Research Council, and the Scripps Interests are joined to promote science service which, among other things, seeks to educate the popular mind by putting into screen form stories of scientific discovery and invention. ‘The Society f isual Education has produced many films of educational nature. Professors in many schools and colleges are talking of filming the materials of their courses and Yale is said to have under production 100 reels showing its famous Chronicles of America. The Society of Visual Education prepares and distributes motion-picture films, which will be pedagogically sound textbook supplements for the use of teachers. Besides this Association and the Visual Instruction Depart- ment of your own organization, there are two other groups of educators in the motion-picture field—the National Academy of Visual Instruction and the Visual Instruction Association of America. An incomplete list shows twenty-eight colleges and universities which have organized depart- ments for the distribution of films. At least seventeen of our largest educational institutions are giving courses to their students on the use of the motion picture for visual instruction. Several large universities are conducting scientific research into motion-picture problems. ‘The best material ever produced in the study of the psychology of reading has come through the motion pictures of the eye, which have been taken by the Department of Education of the University of Chicago. Again, our knowledge of the processes by which children learn to write has been greatly increased through motion pictures, photographs of hand movements taken by the same university. Thirty-four cities, including New York, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Indianapolis, Los Angeles, and San Francisco, are now using pedagogical films in their classrooms and assembly halls. New York spent approxi- mately $10,000 for this purpose last year, while Los Angeles spent $25,000. There are probably about 10,000 projecting machines installed in schools and churches. If methods can be found for easy payments on machines and effective methods for distribution of films, this field will grow with great rapidity. The motion-picture industry will codperate with the National Educa- tion Association fully to that end. On behalf of our organization I offer to your association all of our facilities to aid in your experimentation. IMPROVEMENT OF Movinc Pictures 257 There is already a great demand for pedagogic pictures. I propose that we jointly study that demand and that we jointly find ways and means of supplying it. Let a committee be appointed of this association made up of the very best talent within your ranks; let them meet with the great producers of the country and find ways to use our facilities. We ask you to aid us and to let us aid you in the study of the whole problem of the use of the motion picture as a direct pedagogic instrument. Let us together find the means of making pedagogic pictures which are scien- tifically, psychologically, and pedagogically sound. Not only can we take care of the demand which now obtains but the great demand which is imminent and which will certainly come, must be met, and met by the producers with a supply that measures up to the ideas of the educators of the country. It can never be said again, and | think it has been suggested, that the producers do not want to furnish educational pictures. The producers want to serve America. “They know that there is no more important and lasting service which they can perform than to aid you in the actual edu- cating of the youth of the country by this new means and make yet more efficient if possible the work which you, the teachers, are doing in the fulfilment of your noblest and most useful of all professions. Nor will you be unmindful of the great good done by this industry. The motion picture has carried the silent call for virtue, honesty, ambition, hope, love of country and of home to audiences speaking twenty different languages but all understanding the universal language of pictures. “There may be fifty different languages spoken in this country, but the picture of a mother is the same in every language. It has brought to narrow lives a knowledge of the wide, wide world; it has been the benefactor of uncounted millions. It is the poor man’s pleasure; grand opera for the well-to-do, but pictures for the man who works with his hands. As we serve the leisure hours of the masses with right diversions, so do we rivet the girders of society. Those who are responsible for this: industry do not minimize their responsibility, nor would they shirk it. With your help and the help of thinking people in this country in supporting the good pictures, we can accomplish the purpose of this association. ‘The motion picture industry accepts the challenge in the demand of the American people for a higher quality of art and interest in its entertainment. ‘The industry accepts the challenge in the demand of the American youth that its pictures shall give to them the right kind of entertainment and instruction. We accept the challenge in the righteous demand of the American mother that the entertainment and amusement of that youth shall be worthy of their value as a most potent factor in the country’s future. We accept the challenge in the proper demand of the educators of the country that the full instructional value of motion pictures shall be developed and used. We accept full responsibility. It is a service and “‘service is the supreme commitment of life.” It is a service which needs the very best from all, and I have great faith in its fulfilment. 258 NaTIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION OUR NEED OF AN INTELLIGENT ELECTORATE JAMES E. RUSSELL, DEAN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The proposition that the rulers of a people should be educated needs no demonstration. Democracy, of all forms of government, is most in need of education. Its leaders must be discovered in the mass. “They are not born to greatness, and greatness is not thrust upon them: they must achieve distinction and hold the support of willing followers. Herein lies the problem peculiar to democracy. In other forms of government, leaders are set apart by birth or divine right for the part they are to play, but true democracy recognizes no privilege of class or sect or place. “The new demo- cratic ideal of education is not only to develop leaders,but also to lift the whole mass, to make them fit to rule and to be rtled by leaders of their own choosing. The safety of a democratic state, therefore, rests in its final analysis upon an enlightened body of citizens. In our government all citizens may participate in elections, but political power passes over to officers who represent at best merely a majority of electors. Even a determined minority may hold the balance of power and have their own way, regardless of public opinion. Indeed, it is common observation that public opinion is shaped by skillful propaganda along lines at first desired by few, but ultimately accepted by many. In this way, we get our constitutional amendments and so, too, we fortify the sway of political bosses. In the one case the eyes of believers may be turned heavenward so high that vision of things on earth is impossible; the way of the venal boss is to keep the noses of his supporters deep enough in the trough to prevent them from seeing what happens on the other side of the fence. A superficial view of our government, therefore, might easily lead to the conclusion that it is really not a democracy, but an oligarchy. The inference follows that if rulers are few, our best educational course is to recognize an aristocracy of intellect and accord it appropriate honors. This superficial view—which some of our people always take and all of our people sometimes take—is responsible for most of the ills in American education. When power belongs to few, why trouble about the education of the many? ‘Time, labor, and money may all be saved by limiting the scope of effort. “This was precisely the view taken when our provincial schools were established for the training of leaders of Church and State. It was a direct inheritance from our English ancestry. It is the age- old ideal of education under every form of ecclesiastical and monarchical control. It began probably when the cave man found it safer and more congenial to live with his fellows. Patriarchal and tribal government pro- moted its development. It was hoary with age when Assyria and Egypt found it adapted to their needs. It attained perfection in Greece, and survived for centuries in Rome. It has made modern Europe, and has come down through the centuries to our own day in perfect form in China. Reduced to its simplest returns, it is a system that aims to give leadership Our NEEep oF AN INTELLIGENT ELECTORATE 259 to a privileged class, to help up a few, and to keep the many down, to pro- mete some to positions of authority, and to make the masses contented with that position in life to which it has pleased God to call them. It has begotten in America a scheme of education controlled from the top down- wards; it accounts for the inclusion in our curricula of materials designed to function only in the lives of the select few; it has shaped our system of school administration according to the whims of local pride and passion; it gives employment to incompetent teachers; it breeds distrust and suspicion between the schools and the public that they should serve. In a word, the theory that government is safe when leaders are competent is traditional in this country. ‘The time is coming when we must rid ourselves of the notion that an aristocracy, even an aristocracy of intellect, is a safe guide in American education. If training for leadership, or rather opportunities for training leaders, were a sufficient guarantee of the safety of the state, we should be living in a political millennium. Nowhere else in the world is provision made for so many aspiring candidates for leadership, or for so many different kinds of leaders. We have erected technical schools for almost every conceivable type of professional worker. It is a long and imposing line from schools of theology and law, through medicine and engineering, to agriculture, busi- ness, and the household arts. We boast of our educational ladder reaching from the gutter to the university, and we take pride in the numbers that cling to it. The wonder is that so few who reach the top show any grati- tude to those who built the ladder and helped them climb it. Whatever the fault, the fact is that those who owe most to public support are not rendering to the public the service that the public is entitled to receive. Coincident with the extraordinary increase in the past few years of those seeking higher education is the increasing distrust of the integrity and un- selfishness of those best equipped to lead. In fact, expertness in technical lines is no longer synonymous with leadership in professional service. The common man dreads the lawyer as the burned child dreads the fire. ‘The leader of hundreds of thousands of labor unionists voices their sentiment when he says “‘God save us from the courts.’ Some millions of Protestant churchmen show their estimate of the worth of religious leaders when they fix the average salary of a clergyman at $800 a year. There are more readers of newspapers, with less faith in what the papers print, than ever before in our history. This distrust of leaders and the denial of authority that leadership implies is reflected in the prevailing social unrest, the recent outburst of crime, and the general disposition to lawlessness in all sections of our coun- try. The popular remedy is to enact more specific laws and to insist on more rigid enforcement of police power. But is it just such conditions that government is designed to meet. Our constitution provides the foundation upon which just and equitable laws may be based. And with just and equitable laws, a democracy is safe, provided—and here is the rub—the people will observe the laws. 260 NationaL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION Leadership implies a following. Leaders may be never so wise, neve! so capable, never so patriotic, but if they have no following, their wisdom, their ability, their patriotism goes for naught. ‘The safety of the state depends quite as much upon obedient followers as upon efficient leaders. And many are the expedients recorded in history for securing an obedi- ent following. Fear of marauding foes has always been a potent force, and the body of external aggression is paraded on occasion even in our own halls of Congress. “The wrath of the Gods has often been invoked with great success. Military discipline has played its part. “The ameliora- | tion of popular discontent has repeatedly been sought in largesses of food, land grants, and wage adjudications, but history shows that such efforts are but the first signs of national decadence. And strongest of all forces in securing a submissive following is custom embodied in tradition and reinforced by poverty, caste, and class distinctions-—The world over to- day—barring our own land and certain British commonwealths—the masses of the people do what their parents did and what others of their class are accustomed to do. Just as the exercise of habit induces a certain degree of satisfaction in the individual, so conformity to custom begets con- tentment in society. The problem, as I have stated it, when restricted to the safety of the state, is twofold: the training of efficient leaders and the securing of con- tented followers. ‘The training of leaders devolves more and more upon our colleges and special schools. Every such school that I know is striving to improve the quality of its output. Curricula are being strengthened and methods of teaching bettered. Standards of scholarship are being raised by demanding both broader culture and more scientific knowledge. Add to these attainments the spirit of patriotic service, and the professional schools of America will have done their full duty. The second part of our problem—namely, the training of followers—is far and away the most difficult of solution. For us in America it is not only the most imperative, but it is the most baffling, because the least under- stood and the least appreciated. Its magnitude is measured by millions of children and other millions of adults. Its complexity is intensified by wide- spread illiteracy and the infusion of foreign languages, customs, and tra- ditions. And for its solution we have no satisfactory body of knowledge and no accepted system of instruction. ‘The character of our school work in the past, even in the public schools, has been formulated according to the needs of those who are going forward to positions of leadership. What are we going to do for those left behind? Can anything be done that will make for the safety of the state? Is is possible through schooling to contribute to the contentment of the masses? My answer is that just because it must be done, it can be done, and will be done, by the school teachers of America. I should be less confident of my answer, were it not that we have before us the most conspicuous example of the efficacy of public education that the world has ever seen. It is an example that warns us what to shun as well as an example that inspires us with courage to Our NEED OF AN INTELLIGENT ELECTORATE 26) proceed. I refer to the German system of popular education as developed during the past century and brought to fruition in the world war. A century ago Germany was a poverty-stricken, quarrelsome, politically distracted country. “They had a few capable leaders, but the masses of the people were intractable and belligerent. “There was no harmony in ideals, no unity in endeavor. But from her poverty, Germany erected universi- ties for the leaders and public schools for the masses. She developed a teaching profession that has had no equal in scientific attainments or in loyalty to the state. She gave those teachers high social rank, paid them well for their services, and supported them in old age. “They in turn up- held the standards of the realm and converted, within two generations, the self-indulgent, easy-going, individualistic Teutonic stock into obedient sub- jects of a ruthless military despotism. So thoroughly was this schooling done that dependence upon authority became the cardinal virtue of the German people. The masses were molded into one mighty machine, con- tented at home, efficient in business, and equally fitted to fight their way in world industry or a world war. And however we may laud the rest of the world for their prowess in checking German aggression, a dispassionate judgment will not accord the victory solely to the military superiority of the Allies. Germany was not merely defeated in battle. She lost the war because her soldiers and the masses back of them lost confidence in their leaders. “he whole superstructure of the state crumbled when its foun- dations were undermined. From our standpoint, we see in the German system of education and in its logical outcome in the war a horrible example of what not to do, but we must be impressed with the fact that Germany has demonstrated that a vast population can be molded by education into the likeness of an ideal, even though that ideal, when realized, turns out to be not a god, but a golden calf. What German teachers have done, American teachers can do. We can set up an ideal characteristically American, and we can realize it, if the public will give us the necessary support. Not blind obedience but voluntary codperation shall be our watchword. We shall seek content- ment through intelligent exercise of our individual talents and find happi- ness in the possession of our own attainments. I grant that our problem is infinitely more difficult than the one sub- mitted to German teachers. It is far easier to quench ambitions than to arouse them and direct them aright. Never before has a nation been founded on the proposition that all men are created equal, and nowhere in history has intelligent self-direction been set up as a national ideal of edu- cation. It may well be doubted that such an ideal is possible of realization. Our own experience should make us skeptical of its practicability. When only four or five in the hundred of those who begin the climb of our edu- cational ladder ever reach the top, what of the attitude of those dropped by the way? Should those who fail through no fault of their own be expected to rejoice in the success of their rivals? Is human nature so constituted that superior ability when denied its chance will acquiesce in 262 Nationa EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION the leadership of inferior talent? How can contentment be secured under a system of free competition without that equality of opportunity which we laud in theory but neglect in practice? Difficult as our problem is, I do not despair of its solution. My faith is confirmed by the righteousness of our cause. Up to this point I have been reckoning with conditions as they are rather than with things as they might be. I have tentatively accepted the doctrine that the whole educational problem of statecraft is the training of efficient leaders and contented followers. But this dichotomy of the educational process is purely logical. Leadership is a relative matter. Every normal human being may be at once leader and follower. I may excel in some particular, but there are a thousand things that others can do better than I can. Most of us take our religion ready-made. We.depend upon the press for most of our current information. The wisést of us consult reputable physicians when we need medical advice, and much as we dread the lawyer, we do go to him when we get into legal trouble. And for food, shelter, and clothing we are dependent upon those who have the technical skill to do that which is beyond our range. Independent we may be in some small way, but in the large, our lives are bound up with others. If only we knew how to choose our leaders, and had the grace to follow them as we expect to be followed in our own specialties, we should soon arrive at a social millennium. And here is the clue to our cducational maze. Leadership is expert service rendered to appreciative recipients. It is the interplay of service and satisfaction that begets mutual understand- - ing and bridges the gulf between leader and follower. Expertness, mere eficiency, therefore, should not be the sole object of vocational training. We earn our living by the skills that we possess, but we spend our lives and our substance in getting the fruits of others’ labor. In every article purchased, in every acquisition, whether for pleasure or for profit, a choice is made, and back of that choice stands our own valuation of the worth of an expert in a field not our own. A sympathetic understanding of our social and economic problem is unthinkable, so long as half of the world is ignorant of how the other half lives. We need more knowledge of what men do and what they get from their labor, more information on what constitutes values in terms of our own needs. The editor of a popular magazine has recently told his readers that “after all, economics is little else than the study of man as he goes about his daily tasks of sowing, reap- ing, hiring out his labor or engaging that of others, trading, mining, manufacturing, buying, selling, renting, transporting the products of his own hands or of the soil, doing his best to keep a tight roof over his head and straining every nerve to provide for his children and to create some overplus of savings wherewith to stake other men who would engage in enterprises not immediately productive. If there be any study more homely, more democratic than this, any that clings closer to the soil or lies nearer to man’s bone and marrow, it would be hard to name.’ 2 * Saturday Evening Post, June 24, 1922. Our NEED oF AN INTELLIGENT ELECTORATE 263 I should hesitate to suggest this addition to the curriculum of our public schools, if I did not think that much of what is now taught could profitably be displaced. I wonder why it is that we teach with such complacency the life history of the honey bee and humming bird, the brook trout and the woodchuck, and fail to include in our study the life history of the coal miner and the fisherman, the cotton planter and the dairyman, the textile worker and the engineer. More knowledge of things that count in every- day life is the chief desideratum in that phase of education in which people should be taught to follow expert guidance. There is a corollary to this proposition that from the standpoint of pub- lic safety is more significant than is the main thesis. It is this: the ability to give expert service brings its own reward. Emerson expressed the idea which someone has put into these words: “The man who can write a better book, preach a better sermon, or make a better mouse trap than his neighbor, though he build his house in the woods, yet will the world beat a pathway to his door.’ ‘The man who can do something well is sure to take pride in his handiwork; pride in his work will keep him everlastingly at it; industry backed by skill insures a living that satisfies; it leads to a competency of possessions that must be guarded. ‘The ability to give an honest day’s work, whether in professional pursuits or in manual occu- pations, is the first step in the evolution of the conservative citizen. It is a standing invitation to all onlookers to admire and to emulate. It begets leadership and that joy in work that relieves labor of its drudgery. In such a case, the job seeks the man and pays him his price. It makes him, however humble his trade, a capitalist, who has need of an education that will enable him properly to care for his income and invest his savings. In this direction lie social well-being and civil order. Vocational training is the stepping-stone, and not until every available person is provided with the means of becoming an expert worker, and trained to enjoy the income of his capital, shall we have that equality of opportunity which is the birth- right of all Americans. The trend of my argument has carried me beyond the bounds apparently set in the topic assigned me. If the topic implies that an intelligent elec- torate is necessary only in respect to the choice of political leaders, it does not go far enough. Legislation and administration of government under law are necessary functions of society, but unless the letter of procedure conforms to the spirit of progress, there is no assurance of safety to the state. My view is that the right spirit comes from enlightened public opinion that voluntarily chooses to follow expert guidance in every phase of life. Furthermore, I denounce as un-American the notion that our leaders constitute an aristocratic class entitled to superior advantages and _ privi- leged to exploit those less fortunate. When it is conceded that each nor- mal person may be a leader in his own way, class distinctions disappear, and the only honor that is justified is the respect paid to work well done. If this world is to become a better place to live in and life made better worth 264 NaTIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION living, we must accept the Christian doctrine that service is the only true criterion of greatness. Democracy, of all forms of government, is, as I have said, most in need of education. It must have leaders, both priests and. prophets, not only those who work in the present, but also those who have a vision of the future. No education that can be given is too good for those who will use their powers in the service of mankind. No sacrifice is too exacting, if thereby those in need of guidance get the help they should have. Confi- dence in the integrity and unselfishness of leaders is the first essential in the democratic program of social reform. The other factor I have stressed at greater length, because it is foreign to popular belief. The maintenance of civil order and social security logically precedes the rise of leaders. Unless one can work unmolested and be assured of the fruits of one’s labor, there is no incentive to effort. Happy is the land where peace prevails. Contentment is a public blessing worth striving for. It is obvious that at times and with certain groups of our population, we have tried every known means of securing respect for law and order. Even the hope of happiness in a heavenly state has been preached as adequate recompense for ills suffered in this life. Military discipline has been imposed in times of national peril, and our people have cheerfully borne its restrictions. Unbounded faith in the ultimate working together for good of all things American has made many of us incorrigible optimists. We acquiesce in decisions reached by unfair means in the expectation that time will bring a change. There are signs, however, that our people will not long remain as docile as they have been in the past. Population is shifting from the country to the city. Elbow room is growing less. Competition is getting keener, and every year makes it harder for some to maintain a decent standard of living. The Old World with its woes stands begging at our doors. Discontent is spreading like a fatal disease among great groups of our citizens. This tendency, unless checked, can have only one result: our experiment in demo- cratic government will surely fail, and with it, the hopes of a world worn out with travail of new-born ideals of freedom. The outcome rests with the teachers of America—teachers in the public schools, teachers in the col- leges and universities, teachers in the press, teachers in the home and in the church teachers in business, and teachers in industry. ch There is no greater patriotic service. Are we ready to do our share? THE EDUCATION OF OUR ILLITERA LESS THOMAS E. FINEGAN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA The illiterates of the country may be divided int 4: ; o three classes: the negro illiterates, the native-born white illiterates, and the foreign-born white 1This address was given before the Illiteracy Conference on July 6 7 LOLs, THE Epucation oF Our ILLITERATES 265 illiterates. The great mistake is often made of regarding the illiterates of the country as foreign-born white. The census of 1920 shows the num- ber of each of these classes of illiterates to be as follows: negroes, 1,842,161; native-born whites, 1,242,572; and foreign-born, 1,707,145, with a total of 4,791,878. From these figures it appears that nearly two thirds are native-born and only a little more than one third are foreign-born. The shocking feature of the situation is that one fourth of them are native-born white. A further study of the 1920 census shows that of these illiterates 687,618 are between the ages of 10 and 20; 4,103,260 are above 20 years of age. Those between 10 and 20 are classified as follows: negroes, 329,120; native-born whites, 201,903; and foreign-born, 56,595. The humiliating feature of this ‘analysis is that more than one half mil- lion of American children—born in America since the dawn of the twen- tieth century—are illiterate. In considering the figures given by the United States census we must keep in mind the standard for determining literacy which the Government has adopted. Under this standard a person possessing the slightest ability to write, even though it be simply the mechanical ability to write his own name, is classified as literate. If the literacy of the country were to be based upon what we might call a functioning literacy—or a literacy of fourth grade achievement—the number of our illiterates would be more than doubled. We must also give careful consideration to the actual results revealed by the draft which showed that 25 young men in every 100 did not possess a functioning literacy. The Nation should strike a swift blow at the illiterates between the ages of 10 and 20. Not one of them should be permitted to reach 25 years without obtaining a literacy achievement equivalent to the completion of the sixth year of our elementary public-school course. "There should be no compromise on this question. No child in America capable of being taught should be illiterate when he reaches his “‘teens.”’ There should also be inaugurated an effective program which, within a decade, shall be able to reach every native white illiterate under the age of forty and teach him to read and write. Negro illiteracy was reduced six per cent during the last decade, but that there are still approximately 2,000,000 illiterates among the negroes and that a large per cent of these are found in eleven States make the question an acute problem of National importance. The Nation should no longer tolerate this injustice to these people. Many of the States carrying this burden have shown commendable courage and vision in the work which they have undertaken. Each of the classes of illiterates defined has its own peculiar problem, but the questions involved in the education of the foreign illiterates are probably the most troublesome. There are 1,707,145 in this group, measured by the standard of the literacy employed by the Government in its census enumeration. 266 NaTIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION — In spite of the subnormal immigration, of more stringent legislation, and of marked increased effort to provide educational facilities for illiterates within the last decade, there has been but little reduction. No State has inaugurated a sounder or more effective program in this field or waged the battle more persistently than the State of New York or the State of Massachusetts, and yet in spite of it all the number of foreign illiterates in each of these States has been only slightly reduced during the past decade. From the founding of our National Government until 1882, Congress imposed no restrictions whatever upon immigration. We opened wide our doors and encouraged all who would to come. ‘Through the Con- gressional Act of 1882 the Government entered upon a policy of selective immigration which has been gradually strengthened. "The whole subject of immigration has been one of extensive Congressional investigation. President Roosevelt carefully considered the subject in comprehensive messages to Congress and advocated the sound policy that our immigration laws should be amended in a way that would enable the Government “‘to keep out all immigrants who will not make good American citizens.” The amendments to the immigration laws in 1897 conferred upon the Government officials enlarged powers in dealing with the immigration problems and also definitely described the classes which might be excluded from admission to the country. “The strengthening of the immigration laws and the stricter enforcement of their operation did not. result in the restriction of immigration. ‘The number of immigrants who came into this country increased at a rapid rate. In 1914 the number reached 1,218,480. The number of illiterates among the immigrants coming to this country has constantly increased assuming proportions which bear important relations to the social, economic, and political interests of the Nation. The number of illiterates coming into this country during the years preceding the outbreak of the war increased in eighteen of the leading States of the country, including Massachusetts, New Jersey, Connecticut, New York, Illinois, California, and Pennsylvania. “The census of 1920 shows that the approximate number of illiterates above the age of sixteen in the United States is five million. "This number would have been greater had there not been a suspension of immigration during the War. Students of social and political problems have anticipated the embarrass- ment which was bound to come to this country through the admission of these illiterates without a definite policy requiring them to meet educational standards after entering the country. For some years those giving this subject careful thought have advocated a literacy test. Senator Lodge introduced in 1896, twenty-six years ago, an immigration bill containing a literacy test. “This measure proposed the exclusion of all persons between fourteen and sixty “who can not-read and write the English language or some other language.” ‘The Lodge measure passed Congress in modified form, but was vetoed by President Cleveland. President Taft vetoed a similar measure in 1913, and President Wilson vetoed one in 1915, and Tue EpucaTion oF Our ILLITERATES 267 ee again in 1917. Congress passed the 1917 measure over the veto of the President, and the provisions of this Act became effective on May 1, 1917. Under the terms of this law, all aliens are to be excluded who are over sixteen years of age, who are physically capable of reading but who cannot read. ‘This law exacts that a test shall be given each alien before being admitted, and that such alien must be required to read “not less than thirty, or more than eighty words in ordinary use.” The law does not exact that the alien shall be able to read English. The law is satisfied if the alien reads in English or some other language or dialect. The law furthermore exempts those from this test who seek admission because of religious persecution and certain others who are relatives of American citizens or of admissible aliens. The reports of the Commissioner General of Immigration show that the rejections due to illiteracy have been as follows: 1917, 391; 1918, 1,598 ; 1919, 1,456; and in 1920, 1,639. The reports of the Commissioner General of Immigration also show that from 1918 to 1921 the following number of illiterates were admitted: 1918, 3,512; 1919, 1,817; 1920, 15,094; and 1921, 27,463. These figures warrant the prediction that the literacy test prescribed under this Congressional Act will not prove sufficient defense against the continued admission of illiterates. In all the discussion which has taken place upon this subject, there has been a common agreement that the initial step necessary in the solution of this problem is to teach these illiterates to speak and write the English language. “These people cannot become happy, contented, useful citizens until they are able to express their needs, desires, and thoughts in the common language of the country. They have practically entered a new world, in which individual rights and governmental authority have such an entirely different status and are based on such different principles of political philosophy that they must also become interested in and be able to inform themselves upon the social, industrial and political questions which are fundamental to the progress and prosperity of a democracy. We are therefore confronted with the problem of giving instruction in the fundamentals of an English education to a vast army of at least 5,000,000 adults who are now within the boundaries of the Nation, and such additional illiterates as may be admitted in the future under the immi- gration laws. The question therefore naturally arises, upon whom does the obligation rest of asSuming the burden and responsibility of providing educational facilities for this great body of illiterates? All questions related to and growing out of the immigration problem are national. ‘The National Government controls every phase of the immigration question. It de- termines what aliens may be admitted to this country, the conditions upon which they may be admitted, and it also prescribes the basis upon which they may be naturalized and admitted to American citizenship. The whole problem of adult illiterates is therefore a National and not a State problem. The National Government should therefore recognize the 268 NaTIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION necessity of attacking this problem without further delay, and should enact such laws and provide such funds as are necessary to construct an organi- zation and execute a plan which shall, within a feasomabie period of time, wipe out adult illiteracy in this country. Had the policy recommended by President Grant in his message to Congress one half century ago been adopted, this country would have no problem in adult illiteracy today. Grant’s vision enabled him to see the evils which would accumulate under the policy of the Nation admitting to its shores from year to year a large body of adult illiterates. Grant saw the wisdom of insisting that all foreigners, literate as well as illiterate, who came to this country should be trained to acquire a usable knowledge of the English language. Several measures relating to this problem are before Congress, and we may reasonably expect that in the near future the Federal Government will assume this obligation and responsibility and take up the burdens involved in the solution of illiterary. When the National Government does under- take this work it should be upon a plan which recognizes the public-school system of each State as the chief agency through which this work is to be performed. Without financial or economic loss of any kind the several . States may therefore enter upon a definite program which contemplates the teaching of every illiterate within their borders to read and write in English. If the Nation is to approach this problem in a serious, determined manner, we must comprehend a plan which will provide instruction in English for 5,000,000 adults, one third of whom speak an alien tongue. ‘This means that provision must be made for giving instruction to a body of illiterate men and women who are equal in number to at least one fifth of all the children enrolled in the public schools of America. A plan to provide educational facilities for this large number of adults must be founded upon a system similar to that constructed for the education of the children of the Nation. Wherever public-school systems are maintained it has been learned from experience that attendance laws cannot be effectively enforced with- out a census of the children who are required to attend. An effective National program for the instruction of adult illiterates cannot be inaugu- rated until a census of the illiterates in each school district is made available for the school authorities. This information should be available by wards for the cities, and by districts for the townships. ‘The immigration officers at the ports where immigrants land should obtain the names and the destination of those who are illiterate. The National Government and the State within which these illiterates take up residence should know where such illiterates may be found, and each school district should have such data. Each State must be recognized as an administrative unit. ‘The States must, in turn, be divided into zones or districts, based upon the extent and topography of the State and the number of illiterates therein. For geo- graphic and other reasons it will be necessary to subdivide some of these Tue EpucaTion oF Our ILLITERATES 269 zones or districts, which will be in charge of an experienced worker in the field of adult education. This director should devote his whole time to such work and should be a paid employee of the Government. In some of the zones containing the largest number of illiterates—as for instance, New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia—the director should have assistants who are familiar with the difficulties involved in reaching the home through the education of the illiterate women. School superintendents and other employees of the public-school system, and others interested in this phase of our educational problem may be employed to advantage in the super- vision of this work under the zone director without compensation. A Citizens’ Committee should be organized for each district within a zone. ‘This committee should contain representatives of leading industrial and mercantile plants, of labor organizations, of city or county authorities, of local school authorities, of each of the great divisions of religious faiths, of civic organizations, and of the organized activities of women. ‘The zone director should codrdinate the work through this committee so that each agency in the zone may be given a definite piece of work to perform, and such agency should be held responsible for the accomplishment of such work. There should be no waste of effort and no overlapping of functions. The zone director and the citizens’ committee should determine what classes shall be organized and where they shall be maintained. When these ques- tions are agreed upon, the director should, in codperation with proper local authorities, organize such classes. He should then place in the possession of the committee the names and addresses of the illiterates in that com- munity to be served by such classes, and arrangements should be made through the committee utilizing every agency interested in such work to have each of the organizations or interests represented on such committee become responsible for a complete canvass of these illiterates and to induce them, if possible, to attend such classes. . The public-school system with its organization and equipment should be utilized to the limit. The social and recreational features of school work should bring the home in closer contact and under greater influence than ever before. The foreigner may be reached through these avenues. Games and amusements which men and women usually enjoy may be made an effective agency in teaching English to foreigners. The great potential power of music should be made a vital factor in reaching the foreigner and in teaching him English. We must marshal the musical talent of our foreign population and make it a mighty power in developing patriotic ideals. All the socializing processes and influences of our public system of educa- tion, through the schools as community centers, should be employed in enabling the foreigner to interpret American standards and ideals and in obtaining those things in life for which his heart has yearned, and which he came to America to obtain. While all of these agencies will be of great aid in promoting educatior: among the foreign population, it will be necessarv not only to establiss: 270 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION classes in public day schools to teach English to our non-English speaking population, but it will also be necessary to organize evening classes. “The law should make it mandatory upon school authorities to establish either day classes or evening classes whenever ten or more adults unable to read or write English express a desire to receive instruction in that subject. It will not be possible to reach all illiterates through the establishment of either day or evening classes. Large numbers who have worked all day will not be in proper physical condition for the mental concentration required in attendance upon classes in the evening. Others who are some- what timid will not care to go to these classes which are maintained in public places. Whenever it is impossible to induce these men or women to go to a class in a school house, the privileges and opportunities of such classes should be taken to them. ‘Thousands of these illiterates must, therefore, be reached through the industrial plants sn-which they are em- ployed. In many instances it will be possible to organize classes in church or in connection with auxiliary societies of churches. In some places, churches have already organized such work. ‘This service should be cordially ac- cepted and encouraged. It will be necessary in many cases to go into the home to reach some of these deserving people. This will be particularly true of the women. The whole plan of this service must contemplate that the interests and needs of women shall be given the same consideration as those of the men. Home classes especially for the women should therefore be maintained. When classes are organized in day schools or in industrial plants or fac- tories, it must be done under stipulated agreement at a time which will interfere as little as possible with working hours. The management of industrial plants may not always be able to give the time required for this period of instruction. ‘There are, however, many such plants which will find that the amount expended for this purpose will result in substantial reduction in expenditures under the provisions of the industrial compensa- tion law. ‘Those who are to receive the instruction should be made to feel that the benefits to be derived therefrom will more than compensate them - for the time given to this work. It may often be found advisable and equitable for employer and employee to share in this expenditure. Classes in day schools and in industrial plants and factories should be formed for such hours as will probably best serve the convenience of employees when they are free for such purpose. In agricultural sections classes should be organized at the periods of the year when farm work is not pressing. The adjustment of this question is delicate and difficult, but the importance of the situation requires that an adjustment be made. Organized labor has generally shown a lively interest in the education of the adult illiterate. If this great organization would exert the full power of its influence in behalf of a campaign to induce every alien to learn to read and write English, it will be one of the most potent factors in the solution of the great problem of illiteracy. Tue EpucaTION OF Our ILLITERATES 2M In addition to the influence which this organization may exercise upon the minds of the illiterates, its active codperation in this work will stimulate the thought and sympathy of large numbers of men who are competent to teach the illiterate and who may render invaluable service in this field. A wise program which deals with this subject will cordially welcome the cooperation of labor unions and will seek their advice and counsel in the preparation of plans to provide instruction in any community for the adult illiterates. There is no organization in the country whose members are better in- formed of the necessity of inaugurating a plan to wipe out illiteracy than the American Legion. ‘They saw-with their own eyes that among the men in their ranks drafted to fight the battles for the preservation of civilization and of democratic institutions one fourth of them did not possess sufficient education to interpret properly the orders from their superiors and thus were unprepared to become efficient soldiers. Provision must be made for a body of properly trained teachers to give instruction to the alien. Many successful teachers in public and private schools have proved an absolute failure when assigned the task of instructing alien adults. The successful teacher of the adult illiterate who speaks a foreign language must know the best method by which these people may be approached as well as the means and methods of instruction. Persons who have not had experience in this field and who have not made special study of the problems involved in teaching adult illiterates may do incal- culable harm by undertaking such work without proper supervision. A large number of men and women have made special study of this field during the past ten years and certain well-defined methods of procedure have been established. ‘These should be observed. ‘Teachers and others who volunteer their services or who undertake the work for other reasons should be given special training. Many of our universities and colleges now give courses in Americaniza- tion. ‘These courses have provided many trained supervisors and directors in this new work which has naturally fallen upon the public-school system. Some of our State normal schools have also undertaken to train these edu- cational workers. In many instances summer classes have been successfully maintained in these institutions. However, the most effective method of training teachers for this special service is through institutes which are held in the large industrial centers. These institutes cover from one to two weeks and are under the direction of men and women who have had large experience in the instruction of adult illiterates—those of native and also those of foreign birth. ‘This method is inexpensive to the State and community and brings the opportunity to receive training without expense to a large number of teachers. ‘The insti- tute may also be made an agency for informing the public and developing a sentiment which will give support to the movement to wipe out illiteracy. When these people have acquired the ability to read and write English, proper literature should be supplied them to direct the lines of reading Wii fe NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATiON which they shall follow. Unless the habit and desire to read is cuit.vated and directed from proper courses, it will be stimulated from dangerous agencies. “Chose who have acquired only an elementary knowledge of reading may be made the subject-of propaganda which will be destructive to our whole social fabric. Follow-up work along these lines is necessary, and should be provided. ‘The public schools are in a position to render a vital service. ‘The libraries of the country are prepared to aid and will cheerfully codperate as they have been pioneers in this field. ‘Travelling libraries for camps, industrial plants, and communities in which libraries have not been established should be provided. The public press should be made one of the first textbooks used in this undertaking. Selected courses of reading adapted to the purpose in mind should be prepared. ‘These should point out America’s true relation to the world, America’s philosophy of life and government, America’s high-minded deal- ings with the nations of the world, America’s history and traditions in protecting individual rights and national freedom, her championship of equality of opportunity, and her exalted standards of honor, right, and justice. The establishment of these classes and schools, and all the energy, labor, skill, and patriotic endeavor which the school authorities, the churches, the management of industrial plants and all other agencies interested in this problem may put into the work will not succeed in placing America’s army of illiterates under instruction. If we are to succeed in teaching these illiterates to read and write in English, there must be reasonable compul- sory statutes requiring all under certain ages to acquire a usable knowledge of English within a specified number of years. No person should be ad- mitted to citizenship who cannot meet such requirement. To make such compulsory statutes effective, the employment of illiterates should be con- ditioned upon their entering classes for instruction and continuing therein until they obtain a usable knowledge of English. The private day school has become an important factor in America’s education. The service which it performs has a direct bearing upon the subject under consideration. Every private elementary school to which children are admitted during compulsory school ages should be required to maintain standards equivalent to those required in public elementary schools. Buildings, equipment, safety requirements, sanitation, school term attend- ance, and curriculum should be the equal of those required in a public-school system. Elementary schools are maintained in many States in which the general instruction is in a foreign language. If the Nation and the States are to utilize their educational and financial resources to wipe out illiteracy and to produce a nation of English-speaking and American-thinking people, mandatory laws must be enacted and enforced which shall require instruc- tion in English in every public or private elementary school in America. In many cities and communities this work of instruction has been under way for some time and an organization in cooperation with the schools, with chambers of commerce, with women’s clubs, or with church or other Tue EpucatTIon oF Our ILLITERATES Bis organizations has been established. In these cities or communities such organizations should be made the nucleus for an enlarged organization able to bring under instruction every illiterate in such communities. Our commercial and industrial life and the opportunities afforded under our form of Government have always attracted and should continue to attract to America large numbers of immigrants. The great majority of those who have come have made a large contribution to our prosperity and our civilization. “They came here because they believed greater opportuni- ties were to be found in America to improve their social and living con- ditions than could be found in any other country in the world. “They are numbered among the best citizens of the Nation. ‘This type of immigrant should be encouraged in all proper ways to continue to come into our country. Is it not reasonable to assume that if a young man, because of the lack of fundamentals of an education in English is disqualified to discharge his duties as a soldier in times of war that he is for the same reason disqualified to perform his obligations in the civil affairs of citizenship in times of peace? Can an uneducated man be more effective in civil affairs than he can be in military affairs? Should not the Nation, therefore, prescribe as its minimum intellectual standards for all citizens in times of peace those which are the equal of the intellectual standards prescribed by the Government for military service in times of war? p19 10; bk citi ; “2% Cena ay tied sia Sole Gant, en anc bog facia, rin isk see p? anon bP sane vad TF -bigo i ae abereenat eer pit Kt ‘elt Ris, 20eae7 es Pe rit] hs eat TURMEIES OF: ree watery lees ! 4 ; hese seunlld> main At Asa icad ive ~ — «. 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Sad th stavurés efecveg, oh nnleyment OF Jillerpece alia oe . ev (het etc: foe eee the reteucHan KA Contin ith W a, le dnovilel ot Duttigh: = : .: © ee 3 a~hev: a; : xt ‘ : iem.+ ead aa Fae ¢ejine chee . igs oes me meal rape Wetute Be s op tied nmol Peer ee S34) Tach a sites Lis, we lawl tar ; , the a iyeksh 2..? shea ake) | PP aioee rv (elfetel eh ayevrelcieVels als! wig ia\ (ole sie lsl's1e.e)afei's)=is)a\le)e) Chicago, Illinois SUSAN IM. pDORSESo:a55 9 cts «cles Sate « Side oletistwiela:s:vucia tela bY SS, ois fers ls ...Los Angeles, California AMAR T AS SONI pete ieciare cua fo iolel ere sitar ape'G leyenn oasis (s Melee ¢ sec ole. atae .. Bridgeport, Connecticut SME WV REBERED Cosette tote aieks, cia hore tellaP al ayeyegs silels ) / NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION SECRETARY'S Minutes, Cuicaco MEETING OFFICERS President—Homer H. Srrrvey, President State Teachers’ College, sis Cedar Falls, lowa Vice-President—JOSEPHINE CorLiss Preston, State Superintendent of Pablne instruction es 2 ooo 228s fe. Se Olympia, Washington Secretary—ADELAIE S. Baytor, Federal Agent for Home Economics aa cee eee ee eee Washington, D. C. FIRST SESSION—MonpaAy AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 27, 1922 The meeting was called to order by the President at 2 o’clock in the Tiger Room of the Hotel Sherman. The President spoke briefly on THE ELIMINATION OF EDUCATIONAL WASTE. After roll call by the Secretary, Mr. John F. Sims, Chairman of the Com- mittee on Rural Education, presented a semi-final report on the work of his Committee. Other committee reports were given as follows: 1. Final report of the CoMMITTEE ON STATE ADMINISTRATION OF ScHoots by C. P. Cary, Chairman, Chicago, Il. 2. Preliminary report of the ComMITTEE ON AMERICAN TEACHERS’ CotiecEs by Charles McKenny, Chairman. _ Addresses were made by Dr. John J. Tigert, U. S. Commissioner of Edu- cation, on RECENT EDUCATIONAL Procress IN THE UNITED STATES, and by Miss Charl Ormond Williams, President of the National Education Association, on THE Horr AND THE RESULT OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. SECOND SESSION—Tuespay AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 28, 1922 The meeting was called to order by the President at 2 o’clock in the Tiger Room of the Hotel Sherman. Lucy Page Gaston, Superintendent of the Clean Life Movement, was allowed time to speak on the CicaARETTE SiruATION and explain the Clean Life Pledge. R. G. Jones, President of the Department of Superintendence, addressed the Council on GREAT EpUCATIONAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS. Reports of Committees were presented as follows: 1. Sub-Committees’ reports on REORGANIZATION OF SEVENTH, E1icHtH, AND Nintuo Grapes, Charles H. Judd, Chairman, Chi- cago, Illinois. a. The Junior High-school Program of Studies, James M. Glass, Harrisburg, Pa. b. Junior High-school Buildings, J. H. Bentley, Duluth, Minn. [349] 350 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 2. Semi-final report on CHANGES NEEDED IN THE ELEMENTARY ScHooL Courses, Katherine D. Blake, Chairman, New York City. 3. PARTICIPATION OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT, Harlan Updegraff, Chairman, Philadelphia, Pa. Following the last speaker, and supplementary to his report on Junior High-school Buildings, Mr. Bentley showed pictures of school buildings in Cleveland, Detroit, and Richmond, Indiana. At the close of this session an informal conference on Teachers’ Councils was held under the direction of Mr. Updegraff. CONFERENCE OF THE SOCIAL HYGIENE SECTION OF THE HEALTH COMMITTEE ON THE COMMUNITY AND THE CHARACTER EDUCATION OF YOUTH This conference was held in the Hotel Sherman and formed a section of the National Council of Education. The report is, therefore, herewith included in the proceedings of that body. The program is as follows: The Nature of Character and the Manner of its Education—Otis W. Caldwell, New York City. The Coérdination of the Community Agencies in Effecting Char- acter Education—Albert Shiels, New York City. The Bearing of Social Hygiene Education upon Character—T. W. Galloway, New York City. Discussions : William B. Owen, President, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Ill. P. B. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio. THIRD SESSION—Tuespay EVENING, FEBRUARY 28, 1922 The meeting was called to order on the mezzanine floor of the Hotel Sherman at 8 o’clock by the President. As the first part of the program of the evening was given over to reports of the Joint Health Committee, the President introduced Dr. Thomas D. Wood, Chairman of that committee, who took charge of the meeting. Dr. Wood spoke on Justice AND EQuaLiry FoR Cui_tp HEattH and then introduced other speakers as follows: Contribution of Physicians in F orty-two States to the Health Work in the Schools—John M. Dodson, Chicago, III. What the Women are doing to Promote Health in Schools—Mrs. Ira Couch Wood, Chicago, III. Response of the Teachers to the Health Challenge of the Physi- cians—William B. Owen, Chicago, Ill. The latter part of the evening program was given over to the committee on THE TEAcHING or Democracy. A. Duncan Yocum, Chairman of this committee, spoke briefly on the Tren SuccEsrep ESSENTIALS oF De- MOCRACY and then introduced Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, Boston, and Walter Brown, Fairmont, W. Va., who presented respectively : NaTIONAL CouNcIL oF EDUCATION 351 1. A General Discussion of the Ten Essentials. 2. English—lIts Relation to the Ten Essentials. FOURTH SESSION—WEpDNESDAY AFTERNOON, Marcu 1, 1922 . The meeting was called to order by the President at 2 o’clock in the Tiger Room of the Hotel Sherman. The entire program was devoted to reports of progress of standing com- mittees, as follows: Vocational Education—Adelaide Steele Baylor, Chairman, Wash- ington, D. C. Graduate Education—Walter A. Jessup, Chairman, Iowa City, Iowa. Educational Surveys—A. E. Winship, Chairman, Boston, Massa- chusetts. Adult Illiteracey—Cora Wilson Stewart, Chairman, Frankfort, Kentucky. Character Education—Milton Bennion, Chairman, Salt Lake City, Utah. Mrs. Mary D. Bradford, Wilmington, Del. A. Duncan Yocum, Philadelphia, Pa. The Continuity of Education—J. M. Gwinn, Chairman, New Orleans, La. The meeting adjourned. THE ELIMINATION OF EDUCATIONAL WASTE HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT OF THE IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA The main problem in administration of American education today is the wise use of the public income by a rigorous elimination of waste. The rapid enlargement of the program of studies; the constant development of the assumed extraordinary needs of American pupils and students, in variety and opportunity of education; the regular expansion of the budget of necessary expenditures to meet the actual emergencies that have arisen; the advancing ideals of the purposes and the functions of schools as a part of the progressive program of civilization, as shown in legislation, are all fundamental undertakings that demand the best equilibrated statesmanship of the age to interpret, to integrate, and to decide whereby the metes and the bounds of human efforts for the present and the future may be wisely determined. It is time that serious work is in progress in every State of the Union to ascertain the qualities and the quantities of education that will give America the leadership of the world in intelligence and in masterfulness of capability in citizenship. It is true that very complimentary progress is being made in adjusting the many problems produced by the aims at uni- versal education and training. It is true that publicists, promoters, and educators are notably investigating the experience of the world in develop- 352 NaTIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION ing national efficiency, power, and character. All these are recognized as important and essential amid the most complex conditions of society and citizenship that any nation has ever known, but it is also true that very little attention is given to conservation of resources obtainable for educa- tion, and less and léss attention is given to the extraordinary and unusual waste that has accompanied these undertakings and enterprises. What is necessary for the welfare and the perpetuity of society and of business and of National success is a kind of thrift and of economy that does not exist today in American transactions and expansion. Our leaders of public opinion and of important progress too generally overlook the fact that there is a sensible limit to what is necessary and absolute in educational expenditures. These expenses include (1) the overhead of buildings, equipments, organization, and administration; (2) the overhead of varieties of supervision, inspection, and direction that are preliminary activities to secure public aims, unclassified and uncontrolled; (3) the overhead of propaganda, political, social, intellectual, moral, and religious that dictate economic realities and possibilities. All of these preliminary expenditures are assumed to be absolutely necessary to be provided and to be adjusted before the actual efforts of education’s instrumentalities can be applied to the training of children and youth. It must be evident then that the United States and every individual sovereign State must demand ap- propriate and expected educational returns for every dollar expended from the public treasury in order that educational waste may be avoided. In some way this vast overhead should be reduced and the public income should be spent more certainly upon the individuals to be improved and trained by the educational system. To this should be added the great expenditures that have come from the vast array of organizations and societies that are official, professional, scholastic, social, and scientific, which are seeking the determination and the adjustment of public opinion. All these require time, effort, money, and thought that belong to society if they are to be maintained and per- petuated. Society has reached such a highly organized state that all occu- pations, undertakings, and aims of labor, business, industry, politics, and industries partake of types of professions, educational, social, and religious that their conclusions must always be reckoned with as factors in expense and in management that are extremely difficult to be realized by even the most thoughtful men and women of these times. This summary of actual conditions should not be interpreted as the aims of an alarmist or as the thought of one who fears the results of democratic control and propaganda, because these interpretations must be accompanied by the highest confidence in republican principles of government and in the value of the dominance of public opinion. But this review of social and political phenomena is given to emphasize the urgent and imperative need for the elimination of all waste that can be rightly charged to the American system of public education. Is it not evident that there is reason to conclude that the United States NaTIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 33 of America should take an invoice of the public policies now practiced in order to seek to check much of the overhead expenses so that there might be more money for the actual applications of the popular education of the masses. It does seem that thrift, and thrift alone, is the only agency of management that can save the American people from extravagance and useless waste. SEMI-FINAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RURAL EDUCATION JOHN F. SIMS, CHAIRMAN, PRESIDENT OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, STEVENS POINT, WISCONSIN A concise, clean-cut, comprehensive, and dynamic statement of our slogan for rural-school betterment is to be found in the resolutions adopted by the first representative assembly of the National Education Association at Des Moines, July, 1921: “We call attention to the fajlure to provide an adequate program of education for the children living in the rural areas of our country, and we urge that the educational opportunities pro- vided for children in rural America be made equivalent to those offered to children in the most favored urban communities, and to this end we recom- mend that larger units of taxation and administration than the ordinary school district be adopted, such as the township or town and the county.’ Your committee on rural education will function in proportion as its find- ings will elevate the rural schools through purposeful activity of the people in rural districts—those who are to be the beneficiaries of betterment— to higher and higher levels until they approach the limit of efficiency. We have a long distance to travel—‘‘It’s a long, long way to Tipperary, but our heart’s right there.” Every step forward and upward must be covered by the foot of toil. There is no royal road outside of hard con- scientious work. What are the elements involved in the solution of this problem so vital to the interest of our civilization and to the welfare of our people? Is the rural school equal to demands of the positive necessities of our twentieth- century civilization? Is our moral and financial support of it all that the gravity of the situation demands? Intelligence among all the people is the standing army that safeguards the liberty and promotes the progress of the Republic. Our liberties are to be preserved and extended by battling valiantly for a school system, constructively organized and sufficiently financed to send from its portals boys and girls approaching the threshold of manhood and womanhood, who possess intelligence and character of such degree as will make them good citizens—who are in possession of the tools of the civilization into which they are born and who by reason of their initiative, industry, and insight can and will improve that civilization. For the rural schools this problem involves at least the following ele- ments: The arousing of an intelligent and constructive interest among our rural people in the education of their own children at home. The rural 354 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION people find this opportunity elsewhere, but there should be no abridgment of opportunity at home. With clear vision of the purpose of education, with the proper and determined spirit governing the people, then and not till then will the proper means for rural education be supplied. Nor do the means to be furnished demand most attention; it is the willingness to make the utmost use of those at hand which must/be cultivated, a willing- ness so purposeful and cordial that if those means are not adequate others will be supplied. “This is the point of leverage. “The voice of the rural people in their own largest interest is not heard in the halls of legislation, State or National. We need an evangelist to prepare the way—a modern John the Baptist—a new Horace Mann who will vitalize rural communi- ties now intellectually stagnant, and who can inspire a healthful loyal sentiment which will give wholesome resultant direction to every educa- tional movement of the community to achieve the purpose sought. Rural people must not be satisfied with inferior educational facilities—without such arousal and its dynamic reaction, little progress can be made. Many rural. communities cannot meet the expense of the schools they ought to maintain. The imperative need is for more money—more money for buildings and equipment, for school gardens and school farms, for teacherages, for salaries of teachers at work, and to keep highly trained and successful teachers in service. Education is not a local problem, for the integrity and perpetuity of the State and Nation are concerned in its solution. Therefore, there must be poured into the local treasury a stream of contributions from State and National reservoirs. Most of the States are now taking such contributions, and if the Towner-Sterling bill is enacted (and to secure its enactment into law every friend of education should wage battle, enthusiastically and codperatively, until the will of the people becomes the law of the land), provision will be made for the ap- portionment annually among the States of $15,000,000 for the preparation of rural teachers and of $50,000,000 for the equalization of educational opportunity. The localities which need the best efforts of leaders in the rural school line of work are too often the ones which can afford the smallest outlay, and consequently get the poorest service. Outside help must come to such places, and wealth, wherever it is, must, if we are to live up to our American ideals, be taxed for the education of children, the hope of the Nation, wherever they are found. The cause of America is the cause of education which elevates the indi- vidual by reason of his activity of mind and conscience to higher and higher places until the summit of manhood is reached. We must gird our loins and fight for an elementary public-school system sufficiently financed to attract to the service of teaching the best and noblest of our young men and women. ‘Thousands of teachers have left the profession in the last: few years because the compensation received has been less than that of unskilled labor. ‘The test of education is to be found in the kind of teacher employed, and until we feel this with the strength of irresistible conviction NaTIONAL CoUNCIL oF EDUCATION 355 and act in accordance with that feeling we fail in appreciation of those who train the citizenship of America—and surely we are neglecting the foundations. The influence of a good teacher cannot be overestimated. The rural school includes more than teacher, pupils, texts, and apparatus. The good rural school is the creation of the best impulses and purest motives of the community. It is the intellectual center—an integral part of the people, organized in response to a healthy community of purpose. There are in the neighborhood of two hundred thousand one-room schools in this country, one third of which, due to poor roads, local jealousies, fear of increased taxation, and loyalty to the institution in which the voters themselves were schooled, will remain as one-room schools for many years. Hopefully patrons of these schools are animated by the desire to make the one-room school the best that it can be made to develop in its product the qualities adequate to meet the demands and conditions of modern rural life. God helps those who help themselves; yet the power of the single district to help itself is limited by the amount of taxable wealth in the district. So the larger unit contributes from larger sources of taxable wealth, making the basis for distribution the number of children between certain ages in the district—in Wisconsin, for example, those between four and twenty years. This is the basis most frequently used throughout the United States. The need for better conditions must be felt in the local district, and progress will accelerate as the people of that locality will tax themselves to secure better conditions, although State aid in initiating the movement will prove to be a wholesome stimulant. In this Nation there is evidence among rural people themselves that the one-room school does not give its pupils a hunger and thirst for the good things of life. They are groping for improvement. This improvement will come partly as a spiritual process, partly as a matter of study and investigation, and very much as a matter of resolution and initiative. Therefore, the rapid progress of a movement involving the abandonment of the small schools in favor of associate schools, union schools, partially consolidated, and completely consolidated schools—all looking toward the creation of better educational facilities at home, extending the educational horizon and enlarging the circle of local effort. Said Lincoln: “It is the heritage of all the youth of America that they shall have an unfettered start and be given a fair chance in the race of life.” So comes the impetus of consolidation—a dynamic movement, the most highly consequential movement now under way to bring the rural youth into their educational heritage. Witness its marvelous growth in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, New England, in the South, and in the far West, wherever the larger administrative and taxing unit has obtained its growth it has flourished most completely. Axiomatically desirable educational activities should be stimulated and the burden of taxation should be equalized. America is wealthy. ‘There is money enough for public elementary and secondary schools of highest 356 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION efficiency if the available funds are justly and wisely distributed. It is a problem of finance. Consolidation may or may not cost more money, and decision will never be made on the basis of the financial aspects of the problem alone. Con- solidation must justify itself by its demonstrated superiority over the time- honored district system, or it will not generally obtain. The consolidated school is a rural-life institution giving greater service in the way of a longer school year, better equipment, increased regularity of attendance, a more scientifically organized curriculum, a higher quality of teaching force, and more purposeful opportunity for mental and moral growth through self-activity than is possible under the district system. The supreme question is will it produce a higher product of citizenship? All other considerations must sink into insignificance. It is the judgment of your committee that consolidation is the true solution of the problem which seeks to give the rural youth a secondary education at home. He surely is as deserving as the youth in the most favored urban community. ‘The teacher is the soul of the school. All instruction must minister to the development of the child mentally, morally, and physically, and growth comes only through the exercise of mind, conscience, and body, making for right behavior and right thinking. They are not parallel forces, but each carries its own burden in the stages of development, bringing him to manhood with a fund of knowledge—a capital of skills and character strengthened by wholesome discipline. Ours is the duty to take up the task and make for a nearer approach to equality of educational opportunity through the better training of teachers for the rural schools. School is not mere school, nor a preparation for living. School is a section of life, an extremely valuable section of it, and must be so considered if we are to cultivate the child for his own needs, so that he gains power to meet the future by faithfully discharging the duties of the present. The active agencies for the preparation of rural teachers are the training courses in high schools, the county training schools, and the normal schools. The university will some day have a vision of this function and do its share. The function of education is to construct the man, and the means employed in the training of teachers must harmonize to that end. The content of courses in the training of teachers may be classified as professional, academic, and environmental. The professional makes for the development on the part of the teachers, of social amenities, apprecia- tions, ideals, and skill; the academic for the scholarship which gives the teacher confidence in himself and inspires the pupils’ confidence in him, while the environmental enables him to use the rich, suggestive material which lies in close proximity in such a way as to make it dynamic in the mental and moral growth of the child. We have not begun to realize the educational stimulus of bringing the learner into close and sympathetic touch with the real things of the rural community, cultivating his powers of observation, imagination, construction, and judgment and enabling him NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 357 to express himself in active work, keep eyes open, and hands at work even in the school. The establishment by law of these teacher-training institutions is a recognition of the rural school as an entity in itself. Their product will render service in the schools for which they were prepared and will exert a powerful influence in checking the action of school boards, who too often assume that the numerically small enrolment and low attainments of the pupils are a proper measure of the qualifications of a teacher and who there- fore employ an untrained novice, because of willingness to accept a small remuneration. ‘There is nothing stimulating in the work of a teacher whose qualifications are dependent upon the lack of scholarship in the school taught. Good teaching demands scholarship, skill, and the adapta- tion of the curriculum to the grade of the pupil taught and the lower the grade the greater the necessity of the trained teacher. “What is the minimum’? is asked. I shall say that within the next three years we demand high-school graduation, plus one year of professional training; within five years, two years of professional training; within seven years, three years of professional training, and by the year of our Lord 1932, four years of. professional training. All institutions for the training of such teachers should maintain and operate observation and demonstration schools of the highest degree of efficiency, in order that students may observe skillful work of exactly the same kind as obtains in those in which they themselves will function as teachers. Following observation they will practice in them or act as assistants to expert rural teachers in other districts. None but the best qualified teachers, and those who have a thorough and sympathetic knowl- edge of country life, should be engaged as teachers in the observation and demonstration schools. The rural teacher wielding the baton of authority must endow himself, under guidance, with the qualities of leadership, for after all, it is his fight. He must cultivate himself and “carry on.” Briefly the elements of leadership are good health, adequate scholarship, clear vision, and open as well as an optimistic mind, initiative, indomitable will power, and coéperative spirit—all leading to mastery of the situation. The leader includes the opinions of others and extends beyond them, point- ing the way to what must next be done for betterment. He must be tactful, alert, aggressive, willing to lead, be imbued with courage and altruistic purpose, and possess an unconquerable desire to serve others. His responsi- bility is commensurate with his degree of leadership, and in these trying times when Bolshevism is rampant this leadership is responsible for im- mersing the great masses of the people in the spirit of a truly democratic government, making them realize that this is their government and that it is their solemn duty to understand it, appreciate it, and take an active part in it in order that they may preserve, improve, and perpetuate it. ‘This leadership will assert itself in community-center work. In the ordinance of 1787, enacted by the Congress of the U. S. under 358 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the Articles of Confederation organizing the Northwest Territory, is found a sentence which should be written in letters of living light: “Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of.education shall be forever encouraged.” ‘These words specifically applying to the Northwest Terri- tory are true Nationwide, and are as dynamic today as when they were written. ‘loo great pains cannot be taken, no cost is too high to carry out the duty enjoined in this ordinance, and later incorporated in the con- stitutions of the several States, and implied in the Federal Constitution— that wisdom and knowledge be generally diffused among the people, obeying the law of radiation and not the law of concentration. In harmony with this principle the school is not now regarded as an agency of the community, but an integral and sympathetic part of the community. It extends beyond the four walls of the school and makes its blessed influence felt in the humblest home, giving life and inspiration to adult as well as pupil. It is a community center ministering to the needs of all, commanding all to continue their education from day to day, from youth to old age. The rural school, then, whether the one-room school, the consolidated schools, or the rural high school, enlarges its efforts to function as a com- munity center of recreation, music, art, debate, oratory, and the study of community and National problems, for the development among children and adults of a type of culture, distinctly rural in character, yet not inferior to urban culture, in making for the enduring satisfactions of life. The objectives of your committee then may be formulated as follows: 1. America must have first-class schools in every community, rural as well as urban. Equality of educational opportunity must not be a vision, but a reality. 2. Half-way, pitiable, temporary measures will not answer. Let us organize a five or a ten-year program, at the end of which period every rural teacher will have a minimum of four years of professional training beyond high-school graduation. 3. Multiply the number of consolidated and rural high schools. 4. Secure such legislation as will finance rural schools more liberally through adequate State and Federal aid, yet not to the extent of weakening local initiative. America has wealth enough if it is wisely and scientifically distributed. 5. Education surpasses in importance all other governmental activities and is the very life blood of the Nation. 6. Education is an investment and not an expenditure. No field of human endeavor calls so loudly for dynamic leadership as does the rural school. Let us keep the faith and fight a good fight to change it from what it is to what it ought to be. NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 359 FINAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STATE ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOLS Cc. P. CARY, MADISON, WISCONSIN The student of educational administration is familiar with the fact that there has been for years a tendency toward more and more centraliza- tion in public-school administration. This, being interpreted, means making education more and more a State function, and thus to some extent relatively minimizing. local autonomy in school administration. The advocates of centralization believe that this is the only way to secure efficiency, especially in backward communities. There is a counter tendency, almost as clearly marked, to oppose further centralization. "Those who oppose centralization do so on the ground that centralization breeds bureaucracy, tends toward stagnation and loss of educational interest in local communities. Again, there are certain private and parochial school interests that oppose more or less openly any increase in public-school costs and in efficiency due to improved organization. There are also those who express the doctrines that the State has no right to maintain itself in its present form of organization through indoctri- nating the young, as they claim the State does do, when it directs what shall be taught in the schools. Anarchists, for example, are not great friends of State-controlled education. Upon the whole, however, the process of centralization goes on. This means, for one thing, the gradual strengthening of State departments of education. It means abler men at the head of such departments, greater authority, larger appropriations for such departments, more and_ better trained members of the staff, longer tenure in the office of State superin- tendent, or commissioner of education. The change in this direction is already well marked, and is, in the opinion of the committee, bound to con- tinue until it reaches its proper degree of efficiency. At the present time in most States, if not all, it falls short of this efficiency. In some the State machinery is still absurdly inadequate compared with the function it should perform. In some States there is on the part of the political forces an apparent attempt to make public education inefficient and to bring edu- cational organization into confusion, if not disruption, by multiplying educational machinery. The chairman of the committee asserts that in his own State, Wisconsin, a very marked movement of this sort has been going on for several years. If the multiplicity of boards is not intended to confuse and demoralize public education, it is blind and stupid blundering that has created an in- dependent board of vocational education and a State board of education, the latter with no proper function to perform, but with power sufficient to be meddlesome and officious. This legislation was primarily the work of politicians who wanted to get control, but could not under the old order; and of certain manufacturers who wanted to use the schools to secure an abundance of cheap labor, 360 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION partly trained at the expense of the State. At least this is the only reason- able explanation for the action, and some frankly admitted that such was the object. There is developing a tendency for various industrial, political, and social and religious organizations to try to control or to hamper public education. Naturally this varies in different States, but those who have not sensed this are not of the observing type. Labor unions, non-partisan leagues, manufacturers, socialists, anarchists, and so on to the end of the list, are coming to believe that they could carry on their propaganda much faster if they could control the instruction of the young. Within a year, the chairman says, he has been told by different persons that the public schools must teach trade-union principles; principles of socialism ; religion; trades; non-partisan principles; and he knows not how many more. ‘These persons were not all leaders of their sect or party, but it indicates how the wind blows. Your typical average politician has been so frightened by these rumblings that he hastens to assure these agitators that he is “‘with them,” each and all. But it is impossible to get him to take any stand when it comes to the test. Under such difficult and adverse conditions, what is the best form of State educational administration? There is absolutely no way in the opinion of our closest observers and best thinkers of getting an organization that will not suffer at times from the evils of politics. The consensus of opinion seems to be in favor of a State board of education composed of members elected by the people without reference to any political party or any social, industrial, or occupational qualification. One rock on which we are likely to wreck ourselves is that of trying to secure harmony by means of getting every cantankerous and belligerent element represented on boards. When this comes about we shall have forgotten all about the boys and girls to be educated and shall proceed to stage an endless fight as to who shall control. Sometimes it will be one element and sometimes another, with consequent educational chaos. The board at best is unsatisfactory, for it is sure to be mediocre in its action, no matter how able individual members are. Whatever is done has to be a “consensus of opinion” and this is not wisdom but compromise and adjustment of opinions, an elimination of the most progressive measures. But American opinion just now is such that we can scarcely expect legis- latures to grant one man the authority ‘that is necessary to carry forward the educational work of the State in an efficient manner. The public would rather trust its affairs to a mediocre board than to put them into the hands of a single executive and leader, though the latter might easily prove ten times as effective. The worst thing that can be said about democracy is that in its Practical workings it does not seek, or even welcome, efficiency in its public affairs. To muddle along in a “so-so” fashion is the actual practice, and it must be cheap as well as inefficient. Where such a board exists, it should choose the chief educational officer. But the person so selected will vary owing to the conditions from a political Jack-in-the-box type of Secretary up to a high-class, high-minded man NaTIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 361 worthy to be commissioner of education in a great State. It will depend upon the ideals of the State and the status of practical politics. Such chance, it seems, we must take and make the best of it. After this preamble, let us formulate briefly answers to certain funda- mental questions: W hat is the function of a State Department of Education?—Judging by the answers received from many Of our leading educators in various types of educational activity from all over the country, there is a consensus of opinion that the State should have a head to its educational system and that this head should be the State department of education. ‘This depart- ment should direct public-school effort throughout the State, at least it should have a large share in directing it. A State requires official leader- ship as much as a debating society needs a chairman, or an army a command- ing officer. One great purpose is to secure teamwork in educational affairs. "This leadership is not merely formal, like the chairmanship of a meeting. It must be vital leadership, and worthy leadership, not auto- cratic or dictatorial. If the leader is leader in name only—that is, by virtue of the fact that by some hook or crook he has been elevated to high position without a sufficient background of training and experience and without sufficient native ability, including adjustability, the outcome must inevitably be deplorable. The following statements as to the function of such a department are chosen from letters sent to the committee, and quoted with approval: (1) To interpret the educational statutes and act as an executive agency for the carrying out of existing education statutes; (2) to exercise leadership throughout the school system of the State; to unify, guide, and inspire; to give publicity and to study the educational problems of the State scien- tifically; (3) to develop an adequate program of public education through the securing of suitable legislation; (4) to focus the attention of the public on the educational problems of the State; to secure codperation of organiza- tions other than educational; to shape public opinion along lines of pro- gressive education; (5) to collect, interpret, and give publicity to statistical data of an educational sort, and to make surveys where needed in the State; (6) to serve (referring to the head of the department) as member of the various educational boards, such as university and normal regents. (Such membership should not exhaust the duties and responsibilities of the chief educational officer in his relationship to the institutions. ) Why do not such departments function better than they ordinarily func- tion in practice?—There is beyond question a belief among our leading educators that such departments do not function as they should. It is questionable whether such departments, taken by and large, reach an efficiency of more than 25 on a scale of 100. Why is it? Here are some of the answers that were sent to the committee: (1) Lack of money; (2) lack of a competent chief, or head, including lack of vision, training, experi- ence, force, and executive ability; (3) lack of legal authority; (4) lack of public codperation; (5) lack of educational ideals in selecting assistants ; 362 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (6) interference by the political forces of the State; (7) jealousy on the part of petty schoolmen, readiness to throw sand in the gearing whenever possible (There is much educational sabotage of this sort in many of our States) ; interference by private school interests of.one kind or other (The more success the public schools meet with the harder for private schools to exist) ; (9) interference by conflicting or rival organizations; and (10) interference on the part of the industrial and the farming interests. What should be the size of a department in a State having approximately a population of 2,500,000 in order to function properly?2—The opinion seems to be fairly general that in such a State, indeed in any State, the min- imum number of members should be about forty. Eight or ten of these, at least, should be persons who could in the general educational market com- mand a salary of from $6000 to $7500 a year. ‘These experienced, highly- trained, and capable persons would constitute the heads of departments, and the number of such heads will depend on the types of activity to be super- vised and guided. It would certainly include: (a) Teacher training; (4) high schools; (c) graded elementary; (d) ungraded, semi-graded, and rural; (e) sub- normal; (f) school buildings and grounds; (g) physical training and in the broader sense, health; (h) libraries and library reading; (i) statistics and their interpretation. ‘This list is not exhaustive, but some of these may at times be combined. A word of caution. A department should not be pigeon-holed off to such an extent that it becomes narrow and isolated. All departments, or divisions within the general department, should be parts of the orchestra, or, if you prefer, team workers like the properly trained foot-ball team. The salaries paid to the remaining members of the staff should be at least three times the amount paid in the average city grades. There should be about a dozen stenographers and persons filling clerical positions. It is not assumed in this statement that the department will undertake any activities other than those directly connected with the supervision and leadership in public schools. The sort of activities that are grouped together in the State of New York we are not here considering. What should be the relation of the head of the department to the higher institutions of learning?—The answer is that he should be a member of all boards having to do with public education such as the State university and State normal schools, and that in addition to his function as a board member he should be expected to have great influence in shaping courses of study for the training of teachers and should determine all matters of accrediting high-school graduates to the higher institutions of learning. For universi- ties to determine the qualifications of high-school graduates for entrance to such institutions is illogical, for it has a constant tendency to divert high- school training into mere preparation for college. There is a general desire among thoughtful friends of public schools to put education on a basis of organization and finances, commensurate with its importance to the State. But this can only be done by creating some NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 363 such department as has just been indicated. We could expect real edu- cational leaders from such a group, provided they were not harassed by petty schoolmen and petty politicians—a pretty large proviso. Shall we have men and women of the highest training and ideals manag- ing our State educational affairs, or shall it be confusion worse comfounded by having mediocre men and women scrap it out owing to the claims of various “isms,” critics, financial interests, and occupations? While we hope for the best it is most certain that we shall have to fight from now on to preserve and to make more efficient our school systems. Good people are so incredulous about the evil intentions or stupidity of anyone that they may not wake up to lock the barn until after the horse is stolen. Finally, the head of the school system—State superintendent, commis- sioner of education, by whatever name known, should be the. executive oficer of the board, and the brains of the board as well, in everything that pertains to the professional side of the work of the department. Again, this can be true only when the man is worthy to assume such leadership. Such a leader will bide his time when cocky and opinionated members grow too officious. He will not foolishly take offense and openly resent the ebullition of self-important mediocrity. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON AMERICAN TEACHERS’ COLLEGES CHARLES MC KENNY, PRESIDENT OF MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICHIGAN The committee which is making this report was created at the February meeting of the Council one year ago but its personnel was not fully made up till some weeks later, and it was unable to get together until the meeting of the N. E. A. at Des Moines last July. At the Des Moines meeting the chairman was authorized to prepare a plan for carrying on the pro- posed investigation and submit the same by mail to the members of the committee. This he did in the early fall. ‘The several members of the committee offered suggestions which were incorporated in the final draft of the plan. Necessarily the investigation had to be made by means of the much execrated, much used and absolutely necessary questionnaire. In behalf of the committee I here and now heartily thank the presidents of normal schools and colleges who through their codperation made this study possible. Reports were received from every State and the committee has reason to believe that the data herewith presented faithfully represents the present situation in the various items reported upon. The purpose of the study—The study had two main objectives— 1. To discover the scope of the teachers’ college movement, i. e., to what extent normal schools are advancing in rank to teachers’ colleges. 2. To gather data which would reveal the practices and standards ob- taining in teachers’ colleges and their relations to practices and standards generally accepted in college and university circles. 364 NaTIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION It was thought such a study might serve a double purpose—first, as a record of conditions in the year 1922, which might be of value for com- parison in future investigations, and second, it might aid in the important work of standardization of the normal school and teachers’ college. No financial aid was given the committee, which accounts for the fact that the data are not elaborated into tables and graphs. The committee hopes that the report will be of interest and value to those at least who are working in the teacher-training field. The growth of the teachers’ college—During the last two decades and more particularly during the last five years a new type of educational insti- tution has come into existence—namely, the State teachers’ college, which is a professional school for the training of teachers, with a four-year cur- riculum, requiring high-school graduation for entrance and granting the bachelor’s degree. It is true that a few individual institutions of this.sort had existed for a longer period and established themselves firmly.in the educational world, but the number was relatively small. Up to 1916 there were but fifteen teachers’ colleges among the sixty institutions in- cluded in this report. Since that date forty-five have established four-year curricula beyond the high school. In other words forty-five of the sixty institutions reporting extended their curricula to four years above the high school during the last five years, and nineteen in 1921. Today, fifty-one of the sixty institutions confer the bachelor’s degree. ‘These institutions are to be found in twenty-three different States representing every section of the country, east, west, north, south. Institutions in three other States offer four-year courses but do not offer degrees. Extent of the teachers’ college movement—The committee is indebted to President J. O. Evjen, of Mayville, North Dakota, for the following data: “There are 167 normal schools in the United States. One year ago 62 of them were giving four years of college work, Today there are 91 doing this work, showing an increase of 47 per cent in one year. The normal schools doing four years of work beyond high school constitute 45 per cent of the total number of normal schools in our country. “Of the State normal schools offering three-year college courses there are 24 in number, or 14.4 per cent of the total. “The State normal schools giving two-year courses above high school number 52, or 31.1 per cent of the total. “This means that two thirds of the State normal schools are offering work beyond two-year courses for high-school graduates, and that only one third are of the conservative order. ‘ “To recapitulate, there are 91 States normal schools with four years, 24 with three years, and 52 with two years of college work.” Causes leading to the establishment of teachers’ colleges—The history of the normal schools is well known. The first normal schools were estab- lished in Massachusetts. Colleges had long been in the field, were well established and were furnishing teachers for the secondary schools. The schools that especially needed assistance were the elementary schools, and NaTIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 365 the normal schools were created with the definite purpose of furnishing teachers for the common schools. The normal schools of the Middle West have a somewhat different history. They were organized practically at the same time as the State universities and colleges, and consequently did not find their field of service limited. While unquestionably it was conceived that their function primarily was to serve the elementary schools, the situation in which they found themselves drew them into a broader line of activity. “The colleges and universities were not meeting the need for trained teachers for the high schools, and the normal schools were called upon to supply the de- mand; consequently, without any predetermination on their part they extended their curricula of training into the secondary field, and as a result in the Middle West the normal schools from their beginning have trained a fair percentage of the teachers who have gone into the secondary schools. What has been true of the Middle West has been true largely of the West and South. 2 At first the high schools did not demand college graduation on the part of their teachers and even today outside of a few favored States the smaller high schools are quite barren of college graduates. But the standards grad- ually have become more exacting, and the tendency on the part of normal schools has been to expand into teachers’ colleges to meet the changing situation. But this report would not accurately record the real facts if it repre- sented that the normal schools have been passive and disinterested toward the proposition of their expansion into teachers’ colleges. Quite the con- trary. For a quarter of a century the conviction has been gaining strength throughout normal-school circles that the best interests of American educa- tion demanded that as far as is possible and practical, normal schools should extend their curricula into the senior college field. This conviction rests on the following reasons: The schools of the future should demand on the part of the grade teacher more than two years of preparation beyond high school. ‘The modern elementary curriculum is rich in intellectual, social, and cultural material and cannot be administered as it should be by one who has not had broad and generous preparation. The normal schools are finding it impossible to give in two years the solidity and breadth of training which the elementary teacher needs. It is not expected that all elementary-school teachers, even in the best schools, will be college graduates, but it is believed that by holding up college graduation as an ideal more will be induced to keep up their growth after entering the profession and the teaching staff of our elementary schools will more and more be stimulated by the presence of college-trained teachers. Through summer schools and extension courses teachers in service may without loss of time and with reasonable expense continue their study, and a college degree offers a stimulating goal. The policy already established in some school systems of giving equal pay for equal preparation, no matter what department the teacher may be in, 366 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION will stimulate the elementary teachers to complete a college course. The normal schools must extend their programs of study if they are to be factors in the movement for college-trained teachers throughout the entire public-school system. Another reason is the economic. A study of the teaching profession by Coffman put into definite form what everybody kmew—that teachers are drawn largely from homes of limited economic resources. The present study reveals the fact that in the sixty-one institutions reporting about fifty per cent of the students are self-supporting wholly or to a great degree. It also indicates that, as a rule, a year of instruction in a normal school costs not more than sixty per cent as much as a year of instruction at the university of the State in which the normal school is located. If America is to have adequately trained teachers in her schools she must make it possible for the young men and women who are dependent on themselves for an education to get that education at a cost which they feel that they can meet. Again, the normal schools find it difficult, if not quite impossible, to sustain a faculty of a high degree of educational and professional attainment with a course limited to two years. The universities have justly com- mented on the lack of productive scholarship in the normal schools. One reason for the condition is that the grade of work done in a normal school has not been tempting to men of scholarship. The courses are too limited both in time and character. Moreover, the hours of teaching have been many. ‘The extension of their curriculum to four years and the accepting of college standards relative to the length of the school year and the hours of teaching would make it easier for the normal schools to attract to their faculties men and women of broad and productive scholarship. Then, too, the normal schools have felt the lack on the campus of what in college circles are called upper-classmen. Not all the beneftt a student gets in college comes from teacher and classroom. There is an invaluable contribution made to the expanding mind and character of the college youth through social contact with his fellows and there is also the subtle but potent influence of what we term atmosphere and tradition. An institution that keeps its students but two years, one half of whom are every year new to the campus, cannot develop the traditions, customs, and atmosphere which many of us prize as the most helpful and educative and lasting influences of college life. Many educators, some connected with normal schools and some not, have maintained that it is not good educational policy to turn over to colleges and universities exclusively the function of training high-school teachers. Monopoly tends to breed stagnation. Competition is the life of trade. University inspectors of high schools have carried back to their institution stimulating suggestions when they have found as they so often have done Normal. graduates with less than four years of training doing better teaching than university graduates. The gospel of professional training has been preached up and down the land by the normal schools. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 367 just as the gospel of academic preparation has been preached by the uni- versities. Each needs the stimulating influence of the other. Never before in the memory of living men has the public been so aroused to the needs of its schools as it was during the war. ‘The threatened break- down of our educational system through the appalling lack of trained teach- ers was heralded over the land by daily press and periodical and from platform and pulpit. One of the fruits of that campaign is an awakening within the ranks of the teaching profession as well as without, which is demanding better teachers and more ample means for educating them. Perhaps the greatest single influence in the establishment of so many teachers’ colleges during the last five years is the tremendous increase in the number of graduates from our high schools and the consequent increase in attendance at our universities. A few years ago, the universities and the normal schools were to a certain extent competitors for students. “That day apparently has gone by. The universities find themselves crowded and with no hope of increasing their capacity sufficiently to take care of the students who will knock annually at their doors. Consequently they are the more inclined to welcome the extension of the normal-school curriculum to four years, seeing in that measure a relief for their undergraduate work and a means of strengthening their graduate schools. Enrolment—Graduates—It probably will be a surprise to many to learn that during the last ten years teachers’ colleges in the group reporting have conferred 6440 bachelor degrees and during the past five years 4409, and in 1920-21 1228, and that in the current year there are enrolled 12,061 students in the four-year courses. The figures bear convincing testimony to the service that teachers’ colleges are rendering in supplying college- trained teachers to the school systems of the States. Entrance requirements—lIn reply to the question, “Are the entrance re- quirements to the curricula leading to the bachelor’s degree the same as those demanded by the university of your State?”, fifty-three, representing twenty-three States, replied in the affirmative; twelve, representing five States, did not reply; and four, representing four States, replied ‘practically the same.” These replies reveal an encouraging situation and indicate that the teachers’ colleges are squaring themselves with the highest standards as far as entrance requirements are concerned. Relation of the shorter curricula to the four-year curricula—It has already been noted that teachers’ colleges have developed from normal schools ad- ministering two-year courses by the addition of two years of work. Practi- cally all the institutions retain their shorter curricula. Of the sixty report- ing, forty have curricula one year in length, fifty-four two years in length, thirty-three three years in length. A license to teach is generally issued by the institution to a candidate finishing any of the curricula named. It is a significant fact that reveals the economic status of the student body of normal schools that from two thirds to nine tenths of those taking degrees withdraw from college to teach before the course is completed. An interesting and significant consideration is the relation of these shorter curricula to the curricula leading to a degree. 368 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION To the question, “In what respect, if any, is the curriculum of studies pursued by those who remain in the institution four years different in sequence from that pursued by those who drop and teach after two years?” twenty-five replied “‘no difference;” thirty-one made no answer, which, perhaps may be interpreted as implying no difference, one reports some variation in subject matter, and one reports practice teaching as coming later in the four-year group. In forty-seven institutions students may pass from the junior college to the senior college without loss. In seven institutions a loss is sustained. Degrees—In no respect is the law of individual difference as illustrated in teachers’ colleges more clearly demonstrated than in the variety of bachelor’s degrees conferred. Forty-one institutions reporting show the following: A. B., seven; A. B. and B. S., thirteen; A. B. in Ed., six; A. B. and B. S. in Ed., one; B. Ed., eight; one grants A. B. and B. S. in home economics and agriculture; one, A. B. in music; one, B. of Musig; four (Greeley, Gunnison, Albany, and Rock Hill), grant the master’s degree for work done; one D. Pd. and one M. Pd. as honorary. The replies to the question why both the A. B. and B. S. degrees are granted bring out the fact that the traditional significance of these degrees is still recognized. The A. B. represents the humanities and the B. Ses science. ‘The custom obtains in some institutions of granting the B. S. on the completion of such special curricula as music, physical education, com- mercial and manual arts, which lack the accepted, academic content usually represented by the A. B. and which consequently would not receive full university recognition. Thirty-three approve this policy, twenty do not. This bewildering variety of degrees might lead the uniformed to conclude that the teachers’ colleges are sinners above all others in this respect, but American colleges and universities show quite a varied assortment. It would be well if our teacher-training institutions which grant degrees should recognize teaching as a distinct vocation and adopt a degree which would be significant and indicative. Relation to the university—One of the battle grounds in American edu- cation often fought over and still the theater of conflict is the relation of the normal school to the university. There have been and are two points at issue: First, shall the normal schools confine their work to the training of elementary teachers?, and second, what credit shall the university give for studies taken in the normal school? In reality, the two reduce to one— the matter of credit. For decades after the normal schools came into existence the number of high schools was small, and the normal schools were obliged to admit stu- dents with only grammar and district-school preparation. “The normal schools were at the best little more than professional high schools and their work received scant consideration from the universities. In time, high schoo!s multiplied in number, and the normal schools began to increase the entrance requirements in their diploma courses. By 1900 normal schools generally offered a course two years in length, based upon a com- plete standard high-school course, or its equivalent. To meet the needs NaTIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 369 of students who were not high-school graduates longer courses were also maintained. Also by 1900 or soon after the State universities in the Middle West and West had begun to give practically sixty hours or two years of credit for the two years of post high-school work done in the normal schools. In some, reductions were made where the credits were too largely in elemen- tary subjects. "The normal schools had consequently practically established themselves as junior colleges. But the pressure brought upon the normal schools in several States to prepare high-school teachers led a number of them to take on the work of the senior. college and to grant the bachelor’s degree and to ask full recognition of these degrees on the part of the uni- versities. The discussion of the issue thus raised has been heated and some- times lurid. As it usually is in such controversies, not all the truth and justice tented under either banner. ‘The universities have a right to insist, and it is well for the teachers’ colleges that they do insist that teachers’ colleges square with college standards in respect to entrance requirements, scholarship, faculty, teacher’s load, student’s load, size of classes, content and equivalency of courses, and physical equipment. On the other hand, the teachers’ colleges are justified in asking and expecting that when college standards in these respects are attained and maintained that recognition shall be speedily and cheerfully given. Lack of college ideals and standards has been the prevailing sin of the normal schools and nascent teachers’ col- leges and gross ignorance of what some teachers’ colleges have really achieved and prejudice against them because of their lowly history and fear of them as rivals in training teachers for secondary schools have been the outstanding sins of the universities. It is reassuring to know that the men on the facul- ties of our universities who best know normal schools and teachers’ colleges are their warmest friends. The last decade has witnessed a progressive tendency for universities and teachers’ colleges to come into satisfactory working relationships. “Twenty-five teachers’ colleges in fifteen States report that the universities of their respective States recognize them as senior colleges and honor their degree. Forty-three institutions representing twelve States report that they are not fully recognized as of senior college rank. Foreign language—Nineteen teachers’ colleges require two years of for- eign language for entrance ; twenty-eight require none; twenty-five did not reply, which probably means that they have no policy in the matter. Very likely most of these so replying have not yet developed the four-year curric- ulum and consequently have not had to face the situation. Eleven do not require foreign language for graduation. Here is a matter in which the policy of some teachers’ colleges differs radically from that of the colleges. Universally, colleges require at least two years of foreign language, either for entrance or as a part of the college course. It is a debatable question whether it is just to require foreign language, of every one taking a bachelor’s degree from a teachers’ college. Many who seek a degree are mature in years, have no interest in foreign 370 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION language, and little ability in language study. To require a foreign language of them is to sacrifice them for the sake of a principle. But ‘institutions which do not require foreign language for the bachelor’s degree are out of step with the procession and very likely will find difficulty in establishing satisfactory relations with the graduate schools of universities. Faculty—General preparation—The standard preparation of college teachers as set up by the North Central Association is a minimum of one year of graduate study. Certainly the standard is not too high, and the faculties of teachers’ colleges should expect to be judged and evaluated by the accepted college standards. “The present study shows that about nine per cent of the teachers in the fifty-four institutions reporting, exclusive of teachers of special subjects like drawing, music, physical education, and manual arts, hold an earned Ph. D., and about half of the remainder hold the master’s degree, and about ten per cent hold the bachelor’s degree. Judd and Parker, in 1916, found that seven per cent of normal-school teachers held the doctor’s degree as against thirty-four per cent in colleges, and that thirty-one per cent of normal-school teachers held the master’s degree as against sixty-one per cent in colleges. The present study indi- cates that the teachers’ colleges ranked higher than the normal schools in 1916, but they are still much below the colleges in respect of the training of their teachers. ‘There was a time when a normal school or a teachers’ college could offer as a plausible and even a reasonable excuse for the lack of masters and doctors on its faculty that they were hard and even impossible to get, at least the type that had sympathy with normal-school ideals and work. But that day is past. Men and women of graduate scholarship and successful teaching experience and human qualities are to be had today for salaries which the normal schools are paying. ‘They are teaching on the faculties of our denominational colleges for lower salaries than normal schools offer. If the normal schools and teachers’ colleges do not recruit their faculties from this type of teacher in the future the reason for the failure will lie with themselves. It will be they and not the times that will be out of joint. Shall teachers’ colleges be simon-pure professional schools?—This is a controversial question. Many educators of candid and well-informed judg- ment maintain that teachers’ colleges should interpret their name literally and be absolutely and unreservedly professional schools. ‘The Carnegie report on the Missouri normal schools holds this point of view. This means that the teachers’ college curricula should contain only such courses as would bear more or less directly on the business of public education. It means, moreover, and this is a significant fact, that the teachers’ college should not invite the attendance of students who do not intend to teach. The teachers’ college should stick to its peculiar knitting just as do the colleges of dentistry, law, and medicine. It is urged that the teachers’ college has no right to enter into competition with liberal arts colleges and that to do so is to weaken its position both internally and externally as a professional school. : Opposed to this view is a group of equally candid and well-informed NaTIONAL CoUNCIL oF EDUCATION 371 men who hold that the teachers’ college should serve its territory in the field of higher education; that it should invite to its campus the youth of its locality who want a college education, irrespective of what their pro-_ fession or business in life is to be. Allen and Pearse, in their text, Self- Surveys of Teacher-Training Schools, advocate this point of view. On the refinements of this debatable question this committee would probably show a division of opinion, but it is the unanimous belief that no teachers’ college is justified in sacrificing professional esprit de corps and the atmosphere of intellectual and spiritual enthusiasm for teaching for the prestige of numbers. Teachers’ colleges are divided in their opinion relative to this matter. Twenty-four state that they encourage the attendance of students who do not expect to teach, and thirty-nine state they do not. Three encourage such attendance to a limited extent. Teacher's load—It is a matter for favorable comment that the range oi the teacher’s load in only twenty-four of the fifty-five institutions reporting exceeds sixteen hours, and but eight reached .twenty-four hours. One reported twenty-five hours. This committee is inclined to think that the condition shows a trend in the right direction. Of sixty-six schools report- ing, twenty-four stated that their teachers taught forty or more weeks per year; seven had a school year of forty-two weeks; one, forty-three weeks; four, forty-four weeks; three, forty-five weeks; four, forty-six weeks; and four, forty-eight weeks. Forty schools pay their teachers extra for summer school work. Correspondence—Extension work—The taking on of correspondence and extension work has complicated the question of the teacher’s load. In twenty-two teachers’ colleges this extra mural work is carried by the faculty in addition to their regular classroom work. Student’s load—The showing is even better regarding the student’s load, but eleven schools reporting permitting their students to carry twenty hours or more of work requiring preparation. Separation of junior and senior students in classes—The answers to the question, “What fraction of the work required for the bachelor’s degree must be done in classes to which freshmen are not admitted?” show a wide variation in practice. ‘I'wenty-four made no answer which must be inter- preted to mean no rule yet established. ‘Three report all classes open to freshmen. Those colleges reporting a rule show a range from one fourth to three fourths, 7. ¢., freshmen are excluded from one fourth to three fourths of the classes designed for sophomores, juniors, and seniors. ‘Chat this is an important matter goes without argument. It is reassuring that thirty-six colleges have recognized its significance. QOhservations and conclusions—In the opinion of this committee the teachers’ college movement is sound in policy. The normal schools began as secondary schools with a professional purpose. As public education progressed they advanced to the rank of junior colleges, and with the further progress of public education it is perfectly natural that they should develop into professional colleges. This development is in complete harmony with BZ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the general advancement of organized education. Moreover, it is a neces- sity if we are to have a body of trained teachers with a professional attitude toward their work. Especially is it important that we should have teachers’ colleges in view of the disposition of teachers in service to continue their education. “Thousands of such teachers find the work offered by the teachers’ colleges during the summer session their greatest single opportunity for academic and professional advancement. The teachers’ college movement is still in the experimental stage. While a few institutions have established themselves firmly in ‘the college field and have received general recognition for their work, probably three fourths of the so-called teachers’ colleges are just advancing to senior college rank. It will take a number of years for them to establish their courses, increase their attendance, and standardize their work on a college basis. ‘The movement should receive encouragement from all friends of public education. Legislatures which have been responsible for the légal enact- ments which have created these teachers’ colleges should back them up financially and make it possible for them to develop a physical plant and the faculties necessary for the work which they have been authorized to undertake. ‘The universities should evince a codperative spirit toward the teachers’ college movement. In the great work of education there is room and glory for all. ‘The universities will find their resources taxed to the limit to care for those who desire to enter their doors. Any spirit of rivalry or over- zealous competition between the educational institutions of a State should cease. ‘The university and the teachers’ college should be colleagues and firm friends in advancing the interests of education within their respective States. The normal schools which advance to the rank of teachers’ colleges should take the name college. It is idle to ask what is in a name, for there is much in a name. In public thinking the term school is applied to an institution below college rank. The name college has an appeal which the name normal school does not have, and as soon as a normal school is authorized to take up senior college work it should take the name indicative of its rank, The teachers’ colleges should address themselves to the task of standard- ization. If they are to be colleges in name they should be colleges in fact. This means that for the entrance requirements, student’s load, content of courses, academic preparation of faculty, faculty load, number of weeks’ teaching per year, and the like, they should square with college standards. ‘Teachers’ colleges may never hope to have the respect and recognition of the colleges and universities and the public in general until this task of standardization is achieved. As an aid to this standardization, the committee suggests that a more detailed study be made of the organization and administration of teachers’ colleges and of the content of the course of study, such report to be made by the present committee or by some other committee authorized for that particular purpose. NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 373 RECENT EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN THE UNITED STATES JOHN J. TIGERT, U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The World War very naturally affected human society. Consequently during the War and since the War we have witnessed a very unstable situation in business, in politics, in every realm of human relationship, including education. The general conditions attendant on the War brought to this country an unparalleled wave of material prosperity and an un- precedented spiritual awakening during the course of the struggle. These flood tides of material and spiritual forces quickly reacted at the termina- tion of hostilities and left the country in a back-wash of business depression and in a revolt from the magnanimous spirit which marked our participa- tion in the conflict. All this has had a profound influence upon educational progress. The situation has brought about a keener realization of our educational needs, a deep awakening to the importance of education, for a time a greatly increased outpouring of public money for the benefit of schools, but more recently a well-defined tendency in all parts of the country to retrench on expenditures for education. So far as I am able to say, this tendency toward reaction has had little actual result, though it has been clearly felt everywhere and our educational forces have been com- pelled to mobilize against it in practically all quarters. This is the general situation with reference to education in the Nation at the present time. It will be impossible in the limited time allotted me to outline even in a cursory way all the progressive movements that we have witnessed during recent years, but I may sketch in contour some of the more important features of our progress. Educational legislation—Nothing promotes progress in education more generally than improvement in the legislation affecting schools. The most outstanding piece of educational legislation in recent years was the passage during the War of the Vocational Education Act, commonly called the Smith-Hughes Act. This Act became law shortly before the United States entered the war and the Federal Board for Vocational Education was organized in August, 1917, to carry out its provisions. The Act was not a war measure as some have unfortunately supposed. It was intended primarily to stimulate vocational education throughout the States by means of Federal subsidies, with special reference to education in trades and industries, agriculture, home economics, and commerce for boys and girls of high-school age and for teacher training in the above mentioned subjects. The effect of the Act was immediate and general. Within a period of ten months every State in the Union had made formal acceptance of the proposal of the Federal Government and by appropriating money on a fifty-fifty basis had entered into a cooperative agreement with the Federal Government to promote vocational education in the public schools and to develop facilities for training vocational teachers. ‘The use of the agencies thus set up for the rehabilitation of soldiers injured in the World 374 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION War for a time overshadowed the primary purposes of the Act, but with the recent transfer of soldier rehabilitation to a separate organization, we can hope for a steady progress in vocational education throughout the Nation. More recently also there has béen added to the work of the Federal Board responsibility for rehabilitating those injured in industry. This work is just beginning to be developed. The Act provides for an annual increase in funds for all purposes reaching a maximum in the year 1925-26 and annually thereafter. The total amount expended annually upon all types of vocational educa- tion and derived from Federal, State, and local sources increased from $2,653,776.52 in 1917-18 to $10,649,852.11 in 1920-21. The total enrolment of the vocational schools which received Federal aid increased from 164,186 in 1917-18 to 323,028 in 1920-21. The number of those enroled in vocational teacher-training courses which received Federal aid increased from 6589 in 1917-18 to 15,358 in 1920-21. : The Federal Act for vocational education, therefore, is seen to have had a significant and universal effect upon the progress of vocational education. In the States there has been much legislative reform in the past decade. Within the past twelve years, fourteen States have adopted school codes, thus bringing into a homogeneous whole all of the statutory provisions of these States relating to public education. ‘This is much needed progress, because most collections of school laws, as published by State superintend- ents, contain many inconsistencies and some contradictions. In 1919, Alabama, Georgia, New Hampshire, and West Virginia adopted codes. Delaware revised her code in 1919, 1920, and 1921. There are now forty-two States which have State boards of education or like general administrative bodies, and the remaining six States have boards for specific purposes, such as for the administration of vocational education. ‘The usual board is appointed by the Governor and consists of seven members, this being the median number for forty-two States. Pennsylvania was the only State in which an important change in the State board was made in 1921. ‘There the State board was replaced by a State council of education, whose powers are somewhat greater than those of the old board. This council is composed of the State superintendent, as an ex officio member, and nine members appointed by the Governor. Legislation with reference to the State superintendency shows two definite tendencies, but rather slow progress in both directions. One is the tendency toward removal of this office from politics, and the other is toward a change of title of the chief State educational officer. Within the last three years, Delaware, Minnesota, and New Hampshire displaced appointment of the chief State officer by the Governor with appointment by the State Board of Education. In the same period, however, Massa- chusetts and Tennessee reversed this policy and quite recently Kentucky and Indiana voted down a proposition to make the office appointive instead of elective on a party ticket in a political campaign. NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION HS In the last few years, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Minnesota have changed the title of the chief State educational officer to Commissioner of Education. There are now nine States which have enacted legislation which makes the county the unit of administration for rural education in a very pro- nounced way, while there are ten States which have enacted a semi-county unit law. Delaware, Arizona, Montana, Oregon, and Missouri have all passed legislation in the past year or two looking toward the county unit of administration, but the law has been held in abeyance in Missouri await- ing a referendum vote. Twelve States have now taken the office of county superintendent from politics. This was done in Arkansas in 1919 and in Kentucky in 1920. There has been a marked tendency of late toward more adequate assistance for county superintendents, but four fifths of them are still without any assistance whatsoever. In the direction of increased support for the schools, there has been a strong tendency for more liberal support from State funds. Sixteen States have recently assumed a much larger share of the burden of financial sup- port for their public schools. One of the most marked features of recent legislative progress is in increasing the effectiveness of attendance laws. There has been a steady tendency to push the upper compulsory age limit from fourteen years up to sixteen years and, to a less degree, a tendency to push the lower age limit down to seven years. Thirty-five States now have an upper limit of sixteen years or more, eight of these having amended their laws in the last few years. Other phases of improvement of attendance are noticeable in the provision that attendance shall be for the full term instead of for a part of the term, for more attendance officers, and more definite fixing of responsibility for the enforcement of the law. Since 1918, seventeen States have increased the minimum length of the term from two to four months. Four of these States have now established nine months as a minimum. ‘These provisions have resulted in a considerable increase in attendance in the last few years, for which complete and accurate figures are not yet available. There are many other phases of progressive legislation which we must omit because of lack of space, such as laws pertaining to Americanization, eradication of illiteracy, physical education, improvement of rural schools, teacher training, and the like. Rural education—We believe that our rural schools are the most im- portant part of the school system now demanding the attention of pro- gressive reform, and we wish to give some attention to the progress that we have achieved here of late. While progress in rural education is marked by achievements in every phase of school work, the most notable growth in recent years is in three lines, namely, professional supervision of classroom instruction, consolida- tion of small schools, extension of high-school facilities. 376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Supervision—A remarkable awakening to the need and value of pro- fessional supervision for rural schools has taken place in the last five years. The old conception was that a county superintendent was chiefly an ad- ministrative and clerical officer; he discharged his obligations to the teacher and the school by paying one short visit a year. Progress is indicated by a general tendency to increase salaries of country superintendents, and by the increase in the number of professional supervisory assistants employed during the last few years. Educational qualifications are now exacted from candidates for the position of county superintendent in thirty-seven States and teaching experience in twenty-two States. The salaries of these officers have increased since 1916 from 25 to 100 per cent. ‘The number of superintendents receiving over $2400 per year has increased from 78 in 1916 to 782 in 1920, or from 5 to 20 per cent of the total number. The number receiving over $3000 has increased from 32 to 232. The maximum salary has increased from $7500 to $9000 in the same period. Over $2,000,000 was spent in 1920-21 for employing professional super- visory assistants for rural schools. The number of such assistants has increased since 1916 from 479 to 994. The number of office assistants furnished county superintendents increased from 372 in 1916 to 1319 in 1920. The idea of State supervision of rural schools has also grown. The number of State supervisors employed has increased from 46 in 1916 to 117 in 1920. Consolidation—-The movement toward consolidation is growing rapidly, the number of schools increasing in some States more in one year than in the preceding twenty years. In 1920 there were eighteen States which had no laws providing for consolidation. Now all States have such laws. Seventeen grant State aid to encourage consolidation, of which-ten have provided the whole amount or increased the amount given in the last ten vears. Reports sent in to the Bureau of Education indicate that there are 13,000 consolidated schools, enrolling 750,000 children. The money spent on transportation has increased until it is now over $14,000,000 annually, or about 2 per cent of all the money spend on schools in the United States. Indiana and Minnesota each spent over $1,000,000 a year for transporta- tion. Consolidation is beginning to mean not only good elementary school advantages, but a high school within reach of the children’s homes. Extension of high-school facilitiese—The movement to extend high-school facilities to children of rural communities is noticeable in three ways: (1) By the increase in the number of high schools ; (2) By providing for the payment of tuition from public funds of all children living in non-high-school territory, as in California and Illinois; (3) By providing dormitories where children from isolated rural com- munities may board at reasonable cost. Notable advances in one or more of these directions in the last two years have taken place in Mississippi, Tennessee, Illinois, California, and Montana. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 377 Increase of teachers’ salaries—The increase of salaries for those in schoo} work has been very marked during the past few years, but during the same period increased remuneration for laborers, artisans, and other workers was very much greater in proportion. Until 1921, increases in salaries for teachers lagged a long way behind the increased cost of living and the increased price of food. Only recently have the increases provided put the teaching profession in an economic position as favorable as that which existed before the War. From an economic standpoint, however, the teaching profession has not yet received a benefit from increases in salary. In 1921-22, high-school teachers are working upon salaries which in dollars represent an increase of 52.7 per cent over what they received in 1918. In 1916, the average teacher’s salary, high and elementary, was $563 per annum; in 1918, it was $635 per annum; for later years exact figures are not available, but it is estimated that the average is still not over $900 per annum. It is obvious that the present efficiency of the schools cannot be maintained if the salaries are reduced, and it is probable that they will have to be increased still further, even in the face of decreases in the cost of living. The increase in teacher training and experience has not kept pace with the increased salaries. In fact, it has gone backward, and in some respects since 1918. Teacher training—A study of high-school teachers recently completed by the Bureau of Education showed a loss in 1921 over 1918 in actual training preparation and experience of high-school teachers. We have at the present time teaching in our high schools fewer teachers of experience, fewer teachers who are college graduates, more non-graduates of colleges or normal schools, but more graduates of normal schools than were teach- ing in 1918. We have some evidences, however, of progress in teacher training. First, is the tendency to raise State normal schools to the level of four-year “teacher colleges.” Seven States have recently converted their normal schools into colleges, and in some of them authority is given to grant de- grees. Secondly, teacher training in high schools represents a movement which has spread over the Nation. Twenty-four States, or one half of the States in the Union, have made specific legal provision for this sort of training. We should note also that there has been a tendency to estab- lish or enlarge departments for the training of rural teachers. In at least six teachers’ colleges or normal schools such departments have been established during the last year. The number of directors of rural educa- tion has increased since 1915 about 25 per cent. Presumably, ‘‘director”’ means that a department of rural education exists in the institution. There has been much progress in many phases of public education which must be passed over with mere mention. Recent emphasis upon health, hygiene, and physical education ; the use of mental tests as a basis of classifi- cation and promotion and for the discovery of exceptional children; the provision of special schools and classes for exceptional children ; the enrich- ment of the traditional curriculum and a better adaptation of the course of 378 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION study to the practical needs of the children and their environment, especially in the junior high school ; evening schools; continuation schools; the growth of kindergartens, and many other phases of recent progress in education . . . . . \ cannot be discussed in this brief review. \ THE HOPE AND THE RESULT OF AMERICAN EDUCATION CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SHELBY COUNTY SCHOOLS, MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE The democracy established by our fathers nearly a century and a half ago provided for equality of opportunity never reached by any other people before. They made America the synonym for freedom, justice, and op- portunity and to our shores from that day have come teeming millions eagerly in search of the avenues for self-expression and self-dévelopment which our form of government made possible. Closely interwoven and intertwined in the very foundation stones of this scheme of government are the fibers and tendrils of our greatest National institution, the public school. ‘The evolution of their educational purpose was slow and laborious, due to traditions brought from the Old World, distances, and difficulties of communication ; however, as the democratic im- pulse beat stronger and stronger in the hearts of these people and confidence in the Republic grew from day to day, the educational outlook and purpose began to assume form and to develop in like proportions. It is a far cry from the early colonial school, discriminating between the needs of the poor and the rich to the present-day conception of public education with its equality of opportunity to all races and creeds alike and we have just cause for pride and glory in our achievements. That we have not, however, reached the zenith of our possibilities in public education, indeed, that we have not properly safeguarded the life of our free institutions was brought home to us in telling force by the revelations of the Great World War. It was largely through the draft that our attention was focused upon the number of men who could neither read nor write, those who could not serve in the army overseas because of physical disabilities, and that other group of people, considerable in Size, who though living under the protection of our Stars and Stripes had not been imbued with the spirit of our government and continually sought to handicap and thwart its plans in the hour of its greatest crisis. We began to see very plainly what ought to have been obvious before, that our school system, though it might be free, was by no means universal. When we began to take stock of our educational advantages it was found that the school terms varied in length from twenty-two to thirty-six weeks in different States of the union, and that in spite of compulsory legislation on the statute books, school attendance was very poor. At the height of the war there developed such a shortage of teachers to fill the schoolhouses of the Nation that, for a time at least, it filled with alarm the hearts of our NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 379 people. It served to bring to mind very forcibly the lack of preparation for teaching which had prevailed in large areas of the country before the war. ‘There are approximately 700,000 teachers in America today. Of this number 150,000 are under twenty-one years of age; 30,000 have had just eight years of elementary schooling; only 120,000 have had four years of high school followed by two years of normal or college work; 150,000 have taught only two years, while one half of them have taught less than four years. The teacher-training institutions of the country are turning out about one fifth of the number of teachers annually required to place “a well- trained teacher in hearty accord with American ideals in every classroom in America.” Larger and yet larger support must be given to these insti- tutions else we shall be cutting off our stream of supply at its very source. We cannot face this situation in the future with any degree of confidence knowing that the average salary of our teachers is less than $700 a year, these being the latest figures obtainable. In this year of financial stress the daily papers carry all too frequently accounts of the closing of schools throughout the country for lack of funds and many teachers of excellent training and experience in their work will receive this year less than this annual average salary, a situation that ought not to be permitted to arise and one that ought to be effectually dealt with when it does arise. Banks, merchants, farmers, and business of every kind which might have gone under for lack of financial support during this period of liquidation have been bolstered up and kept going, and yet the schools, the biggest business of any municipality, State, or Nation have been forced to suspend operations. When our people, as individuals and as a Nation, really understand that our schools are the bulwark of our liberties and the greatest protection offered to our free institutions, searching investigations will be made until we have arrived at a plan of adequate support of our schools for present needs and wise preparation for the exigencies of the immediate future. There is not time nor is this the place to enter upon an evaluation of our course of study in the public schools—whether it is too full or too long drawn out is a fruitful source of discussion, the end of which is not yet in sight. Complete concord of opinion on this subject has not been reached by our educational experts, but I think we may not be challenged in saying that definite fundamentals in the preparation for life and citizenship should be given to every child, followed and supplemented by training most needed to fit him for his station in life, the choice to be made by himself after he has been acquainted with the various lines of endeavor open to him. When one travels throughout the length and breadth of this great land of ours and sees our mighty forests dwindling away, our enormous water power going to waste, our broad rivers with undeveloped facilities for transportation, the millions of acres of arid lands in the West waiting for but the touch of human hands to blossom as the rose, millions more of acres in other sections whose fertility is exhausted by years of unscientific agriculture, when one views with alarm the enormous waste of human 380 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION life due to preventable diseases and lack of proper instruction in health and hygiene—one cannot but feel that systematic, scientific instruction must be given to all of our people if we are to conserve and develop our human and material resources to the desired end. ) One has only to go to our great centers of population and observe the colonies of foreign people speaking the language of their native country, easy victims of spurious doctrines, the unrest prevalent among the workers breeding antagonism between employer and employed, the rottenness of our city governments, sore spots eating into the very vitals of our Nation, the cupidity, graft, and ignorance always on hand in our legislative halls, to arrive at the conclusion that education has only just begun to function in our country. It has become a trite saying that the life and strength of a democracy is in direct ratio to the enlightenment of its citizenship, and it has never been challenged. When this simple truth finds lodgment in the hearts of all of our people, there will be given a force and a direction to the great Ameri- can educational scheme that has never quickened it before. Having per- formed just one time the duties and responsibilities of a full-fledged citizen of the Republic, I am profoundly impressed with the enormousness of our task and the sacredness of our obligations. ‘There rests upon the teaching profession in this country today a responsibility so serious in its very nature, so far reaching in its consequences that it staggers the imagination of our leaders and challenges the best efforts which the united profession can bring to bear upon it. It is a task of sufficient magnitude alone to set out upon the mobilization of the mental, moral, and physical resources of this great country of ours— but that even is not the end. Whether we will it or not the hopes and aspirations of all of the nations of the earth are centered in us, the freest of all free people. We cannot regard this trust lightly. America is still the world’s great leader in democracy, and we must so shape our affairs at home and direct our policies abroad that these yearnings of people every- where may find satisfaction and peace and confidence in the leadership which we have given to them. It is right and proper and a sign of hope that the great nations of the earth have sat down together to devise some plan for international arbitra- tion and for the elimination of some of the causes of war. Whatever the scheme devised may be, now that the councils have disbanded and their work has been given to the world, the task has been only begun, for no plan will be stronger than the public sentiment and moral sense of humanity. If their work is to endure and is to be followed by greater steps toward world peace, then the great teaching agencies of the earth, the school, the press, the platform, and the pulpit must begin their work. The children of one country do not hate the children of another country unless they are taught to do so. ‘The great mind and heart of the world cherish good-will and abhor war. In the following, ringing editorial, the Washington Post has struck deep NaTIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 381 into the heart of the great problem of international good-will and world peace, “Deeper than conferences, deeper than National policies of friendly intercourse, deeper than individual genius can reach or collective effort accomplish, lies the talisman that will abolish war. It is education—the abolition of ignorance. Until humanity is really educated it will not be free from plague, famine, slavery, or war. Ignorance is protean in its shapes and devilish in its unexpected appearances. It acts through all the base passions and lusts. “There would be no war if ignorance were sup- planted by education, for selfishness would be eliminated, prejudice and hatred diminished, and it would be perceived that no war, however ma- terially successful, is profitable. ‘The winners of the late war are as un- fortunate as the losers. It is not true to assert that ‘there never was a good war or a bad peace,’ because a war for liberty is blessed, and peace that accepts brutal violation of natural right is shameful. But it is true that war is an indictment of the intelligence of man and conclusive proof of his ignorance.” That the peoples of the earth may develop to the limit of their possibili- ties, this development to be based upon a right and just and honorable understanding among them, is education’s chief task and here lies America’s golden opportunity. Education is the best possibile preparation for war, if wars must come; it is the only sure preparation for universal brotherhood and world peace. Let us have faith that America will prove true to her trust and worthy of this vast responsibility which the nations of the earth by common consent have placed upon her—that she will emerge from her task untarnished, unscathed, a bright and shining example of the ability and determination of a free people to develop themselves. GREAT EDUCATIONAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS R. G. JONES, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE, CLEVELAND, OHIO All great accomplishments should be ahead of us, and this with profound respect for past accomplishments. One great accomplishment is to main- tain National poise. This depends upon a distribution of labor and its fruits. The last few years have overtaxed the stabilizer; organization in society was broken; wealth was redistributed. Hence the great job ahead of everyone is to restore balance and to preserve balance by intelligently directed effort. National improvement—The decrease of illiteracy between the years of 1910-20, as cited in the recent issue of the Journal of the National Edu- cation Association, for the United States is 1.7 per cent. A significant item is the decrease marked in the States south of the Mason and Dixon line. It will be further observed that the average for all the States is not the measure for guidance, but the unit of the measure is rather the ind1- vidual sections of the country. To say we are a Nation of any given 382 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION average of intelligence is misleading aside from the technical requirements of statistics. For the purpose of improvement we are concerned with the sections of the country confronted by special problems which are funda- mentally economic. In addition to the~accomplishment already made where the percentage has been lowered by as much as 8 per cent within the last decade, it would be of prime importance to direct attention to the illiterate localities, discover the cause, which probably is economic, and enable the State to improve its own condition.. A National subsidy would enervate a section of the country by giving outright financial assistance. The best possible help to the weak is to help them to help themselves. Intelligent direction is the most powerful assistance that can be rendered. State universities may render such service by directing the development of a State’s resources until the tax duplicate will warrant support for education. If a subsidy from whatever source derived is offered it should be for a temporary period pending economic development and then granted only upon the promise that economic rehabilitation shall be initiated with the granting of the subsidy. We are aware that either economic or educa- tional advancement may be regarded as incident the one to the other. In addition, we are not prepared to spend a subsidy. A recent in- dustrial survey determined that inefficiency traces back to education. This phase would require too long to develop at this time, but permit the state- ment that it would seem wise to provide education for adults by such means as the Short Course in Agriculture to develop localities with the greatest possible dispatch. “Transportation, for one item, should be ad- justed to develop territory. This measure, it is readily appreciated, is to be remedied by those who are trained and in position to produce the change. Educating children in the hopeless districts usually educates them away from the district as is instanced in Southern Ohio. It would be a great accomplishment to enable illiterate districts to learn to help them- selves. ‘Their pride and ambition would be conserved and their manhood strengthened. A large portion of the problem is to educate the non- indigenous population, the colored, and the southern European peoples. Economy in educational production—VThe schools and all training institu: tions will have a very large part in preparing minds to do close or sane thinking. ‘The distribution of labor and service in occupations in New York State is, approximately, as follows: 40 per cent in manufacturing and industry; 13 per cent in trade; 13 per cent clerical; 11 per cent in domestic and personal service; 9 per cent in transportation; 7 per cent agriculture ; 4 per cent professional, and 3 per cent public service. The distribution of education and preparation will bear some relation to this order. There is need to know what this distribution is and what it should be. Many are interested to know the boundaries for general and special education and, furthermore, whether educational opportunity shall be differentiated for given types. If in the occupations, 4 per cent will be professional, 65 per cent skilled labor, 20 per cent semi-skilled, and 11 per cent unskilled, shall education give attention to special preparation for the several groups? NatTIONAL Councit oF EpuCATION 383 Let us examine a recent industrial report entitled “Waste in Industry” to determine whether the causes of waste in industry bear any relation to the training offered in schools. Waste in industry, in the study cited, is attributed to low production, due to: (1) Faulty management of materials, plant equipment, and men; (2) interrupted production, caused by idle men, idle materials, idle plants, idle equipment; (3) restricted production, caused by owners, management or labor, and (4) lost production, caused by ill health, physical defects, and industrial accidents. If there be waste, there are two remedies, the one to increase taxes, the other to effect economies. Industry has charged its mistakes to the account of the ultimate consumer, an individual we have all learned to know as an intimate friend. Industry will be told to learn to economize by better management. It is evident that the simplest way out is to ask for more funds to bury our mistakes, but we know the better way is to learn to make the funds we have serve a better purpose. We cannot forever continue to- go to our boards and the legislature asking for increased funds. If the system of taxation were revised, this would be more nearly possible, but that event is far off. Taxes to the ordinary individual are’ about 10 per cent of his income. We all agree that is large enough. Is any of the responsibility for waste in the world’s work our responsi- bility? Is there close or remote correlation between the operation of industry and the operation of schools? If so, possibly the first and foremost cause of waste in education is inefficient management, just as it is found in the industrial survey. (Can this charge be sustained? Have we ways and means to measure the effectiveness of our management? ‘Those charged with the responsibility for management are boards of education, superintendents, supervisors, and principals. If there has not been made a satisfactory analysis of leadership in school work, this might well be analyzed and recommendations be made for improvement. ‘This is fundamentally a matter of personnel. The building of personnel—There is no more vital concern than build- ing personnel in an organization. It seems trite to speak of this, but for the superintendent’s self I can think of nothing so important as to build the men about him, so that they in turn will build others in the system. We cannot go on forever poaching on others’ territory to get men. Some- one must settle down to building them. What has this to do with the National Council? Just this. There is need for a monograph on practical administration and super- vision as applied to personnel. There is required a philosophy for the operation of a school system; the mechanics may be perfect, yet the whole thing will go straight for the ditch and get there too. I am particularly suggesting personnel because of some aoute experience past and preent in hiring young men. They want a million dollars a year to begin, and they want to reach the tip-top in about three weeks. Someone is getting some bad advice and, possibly, someone is giving it. Cannot there be a monograph on this subject written by the old practitioners, in Anglo-Saxon 384 NaTionaL Epucat on ASSOCIATION words and spirit that will offset some of the nonsense about high-speed high salaries with short apprenticeship and small responsibility ? Has our attention been directed in our research service more largely to personnel, or to organization content and technique in instruction? » Does the responsibility for search of this kind lie with the colleges of education engaged in independent research, or should some organized body, such as the Educational Council, or the Department of Superintendence, or the National Education Association enter upon an analysis of management in education under such direction that the research may become the common property of all. So far as we are aware, there has not been a study made that fixes re- sponsibility, much less recommends measures for improvement. If the report on industrial waste holds good for educational waste, I fear the charge, quite current, that unprepared teachers are the cause, will occasion ‘thoughtful consideration on the part of us engaged with school man- agement. Equipment—The second item cited as cause for waste is idle equipment. No doubt our physical property and its equipment are closer to capacity operation than ever before. Our attention is forced to it, at least, and this matter may well have consideration. ‘This is a period of building con- struction, and there is need for information in common on this subject. With the advent of the junior high school, many buildings are being rushed to erection with limited knowledge of plans and specifications. The type of construction, the distribution of areas for given purposes, are consequent upon a curriculum which is altogether uncertain. One item specifically requires attention; namely, the extent and character of shop construction for manual arts. Ventilation, fresh-air rooms, lighting, seating, and many other features are due for consideration. The matter of reconstruction or rehabilitation of old buildings is as im- portant as new construction. Old buildings, out of date and inadequate for school needs and inspiration, will not be razed. Communities will not permit it. Ways and means should be devised to show what can be done. A few sporadic examples may be found where extraordinary results have been obtained, but there is much yet to be done. Perhaps some city could be induced to set an example for the country. Perhaps this body could devise a plan for development of the old structure. Restricted production—We have restricted production, but it is due to different causes. Restricted production in education is due to the cur- riculum in part. What shall enter into it? Is there an organization to determine its content? Is there a consideration of economy of time? Are we to continue to enrich education or to reduce it to essentials? Are we clear as to the framework before we undertake its enrichment? Shall we continue to load the curriculum and lengthen the day? Individuals in the field are “working out” the desired improvement and, no doubt, they repre- sent the best of agencies, but the waste is colossal. Industry is spurred by competition to discover improvements. The Nationa Councit or EpucaTION 385 larger cities even find it difficult to assign teachers, or even members of the staff, to curriculum building on a time scale that amounts to research work. This would involve book building, which is now done on borrowed time and borrowed health and under no comprehensive guidance, or the work is done by those who are not engaged in field work and the result smacks of theory. For example, the development of social science for the junior or senior high school is commanding attention. Who will write the book and what shall it displace? ‘The introduction of a new subject involves the reconstruction of one or more other subjects, or even better, the improve- ment in teaching of the subjects. A social science for the middle years cannot be a larger work cut down. It is a distinctly new problem. No doubt, the book will be written by a teacher or professor of history, sociology, or economy. It will be a mechanical or form text, a book that will actually serve a practical need. Almost every one who has the maturity, vision, and field experience to sense the proper plan is too busy to write books. Perhaps the Council could organize a body to direct such work in one or a few subjects to the end that economy of time and the effectiveness of instruction might serve a good end. Health—Lost production, due to ill health, is a major factor which is most difficult of measurement, but none the less present and obviously true. The cost for substitute teachers for one year in Cleveland is in round numbers $150,000. ‘This item is, no doubt, multiplied beyond our belief in reduced service of those who struggle on with the day’s work while their health and vigor are low in tone. It seems hardly worth while to enlarge upon this topic. It is possible to increase the percentage of our staff who will keep physically fit. It will require work to do it, and if each city goes about the task individually the resistance will be great. This body could set up a study that will demonstrate to the country at large that that which is good for the welfare of the school child, by the way of better instruc- tion, is at once an insurance to the individual teacher of comfort in mind and body and length of life and service. What can be worse for pupil and teacher than dragging through an existence in physical discomfort ? All that has been done to measure accomplishment has served a good purpose. ‘The checking process is well and good, but there is a need in the field for the test that directs, which will be of greater service than the test that checks alone. The test is a great accomplishment. It will be much greater. It will aid in determining the scope as well as the intensity of accomplishment in school work. Many of the tests are seemingly prepared on the basis of current teaching. How much improved the test would be if it covered in scope the field of the given subject basing the questions upon the crucial points of the subject. Such tests might easily be graduated by years, grades, or any desired unit of subject matter. The teacher in the school does not comprehend the real meaning of test- ing. ‘The first impression is that it is a measure of the teacher’s efficiency. 386 NatTIoNAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION This attitude tends to awaken resistance rather than intelligent sympathy in field work. There is need for a monograph on the process of test making and the purpose and especially the science and art of.giving tests. [hese remarks are based upon the possibility that the National Council may have or may create an organization to direct and employ agencies that may work throughout the year to centralize thought on important subjects and provide for the publicity and distribution of the findings. THE JUNIOR HIGH-SCHOOL PROGRAM OF STUDIES? JAMES M. GLASS, DIRECTOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, DEPARTMENT PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA The present need—This paper is a preliminary report of a sub-committee on the Program of Studies of the Junior High School, appointed by a gen- eral committee of the National Council of Education; the latter committee for the past year has been conducting a study on the general problem of “Reorganization of Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Grades.” The appoint- ment of the sub-committee has been too recent to permit of any study beyond that possible to correspondence. This correspondence has consisted in part of the preparation and circulation of a questionnaire on the Program of Studies of the Junior High School.2 Replies are still being returned. A tentative tabulation of these replies has been made. The consensus of opinion as represented in the tabulation will in general be accepted as the basis of this report. The sub-committee, with the general committee, recog- nizes the present imperative need and the timeliness of a discussion on this vital subject. A decade of experience—There is now a background of a decade’s ex- perience in the actual operation of the junior high school. The rapidity _of the expansion of the junior high-school movement is in some ways to be regretted, yet conditions over which there can be no control favor this rapid expansion. Building problems are the unavoidable products of the post-war period. These building problems almost univérsally demand a distribution of relief to congestion in the elementary and secondary schools. The junior high school provides this distribution of relief and is very gen- erally adopted as the chief feature of building programs. The building need is accepted in most communities as the opportunity for inaugurating the educational reorganization offered by the junior high school. The history of the movement will doubtless reveal that the great majority of junior high-school organizations have had_ their origin in this twofold: administrative objective of combining building program with a program for educational reorganization. 1Tn addition to the chairman, the committee includes C. R. Foster, High School, Pittsburgh, Pa.: A. Laura McGregor, Vice-Principal, School, Rochester, N. Y.; Helen S. Watson, Assistant Superint-ndem, Los Angeles, Calif Clarence D. Kingsley, Supervisor of Secondary Education, Commonweal S. O. Rorem; Principal, Fast Junior High School, Sioux City, lowa. ? See questionnaire at end Of this article, NaTIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 387 Report of sub-committee—To the end, therefore, of promoting as exten- sive a study and discussion as possible of the reorganized program of studies of grades 7, 8, and 9, the sub-committee undertakes a temporary report on this subject. “The report is founded upon the experience of junior-high schools in actual operation for the whole or part of the past decade. To the experience of the committee’s own membership will be added that of others who in reply to the questionnaire have contributed of their experience. The report of the sub-committee will at present and in the immediate future include: (1) This paper as a preliminary report giving in brief some of the basic principles and guiding objectives of the junior high-school program of studies; (2) a tentative program of studies which will suggest the constants and electives, the initial stages of differentiated curricula, and definite time allotments to the several courses of study; and (3) a later report based upon a complete tabulation of the replies to the questionnaire. The unit of transition—The junior high-school is the unit of transition in the public-school system. Its chief contribution to any school system must be the realization of its purpose to weld together the units making up that system. The most serious indictment against the 8-4 organization was the abruptness of transition between the eight-year elementary school and the four-year high school. The junior high school will bring infinite harm to the public schools if its organization results in the creation of two such stages of abrupt transition. The junior high-school program of studies should be a resultant of sev- eral forces. It should be made up, in part, of a continuation of the ele- mentary school curriculum, but a review of these courses, i. €., a new view through articulation of elementary and secondary courses; in part, a pre- view of secondary school courses of study, but a rearrangement of such courses in their “simpler aspects deferring the refinements” to later senior high-school grades; in part, a prevocational content from the industrial and commercial fields; and, finally, a liberal amount of social science materials and social and civic activities to the end of giving to the early adolescent a “self-conscious social adjustment.” This transitional unit of the public- school system must preserve its contacts and become a composite product of the forces which precede and follow it. At the same time the program of studies of the junior high school is a self-contained unit. The point of view of the elementary curriculum toward its pupils is en masse to the end that all may receive a usable knowledge of the common branches and a sympathetic understanding of the social and civic structure of our democratic society. Differentiation of pupils into groups, so far as program of studies is concerned, prevails in the senior high school to the end that the individuals of each group may receive training in the types of work for which they have aptitudes. Individual needs—The junior high school “must help each child to discover his own aptitudes” in the transitional stage between the en masse organization of the elementary school and the group organization of the 388 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION senior high school. It is the finding, testing, and trying-out period of the public-school system. The point of view is, therefore, the individual. Ex- ploration of individual differences, guidance of educational or vocational choice, and stimulation of educational advancement are its primary ob- jectives. The identity of the junior high school is, therefore, established in its purpose to treat each pupil as an individual problem. Exploration and guidance permit of no other interpretation. The program of studies offers a maximum of subjects required of all pupils and a minimum of electives or variables. The required subjects provide exploration—the elective subjects demand guidance in choice. ‘The identity of the junior high school is typified in this service to the individual pupil. From the standpoint of the transitional unit the required subjects con: tinue the integrating or unifying courses of the elementary school, but these courses are modified to serve the distinct purpose of the junior high school. The electives introduce the varied opportunities for different groups preparatory to the later training to be received in specialized curricula of the senior high school. In brief, the junior high school must accomplish two purposes at the same time and each equally well—create and maintain its identity and preserve close relationship with the elemen- tary and senior high schools. An educational reorganization—lIt is evident that no mere physical com- bination of grades 7 and 8 and first year high school can meet the demand. This type of organization has already caused almost irrevocable harm to the development of the junior high school. Such an organization can be a departmentalized intermediate grouping of grades 7, 8, and 9, but it is not a junior high school. It is an unassimilated federation of separate units; it is not a union of codrdinated parts. It is an administrative ex- pedient; it is not an educational re-organization. It can in no way be termed a resultant which is a new force for a distinct purpose created from other forces each of which as a separate source of energy has a distinct purpose. In another way, the junior high school is a “chemical product, not a physical combination.” Four periods of development in program of studies—It is, therefore, the dificult mission of the junior high school to continue a program of studies carried through the six years of the elementary school, modify and enlarge this program for the realization of its own purposes, and in turn prepare for advanced types of curricula in the senior high school. It is plain that this can be done only through successive periods in the transitional process. Briefly, these periods are four in number. 1. Adjustment (Low Seventh)—A period of adjustment for the very young and immature adolescent of twelve years of age. He must be adjusted to a new school organization, and to a new type of school administration. It would seem wise, therefore, to subject him during the first semester ta as little change as possible in his program of studies. Such change as is advisable should be restricted to the inevitable modification in the courses of study which are consequent to enlarged school facilities and depart- NATIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 389 mentalization. ‘There should be no change in the program of studies occasioned by the introduction of electives. In fact the tabulated report of the questionnaire shows over a 50 per cent vote in favor of postponing electives to the eighth year. Present practice gives little support to any seventh-year elective. 2. Exploration and Preview, or Apperceptive basis of secondary courses (High Seventh and Low Eighth)-——There should be a period of explora- tion, when there is a pre-view of the specialized secondary school courses which distinguish one high-school curriculum from another, and when pre- vocational try-out is provided for drop-outs. This first general view of secondary school subject matter is restricted to the “simpler aspects” of the whole subject field prior to any attempt to cross-section it into its parts. This general introductory course offers opportunity for exploration of aptitude for the whole subject field and for a preview or apperceptive basis for the cross-sections of the subject. Properly, therefore, junior high- school courses are designated as general mathematics, general science, world history and general social science, prevocational courses, junior business training, and the like. In the latter half of the decade of actual operation of the junior high school, there has been a marked tendency to defer electives from the middle of the seventh year to the beginning and at present in a less degree to the middle of the eighth year. This tendency has been largely due, no- doubt, to a growing appreciation of the fact that one predominant objective of the junior high school is the exploration of individual differences, and of the fact that discovery of aptitude must precede even provisional elec- tives. Part of the time previously given to electives has gradually been surrendered to general courses for exploration and preview. It is perti- nent to add that this development makes a very large contribution to the realization of the chief mission of the junior high school to the public school system as the unit of transition. At the same time it will be conceded by any junior high school adminis- trator of experience that exploration of aptitudes and guidance of pro- visional choice of electives present two most difficult problems to both the administrative and instructional staffs. Here enter intelligence tests and standards of educational measurement, which to the junior high school, in common with other units of the school system, are in the experimental stage. Another experimental field, upon which the junior high school must place a main reliance, is that of educational and vocational guidance. One very vital need in the junior high-school movement today is the psychologist who will give us a dependable and a generally usable com- pendium on adolescent psychology. ‘There are, therefore, several present handicaps to the diagnosis of individual differences which must accompany efforts in exploration of aptitude and guidance in choice of electives. The hope of the situation lies in the earnestness of purpose and the progress in these fields of educational experimentation which accompany the experi- ment of the junior high school itself. 390 NATIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION Exploratory courses should be required of all pupils. Each general course is to a degree an exploratory course. General mathematics reveals the branches of higher mathematics in their simpler aspects and at the same time provides a background of experience ‘in\determining aptitude for higher mathematics and an apperceptive basis for the later cross-sections of mathematics. General mathematics includes a gradually decreasing amount of arithmetic, decreasing from maximum to minimum, and a gradually increasing amount of secondary mathematics, increasing from minimum to maximum. General mathematics is a reorganized self-contained course of study, but, as a resultant, it preserves articulation with elementary and secondary mathematics. ‘Thus it prevents abruptness of transition with the courses of mathematics in either the elementary school or the senior high school. It provides an opportunity to evaluate aptitude for higher mathematics ; it becomes the source of an apperceptive basis for all branches of secondary mathematics; and by preserving life contacts in all phases of its development it offers an actual educational return to the junior high school drop-outs who will not profit from either its exploratory or pre- view values. General science similarly reveals in a general survey the fields of science and aids in the discovery to many a junior high-school pupil of an inherent capacity for science. Further, general science, with its project method and its stress upon the “important immediate needs” of pupils, offers a very real educational return to all pupils. Practical arts provide a prevocational try-out for those who have apti- tudes for industrial, technical, or engineering courses. The exploratory course in practical arts is not restricted to the purely vocational group. It is through exploratory shop experience that many an ambition is aroused for technical and engineering training. The fine arts can and will, no doubt, in a more advanced stage of the junior high-school movement make material contributions to the discovery of aptitudes. It must be conceded that aptitude for fine arts is as demon- strable as aptitudes for mathematics, science, language, industry, engineer- ing, or commerce. Exploration in fine arts is already provided in the organized activities, e. g., the club organizations—orchestra, glee and chorus clubs, musical appreciation club, drawing clubs, cartooning, de- signing, commercial art, and art appreciation clubs. Here, as elsewhere, the chief inhibitory cause preventing the extension of exploratory courses in the junior high-school is the lack of senior high-school training of a special curricular nature for such aptitudes when discovered. Aptitude for a foreign language is partially determined by language ability as evaluated in the English class. At least there is no prevalent tendency to include a foreign language among exploratory courses. It is usually first offered as a provisional elective. There is, however, a possi- bility that there may be developed for the high seventh and low eighth period a general language course preparatory to any initial language choice. But both the desirability and the practicability of such a course have yet, even to a tentative degree, to be determined. NaTIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 391 ee a a BS ES ee The course in Junior Business Training suggested for the low eighth term, in the second part of the subcommittee’s report, surveys the field of commercial education and gives the pupil some comprehension of its edu- cational extent and the wide range of its vocational opportunities. At the same time that this course provides opportunity for a discovery of aptitude for advanced commercial training, it also brings to all pupils who should be required to take junior business training some knowledge of the prin- ciples and practices prevailing in the business and commercial fields—a knowledge which should be the heritage of all pupils. The evolution of former courses for the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades in U. S. history, civil government, and ancient history is rapidly being accomplished. “There are now courses of United States history and community civics for the seventh and eighth years, and vocational and economic civics for the ninth year. In time the term, general social science, will be used as extensively as are today the terms, general science and general mathematics. The exploratory and preview values of this course will be co-extensive with the whole junior high-school period. Such a course will provide an apperceptive basis for advanced courses in the cross- sections of world history, economics, political science, and sociology. The discovery of interest and capacity is as probable in the field of social science as in the field of natural science. Furthermore, the discovery and stimula- tion of interest and capacity for social science are vital to the fields of public and social service. Every exploratory course must fulfill a twofold purpose: first, to help some pupils to explore aptitude for the course, and second, to give all pupils an actual educational return. There is a similar dual nature in all the objectives of the junior high school by reason of the fact that there are two practically exclusive groups of pupils—first, those who will continue into senior high school and, secondly, those who will drop out during or at the end of the junior high-school period. For the former each exploratory course becomes the basis of choice of electives, and for the latter each exploratory course must contain a content of genuine educational value. For the drop-outs, therefore, every general course must preserve life contacts. Each course must become a unit course of definite educational value in each year of its development. As the Commission on the Reorgan- ‘ization of Secondary Education states it—‘“‘Each subject should be so organized that the first year of work will be of definite value to those who go no further; and this principle should be applied to the work of each year.” Each junior high-school general course of study, therefore, should establish ‘tself as an identity, a self-contained unit, with definite continuity below and above and with a definite educational value independent of any course above. General courses, each covering the simpler aspects of the subject tie'd, are giving assurance of fulfilling this twofold purpose. 3. Provisional choice of electives (High Eighth )—Following the period of exploration and preview there should be a period of provisional choice 392 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of electives. During this period facility of cross-over between electives should be promoted by every administrative device possible to the end of guaranteeing that evidence of unfitness for an elective will be followed by effecting a change of electives. If this period of provisional choice does not extend beyond one semester, there would be justification for post- poning promotion requirements in electives during this semester. The periods of adjustment, exploration, and provisional choice cover the first two years of the junior high school. These are the stages in the transi- tional process which should prevent abruptness of transition between the elementary school and the junior high school, which should provide an enrichment of the single curriculum by the articulation of elementary and secondary courses of study; which should explore individual interests, capacities, and aptitudes; and which should finally test the tentative choice in the light of actual contact with provisional electives. In short, these three stages are the adjusting, finding, and testing periods to the end of developing a unit of transition between elementary and secondary educa- tion. ‘They are the initial stage of the secondary school’s program of studies, where the individual makes his adjustment between the en masse organization of the elementary school and the group organization of the senior high school. | It is evident, therefore, that guidance and educational placement become predominant objectives throughout the seventh and eighth years. The pro- gram of guidance would presumably be undertaken by a faculty serving primarily as counselors or advisers and not solely as “subject teachers seek- ing only to lead pupils to mastery of subject matter.” A junior high-school faculty should not tolerate educational or vocational prejudice in its service to a pupil body which is seeking primarily during these two: years to find and test individual aptitudes. Since junior high-school teachers are today almost wholly trained through service, it becomes a foremost administra- tive obligation to provide an educational program for the professional train- ing of the teaching staff. This professional program is so vital to the clear vision of the primary function of guidance and educational placement and of other junior high-school objectives that a weekly period, partly within school time in a six-hour day, should be provided for professional meetings and discussions. The faculty conference period should become one of the organized activities of the school and to this extent part of the program of studies. The junior high school’s purpose to provide educational guidance involves not only a conscious interpretation of this objective by the instructional agencies, but equally a conscious interpretation of the contents, aims, and outlets of all differentiated curricula by the pupils themselves. Guidance classes should in time be accepted as an integral part of the junior high- school program of studies. Such guidance classes will promote the pupils’ conscious interpretation of each channel of educational advancement. They Serve to answer two instinctive questions of adolescence: Why should I remain in school, will it pay me to continue my studies in high school, *tech- NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 393. nical school, continuation school, or evening school? Guidance classes as integral parts of the junior school program of studies will also provide a background of vocational information for present and future self-direction. 4. Stimulation (ninth year)—Finally, in the accomplishment of the purpese of the junior high school to serve as a transitional stage in the public school system, there must be a period of stimulation to facilitate transition to the senior high school. The ninth year of the junior high school is primarily for the purpose of making desirable in the estimation of each pupil advancement into the next higher type of school. ‘The ninth year carries on the program selected after the experiment of the two previous grades. ‘This stimulation is largely by the agency of the particular electives chosen during the periods of exploration and provisional choice. There can be no close lines of demarcation drawn in time and extent between these four successive stages. Each stage has a natural coordination with the other three. ‘There is an overlapping which should prevail throughout the three years of the junior high school. ‘The designated pur- pose of each successive stage can not be fully realized in the brief period allotted to it. In fact some of the stages must extend into the senior high school. It is true that in each year of the whole six-year secondary period there must be adjustment, exploration, provisional choice, and stimulation. . But, at the same time, there is a stage when each of the objectives becomes preéminently important in the transitional process of the junior high school. It is important that there should be clear, intelligent perception of the con- secutive stages when adjustment, exploration, provisional choice, and stim: ulation become each in turn the predominant and controlling objective. Experience has demonstrated that there is great risk of failure, even partly, to realize the objective at the needed period in the transitional process when definite plans are lacking for administrative and instructional emphasis upon the particular objective. The point is that the objective cannot be incidental during the particular period when it should predominate; it must be in the focus of attention. For this reason only does this report recognize four successive stages in the transitional period. At least they offer claims superior to the present largely prevailing practice of dividing the three years into annual periods with no other merit than that of cross- sectioning the junior high school into three convenient time divisions. Summarizing, the junior high-school program of studies continues with modifications the single curriculum of the elementary school. Through its general courses of study it expands this single curriculum into an en- riched and varied curriculum, which, in a gradually increasing degree, be- comes the initial stage of all secondary school curricula. It becomes the source of an apperceptive basis of later secondary courses, “reveals higher types of activities, makes these both desired and to an extent possible” and, thus, increases the retentive power of the secondary schools. It offers some assurance of intelligent educational choice and of wise educational place- ment. It makes possible a tentative or provisional choice of electives. It takes its pupils part way through these specialized courses of the senior 394 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION high school, and thus increases the probability that the courses will be continued and the specialized curricula completed. For those of its pupils who will not continue it provides a valuabie educational return. Finally, it must reduce to a minimum any abruptnéss of change between itself and the single curriculum of the elementary school or the multiple curricula of the senior high school. ‘Thus can the junior high-school program of studies become a chief factor in the realization of the mission of the junior high school to serve as the unit of transition in the public-school system. Special types of curricular offerings in program of studies—The dis- cussion of the junior high-school program of studies thus far has con- cerned itself with those curricular tendencies which facilitate educational advancement. As the unit of transition it is logical that the predominating tendency of the junior high-school program of studies should promote reten- tion in school. Yet there are several types of pupils who cannot be retained and who must inevitably become educational losses during or at the close of the junior high-school period. ‘These over-aged, retarded and mentally unfortunate groups are peculiarly the responsibility of the junior high school. The latter must, therefore, unaided by the senior high school, offer special types of training to its own residuum of pupils for whom ad- vancement is impossible or impracticable. Particularly for these groups should there be in the program of studies a liberal amount of social-science materials and especially social and civic activities so that principles of social coéperation and citizenship may be translated into conduct in the educational period which immediately pre- cedes the entrance of the junior high school drop-outs into society and active citizenship. If their civic-mindedness is not to be undermined by the blighting influence of becoming industrial misfits and consequently social and civic cynics, the junior high school must offer to these over-aged and backward groups occupational training sufficient in extent to assure initial vocational placement. The junior high school can at least serve as a school of prevocational try-out and thereby replace, to an extent, the shift- ing from job to job in correcting industrial misfits during employment. If the junior high school can serve, even to a small degree with its limited facilities, in the prevention of industrial misfits and the consequent under- mining of civic-mindedness, it will earn a degree of public confidence not possible through any other single service. Therefore, the program of studies, as the resultant of several forces, includes a prevocational content partly for occupational placement in the industrial and commercial fields.) Commercial electives are offered with the two-fold objective of promoting advancement into the commercial curriculum of the senior high school and of offering some occupational training for junior commercial occupations. ‘The program offers junior business training, elementary bookkeeping, commercial mathematics, business writing, business practice, in which some degree of proficiency may be attained by junior high-school pupils, and a limited amount of typewriting. Consensus of opinion as represented in the questionnaire is in favor of post- poning stenography to the senior high school. NATIONAL CouncIiL oF EDUCATION 395 Industrial arts electives are also offered with the same twofold objective. First, these electives would attempt to convert an original vocational or trade decision into a determination to seek advanced vocational training in the senior high school or to seek technical training for the higher types of industrial opportunities or engineering open only to advanced educational qualifications. Secondly, these industrial arts electives would offer occu- pational training for vocational placement to those who must seek such placement from the junior high school. ‘There should be, therefore, in schools of sufficient size, two types of shops—the general industrial arts shop where all pupils receive practical arts training as an integral and required part of the program of studies and the special trade type of shop where vocational groups may receive intensive occupational training for vocational placement. Vocational curricula in the junior high school, either of a commercial or industrial nature, should not represent a forced growth. ‘Chey must represent the actual conditions as they exist when the fimal alternative of leaving school or choosing vocational training is reached. Whenever it is definitely determined by the guidance agencies of the school that this alternative is unavoidable, pupils should be transferred to these occupational courses, irrespective of grade classification. Grade organization must give way to a greater purpose, that of adaptability of program of studies to individual need. Occupational courses are, therefore, matters almost wholly of individual adjustment. Arbitrary administrative regulations of pro- motion, classification, and organization should never be permitted to con- flict with demonstrated individual needs. ‘This statement does not set up an insurmountable administrative difficulty; it is a direct contradiction of an unwarranted administrative practice which is frequently permitted to supersede individual justice to pupils. The junior high-school program of studies must insist upon the adoption of this point of view, if it would promote equalization of educational opportunity. In addition to occupational training offered by commercial and industrial arts electives to some exceptional types of pupils, it is also desirable that the junior high school offer coaching opportunities to the retarded group who represent the preventable but inevitable proportion of non-promotions. This group includes those who, by lack of application or interest, or positive dis.ike for the restricted opportunities of a single curriculum, are able, in the light of intelligence tests, to maintain a creditable record of achievement. The fact that these preventable cases of subject failure have been shown to amount to as high as 60 to 75 per cent of all conditioned or non-promoted pupils is one evidence of the superior reliability of intelligence tests in measuring at least potential achievement. Study coach and opportunity classes or other type of coaching retarded pupils have been demonstrated to be a very effective means of increasing the retentive power of the junior high school and of stabilizing subject promotion by either remedy or pre- vention of failure. The whole problem of coaching is reduced to one of minimum essentials 396 NaTIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION in each course of study and still further to the particular essential which was the principal cause of failure in each case. Minimum essentials are a concern of the program of studies, the, latter indicates the remedial or preventive measure which should be applied in each case by the coaching teacher. Failure is usually traceable to lack of understanding of some particular essential in the course of study and less frequentiy to failure in all essentials. Repetition of the whole course of study is, therefore, fre- quently a needless waste of time. The remedy consists, rather, in determin- ing the particular cause of failure and remedying the important weakness. Hence, coaching is far more effective than repetition. Furthermore, by preventing subject repetition and its consequent expense, coaching is the more economical means to check subject non-promotion and to increase the retentive power of the junior high school. The desirability of organizing courses of study on the basis of minimum essentials is evidenced by an affirmative vote of approximately 90 per cent in the replies to the question- naire on the program of studies. Still another special group for whom the junior high school program of studies should make provision, is the group of high I. Q. ‘There is an afirmative vote of over 60 per cent in favor of acceleration. At the same time 72 per cent of the replies favor enrichment in the program of studies for the high I. Q. group. ‘There is, therefore, some difference of opinion as to whether it is not preferable as one member of the general committee states it: ““To prolong the period of education and enrich the program of studies for those who are able to do their work more easily, instead of putting a premium upon shortening the time spent in school.” ‘The writer of this report is of the opinion that acceleration should be restricted to the elementary school. However, another type of study-coach organiza- tion may be organized for the super-normal group to effect acceleration where it has not already been achieved in the elementary grades; at the same time this opportunity class organization for the high I. Q. groups may be administered to provide extension course opportunities in an enriched program of studies. Practically 100 per cent of the questionnaires favor classification of pupils by ability groups. ‘This indicates a decided vote in favor of intelligence tests and other means of evaluating ability. Ability classification demands a recognition of individual differences and adapts curricular requirements to individual capacity. It avoids the discouragement of comparative in- capacity and removes conditions tending to mental indolence. Since the point of view of the junior high school is the individual, it is as important to determine mental capacity through ability classification as it is to determine aptitude through exploratory courses. The program of studies, therefore, should provide for minimum, mean, and maximum abilities. However, it probably will remain the practice for some time to come to prepare courses of study for the average group. It will, then, still remain for adaptations to be made by the subject teachers. If pupils requiring minimum essentials and maximum opportunities in the program of studies, NATIONAL CouNcIL oF. EpUCATION 397 are segregated with a special group of study coach or opportunity class teachers, the probability is materially increased that necessary adaptations of the general courses of study will be made and applied. School activities for junior citizenship in program of studies—The final objective of the junior high-school program of studies must be to provide school socialization on a scale so extensive that adolescent youth may find in the school itself ‘the special field for their activities as (junior) citizens.”’ It is vital to recognize that the organized activities of school socialization should be and are motivated by accepted educational objectives to an extent equal to the motivation of the subjects of study by such objectives. When this recognition is once given, school activities will be dignified by a place in the program of studies and by a definite time allotment consistent with their rich educational possibilities. [hey must be as definitely planned as any other administrative or instructional facilities for the attainment of the objectives of secondary education. ‘They should be dignified in the ‘respect of faculty, pupils, and community by recognition in the program of studies and a time allotment in the daily roster. These activities will largely fail to contribute to the attainment of the objectives if they continue as incidental. “They should, therefore, become integral parts of the program of studies. “They deserve a higher recognition than that accorded by the designation extra-curricular. ‘They are intra- curricular activities. “Ihe consensus of opinion as shown by the question- naire gives an afhrmative vote of over 70 per cent in favor of including school activities in the program of studies and a vote of 80 per cent in favor of including them as an integral part of school hours. ‘The activities include codperative pupil government, home room activities, weekly school assemblies, clubs, and other social, recreational, and civic organizations. As previously recommended they should also provide a weekly faculty activity period for professional study, discussion, and conference. A suggested program of studies—The second part of the sub-committee’s report includes a suggestive program of studies with constants and electives and a definite assignment of periods to each subject. The program of studies is based upon the majority vote as tabulated from the question- naire. This vote was 75 per cent in favor of at least a six-hour day; approximately 60 per cent in favor of the 60 minute period; 85 per cent negative vote opposing undirected study in a study hall or elsewhere and an emphatic 100 per cent vote favoring directed or supervised study. The tabulated replies also give approximately a 65 per cent vote in favor of four periods of prepared work in a six-period day. The program of studies, therefore, assumes a six-hour day and six one clock-hour periods; further it provides for each of the daily six periods some prepared class work with directed study,—or some unprepared class work in health education, guidance, and fine or practical arts,—or some organized and directed activity. ‘The prepared work is grouped into the four major fields of study: (1) English and language, (2) mathematics, (3) natural science including geography, (4) social studies. ‘The unpre- 398 Nationa Epucation ASSOCIATION pared work in health education, guidance, fine and practical arts, is the fifth main division of the program of studies. Directed school activities comprise the sixth division. In brief there are approximately four daily periods of prepared work (actually the total is less in each semester), one period of unprepared work, and one period of directed activity. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL—PROGRAM OF STUDIES* Six-Period Day Sixty-Minute Period Adjustment Exploration and Preview Prov. Choice Stimulation One Term One Year One Term One Year Low Seventh High Seventh Low Eighth High Eighth Ninth Year Constants *Emeglicsh .... a5 *English .... a4, |, *Hnglish 4... a5 *Enelish....,.304 |." English: 0.105 *Gen. Math.. bs | *Gen. Math.. bs | *Gen. Math.. 64 (Option in (Option in ESOC a Oull.ehnCAal| TOOC ye Olie pened: SS0Gs: Sttyecr 03 Math.) ..b : Math.) ..06 *Sci. (Geo.). e4 | *Sci. (Geo.). e4 | *Sci. (Geo.). #3 | *Soc. Stu.... d3 Soc.) Sti. ha Health) 2... 12 Health oct 12 Health ...«.42 | *Science ......g2 | “Gen. Seir: f= Ind. Arts Ind. Arts Ind. Arts Fkealiths ev. st 12 ealthhl« sdpye.s 42 AGE, stetssis les IN Si OE k3 Nort, Onesie 2 Ind. Arts : Ind. Arts Miusievss) cc. I Home Ec Home Ee IN ott ce eetens f2 ENGTIS aan eu j2 Home Ec.. J Musigna irc. li Mausichteayiae It Home Ec.. J Home Ee INGE ore caiclsione It BATE ate eis -ejnetue It ArE cs erostte It MittSicee vn. aia li IMiGSi@ ious It Guidance .. m1 Guidance .. m1 Guidance ,. mt ENTE ever lt NEG ete stave onevor Sch. Activ.. 05 Sch, Activ..o5 | *Jr. Business Guidance .. m1 Sch. Activ.. 05 raining. n3 Sch, Activ.. 05 Sch, Activ.. 05 Electives P a *Gen, Math.. b5 | *Gen. Math.. bs *For. Lang..r4 | *For, Lang.. s5 *Com. Math.. *Com. Math. Com. Gro... ¢4 Typewrit.. .. v5 *Jr. Business *Book’g 7... Training. bus. writ. J 5 Bus. Writ.. us *Gen, Math.. bs *Gen. Math.. bs *Gen. Sci.... y5 Ind. Arts. Vocational x4 Nerit\: y% time,. 215 Home Ec.. * Prepared work. | : ; : + This questionnaire was sent out under the direction of the Committee on Reorganization of Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Grades, and the Sub-Committee on Program of Studies of Junior High School. a. Including spelling and penmanship and one period a month for library in- struction. One or two periods of time allotted to’ school activities could be used for spelling, penmanship, and library instruction. Until the school activities are fully in operation it is desirable that this additional time for English be so used. b. See Report of National Committee on Mathematical Requirements, Secondary School Circular No. 6, Bureau of Education, Washington. In the high eighth and ninth year there is an option in mathematics but no option of mathematics. Either general mathematics or the mathematics of the commercial curriculum are required of all groups. c. U. S. history, or U. S. history and community civics. d. Community civics, or U. 8. history and community civics. e. Elementary science and geography as a unit course, or science one period and geography three periods approximately. f. Unit-course, or science two periods and geography one period approximately, g. Elementary science introductory to general science of ninth year. NATIONAL CoUNCIL oF EDUCATION 399 A. All pupils, except those electing commercial courses, required to take vocational and economic Civics or general social science. Commercial pupils required to take general science—their later commercial courses will contain much of economic civics. A minimum of science will be required in the academic curriculum of the senior high school; general science, therefore, should be postponed to the tenth year for the academic group. General social science should be required of all groups in the ninth year except as indicated for the commercial group. i. Personal hygiene, gymnasium, directed games, ete. j. General shop, with progressive course of wood-working and metal-working through three years. Agriculture optional with industrial arts for rural schools. Home economics, including sewing, cooking, textiles, laundry, millinery, dress- making, dress and home design, and home training. k. All boys for one term given an actual trade shop experience in a special trade type of shop equipment. The vocational side of practical arts stressed for one term for both girls and boys. Hence increase of time to three periods. 1. Additional time for fine arts may be provided by electing special work in school activities, e. g., orchestra and chorus clubs, design and art clubs, musical or art appreciation clubs, etc. m. Classroom instruction in educational or curriculum guidance—both educa- tional and vocational information for pupils prior to choice of electives. n. Elementary business practices and principles common to all life careers and a brief survey of commercial education and of junior commercial occupations. o. Weekly periods for (1) home room period, (2) coéperative pupil government, (3) school assembly, (4) clubs, (5) faculty activities for professional study—a faculty esprit de corps for the codperative solution of junior high-school problems of both an administrative and instructional nature. Junior high-school teachers must be trained through service; the most favorable conditions should be estab- lished. Until the school activities program is in full operation, part of this daily allotment of time for activities should be diverted to English, practical arts, fine arts, or other curricular requirement. p. Other electives than those listed may be provided in the club activities, ¢. g., art, music, science, English, dramatic, practical arts, or social service clubs. The groups of electives indicate partially differentiated curricula. To facilitate cross- over between electives during this term, it is suggested that electives be made pro- visional, i. ¢., that promotion requirements in electives be deferred to the middle of the ninth year. q. Partially differentiated curricula continued with twenty periods devoted to constants, fine and practical arts, and activities; and with ten periods devoted to electives. There are four major lines of curriculum choice provided in this year, viz, the academic, the commercial, the scientific or technical, and the vocational. r. Optional choice of Latin or one modern language. Small schools should re- strict choice to one foreign language. Eighth year course introductory—vocabulary building, social life of people, etc. Earlier choice of a foreign language for pupils of high I. Q. is a program adjustment for each school. This earlier start of a foreign language should be an extension course opportunity in an enriched curriculum for special or accelerant groups. s. First year high-school course. t. Two periods of each. ; bi u. Forty minutes in junior business training; twenty minutes in business writing. y. Forty minutes daily in typewriting; twenty minutes in commercial mathematics. av. Forty minutes daily in bookkeeping; twenty minutes in business writing. x. Four periods elective plus the two periods required in constants of this term give a total of six periods; five should be in special shops or advanced home train- ing and one in drafting or design. ; ' ] y. The third group of electives in the high eighth branches off into two cur- riculum choices in the ninth year, viz, first, the scientific or technical curriculum paralleling the academic in preparation for higher institutions, and, second, the 400 NarionaL EpuCcATION ASSOCIATION vocational or trade curriculum. In the former general science in the ninth year replaces the practical arts elective of the high eighth, but practical arts is still continued for this and all other non-vocational groups to the extent of two periods as a required subject. ; z. Smith-Hughes curriculum organized as a ninth year elective, but over-age pupils should be transferred to this curriculum during seventh and eighth years when definitely determined that alternatives of vocational curriculum or leaving school are unavoidable. All such transfers are problems of individual adjust- ment. The academic work should include English, social studies, and related mathematics for a weekly total of ten periods. These pupils should participate in school activities on an equal basis with all others. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL BUILDINGS J. H. BENTLEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DULUTH, MINNESOTA This paper is based largely on a study made preparatory to the planning of two junior. high schools for a community of about 30,000 and deals only with buildings designed for schools organized on the 6-3-3 plan. While there is not yet agreement on what group of grades should constitute a junior high school the majority of the schools so far organized are on the 6-3-3 plan. So it seems safe to take this as typical of the junior high- school organization. So far there have been comparatively few buildings designed and built for junior high-school purposes. Most junior high schools are housed in buildings originally planned for elementary or high- school work. Accordingly the junior high-school building, as a type, does not exist. A few of these more recent buildings have been selected as illustrative of features more or less peculiar to the junior high school and indicative of certain trends that are now apparent. The buildings shown are quite different in type and were in every case planned to meet the needs of a carefully worked out junior high-school program. There is little agree- ment on the kind of things that should be given major emphasis and any conclusions drawn in this report will have to be understood as personal to the writer and modified by his own bias in the matter. A junior high-school building must conform of course in every way to the best known laws of safety and hygiene. Problems of fire-proof con- struction, light, heat, or ventilation are not peculiar to it. Toilet facilities should be adequate and in this type of school widely distributed over the building in as small units as economy will permit. How then will the junior high school be different from the present day elementary or senior high school of good design ? The junior high school as an intermediate school is attempting to offer 7th, 8th, and 9th grade children a different type of education than was offered in the former 8-4 plan. Some of the differences are to be found in (a) an enriched curriculum, (6) departmental organization with a more informal and socialized classroom procedure, and (c) a different social organization within the school. In addition the junior high-school NaTIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 401 building is to be a community center to a greater degree than either the high-school building or the elementary-school building has been. The enriched curriculum does not necessarily mean a wide variety of new sub- jects from which to choose. There seems to be a tendency to limit the range of elective subjects somewhat narrowly as compared with the senior high school. This has at once a decided effect on the question of the size of the building, for with a limited number of electives it is possible to operate a junior high school economically with a smaller enrolment than is required for a school with a wide range of choice in the program of studies. ‘This makes it possible for us to have junior high schools of 700 to 1000 pupils with all the advantages that can come from a close ac- quaintance between faculty and students and among the students them- selves. An additional factor making for the smaller junior high-school building is the age of the junior high-school children which makes it de- sirable that they go a shorter distance to school than the older pupils. The enriched curriculum does mean, however, that we must provide in the junior high-school building for science rooms, shops for boys, household arts rooms for girls, music rooms, art rooms, gymnasiums, and outside large fields for organized athletics. The science rooms are not taking the form of the rather elaborately equipped laboratory and amphitheatre lecture room but are large rooms with a rather simple equipment of tables and chairs and in some of them a wood- working bench and a lathe are installed in order that the making of simple forms of apparatus may be carried out. While some of the buildings re- cently erected have provided for highly specialized shop work there seems to be a tendency in some buildings to turn away from the multiplicity of special shops to the large general shop and to relate closely the mechanical drawing to the shop projects of the pupils. “The experimental nature of the junior high school is nowhere better shown than in this evident “feeling around” by those planning junior high-school courses for the proper type of industrial work. There seems to be better agreement in the girls’ work and there is a decided tendency for the unit kitchen equipment with stock kitchen ranges and kitchen cabinets to take the place of the familiar horse-shoe type of domestic science laboratory. There is a definite attempt to get away from the laboratory idea and get the home kitchen atmosphere where a group of from five to six girls can prepare a complete meal in family-sized portions to serve to themselves or to take home for the “acid test” of home con- sumption. The model flat still persists in many of the buildings, though some are discarding it. Most of the men planning buildings regarded it as an expensive ornament rather than as a necessary or useful adjunct to the household art work due to the very limited use that was made of it in actual practice. There is a decided tendency to install the lunch room in connection with the household arts work. Some schools plan to operate the lunch rooms as one phase of this department’s program. In this connection an interest- 402 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION ing use of the school lunch-room as a sewing-room is made in some places. While this makes some problems in program-making; on the other hand, where it can be successfully carried out, it results in a great economy in building cost as ordinarily the lunch-room which will usually accommodate at least 200 children stands idle the most of the school day. Nearly all of the new buildings include a swimming-pool and at least two gymnasiums, one for boys and one for girls. Some of the larger buildings have two smaller rooms for corrective gymnastics or special exercise work. This increased space devoted to physical education is due to the increased emphasis placed on health work in the junior high-school curriculum which generally makes gymnasium work compulsory for all pupils throughout the three years. Some of the schools are carrying out this idea still more’ completely in play fields adjoining the buildings so that large numbers of the pupils may take part in various kinds of sports. The program of studies of many of the junior high schools make pro- vision for some sort of auditorium work for all students. While all the schools studied have an auditorium as a necessary part of their plan they do not agree as to the number of pupils this room should accommodate relative to the capacity of the building as a whole. Most of the larger schools plan for an auditorium large enough to seat from about one third to one half the total capacity of the school. The smaller buildings plan for a room to seat the entire school. Where the capacity of the school is 2500 to 3000 it is clearly inadvisable to build an auditorium large enough to seat the school altogether. Such a room is expensive to build and to operate, has a limited use, and when filled with a group of 7th, 8th, and 9th grade children may become very difficult to administer. It is, how- ever, an undeniable advantage to have the entire school together and since an auditorium seating from 800 to 1000 can be built and operated for much less than the larger room and is useful on many more occasions, the smaller schools are justified in building an auditorium to handle the capac- ity of the school. This to the writer’s mind is a decided argument. in favor of the smaller school. The stage of the auditorium is generally large enough for choruses of 200 or more and has some provision for the storage of scenery. “There does not seem to be a tendency to equip the stage with flies or an elaborate arrangement of dressing rooms. The departmental organization calls for carefully planned corridors so that the pupils may be shifted at each period of the day quickly and with- out confusion. Mose of the plans of organization call for home-room teach- ers and some building plans keep the elementary school cloakroom instead of adopting the high-school plan of the individual locker for each child. The tendency is toward the locker plan, however. Few of the buildings are providing study halls. Some are using vacant classrooms for study under the direction of the teachers. Others have lengthened the periods and are trying some form of supervised study which means that all but a small fraction of the students are assigned to some teacher each period of the day for some kind of. recitation and study. All of the buildings studied NATIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 403 are making a careful provision for library work, and many have evidently planned for an affiliation between their library and the public library of the city. The space within the buildings studied falls naturally into two large groups,—one we may call general classrooms and the other special rooms. By general classrooms is meant the ordinary classrooms designed for recita- tion or study. By special room is meant all the others including science rooms, shops, auditorium, gymnasium, music rooms, and library. In estt- mating the capacity of the building it was assumed that all of these rooms were to be occupied by pupils all of the day. On this basis it was interest- ing to note that the capacity of the building is always nearly evenly divided between the special rooms and the general ciassrooms, but with the larger number in the special rooms. In fact, the special rooms had a rated capacity of from 50 to 65 per cent of the total capacity of the buildings. The general classrooms of the junior high-school buildings are in general much like those of the ordinary schoolroom of good type, but in size are half way between the elementary room and the senior high-school room. Most of the buildings studied have a room planned for a capacity of thirty-five pupils. Ait of the buildings had rather carefully worked-out suites of rooms for administrative purposes. All provide rest rooms, clinics, and most of them provide work and conference rooms for the faculty. That the junior high school is to be much more of a community center than our other school buildings have been is shown by the care that has been taken in planning the building to make it easy to use shop, gymnasium, pool, or auditorium by the public without interfering with other parts of the building. In addition, rooms for social activities for the pupils and the people of the community have been provided in some schools. Generally speaking, the buildings are two or three stories in height with no basement rooms. By basement is meant a room partially or wholly below grade. ‘Lhere is evidence of a desire on the part of school archi- tects to express in the exterior of the building something of the character ot the school it is intending to house. ‘I'he new program in the new school has seemed to set schooimen and school architects free from following the more or less standardized exterior of flat-roof and block-house type and has encouraged them to give the building an individuality that sets it apart from the conventional type of public-school building. ‘This is a good tendency, and if the junior high school will set us free from the barrack type ot school buildings it will have well served the present and next gen- eration. We are buud.ng durabie and permanent buildings nowadays and if our older buildings of brick and wood have had a life of from thirty to fifty years surely these newer constructions of concrete and steel have a much longer lite before them. Accordingly we should look with favor on any attempt to provide a building whose beauty will be as enduring as the material trom which it is made. The building features peculiar to the junior high school arise out of the 404 NaTIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION type of work this school is planned to do and the age and maturity of its pupils. The chief difference lies in the number and character of the rooms . for so-called special activities, some brought into it from the senior high school though in simpler form and some that grow out of its own peculiar purpose. While there is still great diversity in the buildings so far built no other type of school architecture has been so carefully and scientifically studied and planned, and we shall soon arrive, not at uniformity of plan, but at what we can call the typical junior high school. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON PARTICIPATION OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT HARLAN UPDEGRAFF, CHAIRMAN, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE Chairman, Hartan Uppecrarr, University of Pennsylvania........ Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools............sse+ece Los Angeles, California P. W. Horn, Superintendent of ‘City Schoolseo..... ... eo so ameceites ceric Los Angeles, California W. M. Davipson, Superintendent of City Schools.............-..-«. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Anna Lourse Force, 17th and Stout Streets, Century Building............. Denver, Colorado STELLA Herron, ‘City Normal 'Schooltics.. cece sete tak aaa aerate New Orl-ans, Louisiana CornELIA -S, Amarr, City’ Schoolszep. en acdsee aeereriee sleek terete eens Richmond, Virginia Oxive M. JONES, 187 Broome Strect.mciseperteereritee oiaeian ios nisin ae nici ere New York City EC. BROOME, superintendent Of SCHOOIS siete cticdenaeeteiee ceeetioe Philadelphia, Pennsylvania HH. BAW IESON, Superintendentios Schoolsmus.c cers ceietiaecionias femteeioee Berkeley, California This is the fourth report that has been made to the National Council upon the subject of Participation of Teachers in Management. Since the committee was first appointed for this study the number of organizations, committees, councils, and clubs has steadily increased until now they may be found in city school systems of all sizes throughout the United States. It is evident that teachers participation in management has come to stay; it is just as clear, however, that there is not yet any special form of partici- pation which is generally accepted as best adapted to any particular set of conditions. From the beginning the purpose of the committee has been to study, with the aid of as full and as definite knowledge of the facts as could be obtained, the different forms of participation of teachers in management and the results of the operation of each. In the first years of the committee’s activities it set forth those principles of management which made clear the necessity for some form of participation of workers in the conduct of enter- prises of every kind, the objects that were to be gained by such activity, and the criteria by which the results were to be judged. The committee also directed its attention to the making of a careful study of the chief form in which teacher participation had been manifested up to that time—namely, the part taken by teachers in the making of courses of study. The information was gathered through a questionnaire furnish- ing for the most part numerical statements of an objective nature. The NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 405 study was published in monograph form by the National Education Asso- ciation as part of the Report of the Committee on Superintendents’ Problems in 1918. 1t showed that the organs used for this participation were almost all the type that was called the “Temporary Committee,” of which there were numerous forms ranging from those that were dominated by super- intendents of schools to those in which the superintendent studiously avoided having anything to do with the committee in any stage of its work. From the opinions of ninety per cent of the superintendents, participation of teach- ers was a positive benefit to the schools, to the teachers, to the superintend- ents as well as in the making of the course of study and in the improvement of methods of teaching. In fact, it proved conclusively that teacher partici- pation in the making of courses of study should be adopted by city school systems generaily without regard to size of city. As to which form of: committee was best, it was impossible, however, to obtain sufficient data to warrant a conclusion. This study was made before teachers’ councils came into prominence and was originally undertaken because it was believed that such study might be of positive benefit to school management. Regarding the more formal and permanent organ of teacher participation—the teachers’ council—it was impossible to make a similar study until it had been in operation a sufficient length of time to furnish a body of facts upon which to base conclusions. ‘he efforts of the committee were, therefore, confined at first to the statement of those administrative and social principies that should determine the purpose, the functions, and the structure of such an organ, taking into account, also, the varying sets of limiting conditions which might affect form and structure. A yéar later it was possible to secure the constitutions of a sufficiently large number of such bodies, as had been given administrative sanction, in order to make a comparative study of their structure. The study of Mr. Orton presented last year before this body, has been supplemented by those of Mr. Seares, Mr. Cummings, and Miss Hebb, that of the first named being most valuable from this point of view, appeared in the 4 meri- can School Board Journal for October, 1921. ‘These studies show a sur- prising variety in structure among such types of organization. In this we have another example of that unique characteristic of our democratic form of government which is both our strength and weakness. Each locality has proceeded alone, or at least, has decided for itself the structure and the functions which its formal organ was to have, thus making it possible to carry on a vast amount of experimentation under varying conditions as pleased each locality. While each organ standing alone has not been so correct in its form as it would have been had the plans been determined by some central agency especially proficient in the theory and practice of such organization in educational and other fields, nevertheless this period of experimentation has made it possible to have in the future organs better adapted to existing conditions than could have been sug- gested by expert authority, provided we now gather up in systematic and careful fashion the results of those more or less isolated experiments. 406 NaTIONAL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION Se ee nee ee ee ee It now seems to the committee that the time has come when a study of the functioning of these organizations, known in general as teachers’ councils, can well be made. In the working out of this study there should be three controlling principles: First, conciusions must be based on facts stated as definitely and- as accurately as possible; second, the structure of an organ must be determined primarily by the functions it is to perform; and third, structure although determined primarily by functions to be performed is affected to a marked degree by the environing conditions within which it must work. The committee has prepared, therefore, a questionnaire which seeks to get the facts as to how efficiently the different structures have operated in the performance of their various functions under the particular environing con- ditions in so far as such facts can be ascertained by the questionnaire method. ‘The facts obtained together with such supplementary informa- tion as may be gathered will be studied with the purpose of answering in as satisfactory a manner as possible the following questions: Frst, under what set of conditions, if any, is a permanently organized teacher-participation agency desirable and under what sets of conditions, if any, is it undesirable? While the principles presented by this committee have pointed to certain con- clusions on this point, there is yet needed a confirmation, modification, or negation of them by the outcomes of actual experience. Only in such a way as this may theory and practice be found of the greatest possible benefit to each other. Second, when it is found desirable to have a permanent formal organ for the participation of teachers in management, what form of organization is best adapted to perform each specified function under each specified set of conditions? From surface indications it seems that these organizations are not working as smoothly and as effectually as had been expected by their sponsors, nor are they performing the good that they ought. The reasons for this, it is reasonable to expect, may be in part, at least, because they have attempted to perform functions that could be better carried out by some agency other than a council, or that their forms of structure were such that they could not accomplish the purpose effectually. Frequently it has happened that in the formation of a teacher council, the primary purpose was to increase salaries; consequently, the structure was properly framed for securing the representation and participation of all groups of teachers. The organ thus created has since performed such varying functions as the improving of the course of study, or the arranging for courses of lectures for the benefit of teachers, the providing of club rooms and forms of social entertainment, or the working for passage of certain bills through the legis'ature. Some of these functions are an integral part of the operations of the school system, others are not; and some require one kind of ability, others another kind. On the face of things, it would seem that there must necessarily be a vast waste of energy and of imperfect accomplishments when the same organs are performing such varied activities. Moreover, it will probably be found that sometimes the reasons are not in the poor adaptation of structure to NATIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 407 functions, but in the poor adaptation of structure to the environing con- ditions, such as: The nature and structure of other teachers’ organizations, and of the function performed by them, the authority conferred by the ‘school board upon the superintendent, the intelligence and the ideals of the teaching corps, the ability and the quality of leadership exercised by the superintendent and by the principals, and the spirit of the personnel as a whole. ‘These practical considerations are very important and at times dominant as far as practical results are concerned. They destroy the true perspective, or in other words, cause the superintendents or the teachers to look at the situation through colored glasses. In all probability, these local situations or personal views, prejudices shall we call them, producing in individuals or groups, selfish or low aims, often stand in the way of the real progress that would result if the organization as created were given a fair opportunity. It may not be amiss to present in the final section of this report a brief review of the more important criteria that seem, on the basis of the science of management in business and of management in schools, in so far as this has been studied to determine the success or failure of organs for the par- ticipation of teachers in management. First, any organ for the participation of teachers in management in any school system must produce a better realization of the aim set up by that particular school system for the education of its children. “This means that teacher participation is not introduced primarily for the benefit of either the teachers or the superintendent, but it exists rather for the benefit of the children. Consequently, if it does not benefit the children, it ought not to exist. The value of this criterion is more apparent in those school systems in which recognition is given to the principle of individual differences and where every possible effort under the limiting conditions is made to reach the needs of each individual child. This is undoubtedly the most important criterion to use in passing upon the value of any teacher-participation p'an. Second, a teacher participation organ should promote the efficiency of the teaching corps; meaning by this, that it should make teachers more competent in instruction, more responsive to leadership and more loyal to the schools. Since the importance of the teacher becomes more apparent in a scheme of instruction which recognizes the principle of individual differences, it will be seen that we must exert greater effort than heretofore to make of each teacher the best possible teacher. Fundamental in this is the recognition of the desire, innate in practically every individual teacher, to make the most of himself or herself; but recognition not for himself or herself primarily but for the sake of the pupils who by virtue of better teaching ability are to receive superior guidance and help. Nevertheless, it seems to be true that some teachers believe in teacher participation not for the sake of the children but for the sake of themselves in order that they may obtain a position in the organization and enjoy the exercise of power and receive the honor and adulation of their fellow 408 NaTIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION teachers, or in some instances in order that they may satisfy some grudge held against the superintendent or the school board. Third, as a corollary of these two, it follows that a teacher-participation organ should make it possible for the superintendent to accomplish more and better work. There are some superintendents who would not accept these as proper criteria. Their own attitude of mind or experience leads them to believe that councils have different purposes or that the purposes given are unattain- able through them. I personally believe that experience thus far proves they are both proper and attainable. At the same time, I think we must acknowledge that the experience of some superintendents with their teach- ing corps or of some fellow superintendent with his teachers, would naturally lead them to doubt their validity. “There are many misconcep- tions that must be cleared up. Superintendents should not have any of their rightful authority diminished; nor, on the other hand, should they alone desire to dictate the procedure of the school. “Teachers should regard the superintendent as the responsible leader of the school and give him loyal support; they should not expect to take over his functions. It is when misconceptions and selfish aims intervene that cooperative effort fails. What should be done under such circumstances, it is difficult to say. Per- sonally, I am inclined to favor the side, when there is a side, whose attitude is right ; that is, to deny to teachers who would misuse their power the right of a council, and to grant it to those teachers whose superintendent is not well disposed to them. Should both have the wrong attitude, an impossible situation would exist, and neither course should be followed. Surely it would be time in such a school system for another superintendent and for changes in the teaching corps. It will be the function of the committee to study such situations and test the validity of the foregoing conclusions. In summarizing, we may say that teacher-participation organs seemingly have come to stay, that they are performing a great variety of functions, that they are variously constituted, and that undoubtedly many of them have a poor adaptation of structure to the functions performed, owing to the fact that we are in the “trial and error” period of the development of this new form of institution. We need, in many quarters of the country, a clearer understanding of the aims of teacher participation and also some pretty well-defined criteria as to when teacher participation is functioning properly and when it should be redirected, and, possibly in some instances, reformed or abolished altogether. The experiences that we are thus having in this initial stage of development should be gathered together as rapidly as conditions permit, studied carefully, and from them conclusions formu- lated in order that there may be the least waste and least delay in the advancement of education. ‘This your committee is endeavoring to do with such facilities as are at its command. It desires your codperation and such support as the work requires. NATIONAL CoUNCIL oF EDUCATION 409 THE COORDINATION OF THE COMMUNITY AGENCIES IN EFFECTING CHARACTER EDUCATION ALBERT SHIELS, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Character is difficult to define because it includes so many things—all our ways of thinking, feeling, and doing. ‘True, we may formulate a general definition of character; but it is to be questioned whether such general definitions are useful for our purpose. At the very beginning sanctions of conduct must in turn be defined, and we at once embark on a philosophic journey which, however delightful to the traveler, fails to help the teacher in the practical and immediate problem of developing the char- acter of children. as When we discuss particular situations we rarely differ as to what is right or wrong. ‘The practical judgment of the man on the street is probably as correct as that of the philosopher. We may consider the factors of education in developing the character of children in the same common- sense way. We know that character involves (1) high motives; (2) the intelligent interpretation of the best motive, and (3) the appropriate actions, the latter becoming habits for constant situations. Because these three things make up character, it does not follow that we must establish a formal order of sequence in teaching them. ‘The child himself just bubbles up in his tendency to action; he begins to choose the motive that influences action soon enough, and he naturally selects that which is most pleasant or least difficult. “This really is the way most adults react, with these two important differences: first, the things that are pleasant to men and women of character are those which yield finer kinds of satisfaction— that is, such people respond to higher motives; second, their reaction to the good motive is more intelligent—it is based on greater knowledge. Our work in education, therefore, is threefold: (1) to afford the right situation for action; (2) to build up the better motive; (3) to impart the most useful knowledge. All these are essential, but one is fundamental to good character—the good motive. If a child seems to accept the motive we call “good” by giving the appropriate action only because of a sense of fear, we can go so far as to secure “good” behavior, and we may even establish “good” habits; but a sound character implies response to those right motives which a child accepts for himself so strongly and so pro- foundly that they will have a driving force. A child who associates in a group that accepts the right motives will, even without argument, fall in with his fellows, for he finds pleasure in winning their approval. ‘There- fore, association with the agencies in the community that recognize good motives, adequate knowledge, and successful performance is a mode of education, whether the agency is the church, the home, or a wholesome organization of young people. _ The emphasis on motive and action must not blind us to the importance of knowledge in the development of character. There are two extreme conceptions of knowledge—each a contribution to truth, yet each in itself 410 NationaL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION misleading. ‘The first seems to attribute to knowledge an extraordinary efficiency. Modern educators protest against this conception; yet, un- consciously, educational practice tends to adopt it. For nearly a quarter of a century, for example, citizenship training has been a subject of dis- cussion among educators. In the broader sense of the term it has come to mean character training, except that the religious sanction has usually been excluded. During this period, with only negligible exceptions, all the discussions concerning civic training or character development have been confined largely to new curricula, that is, to a mastery of knowledge. On the other hand, the emphasis on behavior or action has sometimes obscured the large part which knowledge plays in character development. Statements to the effect that mere knowledge never made a citizen, or that moral maxims play little part in making men of character are familiar to us all, and they are true. Yet we know that so useful a thing as the taboo among savages is but a method of capitalizing the knowledge that certain foods are dangerous or that certain customs are harmful. Simi- larly, civilization affirms ethical adherence to certain laws and customs which are hygienic rather than moral. Wisdom in meeting situations honorably as well as advantageously is based on adequate information. It is evidence of good character that a man save his neighbor’s water supply from the pollution of his sewage. ‘The good intentions of such a man become effective only in proportion to his knowledge of the laws of sanitation. This, however, is no justification for assuming that a man must be versed in all the sciences—even the social sciences—to become a good citi- zen, else, indeed, democracy would be in a bad way. For the citizen of a democracy certain minima of knowledge are essential, as, for example, that the technical operations of government should be in charge of experts. The danger in education is not that a child may learn too much, but that he may endeavor to learn what is beyond him, or what is of little worth in meeting the ordinary experiences that most citizens are bound to face. The desideratum is that he should be able to interpret intelligently and use wisely the knowledge he does possess. “The use of knowledge demands the presence of “people” and “things” under the most ‘“‘natural situa- tions.’ ‘The community agencies afford both the opportunity and the situation in a way the schools may find it difficult to do. The discussion has implied that character is developed in a child in his group relations,—that is, that the kingdom of heaven is not a special in- dividual possession, but rather that it is found as a man lives with his neighbors and as he acquits himself decently and honorably in that associa- tion. Individualism, as far as it means a virile sense of personal responsi- bility, is a splendid quality. Individualism that signifies a ruthless search for personal benefit is a contradiction of the social order. Democracy and such an individualism cannot survive together; one or the other must eventually disappear. Community agencies for this discussion may be defined as any form of NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 411 organized effort in a locality which is devised to contribute to the welfare of a neighborhood. The school is one community agency; others are the home, the church, the library, the local board of trade, the community council—if there is one. To codrdinate them would require at the be- ginning some discrimination as to their respective values and functions. These agencies may first be discriminated as they contribute to character ; either as they impart knowledge or as they afford situations that call for a child’s reactions—situations well within his power to meet, yet not re- quiring such extraordinary effort as to invite failure. Every agency in education does both of these things, but differs in and may be distinguished by the degree of emphasis on action or on knowledge. A second principle of discrimination is the relative permanence of these azencies. Permarence is an essential quality. If we evolve a plan of coordination that includes one agency which may fail at a critical time merely because it lacks the stamina to continue, our whole program may go awry. Permanence depends on two important factors: one is an as- surance of financial support whether by public funds or private enterprise ; the other is a public consciousness of need, due not so much to public enthusiasm—for this may be but a passing humor—as to a profound public conviction. Since our aim is character development, a community agency must be assured that the people who constitute its membership have a sufficient interest in it to give it sustained, consistent thought and effort. Otherwise it may fail to accomplish its purpose prec’sely as democracy itself may fail through lack of general interest and effort among its citizens. This is the weakness of a philanthropy in a community. It may be an excellent instrumentality for achieving a purpose other than citizenship training. If, however, it merely gives, if its affairs are conducted from above, if those attached to it are recipients only, it will afford but a poor contribution to the making of self-respecting, earnest citizens. “This, it may be noted, is not a plea for the abolition of philanthropic enterprises, which would be a real calamity, but rather an argument that some of these enterprises might with wisdom reorganize their methods of administration. The school occupies a unique place, not because it is always the most ‘influential among the agencies that develop character, but because the teacher is in a special sense concerned in all education that aims at character development, whether the process is going on in the schoolhouse or any other place. Moreover, the school enjoys certain advantages; its con- tinuance is assured, for it is supported by public sentiment and financed by public funds. Whether the school requires initiative, team work, and contribution to its welfare from its particular group of citizens—that is, its pupils—depends much upon the character of the school administrator himself. Now a school presents situations to its pupils and requires that they be met. Nevertheless, through its very nature the school carries on the tradition of knowledge. Its excellence is not unusually measured by the 412 NatTIoNAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION ability of its pupils to repeat the knowledge that has been imparted, as through examinations. The school is usually ready to codperate with other community agencies that, like itself, are engaged in the work of giving in- formation. Thus, the best schools codperate with a neighboring library, and they frequently utilize newspapers, magazines, and supplementary texts. Nor should the value of such knowledge be in any way deprecated. Several questions, however, arise: Has the school. in its development of character a too exclusive tendency to emphasize knowledge only? Does this knowledge develop certain desirable attitudes and interests? Are these as carefully considered as the possession of the knowledge itself? Is citizenship training or character development consciously a dominant aim in the work of the school, or is it taken for granted as a probable by- product? ‘These are not rhetorical questions. Many schools are con- cerned in attitudes, interests, habits, and character. Such phrases as “the project method,” and “‘socializing the recitation,” reflect that ideal. More- over, there is a steadily growing realization among school people that organization and administration are more than mere methods of facili- tating the operation of the school machinery. The principal and the teachers may find the solution of this problem in the establishment of a school city, a school senate, or a school council; or the method may express itself rather in the tone or attitude between teacher and pupils. For example, there are schools in which the sanctions for obedience and discipline are not the dicta of authority alone—there is public opinion in the making of which the pupils themselves have partici- pated. Whatever the method, in one way or another, the fact is being recognized that the spirit and the method of administering the school are in themselves valuable modes for developing the character of pupils. When, however, the school is called upon to codrdinate its work with that of other community agencies that emphasize actions and habits rather than knowledge, there is less evidence of accomplishment save of the more obvious and superficial kind. ‘This situation has a humorous aspect. We have a generation of children subjected outside of the school to a variety of organized influences, most of them unconscious of or indifferent to one another. ‘The sum of these experiences constitutes the child’s civic educa- tion or mode of character development. Yet, these agencies, however well-intentioned, may be quite inconsistent with one another. It is as if a child were now one person and now another, each at a different time being taught a different, even a contradictory, conception of good behavior and right action. Fortunately most children seem to have a sturdy power of emotional and intellectual digestion. ‘The model boy in the classroom who is arrested for theft outside is not a typical case. Now if we revert to our principles of discrimination, we find that we of the schools may make at least the beginning of a plan for codrdination. Because the school is already so well endowed with facilities for imparting knowledge, it is not here necessary to emphasize the value of codperation with the library or with civic functionaries, Most schools today provide NATIONAL CouNcIL oF EDUCATION 413 for visits to the fire station or the water works. We need only consider those other agencies which do emphasize action—that is, knowledge put to work. One class of these community organizations is created for chil- dren. ‘They are fairly well supported; they provide for the association of their people in natural situations. When they are under proper guidance they require at every stage action, habits, and adjustment. Examples of such organizations are the Boy Scouts, the Girl Scouts, and the Camp Fire Girls. I select the Boy Scouts because a recent study of their activities, which was the result of an investigation made after correspondence with more than a hundred school superintendents, presents illuminating facts. Al- most every superintendent stated that he approved of the scout program as an effective force in civic training. With few exceptions there was no evidence that the school concerned itself in any direct fashion with the experience of the pupils under- scout direction, though frequently a scout troop was permitted to use a classroom after school hours, with the acquiescence, paid or unpaid, of the school janitor. Some good reasons were given for this indifference, as that the scoutmaster was not properly trained, or that the local troop had been organized under the auspices of a sectarian group. Apparently, however, the fact was that the scouts were merely ignored because they were an “outside” organization. Yet, let us pause for a moment to consider some of the aims of school instruction. One is to develop leaders which, of course, implies not only an intelligent appreciation of the qualities of leadership in varying situations, but a cor- responding obligation to accept such leadership. What more natural situa- tions are there for such training than among a group of boys starting on a hike, or making camp, or taking a school census, or discharging the many duties a scout is called upon to perform? Examples could be multipled. Good schools endeavor to establish a public opinion—the social sanction for certain acts, praiseworthy or blamable. It would be a fortunate thing if the same opinion continued to operate after school hours. Now the scout organization is concerned with the same objective. It seems unde- niable that if the school people knew the scout program and the scout principles, and if the scout people knew what the school was trying to do, and especially if the boys themselves realized their mutual appreciations, certainly such sanctions would tend to become permanent forces. It is extraordinary how a perusal of the scout manual reflects the same purposes in character development that school men and women are constantly af- firming; the difference being only a difference in the situation and a differ- ence in the time. The teacher may wearily ask if this means added duties to the thembers of a profession already overweighted with responsibilities. It does not demand more time except as the teacher, like any citizen, may desire to give it; but it does ask for a wider outlook. The administrator will claim very properly that these outside organizations are often improperly equipped and, in a great many cases, poorly manned. ‘This is true, and it will 414 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION remain true as long as we who are inside the school continue to ignore those who are outside until they react our conception of excellence. Today Buffalo is training scoutmasters. Detroit is installing in its new schools offices for neighborhood organizations that will form the member- ship of local councils for the scout troop. Not a few towns have under- taken to assign part of the time of paid supervisors, especially trained, so they may direct their local boy scouts, permitting them to retain their in- tegrity as scout troops although conducted under a group of citizens interested in the school. We, here, are not especially concerned in the Boy Scouts, or the Girl Scouts, or the Camp Fire Girls except as they exemplify a general principle: Whenever in a locality there is an organization that has the experience, traditions, and program that will develop character, the school is concerned to work with it. What our young people need constantly as they associate is the “give and take” experiences that mean teamwork, the realization of community dependence, the fine sense of believing in and living for some- thing outside of the self, yet in which the self has a significant place. As soon as our children realize the oneness of purpose existing in the school and in their association out of it, there follows a consistency of experience that makes character development the easier. There is another kind of community agency—the adult organization that is or should be concerned in schools because it sometimes interests itself in some phase of character development. This agency includes several types: organizations of business men like boards of trade, chambers of commerce, and the like; the fast increasing number of women’s organizations, and one special group which we call parents’ associations. “The number of these organizations forbids any detailed consideration of their functions, and only a few references are, therefore, permitted. Recently one of the most ag- gressive of our business men’s associations engaged in an undertaking to “save the boys.” It is curious how small a part the school people had in it, though teachers could have given suggestions and made programs that would have saved much wasted energy. Women’s clubs have been more fortunate, especially in their legislative activities, which is probably due to the fact that so many of. their members are teachers. If the school people have not always been active it may be that they too have been ignored; yet it is not to be denied that the professional teacher is always inclined to look with a certain disdain upon the amateur who undertakes some educa- tional work. However, it may be repeated that since the school is vitally concerned [though it can make no pretense to supervise all education look- ing to the development of character] it should know what influences are working to supplement the work it is trving to do, and even at the risk of rebuff, it should offer from its fund of experience and its store of oppor- tunity whatever may help others who are trying under different circum- stances to do the same thing. Concerning the parents’ association it is easy to theorize. We have had a great many years of experience, a great deal of assumption, and not a NATIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 415 little eloquence. ‘The mothers’ associations have organized and pyramided themselves into city and county, State and National organizations, more or less elaborate. Yet in the immediate neighborhood the single school and its own parents’ association—we have much to learn concerning the tech- nique otf procedure that will include more than occasional entertainments, ap- propriations for charitable purposes, visits to the classrooms, and personal conferences, excellent though these things are. One significant outcome of the parents’ associations has been the reflex on the home itself in im- pressing a new consciousness of responsibility for the influences that tend to develop or warp the character of children. The discussions among teachers and parents, and the interesting volume of texts on the subject are emphasizing the fact that the important experi- ences are not only those in the school and the home, but those which occur in that uncertain and sometimes unknown field that lies between school and home. It is not impossible to conceive that for this very reason the parents’ associations will not in the future be so sharply divided from com- munity organizations. Not only fathers and mothers and teachers, but shopkeepers and clerks, advertisers, and purveyors of amusements equally need a quickened sense that they “belong” to the community, whether the consciousness be accelerated by an awakened responsibility or by more prudential considerations. The school and the parents together are powertul factors in training children, but they are not the only ones: our communities sometimes sufter from well-intentioned efforts of self-elected groups to improve the rest of the people; and even a parents’ association would not be fess efficient if it couid blossom into a more inclusive organi- zation that numbered in its membership the butcher, the baker, the candle- stick maker, and the person who owned the movie show, or the amusement park. Human beings are more sensitive to the judgments of a group when they belong to it. If deve:opment of character depends on good motives, adequate knowl- edge, and experience in doing the right thing, then whatever facilitates any ot them is desirable. If sanctions to good conduct are effective as we identify them as judg- ments of the group in which we count ourselves members, then we are first concerned that children and grown people find satisfaction and an outlet for their interests in those groups which have high standards of judgments. Finally, if the experiences of children and of grown folks are consistent and constant so far as they develop high motives and afford satisfaction in pertormance, then character tends to become permanent. It is possible to develop any sort of national or racial character—to make a people obsequious or tyrannical according to whether they have through centuries been victims of oppression or masters of slaves. One nation performed a miracle of education within half a century—of a race of quiet, earnest, philosophical, and even sentimental people was made a nation of self- centered, arrogant soldiers who shook their sabers in defiance of the world. 416 Nationa, EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION It was, from the standpoint of effective education, a complete job. The objective was clearly seen, the methods carefully studied, and every social instrument was enlisted until men, women, and children were marching the goose step to the time of the schoolmaster, who was in turn the servant of another master. We may not safely forget that lesson. We have an aim—to preserve a democracy which can survive as its members are trained each to find his advantage in the advantage of his group. ‘That is citizen- ship training, and citizenship training is character—right action toward our fellows in the group relation. But do we vision the aim clearly; do some among us vision it at all? Then follows the mobilization of experiences so far as we can co- ordinate them: the school working to one purpose; the home and the com- munity to the same purpose—that these influences as the child experiences them may work consistently together. At best, any attempt to mobilize educational influences will be but a poor replica for German thoroughness, because our society, fortunately, is not based on a conception of unques- tioning obedience and we are not a goose-step people. But that is not a reason for indifference to the constructive forces that exist, rather is it a reason why communities must learn for themselves to utilize the favorable forces that operate within their bounds, and utilize them on a democratic basis. These forces are the community agencies. We have, it is true, no uniformed codrdinator to bring these agencies together; therefore, we make slow progress. But as we educate progress is sure. As a matter of education, therefore, we cannot escape the conclusion that it is the teacher who must lead. THE BEARING OF SEX-EDUCATION UPON CHARACTER T. W. GALLOWAY, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES, AMERICAN SOCIAL HYGIENE ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK CITY We seem to be agreed in this conference that character should not be looked upon as a mystical, formless, supernaturally determined something. Much less is it to be thought of as a general or racial thing. Character is individual, and every individual has a different combination of its ele- ments from any other known combination. Because this seems true we really dare not speak of “training character” as a whole, any more than we can speak of “educating the mind.” We can educate particular aspects of mental functions and activities; equally we can educate and train the receptive, intellectual, emotional and behavioristic elements in attitude and character as these are applied to particular situations. Notwithstanding this there has appeared here a very decided unwilling- ness to indicate what we mean by character. It appears to the speaker that we must not, even though we are not capable of a perfect solution, try to evade the issue of objectifying and analyzing character, so that we may in some degree approach the task of training some of the simpler functions and processes which are inevitably to be included in that which NaTIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 417 we name character. On the other hand this is no place to enumerate, even if we could, all the ultimate traits, states, and attitudes of the individual which go to make up character. When we speak of ‘“‘character” as being an object of education, we are tacitly including some such modifier as “good” “sound,” “acceptable” or “effective.” These terms imply a social, or some other, objective evalua- tion, and must finally be defined as well as included. ‘This definition of goodness, however, is not the main part of our present task. At the outset we may admit that the bases of character are inherited as physical and chemical complexes, and yet that the major part of its final form seems to be individually acquired; that it has both unconscious and conscious elements; and that it has both a purely personal and a social content. No real approach can be made to this task of objectifying and analyzing character without including two somewhat distinct points of view: (a) The pragmatic, behavioristic owtcome of the inner character of the individual, which some scientists would have us believe is all there is to it; (b) the inner unconscious and conscious structural and functional elements or factors in the mixture, which accompany and determine the behavior. For practical, or behavioristic, purposes, the character of an individual must be, and is, measured by the degree to which the total “mixture” of personal traits and qualities adjusts the individual to the most persistent and significant phenomena of his existence. No character can be regarded as satisfactory, no matter how powerful or interesting it may be in its in- dividual elements, unless it does make an efficacious and discriminating adjustment of the individual to his own inner processes and to his surround- ings, as well as to the conflicts between these. The adjustment, which we call character, is then as much.a matter of social as of individual psychology. These phenomena which are sufficiently significant to make a difference in the matter of adjustment, and thus of character, are: 1. The general external physical and chemical forces and conditions, as gravity, heat, water, and food. Adjustment to these has conditioned the basic structure of all organisms, and has resulted in nutrition, protection, comfort, and even in life itself. It has produced, and is ministered to by the senses, appetites, reflexes, and organic responses. These are adaptations back of the whole natural history of goodness. 2. The universe-order, as this operates in coexistences and sequences— including reality, space, time, cause and effect, and so forth. ‘This adjust- ment shows itself in definite conceptions of truth, beauty, logic. It pro- duces and is ministered to by curiosity, reasoning, judgment, discrimination, esthetic standards, and the like. 3. One’s own internal changing temperamental and mental states as these are determined both by the inherited factors (as endocrines) and by experi- ences, such as conflicts among the urges of one’s primary desires; or between a desire and the inhibitions growing out of experience. This adjustment is measured by the comfort which comes from solving inner tensions, dilemmas, and conflicts. The degree of adjustment may be expressed in such terms as 418 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION uncertainty, satisfaction or dissatisfaction, happiness, remorse, phobias, poise, and the like. 4. The social order and the relations with others of the same species. These adjustments are of every shade of intensity from those of mating and parental care to the completest indifference or the fiercest competitions ; and of every shade of complexity from casual contact of two individuals to the most elaborate adaptation of the individual to the social, ethical, and esthetic standards, conventions, institutions, and controls of the group. On the part of the individual these adjustments are expressed in terms of conformity or unconformity, of acceptance or aversion, of imitation or rebellion. It is quite clear that these character adjustments of the individual in a changing world are dynamic and relative, and not static or absolute in nature. “They vary with individuals, groups, time, and racial experience. Therefore they cannot be cared for completely by instincts and habits. This is all the more true because it is not always possible to bring these four main areas of adjustment into harmony among themselves. One of the most im- portant tasks of character is to effect a working discrimination of the various values among these conflicting adjustments. Ordinarily we attach, from the point of view of character, particular merit to the adjustments within fields 2, 3, and 4, given above. From the structural or synthetic point of view, the character, which can effectively make such adjustments, must include the following, among other elements: 1. A suitable sensitiveness or openness or receptiveness to all the old and new forces to which adjustment may need to be made. This implies, in the face of the habituation which inevitably follows satisfying experiences, a consciously cultivated modifiability or adaptability, through appreciation of the value of adjustment to new conditions. This is not the adaptability of inexperience, but of acquired purpose in spite of habit formation. 2. Knowledge, understanding, intelligence. We have long recognized the place of this class of factors in personality and character; and partly because we can measure these more exactly than any other factors, we have greatly overestimated their relative importance in character. 3. Desires (‘“impulses,” “tendencies,” “instinctive” appetites) which operate unconsciously or consciously to furnish “motives” for conduct. These powerful drives in character have been left chiefly to the mystics largely because they are elusive of exact study and measurement. They are most important in character and must be analyzed and systematically trained. 4. Habits and skills—These relate not merely to muscles and behavior ; but equally to appreciation and modifiability, satisfactions, thinking, and discrimination. Indeed as important as habit is, it is not so much an in- dependent character trait as a state of development of all the various traits. 5. Satisfactions or dissatisfactions, which may relate to conditions grow- ing out of external stimuli (defore action), or to the results of action in responding to stimuli. As desires are the states of feeling which drive to NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 419 action, satisfactions are the states of feeling which reward or penalize a particular action after it is performed. As a matter of fact it is through just such comfort and discomfort that particular conditioned reflexes, reaction patterns, bonds, and habits are stamped in or out. 6. The attitude and power of discriminating, which is a kind of acquired sense of proportion that allows a comparison and the weighing of stimuli, desires, ideas, experiences, and satisfactions and enables one to detect and use their variations. One may remark in passing that human adjustments are imperfect and ineffective less because we lack knowledge or motives than because we lack power to distinguish important from trivial facts and values. There is no purpose to imply that these factors in character are either simple or operate separately “in a vacuum.” ‘They combine into still more complex character-states to which we popularly give names. Indeed the simplest act of conscious adjustment may call for the play of all of them. While doubtless far from complete, the following suggestions will illustrate such combination of factors. Jdeals represent a fusion of desires and ideas. Conscious motives are ordinarily made up of desires plus intellectual ele- ments. Receptiveness coupled with satisfactions makes for appreciation. Purposes are delayed reaction motive-complexes consciously connected with the future. Tastes are satisfactions which have become standardized and habitual. Discrimination may be applied to all other factors, and mediates all the combinations mentioned above. It creates understanding out of knowledge and personal standards out of ideas, and is the basis of all choices and decisions in dilemmas. While each of these six functional factors in character is complex, each of them is much more simple than character conceived as a unit. Further- more, all human experience seems to show that all these. factors are capable of modification. ‘That is to say they are educable. ‘This of course does not mean that we can educate satisfactions or desires or discrimination in the mass, any more than we can develop intelligence as an abstraction. It means that we can, just as we can increase knowledge about any particular situation, modify satisfactions, and secure comparison and discrimination in a particular situation. Furthermore, just as we can finally create a prejudice toward knowing in general, we can build a predilection toward classes of satisfactions or toward the exercise of discrimination, as a trait or mode of character-reaction. It is obvious that our present need is to find methods of modifying these and other elements of character specifically, and of measuring the degree of such modification. It is clear also why there is no high correlation be- tween knowledge and character. Similarly we see that character education is not a matter of “teaching” something. It is rather a matter of vital, social life-projects covering the whole range of the desired particular ad- justments in detail, with the project details fully motivated at every step by desires suitable to the stage of emotional development, and rewarded by the most natural and convincing satisfactions, until each desired adjust- ment is by way of becoming habitual. 420 NaTIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION The particular function of this paper is to show that the phenomena of sex and reproduction and the educative use of these phenomena must loom large in any character education which pretends to fit for a real, present life. If there is anything of truth in the preceding discussion, there seems to be no need of extended argument that sex education belongs here, and for the following reasons: 1. Sex and reproductive development within the individual, connected as this development is with the endocrines of the sex glands and the other glands of internal secretion, modifies from within practically all the factors of character mentioned above. Receptiveness and appreciation, intellectual capacity, all the emotional and temperamental elements of desires and satis- factions and interests and tastes, are highly conditioned by the state of the sex development and of the endocrine balance which is so sensitive to sex and reproductive states. This is shown specifically by the emotional changes of adolescents. The sex phenomena highly animate or dull the most im- portant elements in personal character and conduct. 2. On the social side, sex and reproduction make a species and a society possible. It is through the joint operation of these functions and impulses that the whole fourth group of adjustments mentioned above (the social) originate. That is to say, if there were no reproduction and sex there would be no society in the first place. 3. Furthermore, more than any other group of biological or psychological factors, sex and reproduction organize this society which they produce. The home and family, whatever its shortcomings, is unquestionably the most fruitful factor in social evolution and structure; and the family is motivated and organized about the joint impulses, behavior, satisfactions, and habits of sex and reproduction. That is to say, without the attractions and im- pulses of reproduction and sex the species, even if it were formed, would not have produced any such society as we know. 4. The spirit of non-competitive interest and mutual adjustment, and even of service and sacrifice, which is the new evolutionary social factor involved in the family, is purely the outcome of sex love and the production and care of offspring. In other words the family itself is primarily a sex- reproductive institution; and the spirit of the home jis the direct product e< the sex-reproductive complex of unconscious and conscious adjustments. Incidentally, the extension of this non-competitive spirit into the general social structure outside the home seems at the present moment the only hope of a human civilization worthy of the name. ey, Factors which are so momentous in the development and life both of every individual and of the society in which these individuals must function must be profoundly influential in moulding that total mass of qualities (character) by which the individual must adjust himself to society. Out of the joining of these impulses of sex and reproduction and from the agree- ment and the conflicts between the individual and social welfare we get the most rich and colorful dilemmas and adjustments known to organisms. As meeting dilemmas satisfactorily is the school of character, so the ability NaTIonaL Councit oF EDUCATION 421 to meet such situation discriminatingly is objectively the best measure we have of the essence of true character. Certainly these sex phenomena are as important in education for life as they are for life itself. In the past, we have very largely undertaken to educate personal character into a capacity for social adjustment by endeavor- ing to expurgate sex and reproduction from the list of important internal factors and external adjustments; or, what is as bad, by holding that these elements, when used, could make only negative and degrading contributions to character. The claim of social hygiene educators is merely that we must put Hamlet back in the cast. We are convinced not only that the play is incomplete without the Dane, but more fundamentally that the most beauti- ful, sweeping, and constructive role in the play is his. We need character education; and we need it unexpurgated. To supply this need is the core of the proposal for social hygiene and sex education. It is to develop all the qualities included in character and to relate these specifically and consciously by the widest use of the project method to the dilemmas of sex, so that sex behavior may be most whole- somely adjusted to the most significant needs and happiness both of the individual and of society. JUSTICE AND EQUALITY FOR CHILD HEALTH THOMAS D. WOOD, CHAIRMAN, JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK CITY The improvement of child health is the duty of everybody; of every home, of every school ; of every community ; of every State; of every Nation. Economy, thrift, budget-making, wise investment, productive effort, pru- dent expenditure are at present sensible, timely slogans. Every intelligent, unselfish effort for child health is in full accord with the spirit and purpose of everyone of these watchwords. Securing the best attainable health and welfare for every child by the community and the State is the expression of social wisdom, of civic justice, and sound Statesmanship. The State cannot guarantee to its children equality of inheritance, equal- ity of mental endowment, or ability. Nor can the State guarantee to children in later years, equality of success or prosperity or health or hap- piness. But the State can and should guarantee essential equality in the fundamental health necessities and provisions for all of the children. This was done for the soldiers in training for war. It can and should be done for the children and youth of the State and Nation in training for citi- zenship. Does such equality in relation to child health exist at present? Far from it! The program of health care organized by human society for the child’s growth and development is uneven and inconsistent. “The most impressive and dramatic development in this field is the Science and Art of Infant 422 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Care. As a result of the intensive health care developed for babies the death rate of infants under one year of age has been reduced in many cities and in some States from 50 to 75 per cent during the last twenty years. If a corresponding saving and betterment in life and health could be made throughout the periods of childhood and adolescence up to maturity, the results would be thrilling beyond expression. But the spendid momentum of health care gained during the first year of life is sadly slackened in the pre-school and school periods. “Thousands of lives saved by skill and devotion during infancy are heedlessly and need- lessly crushed out by street, and other preventable accidents during the runabout and early school periods. This “juggernaut” destruction of children in our streets must somehow be stopped. And what are the schools doing for the health of children and youth from five to sixteen or eighteen? Something, but as yet not much, at least, for all the school children. The gradual improvement during the last twenty years in the health work of the schools is encouraging but by no means satisfactory. A few city school systems are now spending annually from four to five dollars per pupil for health and physical education. This represents: from 3 to 5 per cent of the annual school budget, a splendid approach to a complete and adequate program. On the other hand a few cities in our proud Republic are spending noth- ing for health in the schools. City schools, on the average, are doing much more for the health of pupils than are the rural schools. Health examinations of nearly two millions of school children (evenly divided be- tween rural and urban schools) in New York State directed by the State Department of Education during the last five years show that 72 per cent of the pupils in city schools and 87 per cent of pupils in rural schools have health defects.. The same report shows that of the defects reported in city schools 36 per cent were treated and of the defects reported in rural schools only 22 7/10 per cent were treated. And New York is not the worst State in the Union by a good distance. Governor Miller, of this same State of New York, in his message to the legislature in January, 1922, expressed his convictions emphatically as follows: “I deplore paternalistic tendencies which substitute dependence upon the State for self-dependence and self-reliance of the citizen, but it is one of the highest functions of the State to safeguard childhood and to protect the public health and the proper discharge of that function is not paternalistic. . . . No child in the State should be handicapped by a remediable physical defect.” No child in the 24,000,000 school children of the United States should be handicapped by a remediable health defect. And yet over 15,000,000 of them are today so handicapped. With all the splendid start that has been made in some cities and in a few States in this campaign for school health work the surface of reasonably full accomplishment in this vital task of the Nation has as yet only been scratched. Malnutrition still stalks like an insidious specter through this NaTIONAL Councit or EDUCATION 423 land of ours threatening one child in every four or five, not with early annihilation as in some countries in Europe, but with dangers just as real and ofttimes more far-reaching in lowered vitality, deficient development, and decreased resistance to many kinds of harm. Myriads of children are suffering from partial: starvation in a land of plenty; suffering thus, not often from poverty alone, but most often from ignorance, from carelessness, from neglect, from the irresponsibility of those not only in home, but in school and community, in the State and the Nation. Who must attend to this business if the country is to remain solvent. The insecure roof of a theatre collapses with tragic loss of life. But unnoticed by most, the neglected, the moral, mental, and physical health of the children of the Republic, jeopardizes the very foundations of our entire permanent National edifice. The great majority of the children even yet are seriously endangered by neglect of the teeth. Only a few of those with defective vision have been corrected so that they can really “see straight.” A very small percentage only, of children throughout our broad land have had their injurious tonsils and adenoids removed. Fifty-one per cent of the freshmen of a great University have had their tonsils removed. Do not sniff at this and say “Just a fad! a luxury possible for the children of wealthy families.’ Some of us, who have paid with hard-earned money and much discomfort for the removal of pus-laden tonsils, know better. The boon we beg for the army of twenty-four millions of children in our schools is freedom from all remediable handicapping defects and a fair chance to realize the positive power of which they are capable by a reason- able opportunity for play; for vigorous out-door action; for enough whole- some, strenuous living, to develop as much of Rooseveltian robustness of mind and body and character as will benefit their world and generation. The school child in three cases out of four is in a situation relative to health (even if unconscious of it) which is well expressed by the words of the famous cartoonist—When a feller needs a friend.” W hat are his friends? MHere are a few of them: (a) A scale in every school so that every growing girl and boy may be weighed each month; (b) A place to play and develop out-doors—in safety—with joy; with re- sponsibility, with hardihood; (c) Sufficient food of the right kind; at the right time; and (d) A practical growing body of health habits, health attitudes, health ideas which will make a lifetime more useful and more satisfying. Who are the friends of every school child in his quest of health? (1) The parents—intelligent, devoted, sensible—eager to learn; keen to have the help of school and community in making the children of the home, into the healthiest and best citizens for the world; (2) The teacher—as much interested in the health and character of her pupils as in their mental de- velopment; and (3) The rest of the people—physical-education teacher, school nurse, school doctor, family physicians, and all others, who help every child in the land to make the best of himself. 424 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICIANS IN FORTY-TWO STATES TO THE HEALTH WORK IN THE SCHOOLS JOHN M. DODSON, CHAIRMAN OF THE COOPERATING COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS The enormous advance in. our knowledge of preventive medicine in the last half century is pregnant with great possibilities in the saving and prolongation of human lives and the increase of human efficiency. ‘The demonstration of these possibilities in the sanitation of the Panama Canal Zone by the late General Gorgas, and in the experience of the great armies in the Russo-Japanese war and the World War, were striking and con- clusive. To secure the maximum possible benefits of preventive medicine three things are necessary: (1) Scientific research, to which we owe practically all we have gained, must go forward to the discovery of new facts, new methods, and new principles. Research, therefore, in pure science, quite as much as in its applications to medicine, must be encouraged and sup- ported especially in the institutions for higher learning—colleges and uni- versities. The children of the coming generation should be impressed with the significance and importance of original investigation and no effort should be spared to seek out from the students in these institutions those rare individuals possessing the aptitude and capacity for such work. (2) The knowledge of sanitation, hygiene, and health, already gained, and that to be added to our store by future investigations must be as widely and effectively disseminated as possible among the people at large, and especially to the school children, the coming generations of men and women, It is in them that our hope of betterment almost wholly lies. It is in this line of activity that your joint committee has been working for ‘the last decade, and with gratifying progress. By action of the House of Delegates of the American Medical Association at its meeting in New Orleans in May, 1920, the several State medical societies were urged to appoint similar committees on the health problems in education to cooperate with similar committees to be appointed by the State teachers’ associations. Over forty of the State medical societies have already appointed committees. The earnest, continued support of every teacher in advancing this movement in her own State association is urged by this committee and by the National Education Association, which endorsed this movement at its meeting in Des Moines last July. With such a group of 400 or 500 teachers and physicians cordially codperating in the several States to secure a betterment of health conditions in schools and in school children and a more effective program of health education, there is almost no limit to the possibilities of accomplishment. 3. Multiple organizations have been formed in this country seeking to promote health in various ways and along various lines. Much time, money, and energy are being wasted because of lack of proper coordination of these numerous agencies. It has been one of the chief activities of this NaTIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 425 joint committee of the National Education Association and the American Medical Association to seek codperation with other organizations having purposes more or less in common. It should be, likewise, a prominent item in the program of the joint committees of teachers and physicians in the several States, to seek codperation with other associations and agencies whose purposes are the betterment of health conditions. WHAT THE WOMEN ARE DOING TO PROMOTE HEALTH IN SCHOOLS MRS. IRA COUCH WOOD, DIRECTOR OF THE ELIZABETH MC CORMICK MEMORIAL FUND, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Before saying a word on a physical education program, it would seem’ to me that we need to agree on a definition of the term “physical education.” Recently, a committee of experts sat all day long discussing the exact mean- ing of “nutrition” without coming to a conclusion. It might be equally dificult to come to a unanimous agreement as to a definition of “physical education.” In some schools, physical education covers all physical train- ing and activities, track athletics, physical examinations of children, health education and hygiene, and even the nutrition work, while in others physical education is confined solely to muscular exercise without reference to any other aspect of physical well-being or health. Back of the movement for physical education, there was undoubtedly the ideal of the perfectly developed Greek athlete. Today in the common practice of physical training, we seem often to have forgotten that the Greek ideal included perfect health, perfection of form, beauty in itself as an end to be desired; it was never confined to muscular development alone which might, or might not, win the wreath of laurel or bay. Our conception has been narrowed instead of broadened until now, in general, physical education means work in the gymnasium or on the playground, with muscular activity as its chief end, instead of perfect health as the goal to be achieved. Since the army examinations showed so many of our men unfit for service, the movement for physical training has been tremendously ac- celerated, but I believe that if it is to be an adequate cure for the condi- tions found, we must have a very much broader conception of what physical’ education should rightly include than we have at present. My own point of view has been reached by practical experience in promoting the health of children through the medium of the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund of Chicago, a private foundation made by Mr. and Mrs. Cyrus Hall McCormick in memory of their only daughter, Elizabeth, who died in 1905. Lhe Fund was created in 1908 on the broad and simple basis of ‘Gmproving the conditions of child life in the United States.” It has so far been devoted to promoting the health of children in various ways; at first, through infant welfare centers, then through open-air schools, and 426 NaTIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION at the present time, through various methods of health education in schools and nutrition classes for undernourished children. We have had on our staff physicians, nurses, teachers, dietitians, and physical educators, to gain as nearly as possible the different points ot view in the development of this subject of child health which is of such paramount importance in our National life. Within the last few years, a large number of investigations of the physical condition of school chidren.have been made by various organiza- tions, including the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund. Some of the schools showing the greatest amount of malnutrition and physical defects among the pupils, have been schools where physical education has been carried on for years. Chicago schools have had some form of physical education since 1886, and yet in a careful study of 10,000 school children made from widely differing groups in the city, an average of forty per cent of the children were found to be seriously malnourished and handicapped by physical defects. Many of the schools that have had no physical train- ing have had excellent health records for their children. It also seems true from the investigations that, while physical education in the generally ac- cepted meaning of the term is good for well children, it may, if un- intelligently directed, do as much harm as good to the groups who are not fitted to take advantage of it. In a number of schools, the underweight and defective children were being put through exactly the same course of physical training as up-to-weight children, with the result that the mal- nourished pupils go steadily downhill on this program. It has been found in several schools that as many as four per cent of the children had bad hearts, but that they were going through the same exercises as those children who were physically equipped for muscular exertion. It would seem to be a fundamental principle that careful physical examination, including heart and lungs, should be given to every child before he is ad- mitted to gymnasium or to general physical exercise, as well as to any ‘track athletics, but this is rarely done in practice. Recently, in a very progressive high school which had an excellent record for its basketball teams it was found that certain large boys were put in the sweat box for three hours at a time, until they came out at the point of exhaustion, so that they might reduce their weight to make a certain team for which a weight limit had been set. In a large school system in the Middle West where excellent health education has been carried on it was found that preliminary to the famous inter-school athletic meet of the spring, a large group of children did everything possible to lose weight so that they might get into classifications that would give them a better chance of winning in the competitions. This obvious lack of team work in the different de- partments of the school system has now been noted, and it is promised that no child underweight for height, or physically defective, will be admitted to athletic contests. In every school attempting physical training, there should be a set of standards for the different groups of children, so that the exercises will be NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 427 given only to those whom it will benefit and in no way result in harm. In one of the high schools where a very large number of boys and girls were seriously underweight they were placed, at their own request in nutrition classes, but the director of physical education was utterly unsympathetic to the whole movement and would not excuse the boys and girls from gym- nasium and playground work. After some months, however, when this director had watched the good effect on the few children who were given the extra rests, he reversed his decision and agreed to excuse all the under- weight boys and girls from exercise upon condition they should rest during that period. The results were so astonishing in gains to the young people that I trust he is now a permanent convert to the fact that rest and relaxa- tion have quite as important a place in a physical education program as have muscular development and athletic competition. High schools and many grade schools are, of course, run on the credit system, and if we can get our physical educators giving the same credit for rest to the underweight and physically handicapped group that is given to the physically perfect children for athletics and physical training, we shall take a long step forward in the physical education program. Such credit was given in a high school where the codperation of the health education and physical training departments was assured, and the results in inducing the young people to take the prescribed rests were most satisfactory. It would seem obvious that any school system progressive enough to have a physical-training department would arrange to have all the forces work for health and physical development in perfect accord. So far is this from being true, however, that frequently the chief opponent to the teaching of health and the training in health habits in the schoolrooms has been the physical director, who has often failed also to see how the teaching in food values directly affects the children in his care, and has remained unwilling to cooperate with the other school departments working towards his same end by different means. In one State, the chief opponent to the spread of nutrition service in the schools was the State Director of Physical Education. Dartmouth College has, I believe, set some standards to which their young men must measure up if they expect to be admitted to any form of athletics; a number of high schools and elementary schools are making similar standards and not admitting any underweight or physically handi- capped child to athletic contests, a most encouraging mark of progress. It is becoming more generally recognized, moreover, that the over-specializa- tion of today in training young men and women for athletic sports has not always produced the finest physical specimens. The Greek ideal has indeed been lost sight of when a large number of football and baseball players and track athletes break down with tuberculosis during or shortly after their training period. I have been impressed with the fact that physical educators seem largely oblivious to the needs for fresh air, to the advantages of having the young people exercise out of doors wherever possible, and to the necessity for having the air in the gymnasium at all 428 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION times cool and fresh. In any number of schools, I have seen the students exercising violently in the gymnasium where the thermometer was over seventy degrees and the windows never opened, no provision afterwards being made for shower baths or change of clothes, the children returning to their schoolrooms with great possibility of chill from wet clothing. Since the weighing and measuring tests of the Children’s Year followed by investigations into the health conditions of school children all over this country, it has been amply proved that this question of physical unfitness is not a question of poverty, but of ignorance, as many children in the well- to-do districts and in schools in the prosperous neighborhoods are as seriously underweight as are those in the crowded districts of our city tenements and in our neglected rural schools. “Therefore, our remedy for such a condition must be through education and not through an economic revolution or an extension of private charities as had previously been sup- posed. For example, in two of the finest private schools in the Middle West, one in a city and one in a suburban community, where the physical education department was of the finest, twenty-eight and twenty-six per cent respectively of the children were seriously underweight for their height and in need of special care. Even in these two leading schools which recognized the need for nutrition work and for health education among the children, it was with the greatest difficulty that the physical education department was induced to codperate with the health education program and modify the exercises of the children to meet the needs of the underweight group. It is sometimes necessary not only to convince the physical educators but the parents as well that a child should be given rest instead of added exercise or stimulus. We have had numberless examples of this in our work. One boy who was carrying a heavy high-school load was forced by his mother to take a newspaper route, because she feared that he would grow up without business instincts, if he did not begin early his com- mercial career. ‘The boy steadily declined, and the parent could not be persuaded that it was the extra exertion that was bad for the boy. She insisted he had some inherent physical defect which had not been discovered. The family, in the meantime, was quarantined for three or four weeks and the boy could not carry his newspaper route, with the result that he showed a gain of an almost incredible number of pounds. Mrs. S. came to us about a year ago for advice regarding eleven-year old Virginia, who was 12 pounds, or fifteen per cent, underweight. Vir- ginia had always received the best of medical care and was free of physical defects. She went to bed every night at seven-thirty and was eating a suit- able and adequate diet. In spite of all this care, she was so thin that her mother was worried and most anxious to “build her up.” Further ques- tioning revealed that besides attending a high-grade private school, the curriculum of which included strenuous gymnasium work, Virginia was taking lessons in Russian dancing and music. The dancing lessons were stopped at once and the gymnasium and music practice curtailed. During NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 429 the year from January 22, 1921, to January 12, 1922, Virginia grew 214 inches, although she was above the average height for a girl of her age and she increased in weight 1914 pounds,—that is from 6614 to 8534 pounds, and reduced her underweight from 15 to 3 per cent. Eva §., a member of one of our high-school classes, was excused from gymnasium work and permitted to take rest periods instead because the physician on examining her discovered a slight heart lesion. During the four previous weeks, although on the same routine, she had gained only a half pound. After leaving the gymnasium class, she started to make regular weekly gains and increased in weight from 89 pounds on March 10 to 9634 on June 2. Many similar cases could be cited. I am not in any sense deprecating the need for physical education in our schools, but I am trying to make a plea for a broader comprehension of what physical development and perfect health really involves. If the whole health program is to be placed in the physical education department, including the training in health habits, personal hygiene, and the like, then we must have better trained people to direct this department—occupying so vital a part of all education. If physical training is to come into its own in the broadest sense of the word, the preparation of the students in the schools for physical education must be broadened to include a greater knowledge of physical defects to which children are subject, the results of such defects if uncorrected, a greater knowledge of values of social en- vironment and the effects of home conditions upon children, the result of exercise upon certain underweight and defective children, and a much larger conception of the development of positive health as an end in itself. So far as the training for group games, playground work, track athletics, gymnasium work, the courses in these schools would seem to be adequate, but more should be taught of food values, nutrition, and the meaning of physical defects, if our leaders of physical education are to develop the all-around health program and courses in health education which should accompany the physical training. If physical education is, however, to be limited to the development of the muscular activities of the child, as it largely is today, then we must have a much closer cooperation between doctors, nurses, physical educators, teachers, dietitians, and nutrition work- ers as to the place muscular activity should play in the health program of the child. With a broadened scope for physical education and with this coéperation in our schools and all the leaders of these different depart- ments working together for the good of the child, we may then realize, I believe, the ideal which we all have in view—pertect health for every child in every school in the land. 430 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY A. DUNCAN YOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND PRACTICE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA It is proper that the time consumed by the chairman of a committee— whether a standing one or one like our own with a continuing function, should be just enough to outline what is new in its achievements, and what the new issues and problems are which justify its continued existence. Any detailing of achievements should be left, as they will be left tonight, to the report itself as filed with the Council’s Secretary for printing in the annual proceedings, and to supplementary reports by Committee members or sub- committee chairmen who have done some timely piece of work of unusual interest to the Council. Current issues of peculiar concern to democracy—Since current issues serve to justify some of the new achievements of the Committee, they will be presented first. Among the current issues before the country and affect- ing education, which are of concern to democracy, there are three so out- standing and menacing that conspicuous attention should be called to them through the National Council. The first is the tendency upon the part of certain social or National groups to use education for group purposes. “The second is the danger of American participation in world betterment becom- ing a partisan issue. The third, is the individual enthusiasm and possibly the foreign propaganda which seek to create American sentiment for an exaggerated individualism as apposed to democratic education. American schools not to teach group propaganda opposed to the common welfare—The first danger is the most immediate. No American school either public, recognized as legally equivalent to public, or allowed to exist as not violating law, can be permitted to teach group propaganda opposed to the common welfare. It is eminently proper and American that the Knights of Columbus should interest’ themselves in improving the quality of textbooks in American history, and even that they should seek to have emphasized, as they may not intend to do, such conspicuous Catholic contributions to democracy as the freedom of worship given to Protestants in Maryland, or the patriotic self-sacrifice of the French Jesuit father who when asked by the Governor-General of Canada to go to the Iroquois villages to urge them not to attack the Canadian settlements, replied “Ibo non redibo,” “I go but I will not return.” It would be democratic for them and for other national bodies to join the friends of Ireland in seeking to eliminate exaggerated or ill-founded praise of Great Britain or to hinder an obvious effort to omit all colonial tyrannies or post-Revolutionary of- fenses. But especially at a time when Great Britain and America are moving together in the interest of world peace and world democracy, it would be undemocratic and treasonable for any American textbook to include all facts showing the unfriendliness of Great Britain; and to fail to teach that American liberty had loyal friends in England and that the NaTIONAL Councit oF EDUCATION 431 American Revolution itself was part of an older—and in some respects— slower movement toward democracy in England, which even now is becom- ing more complete not only in a willingness to give all freedom to Ireland which does not threaten the safety of the British Empire, but in a growing democracy in the British official attitude toward both home and world education. Just as it is democratic for congressmen from agricultural sections to organize an “agricultural bloc,” if in urging agricultural interests it does nothing to prevent or postpone legislation essential to the common welfare; so is it democratic for labor organizations to organize a school for the training of labor leaders, if in teaching them how to more intelligently serve the interests of labor, it also teaches them that no strike is democratic which interferes with the common welfare of all social groups, or no increase in pay or shortening of hours of labor is democratic which gives one industrial or vocational group proportionately more in return for its labor training and skill than it gives to all other industrial or vocational groups in common return for their labor training and skill. In short, whenever a social group enters the educational field to further its group or class interests, it assumes the grave responsibility of effectively teaching that while its group or class interests may be furthered at the ex- pense of other groups or classes, it is undemocratic that they shall be furthered at the expense of all groups and classes in common. Preventing world betterment from becoming a partisan issue—The sec- ond current danger to democracy is an existing tendency to make a partisan issue of American participation in world betterment. When President Harding made Mr. Underwood a minority representative in the American delegation to the Disarmament Conference, he meant to make its delibera- tions all-American and non-partisan. When will certain gentlemen in the National Congress learn that there are some world issues on which the vast majority of the American people do not wish to be “reserved”! And some outcomes so momentous that they must not be delayed by a petty safeguarding of accepted and world recognized institutions and policies! Our participation in world affairs in so far as it concerns the common welfare of all nations, will continue to be non-partisan and will grow increasingly democratic, if every educational agency in America teaches: ‘That while America will ever firmly stand for the interests of America and of Ameri- cans as against those of any other nation or nationals, America stands willing to sacrifice any national interest which conflicts with the welfare of all peoples in common, and will stand alone or with others against any act or policy of other nations which threatens our own democracy or the continued existence and growth of a world democracy which is the only certain guarantee of the continued existence of our own. ‘This is the pre- paredness which Mr. Harding would have accompany reduced armament— “a better preparedness in a public mind and world opinion made ready to grant justice precisely as it exacts its Educational safeguard against the individual enthusiasm or foreign prop- aganda for individual as opposed to democratic education—The third cur- 432 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION rent menace to democracy is the favorable conditions for undemocratic propaganda presented by the spread of “parlor Bolshevism” or a certain willingness on the part of some Americans to admit that they are “intellec- tuals’; combined with the campaign for personal liberty waged by the liquor interests and persons individually interested in the unhampered drink- ing of liquor; and with even so seemingly different a thing as the useful educational experiment which sometimes exaggerates “individualism” in our so-called “progressive schools” or “schools of tomorrow.” A recent editorial in the International Review of Education, published for the Ger- man League of Nations Society, and more or less widely circulated in America, makes the extraordinary statement that “true education, if not meant as a training, but as a service of life itself, must not be ‘for’ any aim, not even the most ideal. Wherever education is entirely free from coercion, wherever it is a living process in the true sense of that word, a growth, a promoting of growth, a development, it will not look upon some final aim, set and specified but on life itself stimulated from within, bear- ing within itself its own perfection, its individuality and completeness.” Here is an educational ideal which out-individualizes the individualism of Rousseau himself. Rousseau would have taught social ideals, but without the individual’s knowing that they are being imposed upon him, and through his individually accepting them as he personally experiences their wisdom. But here it is proposed to abolish the teaching of the aims and ideals most fundamental to civilization and democracy, on the ground that the individual, if allowed to grow, will freely develop into what is best. It is an educational supermanism which applies from the cradle the same Nietzschian doctrine which justified to German thinkers the abolition of old moral standards and the unhampered development of nationalism which sacrificed the “nearest”? weak to the ‘“‘fartherest” strong. It praises Tagore and his “‘school of peace’ and in the same breath waxes enthusiastic over the schools of the Soviet, with their revival of the individualism of Tolstoi’s old peasant school. In schools of such a type democracy cannot be taught, and Prussianism or Bolshevism need not be. One or the other is certain to emerge and it little matters which. It is quite likely through mere personal impulse that Tagore and the children of Tolstoi have been visiting America. The German League of Nations Society may be equally spontaneous and sincere as it publishes its English edition. But whether such doctrine as this is being sown broadcast through individual enthusiasm ‘or through foreign propaganda, American “intellectualism” and the literature which ministers to it, it finds too fertile a field for the growth of undemocracies in wide- spread insistence upon personal liberty in social tastes and amusements, and childhood made free through individual impulse rather than a knowing of the “truth.” If America is to stay American, every school which emphasizes education through free activities and through individual response to per- sonal “situations,” must teach with equal emphasis respect for superior knowledge and justly constituted authority, and see that as the individual NaTIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 433 grows through his own spontaneity, he grows into democratic ideals and habits without which in children grown old individualism cannot but become either that of the War Lord or of the Soviet. - The ordinary American capable of being educated into the intelligence and idealism essential to democracy—In a previous report attention has been called to the curious contrast presented by this Montessorian-like belief that every child unfolds into civilization and democracy like a rose if given a right environment in which to unfold; and the interpretation so widely put upon the results of the Army Intelligence Tests, to the effect that almost half the native and foreign born white men of draft age—rising to 60 per cent or 70 per cent in certain races and nationalities, are with their children and children’s children incapable of acquiring the degree of intelli- gence necessary to deciding such questions as democracy submits to popular vote. When there is added to this, the equally plausible assumption that civilized men and women are after all but little removed in their natural instincts from the savage, and incapable of attaining the higher moral standards essential to a growing democracy, democracy through education is made to seem as unattainable, as democracy through unhampered natural development in the absence of standards always must be. As to the intelligence tests, it is not necessary to assume with a brilliant writer in the Atlantic Monthly who discusses “American misgivings,” that the only remedy for the unintelligent 48 per cent is intelligence tests as condition to immigration, a longer period preliminary to naturalization with higher standards to be met before the final papers are granted, and education of the 48 per cent—themselves too unintelligent to rule—in the choosing of truly democratic representatives to rule for them. As surely as the Army Intelligence Tests did not show an unintelligence so great that the ordinary American cannot be taught “to discriminate between the politician who gives him a turkey or a ton of coal and the politician who gives him clean streets, hygienic surroundings and an honest expenditure of what he pays in taxes;” they did not measure his ability to judge, nor show any lack of capacity for being controlled by democratic attitudes and standards, for multiplying the vocabulary which can make experience democratically selective, or for acquiring democratic habits. More than this—it is biologically true that comparative unintelligence in the sense of having few ideas and few associations for them, can be transformed by the multiplication of axis cylinder processes and corresponding associations, to a higher degree of intelligence, and to a high enough degree of intelligence. On the other hand, no better answer has been given to the scratch-a- Russian-and-you-find-a-Tartar attitude toward human betterment, than Mr. Bullard’s insistence in the January Harpers’ that the popular con- ception of the common welfare has steadily advanced with civilization, and that man has in each succeeding age shown his capacity for readjusting himself to new standards, and by process of “sublimation,” for recentering unchanged natural instincts upon progressively higher ideals. It is not good for industrial, political, or educational leadership to assume that any 434 NaTIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION American who is not an idiot is incapable of an education which will make democracy controlling in his dispositions and personal and social decisions. It is still the most immediate national need that every institution and organized activity which can reach any American social group shall be aroused to its responsibility for teaching every essential element in the democracy which has made us what we are, and which alone can make us rise to continually higher democratic levels. The chief work of the Committee during the year has been the sub- mission of a tentative specification of the Ten Essential Elements in Democracy, to a list of distinguished Americans personally or officially representing, ina conspicuously important way, some group, movement, or attitude determining for democracy. The main body of this report is devoted to their replies, and discussion of their comments upon the Ten Essentials. It will also be necessary to include the Specification itself, with a list of the representative Americans who made the comments, in order to partly fill in the gap caused by the omission of the entire Report of the Democracy Committee from the Des Moines Proceedings. Mem- bers of Council who are interested in examining the Des Moines Report in further detail will find it in the files of “School Life” for September, 1921. It contained in addition to other material, definition of the work of the Democracy Committee in distinction from that of the new Committee on Character Education; an account of the circumstances which led to the formulation of the Ten Democracy Essentials; and the outline of a plan for an organized movement on the part of all the Churches of America in cooperation with the schools for a more definite furtherance of democracy, along the lines laid down in the resolution adopted by Council at its Atlantic City meeting. The organized effort looking toward the cooperation of the Churches, has been postponed by the Division on the Furtherance of Democracy Through Religion, owing to the reorganization now under way of the International Sunday School Association and of the Sunday School Council of Evangelical Denominations. The resolutions adopted by the temporary Education Committee of these two bodies which substitutes codperation between churches and public schools for insistence upon religious education in public schools, and the Americanization work now independently car- ried on by the Catholic Church, show the timeliness of this movement toward completer codperation. The Report to be presented tonight by Mr. Walter Barnes, as chairman of the English Division of the Committee, is an effort to definitely indicate how the Ten Essentials of Democracy can be furthered through the teach- ing of English. The Committee expresses the hope that the three other admirable papers of Mr. Barnes, written with the same general end in view, may soon be published in collected form. Dr. G. D. Hadzsits, of the Latin Department of the University of Pennsylvania, who has succeeded in raising an endowment for the pub- lication of a journal devoted to a more democratic teaching of the classics, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 435 has consented to serve as Chairman of a Latin Division of the Democracy Committee. This is especially timely at the moment when -the Classical League has under way the most inclusive survey of instruction yet made with a view to the betterment of the teaching of an academic branch, and following upon the well-grounded suspicion that Nietzschian supermanism in the case of Gymnasium-educated German thinkers and leaders, was as firmly grounded upon the supermanism of ancient Greece and of Greek philosophical states and the imperialism of Caesars after whom the Kaisers were named, as democracy can just as surely be grounded upon many of the institutions of both Greece and Rome. Serious attention has been directed to the dangers of exaggerated individ- ualism in the field of elementary education, both in a talk by the Chairman, printed in the Proceedings of the symposium on progressive education, to which the last meeting of the Harvard Teachers’ Association was devoted ; and in another given during the current week at a public meeting in Dt: Louis held under the auspices of the St. Louis Country Day School. The proposed publication and national distribution by the United States Bureau of Education, of the Democracy Questionnaire sent out to a hun- dred cities during the War, has been abandoned owing to the reorganization of the Bureau and the discontinuance of the agencies for the correlation of educational research. Council will recall Dr. Winship’s philippic directed against the questionnaire, partly on the ground that Council was itself too aristocratic to issue it, but more largely because he conceived the questionnaire itself to be intended as a standard by which the democracy or undemocracy of school systems was to be judged and measured. ‘This same assumption was responsible for a number of constructive criticisms made of the amended questionnaire by experts in the various university research bureaus to which the United States Bureau submitted it. All of these objections are answered when the purpose of the questionnaire is understood to have been the dissemination and popularizing of such modes of aiding the growth of democracy, as the Committee has been able to assemble, and the discovery of agencies already existing but unknown to the Committee. Even with the limited circulation of the questionnaire which was attempted, each of these ends was largely served. Many courses of study have directly or indirectly used questionnaire suggestions, while remarkable local contributions were unearthed which deserve National attention. What the questionnaire, perhaps presumptuously attempted, will be more effectively performed by the general circulation of the Ten Essential Elements in Democracy, and the further specification by and for particular agencies of the definite educational objectives which will be assembled under each of its heads and sub-heads. In place of suggesting material, activities and methods, this educational specification of the Ten Essentials will analyze logical sub-heads into the realizations, attitudes, standards, motives, words, suggestive associations, habits, etc., through which its control of individual and social conduct can be made certain or probable. 436 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A number of research students are now at work on this follow-up of the Specification. From the sum-total of definite education objectives thus assembled under each specified democracy element, experts representing each local agency, branch of knowledge, phase of school work, period of educational development, type of institution or social organization, by a consensus such as that now being experimented with by Dr. Charters, can select what will have the greatest range, recurrence, and probability of development, for particular groups to be educated and in particular social environments. It is this specialized form of the Ten Essentials circulated through educational journals in general and the organs of particular social and educational agencies, that the function originally planned for the Democracy Questionnaire will be more effectively and economically per- formed. As Council was informed at the Des Moines meeting, in the Report omitted from the Proceedings, this specification of Democracy Elements was undertaken at the request of the Kindergarten Division of the Democ- racy Committee under the Chairmanship of Miss Lucy Wheelock, and later approved by unofficial representatives of a number of National and State social organizations, who met in conference at the Atlantic City meeting under the Chairmanship of Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews. Preliminary to their submission to representative Americans, they were made the basis of a correlated attempt to teach democracy through American history and literature by Miss Conner and Miss Davies, teachers in the High School, Scranton, Pennsylvania; and are now in part embodied in the program of the League of Women Voters of Luzerne County, Penn- sylvania. , Mr. Barnes’ paper this evening is the first step toward making the logical heads of the Ten Essentials suggestive for the teaching of English; and Mrs. Andrews’, toward embodying them in a program for the American School Citizenship League and its component bodies. The specification of the Ten Democracy Essentials which follows is accompanied by a condensed formulation intended to aid in the retention and ready recall of each group of essential elements. The arabic numerals placed in parentheses after the various items indicate the Ten Essentials in the order in which they occur in the original specification, and make it pos- sible to properly locate the comments which follow, as made by representa- tive Americans. Tue Ten Democracy Essentials ARRANGED WITH a VIEW TO THEIR Reapy Memorizinc [ Mnemonic key-word: A-M-E-R-I-C-A, used to recall fiy units or “‘suggesters.’’] A Acid test of democracy, suggesting through the two A’s in the key- word: : Assurance in rights not conflicting with a continuall common welfare. € memorizing y enlarging NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 437 Annulment of rights proved to conflict with a continually en- larging common welfare (7). Majority rule for the common welfare (6). Equality, suggesting: Equality of rights and opportunities as opposed to abilities and achievements (2). Equality of the higher levels (8). Equality of higher levels through self-effort (9). Equality in achievements through highest effort (5). R_— Responsibility of the individual for all essential democracies (3)i, suggesting : Responsibility for compensating duty in return for every right or privilege (4). Responsibility for compulsion of all essential democracies not self-attained (10). Individual strength expressed in assertive citizenship (1). Cooperation for the common welfare. Acid test, suggesting with the first A that it has two phases—assur- ance and annulment. seas ee a Tue Ten Most SuccEstiveE EssENTIALS OF DEMOCRACY Definitely Formulated as a Basis for Their Being Presented in a Different Form of Statement to Each Educational Agency and Organization in America. 1. Democratic self-assertiveness—The most fundamental factor in the democratic control of individual conduct is the accustoming of every in- dividual to self-assertiveness in rights, in duties, and in opportunities, limited by common rights, by social cooperation and by the surrender of petty and non-essential forms of assertiveness which are socially unpleasant or offensive. Most of the essentials of democracy are positive and not negative virtues, and their control of social through individual conduct is ensured through an individual sense of responsibility backed by an indomitable individual assertiveness of all that makes for the common welfare, “both alone and with others.” Repeated and unnecessary individual failure in school, un- fitness in vocation through lack of educational guidance, and social back- wardness through the absence of training for unembarrassed social inter- course, create an individual sense of incompetence and impotence which make a truly democratic citizenship impossible. If the “Let’s go!” of the trenches is not carried over to all that makes for political and social advance- ment, our National problems cannot be given a democratic solution. 2. Equal rights and opportunities as distinguished from equal abilities and achievements—lf there is to be a saving popular faith in democracy, each individual must be taught to sharply distinguish between equality in the sense of rights and opportunities, and equality in the sense of natural abilities and individual achievements. Many Americans scoff at democracy, ca 438 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION because they assume that the Declaration contemplated an equality made impossible by heredity; or believe in it, because they confuse it with a com- munism which gives each individual an equal share in all things whether he earns it or not. 3. A sense of personal responsibility for the rights, opportunities, and duties of both self and others—Since but a small part of what concerns the common welfare is compelled by law, a democratic training must develop in each individual a strong sense of personal responsibility for securing the performance by himself and by all others, of every action guaranteed to each or exacted of each for the benefit of all. Democratic rights and benefits are not only conferred for the sake of the individual, but for the sake of society. “The acceptance of them is a personal duty owed by each to all. Insistence upon their acceptance by others is often the only way of making effective their acceptance by one’s self. 4, Equivalent compensating service—Each democratic right and privilege carries with it the compensating duty of giving some equivalent in return. The idea of “something for nothing” is undemocratic. Especially in the case of foreign-born Americans attracted to the United States by democracy in the sense of freedom and opportunity, education must emphasize the fact that free schools, free hospitals, free religion, and all other forms of free- dom, are free to all only in the sense of being common to all, and ought to be paid for by each through taxation, contributions, or service to others, equal for ail individuals or proportionate to individual ability. 5. Equality through highest effort and the chance to exercise it—Equality in the achievements of individuals is attainable only in the sense of highest individual effort. Whether in the attainment of rights, the realization of opportunities, or the consummation of service, the least fit individual is equal to the most efficient and the weakest to the strongest, when each has done his best. Even opportunities are equal only when each individual is given the fullest possible chance to do his best in what he is best fitted for or most interested in. The chief essential of democratic industry is highest effort at needed production or service by each individual and in every vocation, as the only fair equivalent in return for highest effort at needed production or service by other individuals or in other vocations. 6. Majority rule for the common welfare—Maijority rule is democratic only when it seeks to secure the common welfare. Determination of the common welfare which majority rule must seek to secure is conditioned by: Expert commissions for the study of the common welfare, popular patience in awaiting their verdict and popular. confidence in its findings, popular education including training in democracy, the impartial dissemination of facts by a free public press, fair elections, the check upon local partiality and popular prejudice provided through the mode of electing representatives and senators, and the power of amending even the Constitution itself. Any influence or activity subversive of any one of these conditions tends to make majority rule betray the common welfare to individual, group, or sectional interests. NaTIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 439 7. The surrender of individual rights conflicting with the common wel- fare, and the safe-guarding of individual rights which do not conflict— Personal liberty and special privilege find their limit in the common wel- fare, but only in the common welfare. ‘These two propositions taken to- gether constitute the acid-test of democracy. Less limitation of individual rights than is necessary to the common welfare tends to Prussianism or Bolshevism; more limitation of individual rights than is necessary to the common welfare tends to communism and other extremer forms of socialism. 8. Equality of the higher levels—Any stable social equality must result from a leveling up and not from a leveling down. The spiritual side of man can never be satisfied on lower levels, and no form of government can perma- nently endure which denies to individuals the opportunity to lead the way to higher levels, and which fails to create conditions which encourage all to rise. This applies to the stabilization of industry, as well as to that of society in the broader sense. Personnel departments in the various indus- tries with related schemes for progressive steps in training and promotion, public vocational education, educational guidance, and public* continuation schools—all are favorable conditions to a higher material level. But since the chief stimulus to labor is the betterment of the social condition of one’s self and family, unembarrassed participation in the higher forms of social intercourse is the necessary complement to industrial betterment. 9. Self-effort essential to many elements in equality—An essential con- dition to social stability and therefore to political safety is the realization on the part of all individuals, but especially on the part of individuals or racial groups which seek social equality and access through law, that unem- barrassed participation in every social group must be self-earned. With this end in view unembarrassed social participation should be used as the justi- fication for a new emphasis in every stage of education, of habitual correct- ness of speech, good manners, skill in a variety of games and amusements, an appreciation of the fine arts, and familiarity with the few essential gen- eral ideas through which otherwise isolated individual experiences are made common and social. 10. Democratic compulsion—The democratic control of social conduct requires the accustoming of every individual to the compulsion in himself and others, both through public sentiment and law, of every essential democracy which is not self-acquired. As the essential complement to a stronger individuality or self-assertive- ness, every individual should be accustomed from the earliest childhood, to cheerful submission to superior wisdom and authority, to ready acquies- cence in community standards more exacting than his own, and to their inexorable enforcement in so far as it is necessary to the common welfare. An early education which, like that urged by Rousseau and Tolstoi, makes children unconscious of any more authoritative will than their own, is better preparation for a Prussian supermanism or “direct action,” than for a democracy which is to endure and become more complete. 440 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION LisT OF THE REPRESENTATIVE AMERICANS WHO Mabe COMMENTS Upon THE TEN EssENTIALS Hon. Henry Allen, Jr., Governor of Kansas, Topeka, Kans. Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, Secretary, American School Citizenship League, Boston, Mass. ; Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, President, Columbia University, New York City. Dr. Lotus D. Coffman, President, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Dr. Russell H. Conwell, President, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa. Hon. Calvin Coolidge, Vice-President of the United States, Washington, D. C. Dr. Harry A. Garfield, President, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. Dr. Albert Bushnell Hart, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Dr. Clyde L. King, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Dr. David Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Calif. Walter Lippmann, Associate Editor of the New Republic, New York City. Dr. James E, Lichenberger, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Dr. Charles R. Mann, Chairman, Advisory Board, War Plans Division, U. S. A. General John J. Pershing, General of the Armies of the United States, Wash- ington, D. C. Dr. Leo S. Rowe, Director, Bureau of American Republics, Washington, D. C. Booth Tarkington, Indianapolis, Ind. Frank A. Vanderlip, Scarborough, N. Y. Mrs. Thomas G. Winter, President of National Federation of Women’s Clubs, Minneapolis, Minn. University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia June 29, 1921 My pear Dr. Rowe: Believing that if existing National and international problems are to be given democratic solution, there must be a more definite and universal realization of just what democracy is, the Committee on the Teaching of Democracy of the National Council of Education has been attempting to gather together the factors or elements in the absence of which democracy is fundamentally defective or incomplete. When these elements have been authoritatively assembled, they will be effectively taught not only through a multitude of school systems already interested in our movement, but through the existing machinery of a great variety of State and National organ- izations which collectively reach the whole American people. To ensure their authoritative formulation, the accompanying list of democratic elements is being submitted to a group of men and women eminently representative of the several types of leadership which mold public opinion and of the activities which must be democratically directed and controlled. A tentative list of this group accompanies the summary of democratic elements. It is believed by the Democracy Committee that busy as you personally are, the tremendous and imminent nature of the issue involved will lead you to take the time necessary fo state your agreement or disagreement with the essentiality of éach of the ten democracy elements, and to add any element not included, which you regard as essential. If in so doing you express the wish that your reply shall not be made public, it will be held in the strictest confidence. If the replies to this inquiry are promptly received, the elements of democracy agreed upon will be presented at the annual meeting of the National Education Association early in July, and promptly translated into words suitable for each grade of instruction and for the social group reached by each coéperating organ- ization. Surely the most important political function of the school and of National leader- NaTIONAL CounciIt oF EDUCATION 44] ship is to teach all Americans to discriminate between those personal liberties which can be exercised without menace to the common good and those which cannot. Yours very sincerely, A. DuNCAN Yocum, Chairman. COMMENTS ON THE TrEN SUGGESTED ESSENTIALS OF DEMOCRACY The most encouraging fact in the comments of distinguished Americans upon the Ten Suggested Essentials of Democracy is that no one urged the omission of any, or added others. This does not mean that others should not be added. Democracy is a personal and social growth, not a govern- mental form or a traditional state of being. This viewpoint President Garfield, of Williams College, was especially anxious to emphasize. “In general,” he writes, ‘I assent to the statements made, but with this import- ant qualifications . . . Isit wise to attempt to formulate a statement of these elements? As our own civilization advances it may easily be true that new elements will appear, and the formulation of a statement at the present time is as little likely to satisfy an inquiring mind a hundred years hence as do the creedal statements fromulated long ago.” If, however, we of the present fail to become familiar with what we can agree upon as representing present-day democracy in its essential elements, and if we are not so taught that each one of them becomes as controlling as possible in our lives and aspirations, the growth of democracy will be arrested, and through the weakening or destruction of the incomplete democracy of the present, democratic institutions may themselves be overthrown and the democracy of the future have no chance of becoming more complete. Dr. C. R. Mann, Chairman of the Advisory Board in charge of educa- tion in the U. S. Army, regrets that he cannot endorse the suggested essen- tials “unequivocally.” His main objection is that what is needed in a democracy is not intellectual appreciation only, but also an emotional desire or impulse to act in the right direction. It is, therefore, hard for me to understand how much good would come by translating these various ideas into words suitable for each grade of instruction as suggested in your letter. ‘The things that seem to me to be essential in democracy cannot be taught by words alone, but by actions; and actions result from motor impulse and are guided by such information as you suggest.” He carries his objections somewhat farther under one or two of the suggested essentials, and suggests as a substitute, the simpler headings “civic capacities, civic intelligence, and civic attitudes,” under which are grouped the various items introduced ‘n education for citizenship as carried on in the U. S. Army. . Of course, Dr. Mann, like President Garfield, is right, except in his dependence upon general civic intelligence and common capacities and moralities, as a sub- stitute for specific democracies. Democracy must not only be a growth, but because it is a growth, must be no mere memorized code, however authoritative and inclusive, but rather an education which ensures the demo- cratic control of individual and social conduct through: Democratic reali- zations, attitudes, standards, and motives, strong enough to be controlling ; 442 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION a democratic vocabulary which ensures the retention and recall of demo- cratic experience; democratically suggestive associations so wide in their range, that they make every element in democracy suggest everyday experi- ence and everyday experiences suggest democracy ; the democratic habits and skills necessary to democracy in every phase of life; and, above all, the conditions favorable to our keeping democratic in the face of difficulties and becoming increasingly democratic in the face of new situations. But boys turned out from the great training school of the Army may have everything which their present training for citizenship includes, and lack the controlling force of every one of the elements suggested as specifically essential to democracy. A number of distinguished Americans are satisfied to give the suggested elements a general endorsement, regretting that they have not time for detailed criticism. Russell Conwell “approves and applauds the great desire to get such a statement before the people, and in a shape which can be used by the teachers in our public-school system.” Governor Allen fully approves. Frank A. Vanderlip calls them ‘admirable, several of them par- ticularly so.” “With the teaching staffs of public schools,” he goes on to say, “averaging what they do I see difficulty in giving such instruction to the pupils. If you can work out a method of doing that, you will have accomplished a National service.” Vice-President Calvin Coolidge writes: “They seem to me to be essentially sound and accurate. It is very possible that I might phrase some of them a little differently, but if you are able to secure the attention of people and set them to thinking along the lines you have suggested, you will certainly perform a most commendable service. I wish you every success in your efforts.” Mr. Coolidge’s courteous sug- gestion of different phrasing is naturally put still more strongly by Booth Tarkington: “If I have a suggestion to offer, it is only that possibly the phrasing might here and there be simplified ; though I confess that I myself am not quite sure that this could be done with a preservation of the full meaning.” This simplification of phrasing must and will be brought about. Committees authoritatively Tepresenting every form of education from the kindergarten to the university, either are already at work or will soon be put to work upon reformulations which will] translate the essentials of democracy into the language of every group in American life, and into activities familiar to the experience of every American individual. For example, one of the best known State directors of Americanization work among immigrant women, not long ago exclaimed: “This must be translated into words that can be understood by four-year-old children, and applied to experiences customary in everyday jobs and routines.” Fannie Fern Andrews, speaking as the Secretary of the American School Citizenship League, writes: “It seems to me that these cover all the essen- tials of democracy and I think the majority of people who have given attention to the matter will agree to this. With your permission, I should like to send this out to the officers of the American School Citizenship League, telling them that this is your suggestion for a basis of work for NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 443 the Committee on Democracy. I should like to ask them,—that 1s, if you agree,—to offer suggestions as to the best way of putting these ideas before the teachers of the country. I suggest this plan with the understanding that the American School Citizenship League, as one of the cooperating organizations of your Committee, is supposed to concern itself with the teaching of democracy in the schools; as, for example, the Chambers of Commerce will concern themselves in getting the idea over to the business men of the country, and the womens’ organizations in getting the ideas over to the women in their organized activities. For the schools, I should sug- gest making ten Type Studies similar to the Type Studies in ‘An American Citizenship Course in U. S. History,’ published by the American Citizen- ship League. I think, if you would consider it proper, I could get some- one to collaborate with me in making out these ten Type Studies, which could be put directly into the teachers’ hands.” Mrs. Andrews’ suggestion indicates one of the many ways in which the difficulty foreseen by Mr. Vanderlip, will be met. JI must add the comment of Alice Ames Winter, President of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs: “The immediate impression is that they are of very great value. Under a Committee on American Citizenship, the General Federation is making special effort to induce the club women of the country to study all sides of public affairs. I am going to take the liberty of sending your ten points to the Chairman of that Committee. May I ask whether you are taking any steps toward a distribution of this material among groups who are not strictly in academic circles?” Finally, I cannot resist the temptation to quote from David Starr Jordan: “I have read your syllabus with interest and sympathy. I agree with every point, adding hereby only a note or two: a democratic solution—in default of that we have no solution at all, for all other systems in which force comes from the outside, fail to solve, force must radiate from within.” Others who have written expressing agreement are: H. W. Dodd, Sec- retary of the National Municipal League ; Dr. Leo Rowe, Director General of the Pan-American Union and President of the American Academy of Political and Social Science; Walter Lippmann; and General John J. Pershing. The opinions expressed by some of them can be more effectively quoted under the head of democracy elements which they believe should be given greater emphasis. Under the first of the ten—democratic self-assertiveness, Dr. Mann, of the Army Advisory Board, perhaps, rightly urges: ‘‘Self-assertiveness does not strike me as a good statement of the point you bring out in the context.” A member of the Board of Publication of one of the great religious de- nominations makes a similar criticism: “‘Self-assertiveness,” he says in sub- stance, “Is what we are attempting as Christians to check.”” What I have in mind is self-assertive citizenship, as opposed to “soing along” in politics and passive submission to civic wrongs. If anything further were necessary to convince me of the wisdom of substituting, self-assertive citizenship for democratic self-assertiveness, it would be the statement of Dr. Rowe. After at44 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION stating that every citizen owes a debt of obligation to the Committee and the fact that he wishes to heartily subscribe to the principles laid down, he suggests that “in principle No. 1, greater emphasis be made on com- munity welfare and on the social consequences of individual action. My own personal view is that in our American education we do not require emphasis on the importance of individual assertiveness. “This is instilled into the child in the home, and one of the greatest functions of the school is to soften the extreme individualism which is developed in the usual family environment.” Dr. Mann “also objects to the title equal rights and equality.” So do we all object when the familiar expression is unqualified. But because it is a familiar expression, it is too often on the lips of Americans not to need qualification. Equal rights and opportunities are democratic. Equal abilities and achievements are impossible. It is under the fourth element, equivalent compensating service, that General Pershing makes his comment: “I am inclined to think that a little more emphasis should be given to that phase of the essentials of democracy which involves the question of duties in contrast to the rights of individuals. This is covered briefly in the last three lines of the first sub-paragraph of Democratic Self-Assertiveness. It is also referred to in other paragraphs,, but I have noticed such a frequent lack among our people of an appreciation of the duties of citizenship, particularly when they are insisting on certain rights as citizens, that I believe this requires special emphasis.” The last element that provoked special comment is the sixth—majority rule for the common welfare. Concerning it Mr. Walter Lippmann writes: “I agree entirely, except as to emphasis. In my judgment No. 6. is more fundamental than any of the others, taking No. 6 to mean the duty of seeking an unbiased view of the facts. Men can be ever so righteous: and dutiful; if they do not know the circumstances where duty and right- cousness are operative, they will as often go wrong as go right.” Mr. Lipp- mann here points out the difficulty of teaching an individual to know what the common welfare is. As he puts it: “You do not in my opinion lay sharp enough emphasis on the intellectual basis of moral.” Mr. H. W. Dodds, of the National Municipal League, writes: “I particularly like para- graph 6 which states the majority rule is democratic only when it seeks the common welfare. ‘There is abroad in this country a belief that anything which the majority wants is right—which is the most subversive tendency I see. Minorities need protection and freedom now as much as ever.” David Starr Jordan gives several epigrams from his book, “Democracy and World Relations’’: as to compensating service—“There is no deadhead on the road to freedom”; and on assertive citizenship— Danger comes from weakness of the weak rather than from strength of the strong.” Such phrasings as these may in the end carry out Mr. Tarkington’s suggestion. Nicholas Murray Butler on his after-war trip to Europe took time to write the Various questions to which you refer, have been publicly discussed by me with more or less fullness for many years past, and are to be found in my several published volumes, particularly in those entitled, “True and. NATIONAL CoUNCIL oF EDUCATION 445 False Democracy,’ ‘Why Should We Change Our Form of Government,’ and ‘Is America Worth Saving’.”” A most useful criticism of phrasings was received from Dr. Clyde L. King, of the University of Pennsylvania. His main criticism lay with Essential 10, in which he would change democratic “compulsion” to “compliance and expression”; “submission’”’ to “con- formity”; and “acquiescence” to “compliance.” “I would have a much wider place,” he goes on to say, “than you have indicated for voluntary organizations of people into economic, social or opinion-making groups. It seems to me the real essential of democracy lies in mobility in organizing individuals into groups for the expression of opinions, and for the gaining of ends. In other words, the creative part of democracy is, by all odds, of as great importance as the constraining part, and I feel the creative processes should be given an emphasis I do not find in any of your ten points.” This balancing of the creative and the constraining parts of democracy is what makes Essential 7 the Acid-Test. Emphasis of indi- vidual and group activity is of course a fundamental means to all the ends included in the Ten Essentials. As an aim, it will be more definitely in- cluded in the revised essentials under the head of “individual strength” expressed in “assertive citizenship” as a substitute for ‘‘democratic self- assertiveness.” Albert Bushnell Hart takes much the same view—“Your categories nearly all are based upon the conception of the human unit and the desirability of securing personal action. I think you take too little account of the necessity of mass action and of the inherent restraint of individual effort by the interests of the whole.” Various specific suggestions of great value which he makes along this line, will be incorporated in the forthcoming Educational Analysis of the Ten Essentials. Professor Hart’s introductory comment: “To reduce to ten rubrics the essentials of democracy is a task upon which I should not like to enter lightly,” well expresses the feeling with which the Committee began its effort at specification, and even more fully expresses the spirit in which it submits its report. We should not like to lightly regard the specification as complete. But, it may perhaps serve, like any other group of fundamental principles, as a more definite, inclusive, and authoritative basis both for the formulation of education for democracy, than has previously existed, and for the immediate campaign for democracy for which it is meant to prepare the way. The report can well close with the final paragraph of President Garfield’s comments, which he quotes from his own opening address to the distin- guished delegates assembled from all over the world for his “Institute of Politics”: “We are passing from the old covenant to the new. “Thou shalt not’ is giving place to, but is not displaced by, ‘Thou shalt.’ The maxim of equity ‘Sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas, applies as truly to nations as to individuals. Formerly it was necessary, indeed very necessary, that we should so use our own as not to do injury to the things of another. It was necessary that States avoid contact less contact lead to conflict. “The world was not then prepared to go farther. But henceforth we must add to the maxim this: ‘and so use thine own as to enable others likewise to use ee) that which is theirs’. 446 NaTIonaL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY FANNIE FERN ANDREWS, SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL CITIZENSHIP LEAGUE, BOSTON, MASSACH USETTS We are very greatly indebted to Dr. Yocum for this comprehensive report on Democracy and Education. In his statement on ‘Che Ten Most Suggestive Essentials of Democracy,” he has included, I believe, every ele- ment which should be considered. ‘This comes at a time when democracy needs to be defined. If this report is accepted, this Council goes on record against socialism, communism, Sovietism, and every other form of govern- ment which is inconsistent with democracy. Dr. Yocum has been far-sighted in getting the opinions of many repre- sentative Americans on his statement of the essentials of democracy. Some of the answers which he has received are worthy of notice. Some at once call forth a challenge. I can hardly agree, for example, with the viewpoint of President Garfield, of Williams College, who writes that he assents to the statements, but makes the query: “Is it wise to attempt to formulate a statement of these elements? As our own civilization advances it may easily be true that new elements will appear, and the formulation of a statement at the present time is as little likely to satisfy an inquiring mind a hundred years ago hence as do the creedal statements formulated long ago.” Dr. Yocum has answered this query most satisfactorily. He says: “If we of the present fail to become familiar with what we can agree upon as representing present day democracy in its essential elements, and if we are not so taught that each one of them becomes as controlling as possible in our lives and aspirations, the growth of democracy will be arrested, and through the weakening or destruction of the incomplete democracy of the present, democratic institutions may themselves be overthrown and the democracy of the future have no chance of becoming more complete.” This statement of Dr. Yocum, I think, must convince everyone that an understanding of the elements of democracy is a potent factor in the de- velopment of democracy itself. Dr. C. R. Mann’s comments on the statement, by which he says that democracy is not an intellectual appreciation only, but also an emotional desire and impulse to act in the right direction, calls forth another important statement from Dr. Yocum. “Democracy,” he says, “must not only be a growth, but because it is a growth, must be no mere memorized code, however authoritative and inclusive, but rather an education which insures the democratic control of individual and social conduct through demo- cratic realizations, attitudes, standards, and motives, strong enough to be controlling ; a democratic vocabulary which ensures the retention and recall of democratic experience; democratically suggestive associations so wide in their range that they make every element in democracy suggest everyday experience and everyday experiences suggest democracy; the democratic habits and skills necessary to democracy in every phase of life; and, above all, the conditions favorable to our keeping democratic in the face of dif- NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 447 ficulties and becoming increasingly democratic in the face of new situa- tions.” Vice-President Calvin Coolidge is especially appreciative of Dr. Yocum’s efforts. He writes: ‘“They seem to me to be essentially sound and ac- curate. If you are able to secure the attention of people and set them to thinking along the lines you have suggested, you will certainly perform a most commendable service. I wish you every success in your efforts.” Dr. Leo S. Rowe, Director-General of the Pan-American Union, ex- presses his opinion that every citizen owes a debt of obligation to the Com- mittee, and states that he wishes to subscribe heartily to the principles laid down. The detailed suggestions which Dr. Rowe and other distinguished Americans make shows a vital interest in the subject of democracy. It is gratifying to note also the general interest in education which many of these responses indicate. Russell Conwell writes that he approves and applauds the great desire to get such a statement before the people and in a shape which can be used by the teachers of our public-school systems. Frank A. Vanderlip calls the essentials “admirable, several of them par- ticularly so, but,” he adds, “with the teaching staffs of public schools averaging what they do, I see’difficulties in giving such instruction to the pupils. If you can work out a method of doing that, you will have ac- complished a National service.” The practical suggestions of Mr. Conwell and Mr. Vanderlip bring us to the next step as to the use which should be made of “The Ten Most Suggestive Essentials of Democracy.” ‘There are two objectives. First, they should be got over to the people; and, second, they should be intro- duced into the schools. ‘To accomplish the first object, I have suggested that Dr. Yocum write a handbook on democracy, which shall contain these principles illustrated by experience, written in a popular style. Dr. Yocum could perform no greater public service than to prepare such a book. Moreover, through the various National organizations whose cooperation he has secured, he has the most effective means of putting this book before the people. His method in this, as well as his statement of principle, is indeed democratic. As to the second object, these ten points lend themselves admirably to the Type Study method of teaching, adopted by the American School Citi- zenship League in “An American Citizenship Course in United States History,” published by the League. ‘The plan could be practically worked out by the preparation of ten type studies covering each of the Ten Es- sentials. "There should be a graded series of type studies, one for the high school, another for the junior high or the higher elementary grades, and a third for the lower grades. ‘These principles can be understood by the child as well as by the grown person. ‘The American School Citizen- ship League would undoubtedly be very glad to codperate with the Council in the preparation of such type studies. 448 NaTIoNnaAL EpUcATION ASSOCIATION ENGLISH—ITS RELATION TO THE “TEN ESSENTIALS” WALTER BARNES, HEAD OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, FAIRMONT, WEST VIRGINIA The chief purpose of a State school system in a democracy is the prepara- tion of each individual of the democracy for social efficiency within the democracy. ‘Therefore the value of each subject and activity in the demo- cratic school is measured by the nature and amount of the contribution it makes, directly and indirectly, toward the preparation of each pupil for democratic social efficiency. This is the test to which the various branches of English must be subjected. What are the democratic elements inherent in English, in its subject matter and in the intellectual activity necessary to the mastery of the subject matter? In English those knowledges, those arts and habits, those acts and activities which minister, which contribute to democratic social effectiveness—these and nothing else are of value in English. Now, the English subjects, more, perhaps, than other subjects, may make large and important contributions to education for democratic life, or they may make scanty and meager contributions to it. English com- prises such a vast territory, can be approached from so many angles, can be used for so many different purposes, has so many different meanings that it, above all subjects, must be examined closely and organized carefully, in order that it may be made to yield the utmost possible contribution to a democratic education. Let us then determine what are those standards and ideals, those arts and skills and habits and knowledges which are most useful because most used in a democracy; then let us discover and teach those elements and activities inherent in English which may reasonably be expected to further our major aims. Of course, no one knows precisely what are the desirable and vital ele- ments in democratic life. The ten “essentials” set forth by Dr. A. Duncan Yocum in School Life for September, 1921, are so very suggestive and con- structive that they furnish the best basis for all future discussions. Their acceptance is implied herein. The work in English language and composition (and it is to this phase of English that I am limiting my discussion today) may be so planned and carried out as to make a unique and valuable contribution to each of the ten essentials. If the activities of the class are thoroughly and genuinely socialized, if the members of the group are encouraged and guided in the solution of individual and social problems, problems of school and community life; if a succession of natural, educative, varied activities is taken up day after day and month after month, thus allowing each member of the group to find his level as leader or follower, each member emerging into temporary leadership and expert authority by virtue of his superior knowledge or skill in the particular activity engaged in; if the teacher acts as mentor and monitor, discovering and suggesting new acts t themes and activities as they come to light from time to time, using each assign- NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 449 ment as a means of doing well the particular job, of solving correctly the particular problem, or planning adequately the particular procedure or making wisely the particular decision, and at the same time utilizing each assignment as a means of teaching how to do better that particular thing the next time; if the class is conceived of as a social group or informal organization, working through committees and special assignments, calling upon each person to do what he can do best, providing for the exchange and interchange, the social pooling of experience, opinion, skill, knowledge of each member of the group, which is the very essence of socialization— I say, if all this is done progressively and cumulatively throughout the years of the school, the work of the English classroom will make a real contri- bution to each of the ten essentials of democracy: to democratic self- assertiveness, to equal rights and opportunities, to a sense of personal re- sponsibility, to equivalent compensating service, and to all the others. And this is an entirely feasible and reasonable procedure, indeed, it is the only possible means of teaching and learning the English language. Sometimes we say that every lesson is a language lesson. As a matter of fact, no lesson is a language lesson unless genuine social language is em- ployed. And no language is genuine social language unless it is used for a social purpose, to accomplish some social objective: to entertain, inform, arrive at a decision, mold public opinion, to plan a work or work a plan. We must come to realize that language is never an end in itself, it is a means—the most natural and convenient and economical means of ac- complishing a social end. And moreover, it is a means of accomplishing present ends, not remote ones. ‘The problem, the task, the plan, the de- cision, the activity must be one that calls for direct and immediate attention and action. We talk of preparation: let us begin to talk of participation. We argue for team work: let us first find work for the team to perform. We long for coéperation: let us first bring about some operation. I never have been able to see how we are going to train children to guide a boat or a bicycle or a machine or a business that isn’t moving. If we are to prepare children for democratic life and citizenship through English, we must in school engage them in situations analogous to situations in life, we must train them in those forms and activities of language ex- pression most usual and most useful in democratic life. Conversation, dis- cussion, informal argument, explanation, the telling of anecdotes and personal experiences, letters—these must supplant the time-honored types of discourse: of narration, description, exposition, and argumentation. Spoken language must predominate over written, informal social expression must take the place of formal semi-literary expression. Language, used in social ways and for social purposes is the readiest, easiest, and most natural mode of welding a democratic society together, of providing for exchange of ideas, of modifying and rectifying and unify- ing the various sections and segments of society. Language, a common language employed with force and facility by all, is the greatest interpene- trating and integrating agency at our disposal. A democracy is not con- 450 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ceivable unless every citizen is trained in the use of his mother tongue. No one is in possession of his full rights and powers until he can express himself and make himself felt. He has no voice in affairs until his voice is trained. Here then is the great and gracious task of the teacher of English: to equip for democratic life and citizenship by training each individual in those types and forms of language most useful and desirable in carrying on the work and carrying out the destiny of democracy. Here I would stop except that what I have said is futile unless I say one thing more: not only must the types of language and the methods of language teaching be democratized: the language itself must be demo- cratized. Our English teaching has been inadequate largely because the English teacher’s view of the English language has been ludicrously er- roneous. He has thought of and taught the language as a fine art instead of as a useful art, as a musical instrument instead of as a practical imple- ment, as an aid to the enjoyments of literature instead of to the employments of life. I do not disparage literature. It is one of the finest and most profitable means of spending leisure time; it has its great and beneficent mission to the heart of man; and it too can be a powerful democratizing factor. But the English of literature is but one mode or type of language, but one dialect, so to speak; the English of common daily democratic life is another and a different dialect—not superior, not inferior, but different. And never shall we be able to utilize language as a democratic and democratizing agency so long as that language is itself undemocratic, aristocratic, classical. The effective language of social democratic life abounds in force, picturesqueness, expressiveness, naturalness, spontaneity. It delights in short-cuts, in figures of speech, in humorous phrases, in familiar, free-and- easy expressions. It cannot dispense with colloquialisms, idioms, the turns and quirks of the vernacular, and it is voiceless, it is dumb and impotent without slang. Yet “they say” slang is not proper! Not proper? What is proper but appropriate? And when slang is appropriate—as it is in nearly all the social situations of everyday life—slang is not only proper but indeed a most effective mode of expression. Do you wish to know why English teachers are failing to teach English that gets across and carries over into life, that acts as a cementing and solidifying element in our democracy? It is partly because they preach and teach impossible ideals of a pure-bred and a blue-blooded language, of a high-brow and ‘hifalutin’ speech, patrician English, nasty-nice, top-lofty, schoolroom English. If we are to be common-minded, we must have a common speech—and that will never be the speech of scholars and pedants and prudes-and-prismy-y rhetoricians. It must be a robust, vigorous Ameri- can speech, full of snap and sparkle, of warmth and color, close to life rooted in the soil. The reason the classical idea—in English or in any other subject—is undemocratic is because it is a class idea. Obviously, much remains to be said, but—als Dbvi 0 obviously—no time re- mains in which to say it. The English language has tremendous impor- NaTIONAL CouNCcIL oF EDUCATION 451 tance and import in the democratizing of education and in the education of a democracy. Here is an implement, ideal for performing a democratic work, an implement fitted to our hands; all that is required of us is to perceive it, grasp it, and use it. REPORT OF PROGRESS OF THE COMMITTEE ON VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ADELAIDE S. BAYLOR, CHAIRMAN, FEDERAL AGENT FOR HOME ECONOMICS, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Committee on Vocational Education consists of ten members, who were nominated at the Des Moines meeting (July, 1921) of the National Council of Education. Acceptances to these appointments have come from all members of the conimittee, but responses as to plans of work have been slow in reaching the chairman. A meeting of the committee was called for Tuesday afternoon, February 28, and although a small number of mem- bers were present the following tentative plans were developed as to the work of the committée: 1. To use, at least for the present, the definitions and analyses furnished by the report of the National Education Association committee on Voca- tional Secondary Education, published in 1916. 2. To limit the investigation at this or any other stage to certain phases of vocational education. 3. To take up for the initial study Part-time Vocational Education for the following reasons: (a) Twenty-three States have on their statutes compulsory part-time laws. All of these, with the exception of two, have been enacted since 1917, and school officials are confronted with the problems of administer- ing these laws; () part-time vocational education deals with youths and adults outside the full-time schools, who cannot be reached by generally accepted full-time school programs and methods; (c) since part-time edu- cation is usually carried on during hours of employment, the codperation of employers and parents as well as pupils is needed; (d) the value of part- time vocational education is not clearly estimated and the public needs enlightenment on this type of education; (e) in programing part-time edu- cation, two important problems arise, i. e., that of the minor who must attend because of legal compulsion, and that of the youth above part-time compulsory age who may attend voluntarily; and (f) the large numbers of young people in the country who have limited education and training and to whom the part-time school seems the best agency to render educa- tional service. Different viewpoints from which a study of part-time education might be made were taken up for consideration. 452 NaTIONAL EpucaTIon ASsocIiATION 1. Types of schools as to groups to be reached: (a) Vocational extension—Classes giving instruction supplementary to the employment; (4) vocational preparatory—Classes giving instruction preparatory for entrance into a given employment; (c) the General Con- tinuation School, which aims to serve a two-fold function: (1) To continue the general education upon a selective basis; and (2) to serve as a finding course where the individual is given every opportunity to discover the particular employment for which he or she is best fitted. 2. Types of schools as to underlying vocational purpose: (a) Part-time Agricultural ; (b) Part-time Trade and Industrial; (c) Part-time Commercial; and (d) Part-time Homemaking. 3. Isolated topics pressing for immediate attention, that would necessarily be developed by a study from the viewpoint of 1 or 2 above, but would not stand out so prominently as if dealt with alone: (a) Place of part-time vocational education in a public-school program; (b) financing a public- school program of part-time education; (c) methods of developing curricula for part-time schools and classes with suggestive short units outlined; (d) part-time education in various types of communities, as rural, village, town, or city; and (e) plant and equipment for part-time schools and classes : (1) Scattered vs. central; (2) school vs. employment plant. After some discussion it was agreed to take up the study of part-time vocational education with a view to ascertaining : 1. The needs for these types of schools as shown by: (a) Numbers of young people eligible for the instruction; and (4) the desire, particularly of those in the upper age groups for further education as shown by the large numbers enrolled in correspondence schools, private schools, and the like. 2. Valuable contributions that have already been made by part-time schools. 3. Financing part-time schools: (a) As to distribution of present school financial resources in States and communities; and (4) as to additional resources for part-time schools. The development of a report along these lines will] involve an investiga- tion of present-day programs in part-time vocational education and their relation to full-time school Programs, and the outlook for the schools and classes, with recommendations. It is proposed by the Committee to have at least a preliminary report—it may be a complete report—ready for the Boston meeting of the National Council of Education. NaTIONAL CouNCIL OF EpuCcATION 453 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ADULT ILLITERACY MRS. CORA WILSON STEWART, CHAIRMAN, FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY MEMBERS OF THE COMMISSION Chairman, ConA WILSON STEWART... . ee eee eee ee ee eee ener eee eeeeeees Frankfort, Kentucky Mary €. C. BrapForn, 1735 Bellaire Street. . 2... 3.2 sc ce ese ce ee etc escnne Denver, Colorado M. L, Brirrain, State Superintendent of Public Instruction................. Atlanta, Georgia Artuur H. CHAMBERLAIN, Editor of the Sierra Educational News....San Francisco, California Joun V. Conway, State Superintendent of Public Instruction......... Santa Fe, New Mexico Tuomas. E. Frnecan, State Superintendent of Public Instruction....Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Joun H. Fintey, New York Times.......2.--eecceeeccceceeeec tc csccccecens New York City Wit Lou Gray, Supervisor of Adult Schools.........++-eeeeeeeees Columbus, South Carolina Tuomas E. Jounson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction........... Lansing, Michigan Minnik J. Nietson, State Superintendent of Public Enstraectionte. «\....4.. Bismarck, North Dakota JosEPHINE C. Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction...... Olympia, Washington Aucustus O. Tuomas, State Superintendent of Public Instruction............ Augusta, Maine The personnel of the Committee on Adult Illiteracy is not wholly made up, and only one or two of the members who have accepted have expressed their views; therefore, this progress report can be but little more than the expression of the ideals of the Chairman and a declaration of some of the principles and plans which will be submitted to the Committee at the Boston meeting for its consideration. The National Council of Education being composed, presumably, of only trained and seasoned members of the National Education Association, and with a membership necessarily limited and very select, its committees should be composed of the greatest experts in their line and the reports submitted to this body should bear the stamp of searching investigation, clear and careful thought, keen analysis, and sound judgment. If in other organiza- ‘tions, illiteracy committees have been chosen because of their high official position, geographical location, or desire to enlist their interest, the Com- mittee on Adult Illiteracy of the National Council of Education should be chosen for reasons manifestly different from these. “This Committee should be made up of a body of experts on adult illiteracy, if such a thing as a group of experts on a subject, yet new to the Nation, can be assembled. Let us admit in the outset that the Committee as made up, is not in conformity with this ideal. The members were chosen some months ago when our ideals as to the personnel were less definite and our vision of the functions of the Committee was less clear. This statement should not be construed to mean that there is dissatisfaction with the Committee or criticism of its members. It simply indicates that the appointments made in future will conform to this plan and that possibly some of this Committee, who represent the general field of Education, may be exchanged with the [literacy Commission of the National Education Association, giving us the benefit of the experts on that Commission, and giving that Commission the ‘nfluence of the members so transferred, thus strengthening the personnel and the functions of both. A small committee of such experts, if only five or six, would be of more service than dozens gathered from the field of education at large. 454 NATIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION The functions of the Illiteracy Commission of the National Education Association, the Illiteracy Committee of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, and the Illiteracy Commission of the W. C. T. U. are largely those of propaganda and the stimulation of activity in the field of education of adult illiterates. It is not the function of his Committee, as your Chair- man sees it, to engage in endeavors of this kind, but rather to aid in stand- ardizing plans, methods, and institutions engaged in combating adult illit- eracy, to investigate and report on laws pertaining to illiterate adults, to define objectives, to fix the standards of literacy, and to-investigate and announce accurate statistics. ‘To sort and sift the good from the bad in plans, methods, tactics, phraseology, slogans, and all that pertains to illiteracy campaigns does not seem a program too ambitious, and for this Committee to translate the activities of others into terms that will be panoramic in scope, seems a service that would be both useful and desirable. It is a field that is in no wise covered by any other committee or organization and would be a duplication of nobody’s efforts or aims. That there is need of such committee of experts on adult illiteracy is clearly evident. While public education, as far as the child is concerned, is under a regularly created Department of Education in all of the forty- eight States, the campaign to eradicate illiteracy is being waged under vari- ous auspices, ranging from a State Illiteracy Commission as in Arkansas, Washington, Mississippi, and others to the Extension Department of the State University—as two of the States are conducting their campaigns. In 1910 there was not a line on any statute book of any State referring to adult illiterates; today there are laws providing for school doors to be opened to them, laws compelling them up to certain ages to attend, laws creating State school officers to direct their education, laws compensating teachers for teaching adult illiterates, laws providing for the training of teachers to teach them, laws requiring teachers to go and teach them in their homes, and laws requiring the establishment of classes for them in factories and mills, In the creation of so many laws out of such meager experience and in such a brief space of time, it naturally follows that many of these laws are defective or inadequate. Some States have created a system of night schools and thus have provided an opportunity for illiterate adults, but have made no campaign to arouse public sentiment or to inform the illiterate that his opportunity has come. Some States have organized campaigns against illiteracy, have aroused the public and awakened the illiterates but have made no permanent provision for, them to be taught, leaving their fate altogether dependent on the efforts of volunteers. The compilation of all the laws pertaining to adult illiterates with a classification and analysis would be of incalculable benefit. The comparison of these laws and the final judgment of some committee on such legislation is a need that has been frequently expressed and has probably as yet not even been partially met. May we not hope that the Committee will render to the cause of adult education a distinct service in this particular field. NATIONAL CoUNCIL oF EDUCATION 455 The standards of literacy in this country are indefinite and variable. The United States Census Bureau defines literacy as the ability to write, assum- ing that one who can write can also read—and the test is the declaration of the individual as to his literacy or illiteracy. “The Kentucky Court of Appeals has fixed the line between literacy and illiteracy as that which separates the second grade from the third, and has declared that one who can write and express himself, regardless of spelling correctly, and who can read an ordinary newspaper item, is out of the illiterate class. One of the States has fixed the standard of literacy, if we have properly inter- preted its law, as the completion of the sixth grade. Some define illiteracy as the inability to read, write, and speak the English language—a test which had it been adopted by France before President Wilson’s visit to that country, would have put him in the illiterate class while there because he could not read, write, or speak its native tongue. To aid in fixing a sane and definite standard of literacy, high enough and yet attainable, seems a necessary part of the program of this Committee. What the standard may be cannot at this moment be announced. That it will not be the mere ability to write one’s name may be stated with assurance, for none who are fighting illiteracy intelligently have ever assumed that the ability to write one’s name took him out of the illiterate class, or that if every illiterate in a State should learn to write his name, it would remove the blot of illiteracy from the State. The standard may not be so high as the © completion of the sixth grade, for to place it at that elevation would leave many intelligent American people in the illiterate class. It should be the purpose of this Committee to find a happy medium—the same intelli- gent standard which would not leave a man really illiterate even though pronounced a cure and yet should be one low enough that it would not discourage the great mass of illiterates from undertaking to climb out of the dungeon of illiteracy, in which they are imprisoned, or discourage their rescuers from undertaking to aid them. Illiteracy statistics are as yet puzzling and unfamiliar things. Only in recent years has any attempt at classifying them or any scrutiny of them been made. At last the counties and local communities, as well as the State and Nation are being brought face to face with their statistics on illiteracy. This is being done through the Illiteracy Commission of the National Education Association. There is an indictment in such statistics and when brought close to home they challenge the educated citizenry to action. Your Committee should in no wise duplicate the preparation and circulation of these statistics, but it has a statistical function equally as important and that is to investigate the floating terms of illiteracy statistics which vary so widely when quoted by different educators and to fix upon the accurate terms in each case. Within the past few weeks, the illiteracy of the United States has been quoted by educators all the way from three million to ten million in numbers. Educators of reputed and accustomed accuracy have recently been heard to quote the illiteracy statistics of the Army as being “only one out of every four recruits able to read and write’ when as a 456 NatTIoNAL Epucation ASsocIATION matter of fact, the Surgeon General’s office which made the investigation, and, therefore, is the only authority on this subject, reported that “one out of every four was unable to read and write. The presentation of illit- eracy statistics varying so widely from fact, and the quoting by educators of conflicting statistics on the same subject will tend to convince the laymen that educators are very careless or not altogether informed and will weaken the message that we are endeavoring to convey. If the Committee on Adult Illiteracy of the National Council could immediately investigate the sources of the illiteracy statistics now in popular use and could issue even a brief statement covering them, citing authority for-same it would tend to clear up this matter and would steer educators and others toward the correct figures that, even when quoted accurately, are serious enough, more effective and not so likely to be challenged and disproved. That this Committee is one with more than ordinary responsibility seems too evident to need reiteration. When its personnel is complete and its program is worked out, may its aims be high, its statements accurate, its decisions wise, its service both extensive and unselfish, and may God guide in all its deliberations and activities. REPORT OF PROGRESS OF COMMITTEE ON EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS There is so much public and private money available for surveys and so many communities have some prominent persons or organizations with a private grudge that surveys are inevitable. No one can stop them if he wishes to, but the public has a right to think about how surveys should survey. All would seem to be able to agree by this time that it is needless to go to any expense to tell a community about the weak spots in the schools. Anybody in any community can, without money and without price, find fault with the school administration, the police department, the fire de- partment, and anything else in public service. A sewer system was never established by studying sewage. Water- works must be established before a sewer system is possible. It requires no intelligence and no trained nostrils to detect sewage, but it requires high engineering skill and great financiering to put in a water system. responsible? Second, What percentage of their recommendations have been adopted and put in action? Third, How many surveys have made recommendations based on their examinations rather than on preconceived notions of the master minds in the surveys? Fourth, Has the Survey been NATIONAL CouNCcIL oF EDUCATION 457 As to the first, legislative action has paved the way for ennobling State normal schools into State teachers’ colleges doing work for college degrees four hundred per cent in five years. How much of this is due to surveys? Attendance upon freshman or ninth-grade classes, which means retaining young people in school several years more than formerly, has increased more than one hundred per cent in five years. How much of this is due to surveys? The increase in State requirement of fourteen years of age, or a sixth- grade education before going to work, is one hundred per cent in ten years; of sixteen years, or an eighth-grade education five hundred per cent in ten years; of eighteen years, or a high-school education one thousand per cent in five years. How much of this due to surveys? The enforcement of com- pulsory school laws has increased one thousand per cent in ten years. Adult illiterate education has increased one thousand per cent in ten years. The community influence of public schools has increased one hundred per cent in ten years. Improvement in thrift education has improved several hundred per cent in recent years. How much of this would probably not have come about but for the surveys? As to the second, it would be interesting for every survey proposition to present a definite statement of the percentage of its recommendations that have been fully functioning three years after the survey report. Third, it would be interesting to have all surveys surveyed and a report made upon the recommendations that had never been made in other sur- veys—that is, how many recommendations are based upon that survey rather than upon the known philosophy of the master minds in the survey? Fourth, it is highly important that it should be known to what extent a survey merely stirs up sewage instead of establishing waterworks, to what extent the survey is a source of irritation rather than inspiration. REPORT OF PROGRESS COMMITTEE ON CHARACTER EDUCATION—THE SANCTIONS OF MORALITY MILTON BENNION, DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH The individual finds the sanctions of his moral life in his own conscience. In the light of modern science it now seems almost self-evident that the individual is born with capacity for moral judgments, including conscience, but that the nature of these judgments and the kind of conscience that he ultimately acquires depend primarily upon the various influences brought to bear upon him. These influences are exerted by the home, the church, the school, and by the individual’s recreational, vocational, and civic life and associations. ‘The conscience thus developed may be founded upon religion or upon social-scientific considerations, or upon both. In some respects it may be neither, but simply a reaction from habitua] attributes and modes of conduct. Whatever the reason, the factors that enter into the 458 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION __oOO a eS ee eee ee determination of conscience are likely to be complex. Any plan of char- acter education must take into account these factors and bring them under conscious control. Since conscience is the individual’s basis of moral self-determination, it is of supreme importance that this conscience be so enlightened that it shall be a definite, sure guide in conformity with established ideals and that it also be capable of impelling right actions under new circumstances. May we not assume that the home and the church will be primarily re- sponsible for development of the religious background of morality? May not the public school also give recognition to the idea of God as the em- bodiment of all that is good, as an ideal to be regarded with love and rever- ence. ‘This ideal may be a power in the development of conscience— obedience to which may thus become a mandate of the religious life. Whether or not the religious appeal is permitted in the public school, there can be no doubt about the necessity of appealing to the concept of humanity, a concept possible of attainment through study of the social sciences. A realization of the nature and development of civilization is one of the most fruitful sources of moral inspiration. It reveals to youth his social inheritance, the spiritual as well as the material product of the united labors of all mankind. This inheritance is to be used but also to be sacredly guarded and augmented by each succeeding generation. This concept can be made the basis of a feeling of obligation to humanity, and of an enthusiasm for race progress and human perfection. In this field, no less than in religion, the intellectual appeal must be powerfully sup- plemented by emotional elements. The fundamental principles by which conscience is determined, in terms of religion are “love of God and love of fellow-men.” “Translated into purely secular terms, these may be stated as “recognition and love of the good and love of humanity.” From these general concepts or axioms all the virtues and their opposites may be deduced. ‘Thus respect for life, for the source of life, and for the development of life follow with logical necessity. “These imply such virtues as chastity, honor, and justice— virtues that are primary because they cannot be turned to evil purpose, as may secondary virtues when not directed toward ideal ends. While individual conscience enters into the determination of the nature of social life as a whole, society has developed sanctions of its own. These social sanctions are imposed upon individuals by legislation, court decisions, custom, and public opinion in general. These are powerful determining factors in moral training. While the school has its own specific problems in character education, it cannot succeed except in codperation with all public agencies. The public school is but one phase of public education. It must seek the support of all other government agencies, general and local, and of every voluntary social agency that can have influence in the character training of childhood and youth. The school cannot be an isolated institution, if it would measure up to its responsibilities. The Committee is agreed by unanimous vote of those present at the meeting on February 26, 1922, to the following recommendations: NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 459 1. That the course of study and activities of the school should be so organized as to realize in both theory and practice all the objectives of character education. Somewhere at some time in the school curriculum all the virtues should be taught. ‘This calls for reconstruction of many courses and inclusion, somewhere before the end of the high-school period, of one or more courses dealing directly with the study of ethics. 2. That we recognize “Love of God and love of fellow-men” as an axiomatic basis of the moral life. 3. That all teachers should be as deliberately instructed in the funda- mentals of ethics as they are in the fundamentals of their mother tongue. THE CONTINUITY OF EDUCATION J. M. GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA The whole, in education, is not equal to the sum of the parts. Gen- erally, the whole is considerably less, for the parts overlap and clash and sometimes fall as parts. Our educational system, so-called, is composed of magnificent parts but when put together the desired organism turns out a badly jointed aggregate as if some journeyman had made it and not made it well. The program for the education of the American child and youth is so large and complex that it is difficult, if not impossible, to comprehend it as a whole from home and kindergarten to the college and university and the life beyond the school. We have had to divide in order to master this tremendous program and so, have attacked the parts—the kindergarten, the elementary, the junior high school, the high school, the college, the trade and professional schools. Committees have studied and reported on these parts and through the years great improvement has been made to each of the segments of the educational program but with no great success in the union of the segments. Teachers and school administrators have been looking at education from the outside in while the child, the subject being educated, must look at it from the inside out. It is time to take the child’s point of view and then, like Yankee Doodle, we may not be able to see the town for the houses— the educational system for the parts. ‘To the child our method of edu- cating him must appear kaleidoscopic and full of contradictions and in- consistencies. ‘The child must feel that his education is built up much like the fabricated automobile which takes form, if not life, as it passes from worker to worker along the carrier. He must feel that the auto- mobile receives better treatment than his education, for there each succeed- ing worker takes for granted that the preceding workers have done their work well and so does not do over again what has already been done but puts on his part with every connection ready for the next following part. The child passes from teacher to teacher, all different, usually two or three +60 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION a year in the beginning years and five or more a day in the later years, with exposure here to one subject and there to another subject, with con- duct applauded in the kindergarten disapproved in the first grade, with ways of doing approved in the eighth grade found wrong in the ‘high school, with each new group of teachers discounting if not condemning the work of the previous group and requiring repetition and relearning of what already is known, so that ten years are required to go an eight- year journey, and when four must start that one may get through to the end, or even ten must start that one may get to the end of a little more distant journey; for there are sunken roads across his way where part is Supposed to join part and chasms by the side separating his way from life and these must be filled by the fallen comrades before he can pass on to the diploma station at the end of his way. : The Committee on Continuity of Education will seek to collect some facts and opinions, organize them, and if possible, point a way for a better coordination of the school with the home and the non-school part of life and the different parts of school education with others and contiguous parts to the end that the educational program may become more organic, at least with parts merging into the others that friction is brought to a minimum and chasms no longer exist. A part of our program concerns itself with the relationship of school education to the home, church, the out-of-school environment of the child; another with the integration of the parts within the school, the kindergarten, the elementary, the junior high, the trade and the senior high school, and a third will consider the relations of the college to the high school and professional and other higher schools to each other. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Boston Megtinc OFFICERS President—Homer H. SEERLEY, President State Teachers’ Collepenteeke cent Cedar Falls, Iowa Vice-President—JosEPHINE Cortiss Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction...... NE eR Sey ieleg ae ee maT ie SEINE ABC e eR eyed Olympia, Wash. Secretary—ADELAIDE STEELE Baytor, Federal Agent for Home Economics. -Washington, D. C. FIRST SESSION—Saturpay Mornine, Juty 1, 1922 The meeting was called to order by the President at 9:30 a. M. in the Assembly Hall of Wentworth Institute. The Secretary presented a report on the personnel of the present mem- bership of the National Council of Education, its distribution throughout the country, and changes in the past five years. his report brought out the information that since the last annual meeting of the council four members, Calvin N, Kendall, John H. Phillips, Lorenzo D. Harvey, and Frank A. Fitzpatrick, had been called by death. On motion of Charles NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 461 H. Keyes the following committee was appointed by the chairman to draft appropriate resolutions paying fitting tribute to the valuable service of these members, not only to the Council but to education in general: Charles H. Keyes, Chairman, John R. Kirk, A. J. Matthews, A. E. Winship, and Olive M. Jones. The president gave a brief address on THE OvurTstTanpING IssuE IN AMERICAN EDUCATION. John J. Tigert, U. S. Commissioner of Education, gave a survey of the Activities oF THE U. S. Bureau oF Epucation, during the year, and Charl O. Williams, president of the National Education Association, dis- cussed THe Actua RESULTS OF THE YEAR. The president announced the organization of a Research Department in the National Education Association and appointed a Committee from the Council to meet with John K. Norton, newly appointed director of this Research Department, to determine plans for codperation between the Council and the new department. The following were named on this Committee: Chairman, A. E. Winship, Mrs. Mary D. Bradford, John R. Kirk, Adelaide S. Baylor, H. Lester Smith, A. J. Matthews, and Cor- nelia S. Adair. The final report of the Committee on Educational Surveys was presented by the Chairman, A. E. Winship. SECOND SESSION—Saturpay AFTERNOON, Juxy 1, 1922 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:30 P. M. in the Assembly Hall of Wentworth Institute. The Secretary presented the following report for the Membership Com- mittee, which was unanimously approved. The Committee on Membership met at Wentworth Institute Saturday July 1, at 8:30 A. M. and 12:30 p. M., and submitted the following recommendations for supplying vacancies in office and in the membership of the Council: OrFicers:—(1) President—J. M. Gwinn, New Orleans, La., term expiring in 1925, to succeed Homer H. Seerley. (2) Vice-President—Ada Van Stone Harris, Pittsburgh, Pa., term expiring in 1925, to succeed Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston. Executive Commitrre—David B. Corson, Newark, New Jersey, term expiring in 1925, to succeed J. M. Gwinn, president elect. MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE—(1) Olive M. Jones, term expiring in 1925 to suc- ceed herself. (2) Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, term expiring in 1925, to succeed herself. MemsersHip—Class of 1916 with terms expiring in 1922, elected to succeed them- selves with terms expiring in 1928: James H. Van Sickle, Springfield, Mass. ; Minnie J. Nielson, Bismarck, North Dakota; Charles E. Chadsey, Urbana, III; J. Stanley Brown, DeKalb, Ill.; W. A. Jessup, lowa City, Iowa; Grace M. Shepherd, Maryville, Mo.; Robert J. Aley, Indianapolis, Ind.; E. M. Bainter, Kansas City, Mo.; Albert E. Winship, Boston, Mass. Class of 1922 with terms expiring in 1928: M. G. Clark, Sioux City, Ia., to suc- ceed L. R. Alderman, class of 1916 with term expiring in 1922. The Committee was highly appreciative of the splendid service rendered by Dr. Seerley in his term of office as president and regretted that he felt it necessary to decline nomination for a second term. The Committee recommends that, according to a plan to be devised by the 462 NaTIoNAL Epucation AssoctaTION Council, honorary or active honorary members be requested by the Secretary to Serve temporarily on committees or in other activities of the Council, in vacancies created by the death of members, such service to continue until the next annual meeting when membership vacancies are supplied. Because of the close relation existing between the activities of the National Council of Education and certain officers of the National Education Association —as President, Secretary, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, Manager of Publica- tions, and President of the Department of Superintendence—and because of the further fact that whether members of the Council or not the duties of these officers are such as to prohibit attendance at Council meetings, the Committee recommends that the incumbents of these offices be regarded as active ex officio members of the Council during their terms of office. Because of the present importance and magnitude of the visual education move- ment especially in relation to education and the need of clarifying some situations with a view to appointing a Committee to study the question, Olive M. Jones was designated to discuss the matter before one of the sessions of the Council. Homer H. Seerley, Chairman ex officio. A. J. Matthews Olive M. Jones John R. Kirk Adelaide S. Baylor, Secretary ex officio. By vote of the Council, the absences of the following named persons, due reason for such absence having been presented previous to the meetings, were excused: Chicago, 1922—A. J. Matthews, Tempe, Arizona; J. W. Carr, Frank- fort, Kentucky; Elizabeth M. Sherman, Oakland, California; Frank L. McVey, Lexington, Kentucky; Margaret S. McNaught, Sacramento, California; Charles H. Judd, Chicago, Illinois; Caroline S. Woodruff, St. Johnsbury, Vermont; R. O. Stoops, York, Pennsylvania, and T. A. Mott, Seymour, Indiana. Boston, 1922—Milton Bennion, Salt Lake? City,,Utah= Edward 1 Buchner, Baltimore, Maryland; W. A. Brandenburg, Pittsburg, Kansas; Arthur Chamberlin, San Francisco, California; T. E. Johnson, Lansing, Michigan; Charles McKenny, Ypsilanti, Michigan ; Margaret S. Mc- Naught, Sacramento, California; Elizabeth M. Sherman, Oakland, Cali- fornia; Harlan Updegraff, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; H. B. Wilson Berkeley, California; Thomas D. Wood, New York City; Anna Wilsom Crawfordsville, Indiana, and Georgia Alexander, Indianapolis, Indiana. ; The final report of the Committee on Rural Education was presented with John F. Sims, Chairman of the Committee, presiding. After the Chairman had set forth briefly the results of the work of the Committee, the following speakers, either members of the Committee or cooperating rural experts, were heard?’ No Hines on Tue Most Er- FECTIVE ADMINISTRATION AND TAXING Unit; George S. Dick on THE ENROUSEMENT oF INTEREST ON THE Part oF THE PEOPLE IN THEIR Own Scuoors; Adelaide S. Baylor on CONSOLIDATION oF RURAL ScHOOLs; John C, Muerman on ‘TRANSPORTATION OF ScHooL CHILDREN AT Pustic EXPENSE; and Fred D. Cram on Trsts AND MEASUREMENTS IN Rurat ScHoots. NaTIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 463 At the close of these addresses Dr. Sims gave a brief statement of what he proposed to present to the National Education Association at the Wed- nesday morning meeting, concerning the work of the Committee on Rural Education. He asked for an extension of time for his Committee in order to edit and publish the report. On motion the time was extended for one year. THIRD SESSION—Monpay AFTERNOON, JuLy 3, 1922 The meeting was called to order by the President at 2 o’clock in the Assembly Hall of Wentworth Institute. The report of the Executive Committee was made as follows and ordered, by the Chair, to be placed in the minutes: The Executive Committee met just before the opening of the Council meeting Saturday afternoon. The personnel of each of the present standing committees was informally dis- cussed, but all changes were left to the pleasure of the respective Chairmen. No new Committees were appointed but it was recommended that a Committee consisting of the president-elect of the Council, J. M. Gwinn, New Orleans, L. N. Hines, Terre Haute, and Ernest L. Crandall, New York City, be authorized to organize a Committee on Visual Education to report at the 1923 mid-winter meeting of the National Council of Education. Homer H. Seerley, Chairman ex officio. Anna Laura Force. Adelaide $. Baylor, Secretary ex officio. J. H. Beveridge, Omaha, Nebraska, President of the Department of Superintendence, addressed the Council on THE PHysicAL WELFARE OF THE CHILD. Reports of three Committees were then presented. During the presentation of the report of the Committee on THE TEACH- ING oF Democracy, A. Duncan Yocum, Chairman of the Committee, presided, and after a brief discussion of the topic, introduced speakers who addressed the Council as follows: The Relation of Judaism to Democracy—Dr. Louis L. Mann, Rabbi of Congregation Mishkan Israel, New Haven, Connecticut. Protestantism and Democracy—Walter S. Athearn, Dean Boston Uni- versity School of Religious Education and Social Service, Boston, Massa- chusetts. Contributions of Catholicism to Democracy—Reverend Father Augus- tine F. Hickey, Director of Diocesan Catholic Parochial Schools, Boston, Massachusetts. Katherine D. Blake, chairman of the Committee on CHANGES NEEDED IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CourSES, presided when the report of her Committee was given. She spoke briefly of the work accomplished and introduced topics and speakers as follows: History—Mary McSkimmon, Brookline, Massachusetts. Science—Howard R. Driggs, Salt Lake City, Utah. Arithmetic—Theda Gildermeister, Winona, Minnesota. Training for Parenthood—Elizabeth A. Woodward, New York City. 464 Nationa Epucation AssociaTION This was the final report of the Committee on CHANGES NEEDED IN THE ELEMENTARY ScHooL Courses. It was, therefore, adopted and a motion carried that the Council recommend to the Executive Committee of the National Education Association that said report be printed. Charles H. Keyes, Acting Chairman of the joint committee on HEatru ProBLeMs IN Epucation, presided during the presentation of the report of that Committee, and before introducing the speakers, gave a brief review of the history of the Committee. Speakers were then introduced by him with topies as follows: The School’s Part in the Conservation of Child Health—William H. Burnham, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts. Health Project in the Elementary Classroom—Emma Dolfinger, Louis- ville Normal School, Louisville, Kentucky. Charles H. Keyes, chairman of a committee to pay fitting tribute to members of the Council who were called by death since the last annual meeting, reported as follows: The past year has been severe upon the personnel of the National Council of Education in the removal by death of four eminent educational leaders. John Herbert Phillips who was with us, in apparent health, at Des Moines a year ago died in the Birmingham hospital soon after his return, July 21. Born in Covington, Kentucky, educated at Marietta College, with abundant graduate work in universities, he became superintendent of Birmingham schools when there was one school building and seven teachers, and in thirty-eight years he built up one of the most modern school systems of the country with forty school buildings and nine hundred teachers. He was eminently scholarly and a rare gentleman. He was one of the first members of the National Council of Education and constant in his attendance. His presidency was highly efficient. On September 2, 1921 after a prolonged illness Calvin Noyes Kendall ceased his labors. Born in rural New York, he was twenty-four years of age when he graduated from college. He taught in private schools in the West until at twenty-seven years of age he became Principal of the high school of Jackson, Michigan. Immediately his professional Career went forward by leaps and bounds. He was superintendent of Jackson and Saginaw schools, put New Haven on the public-school map of New England, kept Indianapolis on the front rank among American cities, and as State Commissioner of New Jersey won for the State, in the Ayres Index, the honor of being the only State, east of the Mississippi, to be among the first ten in educational achievement. His was a Captivating per- sonality, genial and genuine. He was president of the National Council of Educa- . the senior members of the Council quite unlike that held by any other. For a qu retired from professional activity as a Superintendent His presidency of the National Council of Education did much to Promote its influence, Whoever had the friendship of Frank A. Fitzpatrick loved and admired him. Lorenzo Dow Harvey was one of the brilliant and skilful leaders of the Na- perintendence of which he Association of which he was President in 1909. He was a commanding figure in public-school affairs in Wis- consin for nearly fifty years. He was county superintendent, Principal of the NaTIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 465 aa ee ee eae largest State Normal School at Milwaukee, State superintendent and President of Stout Institute at Menomonie. A princely fellow, a leader among men of affairs, loyal in comradeship, of scholarly attainments, abounding in art and wisdom, an exquisite gentleman was L. D. Harvey. Charles H. Keyes, Chairman, Saratoga Springs, N. Y. John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo. Olive M. Jones, New York City. A. J. Matthews, Tempe, Arizona. A. E. Winship, Boston, Mass. On motion the Secretary was authorized to spread this report on the records of the Council and send a copy to each of the bereaved families. An open forum of the Committee on PARTICIPATION OF ‘TEACHERS IN ScHooL MANAGEMENT was also held on the afternoon of July 3, in Room No. 9, Wentworth Institute. This forum was under the leader- ship of Cornelia S. Adair, Richmond, Va., acting chairman of the com- mittee. FOURTH SESSION—WEeEpNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 591922 The meeting was called to order by the president in Room No. 9, Went- worth Institute. David B. Felmley, president of Illinois State Normal University, re- ported for the Sub-Committee on the Course of Study in Teachers Colleges. Adelaide S$. Baylor, chairman of the Committee on Problems of Voca- tional Education, presided during the presentation of that report stating the personnel of the Committee, the steps thus far taken in organizing the work and that the first problem selected for study was Part-time Edu- cation. Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal- ifornia, told of the contributions Part-time Education, in its less than two years of existence in that city, had made in training the youth. Anna A. Kloss, State Supervisor of Teacher Training in home eco- nomics, Boston, Mass., reported what Part-Time Education in Massachu- setts had done for employed girls and women. Agnes E. Doherty, Department of Social Science, High Schools, St. Paul, Minnesota, and a member of the Sub-Committee on Contributions of Part- time Education, told what steps she was taking in the study of her division of the report, and her estimate of some of the needs in a part-time program of instruction. The request of the Chairman of the Committee on Problems of Voca- tional Education that she be allowed to withdraw from the chairmanship and serve as a member of the Committee and that a school administrator in one of the States be appointed in her stead was granted with the proviso that she serve as executive secretary of the Committee. Honorable Payson Smith, State Commissioner of Education in Mas- sachusetts, was made Chairman. The following reports of Committees were then made by the respective Chairmen: Report of Committee on Racial Well-being, Helen C. Putnam, M. D., 466 Nationat Epucation ASSOCIATION Providence, R. I.; Preliminary Report of Committee on the Status of the American Women Teachers, Anna Laura Force, Denver, Colorado; Pre- liminary Report of Committee on Teacher Welfare, John W. Carr, Frank- fort, Kentucky. At the close of the last report a committee consisting of John W. Carr and the Secretary was designated to confer with the Executive Committee of the National Education Association with a view to securing the support of that body in the organization of a Committee that would be representa- tive and would develop a helpful report on teacher welfare. The plans outlined by Mr. Carr in his Teport were endorsed and he was continued as chairman of any new committee that might be organized. Recommendations ‘of the Executive Committee, on the organization of additional committees were submitted and endorsed as follows: The Executive Committee recommends: 1. That the following named members of the Council constitute the nucleus of a Committee on Visual Education: Chairman, L. N. Hines, Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, T. W. Butcher, Olive M. Jones, Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, William C. Bagley, and David B. Corson. . To this number and others to be determined upon by the preliminary committee of the President-elect, Chairman Hines, and Dr. Crandall, it is recommended that cooperating experts be added from a list compiled by L. N. Hines and Ernest of teachers in service. Statistics and conditions constantly verify, in the minds of all of us, the truth of this statement. We are, therefore, recommending that a committee to study Training of Teachers in Service be organized in the Na- tional Council, and that Thomas W. Butcher, President State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas, be designated as chairman of this Committee. We further H. H. Seerley, Chairman ex officio. Anna Laura Force. Adelaide S. Baylor, Secretary ex officio. cil of Education, was read, in which he extended greetings to the Council and explained that his absence from the meeting, which he was scheduled to address on Saturday, was due to confusion of dates in the first announce- ment of the meeting. The Secretary was authorized to acknowledge receipt of his letter and extend to him the felicitations of the National Council of Education, the new Research Department of the National Education Association, in order to develop a schedule of codperation between the National Council of Education and the Research Department. This report which herewith follows was approved by the Council: Your Committee met July 2, 2:00 p. m. in the Hotel Lenox and aft : c 1 ; er extended discussion voted unanimously in favor of the following: NATIONAL Councit oF EDUCATION ~ 467 I a Having conferred with John K. Norton, Department of Research of the Na- tional Education Association, and having been informed by him that the purpose of this bureau is to coéperate whenever possible in the collection, tabulation, and dissemination of educational data, your committee recommends to the council the acceptance of the offer of the Department of Research of the National Education: Association to be of service to the Council through its investigating Committees, whenever these committees desire such assistance and we further recommend that the various committees of the Council freely avail themselves of the proffered service. Respectfully submitted, A. E. Winship, Chairman Cornelia Adair Mrs. Mary D. Bradford Adelaide Steele Baylor John R. Kirk A. J. Matthews H. Lester Smith. Appreciation of the very great service rendered the Council by the retiring president, during his term of office, was expressed both by word and applause just before he announced the adjournment of the last session of the Council under his administration. Adjourned. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION OFFICERS FOR 1922-23 OFFICERS, STANDING COMMITTEES, MEMBERS J. M. GWINN, Superintendent of Schools ...s+sseeeeeeeess New Orleans, La...President......- Term expiring in 1925 ADA VAN STONE HARRIS, Director of Primary Instruc- tion and Elementary Practice Teaching ....ccecescececrers Pittsburgh, Pa...... Vice-President..Term expiring in 1925 ADELAIDE STEELE BAY- LOR, Federal Agent for Home Economics ...++++++++ Washington, D. C...Secretary......- Term expiring in 1923 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE THE PRESIDENT, ex officio, chairman AnNA LAURA FORCE. ....-.ccceesscrcersrcecs Denver, Colo......--- Term expiring in 1924 Davip B. Corson, Superintendent of Schools.. Newark, N. Wawe stews Term expiring in 1925 A. J. MartTHEws, President, State Normal GANG) SS Ga do GO ANC 30 BOE OO GOODS OO URGE Tempe, Ariz......--- Term expiring in 1923 COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP Tur PRESIDENT, ex officio, chairman Joun M. Kirk, President State Teachers Collec ew epiicasiset: cise eee Paice") Kirksville, Mo.......+- Term expiring in 1923 WiuiamM B. Owen, President of the Chicago Normal College... creer rercrsiecineryectes: Chicago, Ill.........-- Term expiring in 1923 Carrot, G. PEARSE, President State Normal SVT Coon oo nen On De CoD SO ODr OU CUT OOa gy Milwaukee, Wis.....-- Term expiring in 1924 J. Stantry Brown, President State Normal ROO cee risers” wee ett De Kalb, Il... .....-.- Term expiring in 1924 Cora Witson Stewart, Chairman National Il- literacy Commission. ....seerrsrrecesrrres® Frankfort, Ky.......-- Term expiring in 1925 Ourve M. Jonzs, Principal of Public School ; Iie GEE Gone coq@o DeDin de on Ou mOnn Cu DURA New York, N. Y....--- Term expiring in 1925 468 - Nationa, Epucation AssociaTIon MEMBERS TERMS TO EXPIRE IN 1923 Elected by the Association R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Witu1aM B. Owen, President, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Ill. M. E. Pxarson, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Kans. UrLt W. Lamxin, President, Northwestern Missouri Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. A. J. Marruews, President, State Normal School, Tempe, Ariz. SaMuEL A. BakeER, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Jefferson City, Mo. Witiiam P. Burris, University of Cincin- nati, Ohio. J. G. Crasze, President, State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo. Marcarer S, McNaucut, State Comis- sioner of Elementary Schools, Sacra- mento, Calif, Mary McSximmon, Principal, Pierce School, Brookline, Mass. Elected by the Council Ava Van Stone Harris, Director of Pri- mary Education, City Training School for Teachers, Pittsburgh, Pa. ‘ JosEPH Swain, State Department of Pub- lic Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Mrs. Susan M, Dorsry, Superintendent of Schools, Ios Angeles, Calif, H.. .E.. Bass, Superintendent of Schools, Greenville, Miss, FREDERIC FE. FARRINGTON, Chevy Chase School, Washington, D. C. a We JAN Lucxry, U. S. Bureau of Edu- cation, Washington, D. C. Grorce L. Towne, University Publishing Co., Lincoln, Nebr. Tuomas W. Patmer, President, Alabama College for Women, Montevallo, Ala. T. E. Jounson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. J. A. C. Cuanopter, President, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. TERMS TO EXPIRE IN 1924 Elected by the Association THomas A, Morr, Superintendent of Schools, Seymour, Ind, C. B. Grenn, Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. Francis G. Buarr, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. E. W. BurreRFIELD, State Commissioner of Education, Concord, N. H. M. C. Brirrarn, State Superintendent Pub- lic Instruction, Atlanta, Ga. CHartes S. MEEK, Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio. L. N. Hines, President, State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind, H. W. Focur, President, Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, S. Dak. C. E. Beacu, Superintendent of Schools, Enumclaw, Wash. HELEN C, Putnam, M. D., American Acad- emy of Medicine, Providence, R. I. Elected by the Council SaraH Louise ARNOLD, Riverbank Court, Cambridge, Mass. Epwin S, Monrog, Superintendent of Schools, Hammond, Ind. PSE. McCienanan, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa. J. W. K. Dwyer, Superintendent of Schools, Anaconda, Mont. Grace C. SrracHan ForsytH, 20 West z2d Street, New York, N. Y. ADELAIDE S, Baytor, Federal Agent for Home Economics, Washington, D. C. Carteton B. Grzson, Superintendent of Schools, Savannah, Ga, Corneuia S, AvArIR, Treasurer of the Na- tional Education Association, Richmond, Va. Oscar T. Corson, R. D. No. 2, Oxford, Ohio. Joun W. Carr, Educational Department, Capitol, Frankfort, Ky, TERMS EXPIRE IN 1925 Elected by the Association THomas EF, FINEGAN, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa, Mary D. BrapForp, 2603 Franklin Street, Wilmington, Del. Marte Gucis, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ohio. JESSE H. Newton, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. Grorce HH, Reavis, University of Pitts. burgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Elected by the Council Mrs. Fannrig Frrn ANDREws, 405 Marl- borough Street, Boston, Mass. ANNA Witison, Superintendent of Schools, Crawfordsville, Ind. CHariEs H, Keyes, President, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, N. Y, J. E. Stu) President, State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis. Cartes H, Juvp, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. NaTIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 469 a a TERMS EXPIRE IN 1925 (Continued) Elected by the Association J. G. Corricorr, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ohio. Georck N. Cup, Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. Payson Situ, State Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass. Frep M. Hunver, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, Calif. Cuar, OrMonp Witiiams, County Super- intendent of Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Elected by the Council R. O. Stoors, 515 West 121st Street, New York, N. Y. A. Duncan Yocum, Professor of Educa- tional Research and Practice, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. JosepHINE C. Preston, State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash. Tuomas D. Woop, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. E. C. Brooxs, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Raleigh, N. C. TERMS EXPIRE IN 1926 Elected by the Association Cuartes McKenny, President, State Nor- mal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Davip B. FenmMuey, President, State Nor- mal College, Normal, Il. Joun R. Kirk, President, State Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo. Davip B. Jounson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock alleos uC EvizaserH Hat, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. Mary C. C. Braprorb, 1735 Bellaire Street, Denver, Colo. Artuur H, CuHamperiain, Editor Sierra Educational News, San Francisco, Calif. P. W. Horn, 130 Arquitectos, Mexico City, D. F., Mexico. HH. Lester Situ, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. J. W. CraptRee, Secretary, National Edu- cation Association, Washington, DEC, Elected by the Cowncil W. M. Davinson, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Epwarp Bucuner, Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, Baltimore, Md. Frank B. Grisert, State Education Build- ing, Albany, N. Y. Hartan Upprcrarr, Professor of Educa- tional Administration, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Cora Witson Stewart, Chairman, IIlit- eracy Commission, Frankfort, Ky. Karugerins D. Biake, 101 West 8sth Street, New York, N. Y. Oxive M. Jonxs, Principal Public School No. 120, New York, N. Y. CaroLtne Wooprurr, Principal Vermont State Teachers’ Course, St. Johnsbury, Vt. C. P. Cary, Madison, Wis. H. H. Srertey, President, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. TERMS EXPIRE IN 1927 Elected by the Association J. W. Searson, State University, Lincoln, Nebr. H. B. Witson, Superintendent of Schools, Berkeley, Calif. Acnes E. Douerty, 2078 Summit Avenue, St. Paul, Minn. Mitton Bennion, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. Rozert H. Wricut, President East Caro- lina Teachers’ College, Greenville, N. C. Anna Laura Force, Principal of the Lan- coln School, Denver, Colo. WALTER R. SIDERS, Superintendent of Schools, Pocatello, Idaho. I, H. MINKEL, Superintendent of Schools, Fort Dodge, Iowa. F. L. McVey, President, University of Kentucky, lexington, Ky. W. C. Bactey, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, Nee Yee Elected by the Council May ‘TRuMPER, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Helena, Mont. GrorciA ALEXANDER, 520 N. Audubon Road, Indianapolis, Ind. w. A. Lewis, President, State Normal School, Hays, Kans. ; D. B. Watvo, President, State Normal School, Bellingham, Wash. J. H. WAGNER, President, State Normal School, Las Vegas, N. Mex. Davin B. Corson, Superintendent of Schools, Newark, N. J. I. I. Cammack, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. Neit C. McDonatp, New York, N. Y. Anniz Wexps BLANTON, State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, Austin, Tex. J. HE. BuRKE, Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass. 470 NaTIONAL EpucatIon ASsocIATION TERMS EXPIRE IN 10928 Elected by the Association J. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, New Orleans, La. CarRoLt G. Prarss, President, State Nor- mal School, Milwaukee, Wis. EK. E. Onerworrzer, Superintendent of Schools, Tulsa, Okla. THomas W. Burtcuer, President Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kans. Grorcg D. Srraver, Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, New York, N: Y. W. A. BRanpENBURG, President, Manual Training Normal School, Pittsburg, Kans. E. G. Doupna, Superintendent of Schools, Wisconsin Rapids, Wis. Joun CALLaHAN, State Superintendent of Public Schools, Madison, Wis. May Wane, Elementary Teacher, Berkeley, Cah: S.B. Unperwoon, Superintendent of Schools, Raleigh, N. C. Elected by the Council MEtvin G. CLarK, Superintendent of Schools, Sioux City, Iowa. W. A. Jessup, President, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. James J. Van Sickie, Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Mass. Grack M. Suepnerp, Northeastern State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Minnig J. Nietson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck, N. D. Rozert J. Aury, President, Butler College, Indianapolis, Ind. Cuartes E. Cuapsey, Dean of School of Education, State University, Urbana, Ill. E. M. Bainter, Junior College, Kansas City, Mo. J. Stantey Brown, President, State Nor- mal School, De Kalb, Ill. ALBERT FE. WINSHIP, Editor, Journal of Education, 6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass, ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, FEDERAL AGENT FOR HOME ECONOMICS, WASHINGTON, D. C. In offering a report as Secretary of the National Council of Education it has occurred to me that you, as members, might be interested in a some- what informal and brief statement of the personnel of the Council, rather than one dealing with an analysis of the educational work of this body, with which you are all familiar and which has been so well brought out by the present Chairman in his annual address and in his organization of work for the Council. A brief résumé of the history. and growth of the Na- tional Council of Education furnished by the Secretary on request, was published in the March, 1922, n Educational Association. umber of the Journal of the National Of the 120 members constituting the National Council of Education at the close of the last annual meeting, 53 held administrative positions in 16 being heads of State normal schools, 3 of universities, 3 of colleges, one of a junior college, 2 of city normal schools and 4 of technical schools; fifteen were on the staff of universities or colleges, 7 of these being deans while the remaining 22 may be listed as miscellaneous or an unclassified group, largely because each one is in a class by himself doing an important piece of educational work. NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 471 Since the last annual meeting of the Council, three members have been called by death: John H. Phillips, Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Alabama; Calvin N. Kendall, Commissioner of Education, New Jersey, and Lorenzo D. Harvey, President Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis- consin. All were outstanding figures in the educational world and able members of the Council. Forty-one States are represented in the present membership of 118; 18 States with 1 member each, 8 States with 2 members each, 2 with 3 mem- - bers each, 3 with 4 members each, 3 with 5 members each, 3 with 6 members each, 2 with 7 each, 1 with 8, and 1 with 10. Article I of the Constitution of the National Council of Education relates to membership and reads at one point: “No State shall be represented in the Council by more than 7 members.” It is not possible always to observe this ruling ‘nasmuch as educators are migratory and the members of the Council may move into a State where the quota is already full and no ruling has ever been made so far as the Secretary is aware covering this emergency. ‘This explains why New York has ten members at the present time and Cali- fornia, 8. It means, however, that in supplying vacancies at this meeting no one is eligible from either of those States and no one from Indiana or Pennsylvania, each of which now has seven members. Mexico has a member of the Council in the person of P. W. Horn, former superintendent of schools, Houston, Texas, and now in charge of a school for Americans in Mexico City, Mexico. At the last annual meeting of the Council a special type of membership was created to be known as Active ‘Ex-officio Membership and applicable to the United States Commissioner of Education. An honorary active membership has also been created, and six names were placed on the list: P. P. Claxton, Thomas C. Miller, W. H. Elson, Frank A. Fitzpatrick, John W. Cook, and J. Y. Joyner. Of these six members Frank A. Fitz- patrick and John W. Cook have been called by death since the last annual meeting. Since 1915-16, sixteen active memberships have lapsed by death; G. B. Cook, Bettie A. Dutton, E. T. Fairchild, H. A. Gass, J. N. Greenwood, F. L. Keeler, John McDonald, G. N. Phillips, Nathan Schaeffer, Z. X. Snyder, W. E. Scribner, Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, Ben Blewett, Calvin N. Kendall, John H. Phillips, and Lorenzo D. Harvey. Recently four mem- bers of the honorary list have been reélected to active membership: Sarah Louise Arnold, H. W. Foght, Charles McKenny, and Payson Smith. The honorary list as it now stands numbers 112. Sixteen honorary mem- bers whose names were on the list in 1917 when the present incumbent first assumed the duties of secretaryship, are not now living: H. B. Brown, Nebraska Cropsey, Aaron Gove, W. N. Hailman, Lewis H. Jones, Geo. H. Martin, J. L. Snyder, W. H. Maxwell, Jesse F. Millspaugh, Warren D. Parker, Irwin Shepard, Oliver S. Westcott, Delia L. Williams, H. B. Frissell, R. B. Fulton, and L. L. Wright. Geographically, 86 of the present membership is located east of the 472 NATIONAL Epucation AssocIATION Mississippi River and 32 West. While only approximately 25 per cent of the members are women, yet a little over 40 per cent of them hold im- portant offices in the Council. Recently your Secretary undertook to check up the honorary list, on which were the names of several people unknown to her personally. Even the records of the National Education Association could not tell the story and personal letters were sent, bringing information in four or five instances of deaths of members whose names were still on the honorary list and on the records of the Secretary of the N. E. A. It is probably safe to assume ’ that the list is now practically correct. By a ruling of the Council, absence from four consecutive meetings causes membership to lapse, and by a recent ruling, attendance is interpreted to mean that members shall be present for at least one session of the meet- ing. The keeping of the records and checking up of attendance is one of the arduous duties of the Secretary. With open meetings of the Council it is often difficult to detect the presence of all who are members and there- fore in order to check up attendance it is occasionally necessary to write members to verify the Secretary’s records covering presence or absence. In practically all instances of such inquiry the responses that have come from the members have been prompt and courteous and the Secretary desires to take this occasion to express her appreciation of this aid. By an unwritten ruling, so far as the Secretary is informed, absences have been excused when due notice of such absence has been filed with the Secretary. At the summer meeting in Des Moines, such absence was acted upon by the Council, and fifteen members were excused. At the Chicago meeting in the winter, eleven such excuses were received. “These were not presented to the Council for action at that meeting and should be taken up at this time with others now in the hands of the Secretary. Although for many years actively identified with the N. E. A. with a large acquaintance among its members and also a member of the National Council for several years, the Secretary is forced to confess that on first assuming the duties of her office, there were many unfamiliar faces in the group before her. Now she is pretty well acquainted with the entire membership and this has been made possible because members have come to the desk and thus made themslves and their presence at the meeting known to the Secretary. We hope this will continue. While the Secretary feels privileged to serve so important a body in the N. E. A. she also offers apology for the many shortcomings in a service for which an already full schedule of work leaves little time and energy. As Federal Agent for Home Economics, the Secretary’s duties take her into twenty-four States. On these occasions when time and opportunity permit, she endeavors to get in touch with the members of the Council, if only to exchange a word of greeting, either in person or over the phone. In the past two years approximately thirty members of the Council have been reached on these field trips. It so happens in a few instances, because of their administrative positions, members are met by the Secretary on official business relating to her work as Federal Agent, NaTIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 473 The Secretary desires to hold herself ready at all times to serve not only the Council as a body, but the individual members so far as the limits of her time will permit, and trusts they will feel free to take up with her any points that need clarifying, either as they concern the organization and membership of the Council or its educational program. THE OUTSTANDING ISSUE IN AMERICAN EDUCATION HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT OF IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA American education has a great shortage in the rank and file of elemen- tary teachers in the public schools due to the undesirableness of the kind of service expected and due to the impossibility of any betterment of con- dition likely to occur in the future of said service. The rank and file of these teachers are deficient in scholarship and training and their suc- cessors are not being trained because the students being educated do not want to enter the vocation and hence are not making preparation for ef- ficiency in these undesirable lines. The great issue of today is that of adjusting elementary school work so as to make the improvement of the service an actual possibility. There is today no certain chance of promotion in acceptability and in income of such teachers because the expenditures now required are as large as the public system of taxation can grant and the kind of work assigned has neither the attractiveness of future development or of personal progress that professionalism requires. On this account it is impossible to make such duties appeal to young people, as the narrowness of the service re- quired is depressing and discouraging. ‘There being no real specialization in the treadmill work required and there being no remarkable information or development expected, the making of such teachers professional is not yet a certainty, as the work expected and assigned is more of a trade than a learned vocation. In the meantime education in higher lines has become practically special rather than general, and hence all colleges and universities are offering special training in all lines of service rather than the general scholarship that this kind of teaching requires. “This is done not at the initiative of the faculties or administrators, but to meet the demand of patrons and students. Expertism and specialization give the trend to modern education and the pride of the output depends upon the notable experts that are produced. ‘There is no remedy to this as the choice of courses has given opportunities for all kinds of specialization that persons in preparation for life demand. Hence there is no opportunity for training volunteer stu- dents for such public service as the common schools desire to have. The work of the world must always be done by the so-called common people. Hence our educational system fails to reach this standard since 474 Nationat EpucatTion ASsocIATION aa Eee eee all education as now conducted seeks uplift, advancement, and larger possibilities than the masses require to do the service of labor and of co- operation that the greater number of people have thus far filled. If the elementary schools are to be stressed by attempting extraordinary improve- ment in the personnel of the teaching force in said service, the present attempts are not meeting the object sought in any particular. The profession of law, medicine, theology, business, or education does not any longer receive in the colleges and the universities a training and a preparation for practice in the small city or town or country community, as the former lawyer, doctor, minister, and business man, as well as the teacher, have passed from these lines of general service into the class of specialists and experts, and hence the world is now a patron of many persons in many special fields rather than the patron of one in each line of intellectual and professional activity—all of these in the larger centers and none of them in the places where practice is general and special needs are not remunerative. ‘This has made a great change in civilization and has made the problem of business of all kinds and of preparation of all kinds a different proposition. The attempt to make teaching a profession has produced the tendency to expect experts even where actual expertness is not needed. The policies of rural education of fifty years ago have failed to. function because of this trend of education and hence consolidation has become the new philosophy in order to increase centers of populations for the endeavor and this attempt has developed consolidated schools, large high schools, immense colleges and huge universities in order to have the opportunities for large variety of studies, for extensive organization of multitude of courses for such out- come and for vast opportunities to make experts of the highest order. This is not a possibility in the elementary school as it deals with fundamentals and with the tools of education rather than with any form of specialization whatsoever. The outstanding educational problem of today in the United States is not to be found in the professional schools, the universities, the colleges or tary schools, the centers for training the masses. Every attempt for their improvement has in mind the necessities of higher education more than the effective training of the children of the American people for real efficiency. This comes from the fact that elementary education is a much more difficult Proposition to accomplish than all other educational efforts combined. It is customary for this situation to be much talked about, much deplored, and much considered by legislators and by educators, but in the end nothing directive has ever been done and no plans now under consideration in any than tentative compromises NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 475 a ee le eee EEE el tunities and independence, to secure enough volunteers to give two or more years of preparation before being accepted in the educational system. To meet this exigency there are two agencies now in existence in some States that can be depended upon to give training to these teachers in service. ‘These are the thoroughly organized summer school that is con- ducted on plans to meet this absolute need by educational institutions now existing and by the States opening summer schools in many more centers for the vacation period. For this purpose the State can secure public- school buildings of high-school standard that are uniformily closed during these weeks of the year. In addition it can offer instruction under an extension system that covers the entire State during the school year. It can organize classes in sufficient number for outside service hours to give these elementary teachers a rapid way of making up deficiencies in scholarship and of advancing professional qualifications and knowledge so that they may meet the standard in training adopted. This new evolution in teacher training should be compulsory below certain qualifications and should finally relieve the teacher from the giving of much time to what is now camouflaged under the name of professional interest and development. This instruction and training should be pro- vided free for all these teachers, as it is of sufficient importance for the welfare of the schools to make this investment. This system should con- tinue in action until the emergencies that necessitate it no longer exist. By these combinations of effort and coéperation the elementary schools will come to standard by a few years of intensive development of the teachers in service. THE ACTIVITIES OF THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION JOHN J. TIGERT, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. At the last meeting of the National Council on Education at Chicago, I undertook to set out some of the most conspicuous evidences of progress in education, dealing more particularly with educational legislation, rural education in its more significant phases, teachers’ salaries, and teacher train- ing. At that time I pointed out that there were many evidences of progress that could not be dealt with in the brief time allotted me. At this time it seemed wise to me to give the Council some conception of the activities of the Bureau of Education during the first year of my administration rather than to undertake to cover any of the phases of education that I omitted at Chicago. ‘These latter are known to you more or less, but you must depend upon me for ‘nformation with reference to what we are doing in the Bureau of Education. I have been led to this conclusion likewise because when I addressed the Council a year ago at Des Moines I set out before you the plan of organ- ization which I was putting into operation in the Bureau of Education and 476 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION I believe that you will be interested to know what results have accrued from the organization and the program which I have undertaken. I shall not take time here to review the plan of organization, but may say that it has been effective even beyond my expectations. ‘The correlation of effort in the Bureau under a unified plan has worked well in each of the divisions established and has, in my opinion, significantly increased the general efficiency of the Bureau as a whole. The plan of bringing the various divisions together from time to time in conference and particularly the technical staff has been especially helpful and has brought about a better understanding of the mutual efforts of those working in the Bureau and a consequent increase in morale which has been evident to me, particularly during the last few months. It will not be possible for me to review the manifold activities of the Bureau or to set out in detail the activities of any one division. It is my purpose to give you in a general way what has been accomplished in some of the more outstanding phases of our work. Rural School Division—The work of the Rural School Division has been carried on in three ways, first, field work; second, research and in- vestigation ; third, the dissemination of information through bulletins, leaf- lets, circulars, and general correspondence. Perhaps the most novel feature of policy in the Rural Division is the plan of directly stimulating progress in rural education by reaching rural superintendents and supervisors with knowledge of the latest and most superior practices and with practical and definite suggestions. Formerly the Bureau undertook to furnish informa- tion only through bulletins and publications which were relatively large and therefore required considerable time for preparation. Such publications require from six months to a year for printing after they have been pre- pared. During the past year we have adopted the policy of getting out much material in leaflets, circulars, and mimeographed form which can be quickly prepared and quickly sent out. ; We have completed printed leaflets on the following subjects: Consoli- dation and Rural Life; Transportation of Rural Pupils at Public Expense ; Modern Equipment for a One-room School ; Consolidation of Schools in Maine and Connecticut. Mimeographed circulars were completed on the following subjects: Rural Teachers’ Library; What Is a Consolidated School?; Digest of State Laws on Transportation of Pupils ; Consolidation of Schools and Transportation of Pupils; Salaries of Teachers in Rural Schools, 1922; Salaries of Superintendents and Supervisors. The following leaflets are in course of preparation: States Whose Laws Encourage Consolidation by Means of State Aid; Summarization of the Essential Features of State Laws Concerning Transportation of Pupils; How Laws Providing for Distribution of State School Funds Affect Con- solidation; The One-teacher School Building; Beneficial Results from a District Owned Teacher’s Home; A Plan for the Organization of a County System of Agricultural Instruction in Elementary Rural Schools ; Objectives in Elementary Rural School Agriculture; Directors of 250 Con- solidated Schools; List of State Publications on Consolidation. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 477 While inaugurating this policy of getting fresh information to those working in rural education we have not abandoned, of course, the publica- tion of bulletins. We have completed during the year bulletins on: The Extent and Nature of Rural Supervision in the Forty-eight States; Homes for Teachers in the United States; these are now in the Government Printing Office. We have in course of preparation a bulletin on the History, Progress, and Extent of the Movement for School Consolidation in the United States, and three other bulletins on the subjects of Standard- ‘zation of Rural Schools and Buildings, the Supervision of One-teacher Schools, and a type of problem-project in nature-study—agriculture suit- able for use in formulating a course of study for elementary rural schools. In the field members of the Rural Division have visited twenty-two different States for the purpose of investigating school conditions, holding and attending conferences on rural education, and addressing educational gatherings. ‘This does not include duplication. In many instances more than one member of the staff visited the same State. Approximately seventy addresses were made; one educational survey of the rural schools of an entire State and one survey of a county were made by members of the staff. During the year thirty sets of slides have been prepared by the Rural Division for free distribution among school officials on the following subjects: 12 sets on school consolidation in the United States; 6 on trans- portation of school children; 6 sets on rural schools and grounds, and 6 sets on rural school activities. Two films of approximately 1500 feet each have been prepared, one showing consolidation in the different States and one showing supervision of rural schools in the United States. Requests for information on school conditions and for recommendations concerning administration, organization, and practice in rural schools are received at the rate of from two hundred to five hundred a month. Division of City School Systems—In general, the work of the Division of City School Systems is similar in plan to that of the Division of Rural Schools—namely, field work, research, and investigation, and dissemination of information. Bulletins were prepared during the year in the following subjects: Salaries of Administrative and Supervisory Officers in Cities of 25,000 or More Population; Administration of Schools in the Smaller Cities; Salaries of Elementary and Junior High School Teachers and Principals; Credit for Professional Improvement of Teachers; Major Projects in Elementary Schools (several projects given in detail) ; State- ment for District of Columbia Senate Committee regarding teachers’ salaries, Senate Document B16 pies oss ak Kindergarten-Primary Course of Study; Housing and Equipment of Kindergartens ; What They Think of Kindergartens ; Bibliography on Education of Early Childhood. The following bulletins are in course of preparation: Legislation regard- ing Kindergartens ; Kindergarten Training Schools; Projects on Highway Transportation for Elementary Schools (Worked out with a fifth-grade class) ; Pamphlets on Platoon or Work-Study-Play Plan; Requirements for Promotion—First Grade ; Work of Research Division of City Schools ; Coéperative Studies—(a) The Social Sciences in High School; (2) Music 478 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION in City Schools; (c) Nature Study Through School Gardening; Health Education in the Kindergarten; Moving Picture Films on Kindergartens. Circulars have been issued on the following subjects: Data Regarding Certain Phases of School Administration in the Smaller Cities; The Platoon or Work-Study-Play School; City High School Teachers’ Salaries; Salaries of Elementary and Junior High School Teachers; A course for first-grade teachers advocating specific methods for specific ability. The most important phase of field work of this Division is the surveys made of city school systems. During the year the following cities have been surveyed with reference to a whole or a part of school systems: Sparta, Wisconsin; Trenton, New Jersey; Shreveport, Louisiana; Wash- ington, D. C.; Washington, North Carolina; Parkersburg, West Virginia; Greenfield, Ohio; and Wilmington, Delaware. A number of important conferences have been conducted and participated in, including a conference at Chicago during the meeting of the Department of Superintendence on the Work-Study-Play plan; the conference in codperation with the National League of Women Voters during the Pan-American Conference at Balti- more; a conference on kindergarten education in connection with the Pan- Pacific Educational Conference, Honolulu, and others of equal importance. Members of the Division of City School Systems delivered in all sixty- seven addresses at educational gatherings in various parts of the country. Division of Higher Education—The work of the Division of Higher Education is of three general types similar to those of the Divisions of Rural Education and City School Systems. During the year this Division has prepared bulletins or manuscripts as follows: Land-grant College Sta- tistics for the Years 1919-21; Statistics on the Residence of Students in Higher Institutions, 1920-21; Current Statistics on Income and Enroll- ments at State Universities and Colleges; Accredited Higher Institutions; Accredited Secondary Schools; A Decennial Report on Land-grant College Education; Development of Educational Policies at Hampton Institute; Studies of the Negro Land-grant College Curricula; A Report on the Conference of Representatives from Junior Colleges, held in St. Louis, June 30 and July 1, 1920; Enrolment Statistics and the Status of the Teaching Staff at Engineering Schools and Colleges. In the field work the Division has made surveys of 19 institutions includ- ing the following: Arkansas, State University ; Arizona, State University ; Oregon, 8 universities and colleges; Tennessee, 4 colleges; North Carolina College for Women. The field work has been completed in connection with the survey of 5 higher institutions in Kansas. This Division like- wise has endeavored to promote the cause of higher education through addresses and educational conferences. Among the latter some of the most important were the conference on education in Negro Land-grant colleges held at Nashville, Tennessee, at which every Negro land-grant college in America was represented; and conferences on highway and highway engineering education in five States. Service Division—The organization of the Technical Staff includes, in addition to the Divisions of Rural Schools, City School Systems, and NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 479 ——$—— Higher Education, a number of miscellaneous specialists in divisions which serve definitely more than one of these fields. The Service Division includes specialists in health education, industrial education, home eco- nomics, commercial education, educational legislation, and foreign educa- tion. In the field of health education the Bureau has maintained active co- operative relations with the U. S. Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, the Public Health Service, the Department of Superintendence and the Commission on Secondary Education of the National Education Association, the Child Health Organization, the American Red Cross, and other important agencies. More than 250,000 of a single health publication were sold during the year, which is a record for the largest number of copies of any government publication sold within the same length of time. “Three important National conferences of teachers and’ others have been held with reference to health and physical education. The Specialist in Industrial Education has conducted five conferences in industrial education with an aggregate attendance of 319 delegates representing twenty-seven States and the District of Columbia. The proceedings of four conferences have been published. The Specialist in Home Economics held during the year ten regional - conferences of teachers and supervisors, the attendance including representa- tives from thirty different States. “hese conferences resulted in formulat- ing important conclusions and policies for the guidance of workers in home economics. Five numbers in a series of home economics circulars were ‘ssued and a bulletin prepared on “Reorganization of Home Economics in Secondary School Courses.” The investigation of home economics instruction showed that approxi- mately 500,000 pupils are now studying this subject in 8000 high schools, and that it is compulsory in about two thirds of all the largest city school systems. Home economics is being introduced into about 600 new high schools each year, and departments are now maintained in more than 600 universities, colleges, and normal schools. The Specialist in Commercial Education conducted ten regional con- ferences, the chief result of which has been an increasing number of colleges and universities allowing entrance credits in commercial subjects. “This Department maintains cooperative relations with the U. S. Chamber of Commerce, National Foreign Trade Council, Association of Collegiate Schools of Business, National Commercial Teachers’ Federation, National Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs, and other agencies. Six circulars on commercial education were issued and a bulletin on Training for Foreign Service. ' The Specialist in Educational Legislation has issued a series of legislative circulars listing the more important laws by title and State, has made a formal digest of school laws biennially, and an interpretive review of legislation. Specific assistance has been rendered on a number of occasions in formulating legislation in various States. The Foreign Education Section is called upon frequently for informa- 480 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tion in regard to evaluation of elementary school,:high school, and college credits from abroad in terms of corresponding school credits in the United States, and also in regard to requirements and opportunities for exchange of students and instructors. Data concerning school organization, legisla- tion, revenues, curricula, and preparation and compensation of teachers in foreign countries have been collected and compiled. Non-Technical Divisions of the Bureau—Aside from the technical staff there are a number of important divisions, among which are the Statistical Division, the Alaska Division, the Editorial Division, and the Library Division. Space will not permit a review of the work of these divisions at this time. I cannot pass over them, however, without a few words, particularly with reference to the important work in Alaska. After the purchase of Alaska from Russia it was given over to the charge of the Secretary of the Interior, who was made responsible, among other things, for the education, support, and medical relief of the natives of Alaska. These responsibilities were committed to the Commissioner of Education by the Secretary of the Interior. The Alaska Service of the Bureau of Education therefore falls into three general types—school service, medical service, and reindeer service. At the present time there are 27,500 natives in Alaska scattered over an area of many thousands of miles. In 71 villages the Bureau has established schools with 145 teachers with an enrolment of about 4000 pupils. Each school is a social center. Many of them contain, in addition to recitation rooms, industrial shops, kitchens, laundries, baths, and teachers’ quarters. In its medical service the Bureau of Education maintains five hospitals in important centers of native population, employs nine physicians, and fourteen nurses. It sends medical supplies to all teachers in remote places. The reindeer industry began with the administration of Dr. Harris as Commissioner of Education with the importation of 171 reindeer from Siberia in 1892. In ten years 1280 reindeer were brought over. There are at the present time in-Alaska over 200,000 reindeer, two thirds of which are owned by the natives. In less than a generation the reindeer industry has brought Eskimos from the primitive to the pastoral state, from nomadic hunters to civilized men, having in their reindeer herds assured support and the opportunity to accumulate wealth. During the past year two new schools have been established among the Eskimos in very remote places. During the winter just past, a herd of 1352 reindeer was driven by the Bureau of Education herders approxi- mately 1000 miles from a point on the Bering Sea Coast to grazing grounds in the vicinity of the Government railway. This will provide means of transportation and a possibility for the exportation of reindeer meat which has hitherto been impossible. Fifty-four reindeer also were transported by a Coast Guard cutter from the Alaskan Peninsula to Kodiak Island, whose great grazing areas will provide support for numerous herds and from whose ice-free harbors reindeer meat can be exported at any time of the year. An item of great éxpense in connection with the Alaskan work has been NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 481 the cost of transporting food and other supplies to the various stations of the Bureau of Education in that Territory. This. has sometimes been almost prohibitive, especially to some of the more inaccessible parts of the country, and has long been a matter of grave concern to the Bureau. In order that this cost should be reduced to the minimum and the Bureau be made independent in the matter of getting supplies to where they are needed, the present Congress was asked for an appropriation to outfit the U. S. S. Boxer, a boat admirably fitted for the work and which had been offered to the Bureau by the Navy Department. Congress voted an appropriation of $60,000 and the Boxer is now on her way to Seattle where she will be fitted with new engines and then put into the service. It is estimated that this boat will save the Bureau of Education $40,000 a year in transportation costs and thus pay for itself in eighteen months. The library of the Bureau of Education is the largest library composed exclusively of educational and pedagogical books and papers in the United States, containing about 200,000 volumes. During the past year there were 13,341 accessions made to the library, including books and periodicals. The library service renders assistance not only to the staff of the Bureau, but has a large demand made upon it from the outside. Perhaps its bibliographies are the most important assistance which it gives to the educa- tional world outside the Bureau. During the year just closed the Editorial Division got out books and documents to the number of 101, including the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1921 and the Biennial Survey, 1916-18. During the year the Superintendent of Documents distributed publications of the Bureau of Education as follows: Annual Reports, 11,596; bulletins, 598,016; leaflets, circulars, and miscellaneous publications, 245,485, mak- ing a total of 855,097 books and documents distributed. 205,000 copies of School Life and index (5 numbers) were distributed. ‘This makes a total distribution for the year of 1,060,097 pieces of material. The Statistical Division gets out annually statistical bulletins covering the varied fields of education, such as State school systems, city school systems, universities, colleges, and professional schools, etc. During the past year a special study was made of high school teachers’ salaries for 1918-1921. At the present time a special statistical study of foreign languages in secondary schools is being made. Some improvements have been made in our statistical work during the year, including a revision of the blanks for statistics of city school systems after conference with a com- mittee of the Association of Business Officials of Public Schools and a committee of the Department of Superintendence. Blanks for the statistics of universities, colleges and professional schools under public control have been improved after conference with the State universities, land-grant colleges, and other organizations. Some slight changes have been made to improve blanks for the statistics of public high schools and of teachers’ col- leges and normal schools. Among other activities of the Bureau which do not fall within any of the aforementioned classifications may be mentioned surveys. Although 482 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION no appropriation has ever been made for this purpose the Bureau has, since ‘its inception, conducted 155 surveys, including nine State public school sys- tems; seven State school systems for higher education; eighty-seven higher educational institutions; seventeen public school systems of cities; ten school buildings in cities; nine public school systems of counties; one survey of Negro education in the United States (twenty-six States and the District of Columbia) ; and fifteen miscellaneous surveys. During the past year the Bureau has conducted forty-three surveys, in- cluding the public-school system of Arkansas; the institutions of higher learning in Kansas; nineteen higher educational institutions; eight city school systems; and five county school systems. ‘In the course of the year the Bureau received 128,100 letters; 34,013 library pieces, and 74,580 questionnaires and forms. The Commissioner of Education traveled approximately 75,000 miles during the past year. He spent 196 days (including Sundays) in the field, and 137 days in the Bureau. He wrote and published twenty-two articles, and had more than 600 conferences in his office in Washington. He visited Seattle and spent four days in the Bureau of Education office in that city. He attended three meetings of the Federal Board for Vocational Educational and six meetings of its Standing Committee. He attended the formation meeting of the Federal Board for Maternity and Infant Hygiene; acted as chairman of four meetings of the Highway and Highway Trans- port Committee; and during the year made a total of 244 addresses before audiences aggregating 120,000. ‘The Commissioner conducted six National educational conferences; as- sisted in eight educational campaigns and conferences; addressed twenty National associations and four regional associations. He officially visited twenty-seven State education departments, and addressed twenty-five State educational associations. Beside speaking before numerous city and county educational associations and summer schools, the Commissioner addressed twenty-six institutions of higher learning; thirty-five business organizations; made four commencement addresses; three high school dedicatory addresses ; and spoke at the inauguration exercises of President Aydelotte, at Swarth- more. ACTUAL RESULTS OF THE YEAR CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS, PRESIDENT NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE Material in statistical form showing the actual accomplishments of the past school year is not available at this time, but careful reading of educa- tional publications with reports from almost every State in the Union shows clear and unmistakable signs of progress. Because the classroom teacher is the very heart of the public-school system of America, we will consider first of all the trend of the year as affecting our grade and high-school teachers. As to the supply of men and women trained for the work, there is still a NATIONAL CoUNCIL oF EDUCATION 483 lamentable shortage. To meet the actual needs of the Nation 100,000 new teachers are needed each year, the turnover alone being 75,000. All of the teachers’ colleges and normal schools together graduate about 20,000 students a year, a shortage of approximately 20,000 trained teachers. It goes without saying that in order to relieve this situation the profession must hold out inducements to the better class of students in our secondary schools equal to the inducements of other professions. The question of salary will from now on largely determine the number of desirable young people who decide to enter the teaching profession. Not only must these young people look forward to reasonable remunera- tion for their labor in the schoolroom, but they must be helped through their years of training. It is not asking too much of the State or Nation to insist that young people who would be acceptable as teachers shall be prepared for their work without undue strain upon themselves or their families. There is a disposition on the part of boards of education to hold salaries to the highest mark that has been reached, and in some instances to increase them; but as a whole, teachers’ salaries stand low in the schedule of pro- fessional people and are not in proportion to the cost of living. As a result of this condition, there is a heavy decrease in the number of college graduates now teaching in our high schools—a fact that cannot be passed over lightly. “The adolescent youth of our country should not be left in the hands of immature teachers or those of restricted opportunity. Teachers in the service show an increasing desire to take professional training. Many are taking extension courses at normal schools and col- leges. Much professional reading is being done by groups of teachers in an organized way. ‘The summer schools are crowded to their limits and are doing a great service to the Nation. In 410 summer schools in 1921, 253,111 students were enrolled. By the most conservative estimate one fourth of the Nation’s teachers were in training last summer, and the enrol- ment in the summer schools of 1922 promises to be even greater. There has been a marked increase in professional consciousness among our teachers. The seeds of professional organization which have been sown during the past few years are beginning to bear fruit. Codes of ethics for teachers are being worked out in various sections. ‘Teachers are recognizing as never before the dignity of their calling and their obligations to the pub- lic and to themselves as leaders of the young. ‘The teacher who is unwill- ing to get into line, who has not established this professional consciousness, is already being looked upon as behind the times and “out of the running.” Among the hopeful signs for the protession is the awakening of boards of education and the public to the necessity of stabilizing the profession by the pensioning of those who have given their best years to the service and by the wise regulation of tenure in service. The fixing of a minimum salary sufficient to meet the needs of the young teacher, and increasing at such a rate as to retain fine young men and women in the service, is another hopeful sign. In a number of cities the minimum has been increased from $1000 to $1200, the increase meeting generally with public favor. 484 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The single-salary schedule is appealing more and more to the people and to the teaching profession—the same salary to all men and women of equal training and equally successful experience, regardless of the grade or de- partment in which the work is done. There are complex problems to be solved before this can become a Nation-wide policy, but it would be a demo- cratic procedure and would do more to free the teachers in their choice of work than any move of recent years. It is thoroughly in line with the spirit of the new education—sound, sane, just. _An investigation recently made by the Research Department shows that thirty-two cities in seventeen States have adopted some form of single- salary schedule. ‘Chey are as follows: States Cities States Cities Mabamaweecnchitte aelaeit Birmingham Missouri) ictactap asplapye sieeve St. Joseeh Arkansas ays etiriee onal Fort Smith Kansas By Colocsdann eee ee Denver Nebraskage sanrvee acta te pee Ne, eae oe en erat Omaha i ae CS oro Sig ae NortliCanolinalsyt seers Rateibh Strentor : Washington : Obhiiow Bittwctac. sc ne erect Cleveland EOWAL. aie detec pee ee eter Cleveland Haighis 4 erlin PPOIOS reed ate aay dice Fonte, @Olahomay Awerveaece ene Muskogee IMichigateir's Aavtit Aeon e. INAV Pennisy ly aintay meters wiser cnardereyolste Harrisburg Grand Rapids Wal oitniae setters sie art rcan ate Roanoke Einar esotay Nora. trate ete ae Duluth Washington ia. sake okt Spokane Ee Wisconsin es teithasntae as Green Bay E u Rochester It is largely in effect in Ohio and Wisconsin and is being worked out in Pennsylvania. However, length of tenure is still an item in salary sched- ules, but more and more we are coming to equal pay for equal service, and equal pay for equal preparation. A movement most significant in its indications is the reorganization of the normal schools into teachers’ colleges. New York took the lead by organ- izing the extension of two-year normal schools to three years, with a four- year requirement as the ultimate goal. Other States have followed, thus demonstrating the fact that standards may be raised even in the face of a serious shortage of teachers. The following States have placed their nor- mals on a four-year teachers’ college basis: Kentucky, California, Illinois, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. Out of 167 State normal schools only seven were teachers’ colleges two years ago. Now there are 92 of them and the movement is gathering momentum. Professional organizations among teachers are becoming more and more business-like. State Teachers’ Associations in nineteen States have em- ployed secretaries on good yearly salaries. ‘This means that instead of an inspirational get-together once a year, the associations will become organized factors in education for twelve months in the year. The membership of the State teachers’ associations has shown a remarkable growth. Approxi- mately 400,000 teachers were enrolled in State associations last year. The rural schools are still in many sections laboring under the disadvan- tages of poor administration, untrained teachers, poor equipment, short NATIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 485 terms, and lack of supervision. ‘The lack of supervision is perhaps the most immediate. For years to come the lack of trained teachers will be felt throughout the country and especially in the rural schools. To meet this lack of training on part of the teachers the classroom supervisor or helping teacher is the hope of the schools. As the public becomes used to the idea that supervisors are not luxuries but urgent necessities it will demand that the schools have the same provision for painstaking supervision as a modern hotel, department store, or factory. It rests with the superintendents and the supervisors to so establish and advertise the worth of classroom super- vision that no question will be raised as to the expense of a supervisory force in any system of schools, rural or urban. A general interest in the unit of administration in the rural schools of the country indicates that at no distant date the old district, or township, idea, will pass into history along with many other institutions of pioneer days. The county unit with its opportunities for better organization, ex- pert supervision, and more business-like administration is interesting all parts of the country, and will no doubt be adopted in many sections. There is a disposition to dignify the office of the county superintendent by the election of real leaders with adequate salaries and such tenure in office as to allow for the working out of educational ideals. When such leader- ship shall have been provided for rural America we shall have taken a long step toward the solution of one of our knottiest problems—the rural school. During the war the building of schoolhouses throughout the Nation was seriously retarded, resulting in part-time attendance and overcrowded con- ditions for thousands of children. Reports from the field for last year, how- ever, indicate a speeding-up of building programs, partly due to an appeal from Mr. Herbert Hoover to help find employment for the Nation’s work- ers, but we are still woefully behind in many sections of the country. The outstanding problem before educational officers today is that of ade- quately financing education. As a result of considerable agitation and dis- cussion on part of the public and of noted groups of educators, the Ameri- can Council on Education has appointed a commission composed ot recognized specialists in education, taxation, and business, to conduct an inquiry into needs and costs and has placed $170,000 at their disposal for the accomplishment of this great work. Under the leadership of Dr. Strayer, this commission will make a noteworthy contribution at a time when the need for such information is greater than at any other period in public-school administration. Our National organization has had a great year. “The membership has increased from 60,000 to more than 100,000, and the Association bids fair to be the largest professional teachers’ association in the world. “The Na- tional organization with its permanent home in the Capital City, its body of trained and consecrated office and field workers, and its close contact with the Nation’s teachers through Thé Journal, is becoming more and more a great functioning body in the educational world. The Journal—our official organ—has grown from sixteen pages at the beginning of the school year to a magazine of sixty-four pages. Not only 486 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION has it increased in size, but it has grown better in the quality and timeliness of the material published. The field work of Mr. Magill has been specially significant and its in- fluence upon the Association has been of the kind that cannot be easily measured. Coming into contact with thousands upon thousands of Amer- ica’s teachers, as he has in his many journeys across the continent, he has lifted the profession upon the highest plane of service, and has filled their hearts with inspiration and a longing to be more worthy of the place which they hold in it. The president of the Association has visited twenty-one States and has addressed all classes of educational workers—students of normal schools and teachers’ colleges, gatherings of teachers in county, city, and State associa- tions, business men’s clubs, women’s clubs, and other civic organizations. She has visited schools in almost every section of the Union, from the largest city system to a remote rural school thirty-two miles from a railroad—on horseback—in the snow-capped peaks of the Cascade Mountains. Every- where she has found an educational awakening—intelligent interest on part of the public, deep earnestness, and a spirit of service on part of the teachers. Perhaps the profession has never realized so fully before that the schools belong to the people, and that the people can have the kind of schools they want ; in consequence of this realization there is a widespread conviction that every movement for the betterment of education must be led by the edu- cators themselves. Abraham Lincoln said: ‘‘Public sentiment is everything. With public sentiment nothing can fail; without it, nothing can succeed. Consequently he who moulds public sentiment goes deeper than he who enacts statutes or pronounces decisions. He makes statutes or decisions possible or impossible to be executed.” The only condition of permanent social advance in a democracy is an in- terested citizenship, an informed citizenship. Praiseworthy progress in this next big task of the educators can be credited to last year’s record largely because better organized facilities for the spread of effective educational propaganda were at their disposal through local, State, and National associations. All of these things show that vital forces are at work and that the cause of education in the United States is in a state of healthy growth. This educational awakening is not confined to our own country but it is world-wide. One hopeful sign of the day is the desire of the educational leaders in many parts of the world to come together for discussion of prob- lems and-interchange of ideas. The Pan-American conference, which met in Honolulu in August, 1921, was called at the request of the Pan-Pacific Union, invitations being sent to individual educators, universities, and other educational institutions. Dele- gates and visitors from twenty-five Nations bordering on the Pacific Coast were in attendance, and the program included educational problems of com: mon interest to these people.- The object of the conference was to promote friendship and unity among the countries represented. NATIONAL CouNncIL oF EDUCATION 487 Dr. Finegan, an official delegate appointed by the United States Govern- ment, represented the National Education Association. He reported to the conference the action of the Representative Assembly of the National Edu- cation Association in passing a resolution to bring about the organization of an International Congress of Education to be held in the United States in 1923. Dr. Finegan emphasized the significance of this movement to inter- nationalize the work of the National Education Association as a means of carrying on the splendid work begun in this conference. This proposal met with a hearty response by the newspapers and the public in general. Definite proposals for the world conference on education have been worked out by the Committee on Foreign Relations and will be submitted to a group of eminent educators during this Boston meeting. The Association has the assurance of President Harding that the administration will co- operate to make the movement a success. The Towner-Sterling bill is still in the hands of the Committees on Edu- cation of the Senate and the House. ‘These committees await the Presi- dent’s recommendation on the reorganization of the Executive Depart- ments, and while there is no direct assurance of favorable action, it is safe to say that the administration will recommend the creation of a Department of Education and Welfare, and that the extension of Federal aid for the promotion of certain phases of education will be conceded. ‘Taken as a whole the outlook for education for the coming year is most promising. While many thousands of teachers who left the profession have not returned, we are encouraged by the homecoming of many others, who show by their spirit and determination that they have reconsecrated them- selves to the great task of training the Nation’s children. ‘They have found by wholesome experience that the compensations about which the profession has always boasted are not fictitious but happy realities. Business conditions throughout the country are on the up-grade; the period of deflation is about over; industry has charged off its losses; the financial atmosphere is less charged with doubt and uncertainty, and the country is settling down to a period of hard constructive work in which education is bound to play a conspicuous part. I believe that the American people want education as never before and that our chief task is to crystallize this desire into concrete action, and to organize against and rout the forces of pessimism and reaction wherever they may happen to be in authority. THE MOST EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATION AND TAXING UNIT Outline of Report to Committee on Rural Education of the National Council of Education LINNAEUS N. HINES, PRESIDENT STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS, TERRE HAUTE AND MUNCIE, INDIANA Scope of field—The problems involved in a discussion of the topic given above cover the entire Nation. ‘here are practically no school corpora- 488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tions that are supplied with enough funds to do all the work they ought to do, and there are many thousands of schoo] corporations that do not have adequate supervision and administration. Those who have given much thought to finance and administration agree that there is a wide field for improvement throughout the land. District and township adminis- tration should make way for county administration and, in some regards, county administration should make way for State administration. Further, there is a strong belief that the Nation should take a hand in the administra- tion and financing, to some extent, of local school systems. The questions at issue involve every phase of the welfare of the schools; where there is more money there can be better teachers, better buildings, better equipment, and better administration. ‘These improvements, of course, involve questions as to the improving of every phase of school work from one end of the country to the other. As to the importance of the topic, there can be no question whatever. Where tens of millions of dollars go into unimportant activities of the people only thousands go into the maintenance and development of the schools. If we are to cease being a Nation of sixth-graders, then heroic efforts in finance and administration must be made in order to get the improvements we ought to have. Present conditions—The present taxing units range all the way from the school district to the State. “There are no National taxes for edu- cation as such. In the vast majority of cases the taxing units are far too small. “These units vary in their wealth all the way from a few scores of thousands of dollars to billions of dollars. “There can be no uniformity of excellence of the schools under any such conditions. The present administrative units vary as much in size and importance as do the taxing units. [he most hopeless of these administrative units are the small independent districts where ignorant and provincial school officials in many cases control the local schools. Next to these district administrative units, we have the township unit with its sad record of inefficiency and low standards. ‘The county unit follows next in order, a unit that is being urged in many States as an agency for curing the evils of the local schools. ‘The county unit has its advantages and, if properly developed, can be of great service. Next to the county unit comes the State administration of schools. Few would advocate entire State control of local schools, but in many States laws need to be passed to give the State school governments greater power to help the local school corpora- tions realize the best things possible. We have no real National adminis- trative unit due to lack of legislation, funds, and high ideals. The tendencies in this situation, so far as these tendencies can be observed, are toward enlarging the taxing and administrative units through- out the Nation. Every encouragement should be given to those legislators and school people that believe improvement lies in the direction of enlarging both the taxing and administrative units. NATIONAL CounciL oF EDUCATION 489 SSS SS ae ee Unsatisfactory conditions—Unsatisfactory conditions are: CP) Insut- ficient income; (2) Provincial attitudes toward education; (3) Inadequate leadership ; (4) Low school taxes; (5). Makeshift systems of raising school revenue; (6) Poor schools; (7) Lack of a National policy in regard to education; and (8) Inequalities of opportunity for education in State systems. Measures recommended—We recommend the following measures: (1) National revenue for education; (2) Strong Federal Bureau of Educa- tion; (3) Most of local school revenue to come from State sources; (4) Strong county and State administration of education; and (5) Abolishing to a large extent, local control and financing of schools. State and National legislation needed—( 1) Necessity for greater interest in education on part of law-makers; (2) Providing added revenues as rewards or bonuses to those communities that make progress; (3) Ex- termination of weak and inefficient rural and village schools as well as city schools; (4) General bolstering-up of the whole system of education; and (5) Federal legislation along the lines of education so that the Nation can be of greater assistance to State and local systems. THE AROUSAL OF INTEREST ON THE PART OF THE PEOPLE IN THEIR OWN SCHOOLS GEORGE S. DICK, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WISCONSIN In order that people be interested in anything they must see that it gives them profit or pleasure. The farmer is interested most in what yields greatest returns in profit and pleasure in proportion to expenditure of time, energy, and money. He has been shown that a pure-bred sire at the head of herd or flock, the careful culling to eliminate the boarder, the proper balanced ration, or the wise rotation of crops brings the desired greater returns. As a result his interest is aroused, his action is secured, and he willingly invests his hard earned money and follows directions that in- creased profits shall be his. ‘These new but tested and proved ideas have been sold to him by the honest salesmen; he has bought and enjoys the rich return on the investment. The old unwise laborious way of doing things has no interest for him; only the best way, so far as he is able to pay for it, attracts him. How has it been in the history of public education? It has been one ° experiment after another. Ideas have come, been praised, served for a time, and then condemned as detrimental to right educational processes. The people have followed along, each group putting time and effort in its own specialty, recognizing the principle of the division of labor. The authorship and management of public education has been left largely to those who by study, training, and profession are supposed to know what is best. But we have at times sold or allowed to be sold to the people things and ideas that have proved to be shoddy. People have trusted the sales- 490 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION man as he approves today and condemns tomorrow. Laws have been made at one session of the law-making body and repealed at the next. New organizations, plans of management, methods of instruction have arisen and passed on in short space of time, some of them costing much more than they were worth. Buildings erected, apparatus purchased under learned approval a few years ago must now be torn down or laid aside to make way for a later idea. Many of, these try-outs have cost the people much hard earned money. Even granted that most of the changes have been in line of improvement it has had an influence upon the people that causes them to ask, “What are we to have next, and what is it going to cost?” Even today we justify our- selves in allowing peddlers, armed with general letters of recommendation written by local so-called educators, to sell to the people school books and devices of no value, but for which comparatively large sums are paid. In nearly every rural or village schoolhouse can be found more or less of this worthless junk. Would it not be better to give public support to our teacher-training institutions on the basis of the success of their output rather than on the basis of the number of immature girls that they can induce to enroll and remain for stated time, regardless of academic preparation, natural adapt- ability, personality, or sympathy for childhood. Should these people be licensed and sent out to draw public money for service they are not now nor never will be able to render? Finished does not always mean prepared. Would it not be as well to close some small schools where the teacher short- age occurs rather than to go through the form of pretending to have a school ? There are reasons why we must put forth an effort to interest the people in their own schools when they have met, and are meeting today a few things at least to disturb their faith and to cause them to question, ‘““Why shall all these high taxes be paid for what we consider unnecessary or of no value?” People must be shown. Through an educational campaign the people were taught to build and to use silos that now dot the farms far and wide. Years ago in the University of Wisconsin there was invented the Babcock milk tester. “Through a campaign of instruction and inspiration people of the State became familiar with the value of this machine, now of inter- national repute. “The people’s faith in and their use of these two inven- tions, the silo and the Babcock tester, put Wisconsin in her present rank as the “Cream Pitcher State” and enabled her to hold her financial equilibrium during the stress and storm of the immediate past and present. Of course results from silos and milk testers are more tangible, more visible, than results from efforts to educate boys and girls. Nevertheless it is a worthy ambition to have Wisconsin hold a rank for her public schools equal to the rank she holds as a dairy State, a rank reached through an arousal of the people’s interests to great possibilities and in leading them forward to results they have now accomplished. In the language of today the right public education must be sold to the people, and it cannot be sold unless the people are induced to buy. How is this to be done? It is done by an educational campaign. NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 491 1. By showing the people a real school, its results and influences upon the children, young people, and communities. 2. By the changing of laws that may improve school organization, man- agement, and instruction. To accomplish such results a county unit sys- tem, larger taxing unit, consolidation with rural high schools seem necessary. 3. By having the people come together to see the real work of the school, an exhibition of things accomplished. 4. Inspirational addresses in terms of the people’s life and interests, ‘To tell what is done in one State may suggest a few ways of serving the people. The following lines of daily service are found in the Department of Public Instruction of the State of Wisconsin, Every member, twenty- two in number, not counting secretaries and other office force, gives service to the rural schools. 1. One person among other duties assisted by others supervises the thirty- two county training schools and twenty-four high-school training classes which are especially supported to train teachers for rural schools. 2. Three rural-school supervisors give their time to supervising and directing the 100 county supervising teachers who are assistants to seventy- two county superintendents of the State. These county supervising teach- ers are practically a part of the State department as their salaries and ex- penses are paid by the State; their selection must be approved by the State superintendent, and they must report directly to his office. ‘These 100 people last year in addition to much other regular work served in 2395 community gatherings. 3. Two supervisors put in much of their time in meeting, conferring with, and addressing school board conventions. 3 The State law requires that once each year the members of the school boards of each district of a county shall meet in convention to consider the needs of the schools. ‘The clerk must attend and the others may.” All attending receive a per diem of $4, and three cents a mile going and com- ing. A representative of the department is present at the convention to report the policies, desires, suggestions of the State superintendent to discuss school laws, give an inspirational address and help in every way possible these board members, the business managers of the free public school, to successfully discharge their duty according to law and in the best interests of the children and the community. These members return home to carry new ideas, clearer ideas to the people of their school districts. Of the 23,000 school board members about three fourths of them with many teach- ers and others are met in these annual conventions. 3. Three men give entire time supervising the State graded schools, which are rural schools of special organization, receiving special State aid. 4. One supervisor of educational measurements has this year put about all of his time on rural children. 5. Two clynical psychologists, supervisors of special classes of exceptional children, serve the entire State, including rural as well as city people. 6. One person supervises the schools for the deaf and the blind. 7. Two supervise school libraries of entire State. 492 NatIionaL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION 8. Three supervise high schools, serving the union free high schools (rural) as well as city and village high schools. 9, The Industrial Commission looks after the plans and directs the erec- tion and care of school building and is in charge of the compulsory attend- ance law. 10. The State Board of Health and the seventy-two visiting county school nurses look after proper health conditions in all schools of the State. These last two named departments are closely associated with this depart- ment. 11. The State Superintendent of Schools covers the entire State, serving with as great if not a greater interest the rural child and community. Through this well organized department the people receive help and inspiration which result in faith in their schools and a generous support. Some other channels through which this service flows freely to the people of the State are inspirational educational addresses to community meetings, fairs, picnics, farmers’ meetings, parent-teachers’ meetings, addresses to graduating class of rural, State graded, high schools, county training schools. A well organized good school week rallying forces and helps from all over the State and touches all with a general uplift. Similar are the Better Eng- lish Week and Better Health Week. Each one of these aims to touch every school, every child, every community, every home. ‘They have proved very effective in interesting the people in their schools, and improved conditions have resulted. Contests through competitive examinations in such subjects as arithmetic, spelling, and penmanship starting in each school district have ended in final contest at State Fair at Milwaukee. The advance in teachers’ salaries is receiving general support. Fewer people call for cheap teachers, knowing that the lower salary means a poorer service from teacher to school. When our State Superintendent announced that there would be no more special licenses issued, although there were about 700 of these issued last year, the announcement met with almost unanimous approval. The improvement in school attendance is gratifying. For the school year ending 1919 the rural schools show an average daily attendance of 70 per cent; the school year ending 1920, 72 per cent;-the school year end- ing 1921, 77 per cent. Other schools have made equal advance in this line. We are hoping that reports for the year just closing will show a still better condition. The State Department of Public Instruction has not done this work single-handed. It requires codperation of all educational forces, State, county, and community, to achieve the best results. Our great State Uni- versity, with one of the very best extension services in the country, carries help and inspiration to every community; the ten State normal schools, in- cluding Stout Institute at Menomonie, does the same; the many private educational institutions do their part. As a result, interest and faith in the people’s schools increase; the service of this free public institution grows more and more effective and wins a more generous support, spiritual and financial. NATIONAL CouNcIL oF EpucATION 493 REPORT OF SUB-COMMITTEE ON CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS ADELAIDE S. BAYLOR, CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON RURAL EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. In compliance with the request of the chairman, Dr, J. F. Sims, the fol- lowing is submitted as the outline for the final report of the Sub-Committee on Consolidation of Rural Schools: 1. Purpose—To show the place and value of consolidation as a factor in rural education and offer recommendations as to how it may best be accom- plished. 2. Scope—(a) The growth of consolidation in this country during the periods 1902-1912 and 1912-1918 with some estimate of its value in these periods, in the promotion of rural education. This part of the report represents information received in 1912 and 1919 in response to questionnaires sent to each State in the United States. Sum- maries of these two studies have been presented to the council at previous meetings. (6) Methods of organizing for consolidation in the various sections of the country. This material, tabulated from returns received from ten States representing various sections of the country, was presented at the summer meeting of the National Council of Education in 1921. (c) Summary of the difficulties in the way of consolidation, and analysis of one of the major difficulties—transportation. J. C. Muerman, specialist in Rural Education, U. S. Bureau of Educa- tion, codperated in the preparation of the questionnaire on Transportation sent to the States for information and tabulated the returns. These tabula- tions, together with such materials as Mr. Muerman had already compiled in the U. S. Bureau of Education, are now embodied in a report prepared by him and just published by the U. S. Bureau of Education under the caption of Transportation of Pupils at Public Expense, Rural School Leaflet No. 2. This portion of the report—Transportation—has never been presented to the council, and I have asked Dr. Muerman to present it at this time. 3. Plan of Organization of the Report—The general organization of the report of the Sub-Committee on Consolidation will include: (a) Intro- duction; (4) body of the report, which will cover what has been enumer- ated under Scope (above); (c) notable achievements in the field of con- solidation. Requests for information on this point were sent out since April, 1922, to nine States, representing various sections of the country. ‘To date informa- tion from four has been received. ‘These four States recognize the follow- ing achievements in rural education as due to consolidation: Iowa—The most notable event in connection with consolidation in Iowa has been the building of many splendid buildings of fire-proof construction, 494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION with gymnasium, auditorium, and laboratories for manual ‘training, do- mestic science, and agriculture. Indiana—As far as the progress made in school consolidation in Indiana is concerned, the rapid growth of the high-school spirit is one of the out- standing features. Another feature in the growth of these high schools in Indiana is the “six-year” high school. Many communities have found it much to their advantage to organize the seventh and eighth grades and the senior high school together. “The idea has grown among patrons that the rural children are entitled to as good schools as are maintained for boys and girls in the cities. Supervised study has worked its way into many rural schools. These changes are results of consolidation and would not have occurred under the old scheme of school organization. Mississippi—It would be difficult to state the outstanding achievements within the last year or so because the progress made in consolidation is within itself an achievement of which to be proud. Along with this there are a great number of teachers’ homes. ‘The fact that plans and specifica- tions for schoolhouses may be furnished has been a wonderful help in im- proving the type of these buildings. Massachusetts—The abolition of the district system was, of course, abso- lutely essential before any widespread consolidation program could be car- ried out. This was accomplished through the stimulus of Horace Mann who recognized in the district system one of the greatest barriers to educa- tional progress. “The abolition of the district was not easily accomplished. It was first abolished in 1859, but the resentment on the part of many towns was so keen that it was speedily restored by the Legislature in the succeeding fall. In 1869 the district was again abolished, but virtually restored by the Act of 1870 which permitted any town to reéstablish school districts by a two thirds vote. “Twelve years later, 1882, the district control of the schools finally terminated. “Chis act broke down both political and eco- nomical barriers that stood in the way of school consolidation. Another very significant development in this field is the extent to which the one-teacher school has been eliminated. In 1838 when Horace Mann made his famous report on schoolhouses there were approximately 3000 school buildings in Massachusetts. Nearly all of these were of the one- room district type. In spite of the tremendous growth of population since that time we now have fewer school buildings in the State than in the days of Horace Mann, and the number of one-teacher schools has been reduced from nearly 3000 to 768 ; more than 97 per cent of our pupils are attending schools of two or more rooms. 4. Summary and recommendations on: (a) Methods of organizing to bring about consolidation; (4) Site, grounds, buildings, equipment; (c) Teachers; and (d) General. 5. Bibliography. NATIONAL CouNcIL oF EpucATION 495 co SS ee EE ee ee ee ee eee ee eee ee TRANSPORTATION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN AT PUBLIC EXPENSE J. C. MUERMAN, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. To secure definite and reliable data a questionnaire was sent to the forty-eight State departments of public instruction. Courteous replies were received from each, but unfortunately over one half of the States did not have the information complete. It was unecessary to consult State and county school reports, bulletins, etc., to present even an approxi- mate average of conditions affecting the question of transportation. ‘The committee appreciates the kindness of the State departments in send- ing all the information they possibly could and especially do they feel grati- fied for the prompt replies received from each department. Distance and time elements in transportation—The minimum distance children were transported one way varied from one half to two and one half miles. ‘The average was a little over one mile. The maximum dis- tance was from five to twenty, with an average of six miles. The maximum time varied from one hour and less to three hours. From the reports the committee would recommend one hour as the maximum time limit one way for any child transported at public expense and a maximum distance of five miles by horse transportation and ten or twelve miles by auto, over good roads. Relative costs of transportation according to types used—That auto transportation is fast displacing the horse-drawn is shown in the reports from every State. This means good roads. It was also noted that a majority of the reports stated that good roads brought about consolidation and transportation. Examples were given to prove that the large auto-bus was cheaper than the horse-drawn van or wagon. When the roads are in excellent condition and where from fifty to eighty pupils can be transported this is undoubtedly true, but in parts of the country where the roads are not well improved the horse-drawn type is not only more certain but a trifle cheaper. In Iowa where thirteen consolidated districts compared costs, the average cost per pupil per month was $4.90 for the horse-drawn, and $5.11 for the motor-driven types of transportation. The argument in favor of the motor-driven type is not entirely based on cost, but in time-saving. ‘The average distance travelled by the motor in a given time is fully twice that travelled by the horse. Children remain at home longer in the morning for work and are at home earlier in the evening. : In convenience and comfort the large auto-bus is usually superior to the horse-driven van. Relative cost of transportation varies from $3 to $6 a month per pupil. Twenty-three States—Alabama, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, and Vermont—trans- 496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION port 301,034 children at a cost of $9,896,830. Transportation in every State except eleven cost last school year $16,000,000. The cost in States where the number of children was given was $32 annually, or considering a school year to be nine months, $3.55 a month per child. A fair estimate for the amount spent for transportation in the United States would be $20,000,000 to transport five hundred thousand (500,000) children, many of them attending the twelve thousand (12,000) consolidated schools in the United States. Relative cost of transportation according to methods of operation—Three methods were considered: The conveyance operated by owner; owned by school with paid driver ; private contract. A majority reported private contract was the method employed, but the most satisfactory was when the school owned the conveyance and paid a driver by the month. Where teachers were drivers the reports were satisfactory. Driver's contract—Fifty different contracts were examined, all similar in nature as to demands and requirements of safeguards for the children. Laws in the various States are explicit and exacting and yet, during the past year, at least two horrible accidents have occurred. In both instances a little extra precaution could have prevented their occurrence. No matter how dense the fog may be any school boy with his ear on the steel rail for a second could tell if a train was approaching. ‘These young lives are too precious to be thrown away without exhausting every known means in our power to protect them. Someone must be made responsible for the enforcement of contracts or rules, and the principal or superintendent is the proper authority under powers granted him by the school board. The following general information was gathered from the replies: Drivers are selected with care, but so often it is difficult to secure a good driver for the amount a district can afford to pay. The most common type of transportation is the horse-drawn conveyance. It was impossible to even estimate the number of conveyances of the different types in use at the present time. Summary and conclusions—Care must be given any transportation. For auto-busses, Jordan Consolidated High School District, Utah, has a large garage built near the school building where the busses are cared for and repair work is done by the classes in auto-mechanics under the direction of a competent mechanician. ‘There are other schools doing the same. The average life of an auto-bus is from seven to ten years, with fully one hundred thousand (100,000) miles of travel. This means the deterio- ration is about 10 per cent annually. Proper care of the bus during the vacation time adds to the length of service as well as to the efficiency of the service. Transportation is an expensive item, and is a difficulty that must be overcome in forming any consolidation. Light, cheap conveyances are not recommended. ‘The best is the cheapest in the end. The advantages are so well stated by the State Superintendent of Wash- ington that the committee begs to close the report with a quotation which NATIONAL CounciL oF EDUCATION 497 gives their advantages as follows: (1) Pupils are not exposed to rain and weather on their way to school. They do not sit all day in school with damp garments. (2) They arrive at school fresh and ready for work, not tired out by a long tramp. (3) They do not have to leave home as early in the morning. (4) They are under proper chaperonage while going to and from school—the time when immoral influences would otherwise have an opportunity to make an impression. (5) The attendance of the district is improved. The teacher does not spend her time with a mere handful of pupils. (6) Pupils who could not otherwise come to school, are enabled to attend. (7) Regularly enrolled pupils are enabled to attend under weather conditions which would otherwise keep them at home. (8) Consolidation is made possible, TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS FRED D. CRAM, EXTENSION PROFESSOR, IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA In undertaking this testing campaign for the National Council of Educa- tion we were confronted by a number of possibilities. We could use the United States as our field and get codperation from as many sources as possible, we could limit the field to the State of Iowa, or we could make a still greater limitation, covering so small an area that the work could be personally conducted. We finally decided on the last course. The prin- cipal reason why we did not attempt to cover the whole field in the State was that there are very few people really capable of administering tests in rural schools, another being that the University of Iowa was covering the State with a special campaign with which we did not desire to interfere. Therefore, the campaign was carried out in Blackhawk County and here and there in other places over the State under the personal direction of the speaker. In this campaign we had the hearty codperation of the Iowa State Teachers College and of the County Superintendent of Blackhawk County, Mr. H. C. Moeller, who furnished the transportation, which relieved the council of the necessity of this expense. The State Teachers College fur- nished the material and the time of the examiner. The plan was to go from building to building giving one test, usually, at a visit. ‘These papers were scored by clerks at the college, after which graphs were made to show the conditions in the county. ‘Teachers were then met in study centers. The graphs were presented and recommenda- tions made either orally or by mimeographed or printed reports of outlines. The test was sometimes administered to the teachers themselves. After this meeting all those who had not been reached by the examiner secured the material and finished the program on that one particular test. The examiner and the county superintendent then took up a new test and went through the same operation, 498 NaTIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION You will be interested in knowing that there was no great deviation in results between the work of the specialists and of the rural teachers of the county. Whenever there was any striking difference, the papers were thrown out. The results, therefore, have only to do with the authentic reports turned in by teachers who made an attempt to give the tests scien- tifically. The teachers’ results usually show a slightly higher percentage than those of the specialists. This is partly due to the fact that they administered the tests some two to six weeks after the examiner adminis- tered them. It seems, however, that the average classroom teacher cannot be entrusted with the test which takes from 30 seconds up to 120 seconds of time. After that amount, however, teachers without any particular training can keep fairly accurate time on their students. In presenting our results in the published report we gave only the data which would be of interest to the average person interested in tests and measurements. We have limited our statistical tables to medians and averages, and in one or two cases we have gone into the matter of deviations. Anyone who is interested can take the tables and work out the advanced mathematical formulas for himself. I wish to call particular attention to the fact that we are making no great claims for this testing program and its results beyond the bare facts indicated. As a matter of fact, it is too soon to claim, as some people suppose, that the test and measurement program will solve all the intricate problems of the educational world. We therefore repeat that the report perhaps indicates nothing but certain tendencies. For instance, we discovered in a certain neighborhood just west of Cedar Falls, where a new consolidated school district has been formed, but not yet centralized in a building, that the Danish children of that neighborhood have, on the whole, a higher intelligence as revealed by the National Intelligence Tests than the children not Scandinavian. Now, while our results show this, it would be necessary to experiment in indi- vidual cases to discover whether or not Scandinavian children are usually of a higher type of mentality than the pupils other than Scandinavian, which we would call American. Another thing indicated by going through our material is that girls are brighter in their studies than boys. We have no right to say that this is general, though, until we have examined a large number of these cases. Another thing is that, within a certain limit, the younger a child is in a given grade the better work he will do. Of course, it will not do to say that a seven-year-old child could do better work in the fifth grade than a twelve-year-old, but it is safe to say that usually an eight-year-old child in the fifth grade will be among the stars in his class and will probably be doing very much better work than the thirteen or fourteen-year-old in the same group. On account of these tentative conclusions, therefore, I recommend to you, Mr. Chairman, that these studies be continued if our committee is permitted to live Rforiee year as a committee, and that some attempt be made to carry out investigations which will support or disprove some of these tentative conclusions. NATIONAL CounciL oF EpucATION 499 EVIDENCES OF PROGRESS IN EDUCATION AS INDICATED IN BETTER PROVISION FOR THE PHYSICAL WELFARE OF THE CHILD J. H. BEVERIDGE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OMAHA, NEBRASKA _ There are many distinct lines in which progress has been made in behalf of the child’s physical welfare. We shall briefly consider four: (1) Physical training; (2) Play grounds; (3) Health supervision; and (4) Better school buildings. Physical training—When one learns that almost two per cent of the total population of the United States dies yearly and is told that two fifths of those deaths could be postponed ; when one learns that three million per- sons are on the sick list constantly, that the economic loss to society through deaths which might be postponed is more than one billion dollars per year, the necessity for attention to physical education is unquestioned. We seem to have had some theories in regard to this matter but very little effective practice until within the last few years. Proper physical training will enable people to have better resistance to disease and to improve bodily health—a responsibility which rests upon the school for education in hygiene, physiology, and physical training. ‘True, advance- ment has been made in the last quarter of a century in preventive medicine, in the dissemination of health knowledge, and in the development of health habits, but we are just beginning to see the importance of having the community codperate in hygiene and sanitation. State legislatures are assuming their responsibility. The importance of physical training is emphasized through certain changes in American life which have tended to diminish the stimuli for physical training. Among these we find a tendency toward city life and the introduction of machinery on the farm that lessens the opportunity for physical activity. There are, also, more sedentary occupations than formerly. Let us state some evidences of progress that have been made. Previous to 1915 there were only three States that had had any active legislation relative to physical education. ‘These were North Dakota in 1899, Ohio in 1904, and Idaho in 1913. Since 1915 twenty-five States have enacted legislation on physical education. Stimulus was given to this department by an initial interest taken in military preparedness for high school boys by eight States. The seventeen States that have followed the lead of the eight, however, have enacted legislation that conforms better with our modern conception of physical education. People have differed somewhat in the meaning which they have attached to physical education. Some have considered it identical with the hygiene of childhood and youth. ‘Others would limit it to more or less systematic exercise of the neuro-muscular apparatus in order to promote and conserve the perfect functioning of the entire human mechanism . . . and to develop correct motor habits.” Still others strive to insure bodily health and the right kind and amount of motor activity as an avenue through which the whole individual may be influenced for good in mind and character. 500 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION President Thompson, of Ohio University, regards physical exercise of four different types: (1) hygienic; (2) corrective; (3) educational; (4) recreative. ‘These he defines as follows: The first he defines as designed to develop the larger muscles of the body, to induce a large intake of oxygen, and in general, to tone up the respiratory, circulatory, and digestive systems. The second, corrective exercise, is designed to “‘rectify defects such as round shoulders, a flat chest, curved spine, and the like.” Recreative exercises utilize the play instinct—the instinct through whose agency children are prepared for work. Recreative exercises utilize the play instinct, and this is the instinct through such exercises ease and skill in handling the body are acquired. If one analyzes the purpose and the scope of physical education through a study of the laws made in the twenty-five States he finds that the last seven or eight years have made a distinct contribution to the progress of physical education in this country. Insofar as legislative enactment is con- cerned an attempt is being made in most of these States to carry into effective practice the fundamental principles of physical education. In order to get some idea of the purpose of physical education let us quote some of the laws that have been passed and are now in operation. The California law gives the purpose as follows: To provide for the organization and supervision of courses in physical education in the elementary, secondary, and normal schools of the State. The aims and purposes of the courses of physical education established under the provisions of this act shall be as follows: (1) To develop organic vigor, provide neuro- muscular training, promote bodily and mental poise, correct postural defects, secure the more advanced forms of codrdination, strength, and endurance, and to promote such desirable moral and social qualities, as appreciation of the value of co- operation, self-subordination, and obedience to authority, and higher ideals, self- courage, and wholesome interest in truly recreational activities; (3) to promote a hygienic school and home life, secure scientific sanitation of school buildings, play- grounds, and athletic fields, and the equipment thereof. In addition to the purposes indicated in the California law Indiana sug- gests that the course in physical education may likewise include ‘“‘suitable instruction in personal and community health and safety; the privileges and responsibilities of citizenship as they are related to community and National welfare.” Missouri, among other things, adds “to promote the general welfare; and to secure proper control of competitive school athletics.” Many of the States have no law concerning physical education but have organizations in the several States looking to a better control of competitive school athletics. This is commendable, but no doubt some legal enactment would aid interested educators in carrying out the sentiment expressed in the above statement. New York and New Jersey have provided effective laws for physical training. An interesting statement from the New York law is that such training shall be given “in order to more thoroughly and comprehensively prepare boys of elementary and secondary schools for the duties and obli- gations of citizenship.” One purpose as indicated in the Rhode Island law is found in the definition; “Physical education may be defined as in- NATIONAL CouNCcIL oF EDUCATION 501 cluding healthful, sanitary environment; medical inspection; instruction in physiology and hygiene; and exercise in the form of such motor activities as marching, gymnastics, dancing, supervised play, and athletics.” The three most important things which appeal to the writer in the study of these laws are that they emphasize citizenship, social efficiency, and social adjustment. While in some of these States pupils are excused from physical training on account of physical disability, yet for the most part one may say that in most States all pupils of all grades are required to take physical training. Connecticut includes not only those in all public schools in the State but also those who attend normal school. Indiana requires all pupils in ele- mentary and high schools to take physical training. In Missouri the pupils in all public schools and State supported higher institutions are required to take physical training. In some States, California for example, com- pletion of the course is required for graduation. In Indiana credit is given for physical training toward promotion and graduation. In Washington it is required as a part of the prescribed curriculum. The time requirement differs in different States. Some require in ele- mentary schools twenty minutes per day. Two hours per week are required in many secondary schools. Connecticut requires not less than two and one half hours per week. One of the problems that is difficult to overcome in meeting the physical education requirement is the lack of well-trained teachers to carry on this work effectively and to view physical training from a broad standpoint— not only giving muscular activity but doing corrective work and instilling into the minds the importance of observation of the fundamental prigeipics of health and hygiene when outside the school. Evidence of progress that we must not overlook is the wider extension of physical education and athletics in the public schools. People are interested in this phase of school work and are realizing the necessity of providing more different types of games and more people to participate in the various types of athletic activity. Previously we thought that any secondary school would do well to train eleven men with a few substitutes for football. In many of the high schools we now have several times that number out for practice. If baseball is good for nine men it ought to be satisfactory for ninety-nine. If basketball is good for five boys, fifty-five in the ordinary high school should have the practice. In our own city a short time ago we had a Field Day for the elementary schools. Boys and girls both participated, the thought being that if the exercise is good for boys why not for girls. “There were over ten thousand people in attendance. ‘The children were enthusiastic and as well-behaved as you would find them in the ordinary schoolroom. How far we have progressed from the former type of mere physical exercise in way of calisthenics in the closed schoolroom everyone knows. I should not be surprised to see, in the next decade, more than half of the physical training for high-school pupils being carried forward in the open 502 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION v air. At the present time several schools have established open-air gym- nasiums as well as open-air schoolrooms. We see then evidences of progress in physical training through legislative enactment, in the attitude of community and State toward such training, in the broader idea toward its purpose in making it a part of the regular school program, in requiring better trained teachers for instruction in, and in super- vision of, physical training. Playgrounds and play—As a nation we are criticised for not giving enough attention to play and recreation. ‘This was brought forcibly to the mind of the speaker a few weeks ago at a luncheon when an Englishman said to him, ““You Americans are too busy with business. You work too much and play too little.’ He then proceeded to elaborate on the signifi- cance of the play element in adult life in England as compared with America. Play is still more important in the life of the child than of the adult. A high degree of motor skill cannot be acquired unless muscular coérdination is made during the period of growth. It is in the adolescent stage that one must practice to make a good ball player. The caddie makes the future golfer. f At the beginning of the war we were spending about ten cents per capita for play and recreation for our children. During the war we spent about fifty dollars per capita for the recreation of our soldiers. If this was important in war why not in peace? The people are coming to realize the importance of a peace-time program in healthful recreation and wholesome play. Since 1916 some twenty-eight States have passed laws putting organized play and athletics into the program of the public schools. Such bills are pending in other States. Most of these State laws resulted from a meeting of physical training directors of the National Education Association. They provide for physical examination of all children with suggestion for the removal of physical defects, corrective exercises, and some follow-up system by the school nurse. In lowa children may be sent to the State University Hospital for operations necessary to correct serious physical defects and be maintained there at the expense of the State. In the State of New York a mark on posture is recorded on the monthly report card. Other evidences of progress are found in the demand of more space for play on our school playgrounds. In many cities and States minimum standards are being established. The minimum earlier established is being increased. London has thirty square feet of playground for each child. Then came a standard of one hundred square feet in this country. Now the call is for two hundred square feet for each child. The Delaware Board of Education passed the following rule regarding the size of school sites: For a one-room school there shall be not less than two acres; for a two- room school not less than three acres; for a three and a four-room school not less than four acres.’’ In some secondary schools forty acres have been provided for play ground and athletic field. We are coming to see that play is as important as work, NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 503 “Tf the battle of Waterloo was won on the football fields of Eaton” may not Chateau Thierry and Argonne have been won on ‘the baseball fields of America? Health supervision—It is at least interesting to know that we are today discussing the physical welfare of the child in the city that was first in America to establish medical inspection. This was only twenty-eight years ago. Seventeen years after medical inspection was introduced into Boston, of 1046 school systems, examined by Leonard Ayres, 443 or 43 per cent had medical inspection of school children and 354 of these cities had school physicians. True, much of this work was not efficiently done, but it gave a stimulus to the study of health problems. These cities were experimental laboratories in the study of health problems that have enabled other cities to profit by their experience and develop efficient systems of medical in- spection, dental clinic service, and health supervision. In 1917 medical inspection laws were in force in nineteen States and the District of Columbia. In seventeen States the administration of the law is in the hands of boards of education. ‘This is significant, for originally medical inspection in American cities was in the hands of boards of health. This change of attitude is an evidence of progress. The board of health should control contagious disease, but the board of education should have charge of health supervision. Health supervision is educational in its outlook. Its purpose is to pre- vent as much as to cure—even more. Its object is to develop the child into a healthy, clean-living citizen, to make the school run smoother through elimination of absence and retardation caused by sickness. So far as the writer knows the first State-wide mandatory school medical inspection measure in this country was passed by the State of New York in 1913, less than ten years ago. This law does not apply to the three largest cities in the State, but there are under its provisions about 700,000 school children, 37,000 teachers, and 11,000 school buildings. Because no funds were available for enforcing the law it did not really become operative until February 1, 1915. What are some of the things accomplished under this law ? 1. Over 1500 physicians have been appointed as medical inspectors. 2. In four years 1,753,430 physical examinations were made and health certifi- cates were issued. : ; 3. Some 42,377 more corrections were made during 1919-20 than in the previous ear. . 4, A bulletin giving simple rules for the care and use of the eyes has been printed in suitable form to paste in the inside of the front cover of every pupil’s textbook. : 5. Of all children examined in cities and villages, 72 per cent had some defect. In rural schools 87 per cent were defective. More than 400,000 defects were corrected. 6. Number of children treated for— Defects to kaskitieaMesCal pce iene cue eer eae akon seedy ns 44,849 Dee AP CHaia OSes bso eee eb o ote me eee e nonin omens 54,461 Defectivemiearine mmm sete ci reer nisalst- oclele aster alelsio = fis = 7,180 Detectiviemmlasalsbreathing eee reer «saline ee seaceris oct 20,644 DMiscacedatonsilsemeiaeetiador wise eke erm gs oSestiae 43 38,779 Dental defects ..... ASE ORS Ci Rn ean or nec aoe Set Defective lungs .....-.--2----- +22 eee e eect e ete rtee tees 504 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Defective. hearti3i. 28 SPOR ae Ae eet tees eee eae aoe 4,984 Nutfition ft ..oelite pits... Potion a pitricls ROR) «cE aR cu ah abr ae 17,788 Posture: Conditions nays aticc cise ous ea ee eRe ee te 6,637 ‘These are some of the more important things that have been accomplished so far as the correction of physical defects is concerned. “The educational influence that has resulted from this type of work will have a marked in- fluence on the whole State. Under the provisions of the law a department of mental hygiene and diagnosis has been established. This department gives psychiatric and psychologic examinations and codéperates very closely with the Division of Educational Measurements. ‘This department has organized special classes for children who are backward and mentally deficient. Over 6000 children are being instructed in such special classes. The sociological effect of such work will be far-reaching. I have referred to the State of New York. May I tell you what our own city, Omaha, Nebraska, accomplished in way of physical examination and correction from September 10, 1921, to June 17, 1922. Total num- ber of physical examinations made, 19,046. Number found to have defects: Decayed™ teeth erica tise ae oe ne 7,015 Diseased’ tonsils: osc. -\t2 eek Sadsydees. Se Ae 3,133 Enlarged. :olands tcp Pacc tes ec hae Tapa een es eae tee aac eee 476 Nasal- obstructions... 4.202% \o. Seer Meee ee eee 549 Defective -héarmg Hs gh Sey hod ee a eet OE Fateh 150 Defectiverivisiony..[icuiae BAe Sots. CP See. EE LL pene 1,415 AMEMIAY . ceapigte te yt Peake aaa eee ee 82 Scoliosis sos ron vs wae oa se ors eee Ae he Bee Re ee 13 Malnutrition ast 8 ll Satie Te Ut SO OOO A BOIL Biba, 215 Choteag .otmidsaeld. gah. deteeinsapis eater: enti. ehe..Geetaemae 6 Outhonedicn cece cent aah eae ec ee ran tee eee eee 46 Discharging tear Sis asses tee oe ee a ee a2 eee 78 GOitreN SOG. BU 5 POM RR ROE - SU + IRI ee a £m 33 Othe fsyacise’. HME Rtv shin pie: EM DE” ata ty lied earl 175 12,820 Number of defects corrected Teeth Ss sseutscierg tae cm vere Dee ney Aen ay a ee 2,217 “TPonstls e207 2555 22a ere eee ROEDER OES 858 ClaGds DN Pees o2.s conte eae ee eno iet: BIA 124 Nasal ODstruction, .. ix ic. ibae ahi Seem Meares eee 242 Be ar Te eee ee ee Pane MI Rina 27 ‘Visto nie Be Beate det ic. Cee Rte. eal eer deal 5k Sa 452 AATVCTOT Go Aer Lisle trie Gis ehh on a a ee a, neee 0 SCOMOSIS oe ened ete het Te en te, Pe OR ST Shera 0 NOtrIt OR TIE fas eae a AE ee eek ne ee 19 Chorea?& SG) ARG i LG ae Ry, 0 Onibopedio GES! Bios <2 Ih Se, BoD. 18d. Oe algeats 9 Discharging ear. pcan. vacupiote dees ca eee oe en 7 Goitre PE eT Ee, Re Ae Gta 0 Others meee sents thas. Cates aac peat ferent ae 24 3,920 In general, it may be said that the first inception of so-called “medical inspection of schools” was brought about by frequent occurrences of epi- NATIONAL CounciL oF EDUCATION 505 demics of contagious diseases among school children, which caused great loss of life. Attention was called to this fact about the year of 1894 and large staffs of physicians were employed in a few large cities to inspect the school children. These physicians who began this early inspection for contagious diseases found that not only was the school a breeding place for contagious diseases, but also they were appalled with the imminent physical defects of school children who were considered well and expected to make a fair run in the school race. Much time and energy was given over to the examination of school children for the physical defects of childhood which tend to make them more susceptible to contagious diseases and which impede their mental and physical progress. While this work went along for a few years, it was not satisfactory because merely the examination of school children without a “follow-up” touch to the work seemed fruitless. ‘The second thought seemed to be a nurse who might get into the homes and talk to the parents regarding the correction of these physical defects. As time has passed, we have watched staffs of nurses steadily increase and the whole vision of public health work has taken a turn. People in educa- tion, as well as the health group, are fast beginning to realize that physical defects and contagious diseases are the results of wrong living and that the root of all health work lies in the fixation of health habits in the lives of our young Americans. Dr. Winslow tells us that 75 per cent of all children who enter school are inevitably candidates for contagious diseases and physical defects. Our school health workers thoroughly appreciate the statement that “Childhood is the golden age of opportunity for health work, and the public school, the greatest child agency in the world, is the most strategic field for health service.”’ With the foregoing thought in mind, the Omaha Public Schools have planned a course of study which will have as its aim the fixation of definite health habits and a knowledge of domestic and community hygiene. This will be taught from the Kindergarten through the elementary grades by the teachers and will be supervised, demonstrated, and vitalized by the staff of public-school nurses. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY A. DUNCAN YOCUM, CHAIRMAN, PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA Since it was in Boston that almost a century ago the first reluctant steps were taken for a separation between the education of the Church and the education of the State it is significant and even dramatic that it is at Bos- ton that the representatives of great historic creeds should meet together to discuss the contributions of religion to democracy, on the invitation of a Council which peculiarly represents public education in America. And it is not only dramatic but prophetic and epoch-making that the outcome planned for the discussion is to make the separation of church education and 506 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State education more complete by bringing about a more complete correla- tion between the religious instruction of church schools and such academic work in secular schools as can be given religious bearing in church schools, and between the training in morality and democracy given by secular schools, and such church school work as can be made contributory to it. It is almost a century since the time of Horace Mann. He took his stand for the elimination of religious instruction from schools which were just beginning to be truly public and common, in a period when immigra- ton and industrial development had begun to make the population of Bos- ton the democratic composite of nationalities and creeds which it is today. He was bitterly attacked by the ministry of the old New England sects, which up to that time had looked upon the study of the New England primer and the Scriptures as quite as much a matter of course for New England schools as were morning and evening prayers for New England homes. One fiery sermon called down upon him the lightning of heaven, because, with the same good intentions as Uzzah, he had put his hand upon the ark of the Lord “in a new cart.” . Protestantism soon reconciled itself to the change through the coming of the Sunday school, except for the occasional efforts of individuals or groups to have the Bible read in the public schools. Catholicism, with its historic insistence upon an education wholly religious and Catholic, so far as pos- sible provided its own parish schools—all the more readily perhaps from the justification that public schools were “godless,” than if they had remained Protestant; and has had at least some responsibility for the opposition to legislation which requires Bible reading in the public schools and the sup- port of legislation which forbade it. Judaism, except for an occasional group or individual protest against school exercises and celebrations which were too conspicuously Christian, has freely used the public schools for secular education and depends upon the home and synagogue schools for religious instruction. The increasing sense of responsibility on the part of Protestantism for religious education—At the present time the National situation as regards State and Church is more critical than it has been since the time of Horace Mann. Protestantism has at last become aroused, on the one hand, to the general abandonment of religious instruction in the home on the ground that it is being looked after in the Sunday school; and on the other, to the ineffi- ciency of Sunday-school instruction as the result of too little school time, too irregular attendance, insufficient financial support, and an untrained teaching force. As a result the complete reorganization of Protestant religious education is under way. The International Sunday School Asso- ciation and the Sunday School Council of Evangelical Denominations have been merged in the International Sunday School Council of Religious Edu- cation, with an education committee which is setting up new standards for every phase of religious education. A movement is rapidly gaining force for week-day church schools, which will meet for two or three hours two or three days a week and have a trained teaching force and a scientifically organized course of study. ‘The resulting demand in Many sections and NATIONAL CounciL oF EpucATION 507 po pe 2 ea localities that such religious instruction shall be given children during school hours at some appointed place outside of the school and with school credit for work which is proved to be of equal grade to that given in the public school itself comes at a time when the sharp opposition to the Towner- Sterling bill by the Knights of Columbus and other Catholic agencies and the equally enthusiastic support of it by a newly organized Protestantism threatens to increase existing religious prejudices to an extent which will operate against a unified furtherance of democracy by all creeds, a diversified teaching by all creeds of the religion basal for democracy, and the common teaching by all creeds of respect for what others reverence, if religion is to present a united front to a radicalism which is attacking both religion and democracy. The probable effect of Protestantism’s request for public-school time and credit for week-day religious instruction—This issue of whether religious in- struction shall be given outside of the school in school time and with school credit is a matter for local determination and is being differently decided and will continue to be so in different sections and localities. It might be avoided were it not for the fact that Protestantism and Catholicism appear to be compelled by force of circumstance to take different sides as to school credit for work done outside. The issue of alloting school time to outside work seems less sectarian. Protestantism cannot adequately give religious instruc- tion in extra school periods when children are fatigued. But if religious instruction adequate to Judaism and Protestantism can be given and is given while children continue to have their secular education carried on in public schools, Catholicism may have to face on the part of public senti- ment the question as to why its own secular instruction cannot be similarly given. It may well seem to the Hierarchy simpler and safer to oppose the giv- ing of public-school time and public-school credit for outside religious in- struction which is making “godlessness” an untenable charge against the public-school system than to justify to Catholics the continued burden of “double taxation” involved in the support of a separate system of parish schools upon the sole argument that all instruction for Catholic children should be given by teachers trained in the Catholic faith. This ground for opposition to the week-day school movement may be reduced to a matter of expediency, but the recognition of religious work done in week-day schools for public-school credit is more far-reaching. "The request for credit is based upon the assumption that the quality of religious instruction is on a level with that of other public-school work, and consequently implies public school measurement or supervision of religious instruction. Since the dan- ger of National supervision of parish schools may be the most serious ground for Catholic opposition to the Towner-Sterling bill, Catholicism would naturally oppose a giving of credit to Protestant church school instruction, which would put parish school children at a disadvantage on returning to public school, if similar credit and therefore similar supervision were not given to parish schools, The policy of the Committee on Democracy as concerning religious edu- cation—The Committee on the Teaching of Democracy has no present con- 508 NaTIONAL EpucAaTION ASSOCIATION cern with this issue, aside from welcoming the growing realization by Protestants, Catholics, and Jews alike that with the complete elimination of religious education from public schools in the name of religious freedom, the various churches collectively assume the responsibility of seeing that every individual in the State is adequately trained in some form of religion outside the public school. The Committee, however, wishes to raise the question whether with collective responsibility there may not be a need for coordinated action. In presenting this afternoon’s program it has the further hope that, whatever the method by which each creed lives up to this responsibility, non- interference of the State with church education will be accompanied by a lessened spirit of sectarianism in all matters affecting public policy; that a growing respect by believers in any creed for what all other creeds rever- ence shall prevent religion itself from increasing the growing contempt for all religion and democracy shown by various radical groups; that to the teaching of religion which in itself is fundamental for democracy the vari- ous churches and denominations shall add a conscious and effective emphasis of everything in their organization, creed, and activities which can be made to definitely teach democracy; and that they shall in return ask the public school to emphasize and themselves systematically plan to relate to their own religious instruction everything in the teaching of school branches and in school activities which, although not in itself religious, can be helpfully related to religious instruction. The historic contributions of the various creeds and denominations to democracy should be supplemented by cooperative effort to increase it— These policies can in part be furthered by a program such as the talks to be given this afternoon, which will naturally emphasize the historic contri- butions of the great religious creeds to democracy and touch upon their present contributions while studiously avoiding all matters at issue. The emphasis of fundamental democracies in church school instruction and the relating of religious instruction to academic facts and social activi- ties emphasized in public schools can be separately acted upon by different churches and indeed are already being so acted upon. They were approved by the Council itself at the Atlantic City meeting, and the Education Com- mittee of the new International Sunday School Council of Religious Edu- cation has included them in its declaration of policies. Action upon them can be taken by the Catholic and Jewish Church, either separately or in co6peration with Protestantism. But the other propositions require a formal coéperation to which this pro- gram is meant to be a first step. Lhe conflicting alignment of Protestantism and Catholicism on the Towner-Sterling bill a menace to the growth of democracy and a disaster to be averted—Is it too much to expect that a conference of religious leaders ofhcially representing Judaism, Catholicism, and Protestantism may not avert a conflicting sectarian alignment on the Towner-Sterling bill which is beginning to involve the National Education Association and the public school organization in general in sectarian controversy ? NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 509 For the first time in American history the Hierarchy of the Catholic Church in so far as it is represented by the Knights of Columbus and parish priests in all parts of the country has come out in declared opposition to a movement which the vast majority of public-school people, including the National Education Association itself, believe to be to the best interest of public education. For the first time Protestantism as an organized and solidified institution has come to the support of such a movement. The fight on this issue is only beginning. Before it becomes too fierce could there not be some official or semi-official effort at understanding and recon- ciliation, at least as to the question of school time and school credit for religious instruction and the safeguarding of religious instruction from all suspicion of State supervision. United opposition or support from a sect must have some common and definite reason which may be sufficiently met before sectarian conflict is permitted to multiply sectarian prejudice. Cooperation of sects helpful to the lessening of racial and group prejudice as well as sectarian spirit—All sects should codperate not only in a deter- mined effort to avoid new grounds for sectarian spirit and to develop re- spect for what others reverence or worship, but in furtherance of the activi- ties now deliberately carried on by certain sects or social groups to remove existing prejudices and the grounds for existing prejudices, which operate against them. ‘The campaign of the Jews through literature, music, the stage, and moving pictures to counteract the anti-Semitic attitude in so far as it is based upon misconceptions of the Jewish character, together with the self-study suggested by the Education Committee of the National Coun- cil of Jewish Women in considering the question of restrictions placed upon the attendance of Jewish girls in some of the best private schools, should receive serious and helpful consideration from Catholic and Protestant edu- cational agencies. “The well organized attempt of the Knights of Columbus to emphasize in the teaching of United States history the loyal service ren- dered by Catholics to America and the contributions made to democracy by Catholics and Catholicism should be furthered by Protestant and Jewish educational agencies. But still more important and more fundamental in the absence of rever- ence for what others reverence is the universal teaching of a common respect for what others reverence. If there is not sectarian codperation along all lines of effort such as these the result is likely to be stronger group consciousness of a sort which may not lessen group prejudices. At least group cooperation along such lines is the most direct road to the arousal of a group understanding and sympathy in the presence of which group preju- dices will disappear. How can Jews, Catholics, and Protestants expect respect for religion from radicals who have no religious belief whatever if they fail to show respect for the beliefs of one another? Cooperation between church schools and public schools already begun should be given conspicuous publicity—The Committee would also like to bring into National and local prominence each existing effort on the part of any creed or sect to codperate with the public-school system. In most localities Catholic and Jewish children are excused from school without loss 510 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of school standing for necessary religious activities and ceremonies. In certain localities pupils in attendance at Catholic schools do part of their academic work or manual or industrial training in public schools. The Americanization work which is carried on with a peculiar efficiency by the Catholic Church in many sections among foreign-born Catholics and the National system of welfare work so strongly organized by the Hierarchy should not take the form in the minds of Catholics or non-Catholics of oppo- sition to the Americanization work or welfare activities carried on by the public-school system, but while kept distinct in its organization, support, and control should be correlated with it. The visit of Dr. Knox, then Educational Secretary of the International Sunday School Association, to the Atlantic City meeting of Council to ask its codperation in determing the relationship of the week-day church school movement to the public-school system marked the first official step toward a cooperation and has been followed by the adoption by the International Sunday School Council of Religious Education and the approval by the quadrennial convention of the International Sunday School Association— now merged in that body—of a plan of codperation along the lines sug- gested by the resolution then adopted by the National Council. (See Sec- tion III of the Report of the Committee on Education of the International Sunday School Council of Religious Education, Kansas City, Missouri, January 21-27, 1922.) Representatives of the great creeds in the present program—It was for purposes such as this that it was planned to bring official representatives of the great historic creeds together in the present program, with the result “that assurances have been made which promise much. Rabbi Mann, of New Haven, Connecticut, has been designated by the Central Council of Jewish Rabbis to represent Judaism. Dr. Walter S. Athearn, of Boston University, Chairman of the new Education Committee of the Inter- national Sunday School Council of Religious Education, represents Protes- tantism. Father Burke, of the National Catholic Welfare Association, who kindly wrote President Seerley and myself offering to provide the Catholic representative, and was urged in return to himself perform the service, found at the last moment that he was unable to come and has not notified the Committee of any action on his part in response to its request to designate some Boston representative. (This gap in the program was later filled by Father Hickey, of the Parochial School System of Boston, who happened to be present at the Council session and, on the invitation of the chairman, although handicapped by the suddenness of the call, unofficially represented: Catholicism. ) The lessening of sectarianism through each sect and denomination study- ing additional ways of contributing to democracy—Whether or not tlie three great historic creeds officially get together in an effort to lessen sec- tarian prejudice, avoid sectarian conflict, and promote a common respect for what is reverenced by others the organized and official study of additional ways of contributing to democracy already promised by Protestantism, and which in all probability will be similarly acted upon by Judaism is in itself NATIONAL CouNcIL oF EDUCATION Slit the most fundamental means to removing every undemocratic element from sectarianism. ‘The Catholic Church not only through the Hierarchy itself but through the National Welfare Association and the Knights of Colum- bus is furthering democracy in a variety of ways. The immediate future will show whether it prefers to do this wholly in its own way or through such forms of coéperation as have been suggested. The most essential serv- ice which the Committee in any event aims to perform and, after ail, quite distinct from its effort to bring the great creeds into as common as possible a democratic program, is to present to the educational agencies of every sect and denomination its specification of democracy elements in the belief that each will do what it can to discover ways in which it can aid in our effort to bring about through every type of school and social organization the complete teaching of a complete democracy. THE RELATION OF JUDAISM TO DEMOCRACY RABBI LOUIS L. MANN, PH. D., NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT Catholic, Protestant, and Jew are united in their faith in democracy. The program of the afternoon is symbolic not only of the contributions that each of the historic faiths has made, and is making, but also and more especially of their codperative efforts without which democracy becomes an empty word, void of significance. For convenience I shall divide my message into three parts: first, the theory of Jewish life as a contribution to democracy; second, Jewish experience, endeavors, and achievements for democracy; and third, the Jewish vision. 1. Theory—The relation between religion and democracy might be traced back historically to the theocracy of the Hebrew Bible. ‘This theocracy taught that God is Ruler, that all men are His subjects, that leaders should rule for the welfare of all men and remember that they are responsible to God for their actions. Would it then be too much to say that a democracy without an implied theocracy cannot stand? What in the domain of politics is called democracy, in the realm of religion is called brotherhood. It is the practical, willing, thorough-going and unselfish devotion of a person for a common social cause. It is the desire and the determination to serve without distinction of race, creed, color, station, birth, and other arbitrary, artificial, and man-made lines of demarcation that all too frequently obliterate the God-made resemblances between man and man. Faith, co- operation, mutual helpfulness, unselfish service, the idea that each human being has infinite worth, if not because of his attainments and achievements, at least for his potentialities, these form the basis of both democracy and religion. To hold a mirror to men’s better selves and to give them a chance to visualize the unexpected and neglected goodness within them, to “convict people of unexpected virtues” as someone said of Browning, these ideas are common to religion and democracy. It is not enough to give toiling, struggling, suffering, burdened, oppressed, and persecuted men com- fort and resignation, but to give every man the fullest measure of physica- 512 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION comfort, spiritual aspiration, and intellectual endeavor of which he is capable. ‘The realization and the exercise not only of all his capacities but also of all his potentialities for service must find a place in democracy. The Biblical legend of a common ancestor, according to Jewish com- mentators, was indicative of our common humanity, with no aristocracy other than that of moral worth. According to another ancient legend in the Talmud, the different parts of the body of this common ancestor came from all the countries of the then-known world, to further emphasize that there is no “chosen people” save as it is self-chosen, as it chooses to dedicate itself to the service of humanity. ; The contribution of the Jew to democracy is manifest also in the fact that the Pilgrim fathers used the Old Testament as their Civil Constitu- tion ; the first Constitution of Connecticut followed the Scriptures, literally. Mr. Oscar Strauss, in his splendid volume “The Origin of Republican Form of Government” has traced the origins of our government to the Old Testament. Abraham Lincoln, in whom our conception of democracy found its most perfect embodiment, was guided, as few men are, by the Scriptures. The democratic sentiment runs through all Jewish literature. Ac- cording to a significant story in the Talmud, there were three men in a boat, none of whom could swim. When they were out in midstream one of them took an auger and began to bore a hole beneath his own seat. “What are you doing?” cried the other two, frantically. ‘“‘Attend to your own business,” said he; “I am boring a hole beneath my seat only, not beneath yours.” “But,” said they, “the water will come in and drown us as well as you. We are all in the same boat.” ‘This story, though illus- trating the negative aspect of democracy, yet affirms that there is no such thing as a self-affecting action, that we are our brother’s keeper whether we will or no, If we strive not for his winning, Sharers we in all his sinning. The Bible tells (Deut. 21) of an old custom that when a man was found slain in the field and no one knew who slew him, the elders of the city near by and the priests with elaborate ceremony had to gather around the man and say, “Our hands have not shed this blood.” The Jewish com- mentators asked: “Why should the best men in the city be forced to take such a vow rather than the worst, who are likely to have a hand in it?” And their answer was that the dest in every community are responsible for its shortcomings, making of democracy not a levelling-down process, but on the contrary, a levelling-up process. Noblesse oblige. Additional privilege means additional responsibility, While much must be omitted in a brief survey, yet one would do violence to the democratic outlook of the Jew were he not to mention respect for authority, reverent obedience of the law, and the belief that personal liberty—so frequently misunderstood—is possible only through the law. “If liberty through the law may be compared to a fire in the hearth, liberty without law is comparable to a fire on the floor.” NATIONAL CoUNCIL oF EpucaATION 513 Law is the expression of a people’s social conscience, and inasmuch as it is usually formulated by the wisest and best, it also creates a standard through which the majority, who naturally lack imagination and vision, learn to appreciate its value through enforced practice. While it has often been said that a person cannot “lift himself by his own boot-straps,” this is precisely what happens in an ethical and democratic sense when a com- munity formulates a higher standard of life through the law. Democracy insists upon equality before the law. The unity of God, which occupies the central position in Jewish thought, and which has as its corollary the unity of mankind, demands the single standard of morality. “One law shall there be for the stranger and the native-born” (Ex. 12:49). One, also, for man and woman, for individual and nation. Why should society permit man to degrade himself and yet welcome him into the best of homes? Judaism demands not that woman should sink to man’s level, but that man should rise and that there should be a levelling-up process to the standard which all civilized nations demand of their women. In like manner there should be but one standard for individual and nation. If “thou shalt not kill” and “thou shalt not steal’ are correct for individuals they must also hold for nations, and as such, form a mighty protest against war, especially war for territorial expansion and war for commercial aggrandizement, which violate both of these commandments. The single standard of morality not only helps democracy within a nation, but also paves the way for a democracy of nations and does away with the idea of “my country right or wrong.” It gives a new evaluation of patriotism, a patriotism which is love for one’s country, but expressed not so much in a willingness to die for it, but to live for it—to live not only for one’s country, but also and more especially for one’s countrymen, nay more, for humanity, by having one’s own country contribute that for which it is best fitted mentally, physically, morally, materially, geographically, and spiritually to the welfare of all men—a patriotism so blind that it cannot see beyond the artificial, arbitrary, man-made boundaries between country and country, for the God-made resemblances between man and man, is unworthy of the name. William G. Sumner, that truly patriotic American, said: “Not that I love my country less, but humanity more, do I now and here plead the cause of a higher, a truer patriotism. I cannot forget that we are men by a more sacred vow than we are citizens—that we are children of a common Father more than we are Americans.” 2. Experience, endeavors, and achievements—If experience is the best teacher, history is the best textbook. I firmly believe that the experience of the Jew forms a contribution, a Jewish contribution to democracy. There is a cruel and barbarous practice which consists of making nightingales blind in order that they might sing the more sweetly. For two thousand years the Jew has been the blinded nightingale, oppressed, persecuted, and abused beyond description, the victim of the most tyrannical, inhuman, and undemocratic treatment. As a result he has longed for democracy, he has dreamed dreams and seen visions of democracy. That experience has been a great contribution. The world remembers that one Jew was crucified ; 514 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION it forgets that a million others were crucified as well. As a thirsty wanderer in the desert lies down to sleep and dreams of a cool, refreshing water-brook, so the Jew, buffeted about in the desert of undemo- cratic treatment, has longed, dreamed, prayed, and striven for democracy with a fervor that only martyrs possess, and with an intensity that only suffering can create. ‘Time will not permit a catalogue of the thousands, literally speaking, thousands of disabilities placed against the Jews through- out the ages. They were denied citizenship, representation, and the right of holding office. They were prohibited from possessing real estate, from owning soil, and from tilling it. Money due them was declared uncollect- able. ‘They were required to wear special garbs. They were excluded from universities, schools, and places of amusement. ‘They were subjected to special taxes, prohibited from legally entering into matrimony, excluded from most of the professions. Macaulay once said that if all the red-haired people in the world had been treated in like manner, they, too, would now exhibit most of the peculiarities of the persecuted Jews. ‘That these peculiarities tend to disappear in America is due to the fact that democracy is an untold blessing. Sad to relate, the anti-Semitism of Europe that made such deplorable conditions possible has now taken root in America. The malicious cam- paign of Henry Ford is but a symptom. ‘The revival of the Ku Klux Klan, which is anti-Catholic, anti-Jew, and anti-Negro, which divides man against man, as democracy attempts to unite them, which fosters hatred, malice, and ill-will, is another symptom. Traitorous beyond description is the Ku Klux Klan’s use of the American flag to cover up and to cover over its anti-American and its anti-democratic policy, which denies, defies, and belies all that the flag stands for. ; Here, almost within the hearing of my voice, is Harvard University, ° for almost three centuries the great, noble, and liberal university of America, which recently attempted to bar Jews as Jews. That the press, public opinion, and the alumni of Harvard would not support this policy is as great a tribute to the soundness of American democracy as it is to the eternal shame of Harvard for attempting it. If limitation of numbers is necessary the qualifications whether mental, moral, physical, social, spiritual, or scholastic should be equally applicable to Protestant, Catholic, and Jew. Why are some Jews uncouth and undesirable? Because they are the product of Russian persecution, because the Czars of Russia persecuted and oppressed them in ways that beggar description, in addition to barring them from schools and universities. These people left Russia that their children might have the privileges of which they themselves were deprived. They were Americans at heart and democratic in the full sense of the word, before they came here. Woodrow Wilson, while President, said that some of our foreigners are more genuinely American than some of those who are here by the mere accident of birth. Harvard’s attempt to imitate the Czars of Russia would create for coming generations the same problem that the old Russia during the last fifty years created for this generation. Evidently Hegel was right, that “the only thing men learn from history is that men learn nothing from history.” NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 515 The chairman specifically requested an account of the practical efforts for democracy among Jews. The Central Conference of American Rabbis, through its Social Justice Commission, has insisted upon industrial democ- racy and has striven for: 1. A more equitable distribution of the profits of industry. 2. A minimum wage which will insure for all workers a fair standard of living. 3. The legal enactment of an eight-hour day as a maximum for all industrial workers. 4. A compulsory one day of rest in seven for all workers. i Regulation of industrial conditions to give all workers a safe and sanitary working environment, with particular reference to the special needs of women. 6. Abolition of child labor and raising the standard of age wherever the legal age limit is lower than is consistent with moral and physical health. 7. Adequate workmen’s compensation for industrial accidents and occupational diseases. 8. Legislative provision for universal workmen’s health insurance and careful study of social insurance methods for meeting the contingencies of unemployment ° and old age. 9. An adequate, permanent National system of public employment bureaus to make possible the proper distribution of the labor forces of America. 10. Recognition of the right of labor to organize and to bargain collectively. 11. The application of the principles of mediation, conciliation, and arbitration to industrial dispute. 12. Proper housing for working people, secured through Government regulation when necessary. 13. The preservation and integrity of the home by a system of mothers’ pensions. 14. Constructive care of dependents, defectives, and criminals, with the aim of restoring them to normal life, wherever possible. It has protested against the violation of law and defiance of constituted authority, against lynching, child labor, breaking down of industrial stand- ards, and many others. In codperation with other national organizations, it helped to make the Washington Conference on Disarmament a success by pledging each of its members to help create an atmosphere, a nation-sentiment that demanded that something tangible be done. Within the last few weeks it cooperated with the Federal Council of Churches and the National Catholic Welfare Council in demanding that the President of the United States take im- mediate steps toward ending the coal strike, hoping to prevent the untold hardships and misery which are almost sure to result during the coming winter. It is always willing and ready to codperate with any cause that makes for a nobler America or a better humanity. Owing to the fact that many so-called “Rabbis” have misused the government privilege for “sacra- mental wine,” it has asked the Government to rescind that privilege for Jews, though granting it to other faiths. It felt that there is nothing more “sacramental” than obedience to constituted authority. The Council of Jewish Women, with sections in practically every city of the country, does a tremendous amount of work along democratic lines. It has codperated at all times with other religious, social, and educational agencies—civic, State, National, and international. It has a definite pro- gram for Americanization, including night schools and courses of instruc- tion for citizenship, following up immigrants for from two to five years after they come to this country. In almost all of its work, whether among 516 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION the immigrant, the blind, or the deaf, its efforts are not confined to Jews alone. It aids immigrants when they come here and assists them as emi- grants before they leave their country at the point of embarkation. Its work of education at these points includes the fundamentals of American history, the significance of American holidays, its patriotic songs, and its pledge to the flag, making of these immigrants half citizens, as it were, before they arrive. After they come here, those who work on farms are encouraged to do the right kind of reading for citizenship. A circulating library is placed at their disposal, and community centers are opened for them where they might mingle with the native-born. The Hebrew Immigrant Aid and Sheltering Society of America aims to keep the families together, believing that the family is the basis and unit of democracy. It gives helpful information to emigrants at points of embarka- tion and attempts to distribute these immigrants when they arrive, so as to avoid transplanting people who come from the congested districts of the old world to similarly congested districts in the new, so that their dreams of the new land might not be shattered and their hopes blasted. The Independent Order of B’nai B’rith has been a great factor in Ameri- canizing and democratizing foreigners. Its work along educational lines makes for good citizenship and its disinterested service to help the less fortunate to help themselves have been noteworthy. The Y. W. H. A. and the Y. M. H. A. which recently combined with the Jewish Welfare Board have promoted the Jewish Center movement throughout the country. ‘These centers furnish both a place and facilities for educational and recreational activities, physical training, vocational guidance, open forums, a clearing-house for ideas and especially for the Americanization and socialization of foreigners. These centers have the opportunity of interpreting to their constituency the historic government and ideals of America. The National Farm School of America has successfully taken many im- migrants who might have been in the congested districts in our large cities and by a scientific education in agriculture has made of them happy Ameri- can farmers, producers, and workers. 3. The vision of the Jew—Every service at the Synagogue contains the prayer: May all created in Thine image recognize that they are brethren, so that they, one in spirit and one in fellowship, may be forever united before Thee. Then shall Thy Kingdom be established on earth. The Messianic vision of the Jew is that of a kingdom of God on earth. According to the Talmud, “It is incompatible with social misery.” It thrives on faith, brotherhood, mutual helpfulness, and unselfish service. It is not a mere passive attitude: “They also serve who only stand and wait,’ but one of protest against evil, poverty, and suffering, followed up by constructive endeavor, with the hope that democracy within a nation may lead toward the democracy of nations, a government of the world, by the world and for the world, realizing the beatific vision of the prophet who said: “Have we not all one Father; hath not one God created. us all 2” NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION Sa7, PROTESTANTISM AND DEMOCRACY WALTER SCOTT ATHEARN, DEAN OF BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SERVICE, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS Union of Protestantism and democracy—Protestantism and democracy were married in Geneva. Calvin performed the marriage ceremony. The Swiss Communes, the counterpart of the New England town meeting, were the earliest and purest manifestation of democracy in Europe. Geneva came to exemplify the liberal, commercial, cosmopolitan, democratic ideals of the Swiss Commune. Into this democratic center came Calvin as the pastor of the community. Calvin took to Geneva his ideals of a model Christian social community. Luther had been preaching the same ideals, but Luther’s dream of a Christian-community broke on the rock of special privileges of princes and cities. Rousseau was born in Geneva. He and his father were regular attendants upon both the political and religious meetings of this unique community. Morley and Carlisle agree that the political concepts of Rousseau’s Social Contract, which so profoundly influenced the French revolutionists, can be traced to the religious and political influence of Geneva. Any study of Rousseau must take into account the Calvinistic background of his work. Ever since their first meeting in Geneva, democ- racy and Protestantism have constantly reacted upon each other, each find- ing in the other a congenial avenue for the expression of its ideals. Significant tenets of Protestantism—There are certain significant tenets of Protestantism which have had a profound influence upon the political ideals of Protestant adherents. Chief among these tenets is the doctrine of the right of private judgment in all religious matters. In the early days at Wittenberg, Luther wrote, ‘““What there is contrary to reason is certainly much more contrary to God. For how should that not be against divine truth which is against reason and human truth.” Again he paid this glow- ing tribute to reason: “It is admitted that reason is the chief of all things, and among all that belongs to this life the best, yea, a something divine. She is the mistress and queen of all arts, of all wisdom, power, virtue, and honor which men possess in this life; that which distinguishes them from other creatures, a sun and as it were a god, which is set for the ruling of such things in this life.” And at that dramatic crisis in his life, when he refused to recant unless refuted by Scriptures or clear proofs of reason, he placed the Bible and reason on an equal footing as being worth the sacrifice of all life. At this time Luther said: “It belongs to each and every Chris- tian to know and judge of doctrine, and belongs in such wise that he is anathema who shall have diminished this right by a single hair.” In the same spirit is this call to liberty of conscience. ‘Beloved, we are not bap- tized into the name of Kings, Princes, or Mobs, but into the name of Christ and God only; we are not called after Kings, Princes, or Mobs— we are called Christians. No one can or ought to command the soul except he who can show it the way to heaven. This no man can do but 518 NationaL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION God only. For belief is a free work; therefore no man can be compelled. It is a true proverb, Thoughts are toll free.” Both Luther and Calvin used the appeal to reason against authority; both urged the establishment of free schools as means of training individual judgments that men might find individual salvation through a personal interpretation of the Scriptures. “The Reformation was not only an effec- tual assertion of human liberty but also a great triumph of the scientific spirit. A movement which places so great emphasis on private judgment, in- dividual liberty of thought, would of necessity profoundly affect the political ideals of its followers. ‘The right of private judgment in religion carried over easily into a belief in the right of private judgment in politics. We are not surprised, therefore, to hear Calvinism say: “If the queen will not agree with you in the Lord, you are not bound to agree with her in the Devil.” It thus came about that Protestantism aided in liberalizing poli- tics and subjecting tyrants to laws made by the people. The interaction of democracy and religion—The close relationship of Protestantism and the communistic government at Geneva reacted on the organization of the church itself. One is not surprised to hear the ad- monition at the Council of Chalcedon: “Let the organization of the church be modeled along civil and secular lines,” or to note how the organizations of Protestant Communions have followed the lines of the American Gov- ernment. ‘The union of the Geneva republic with the congregational church-form has embodied certain democratic concepts and practices. Among them are: (a) The service of both church and state is to promote the welfare of both the individual and society. (5) The right of the church to appeal to the people through the sermon in influencing elections and the conduct of government. (c) The exaltation of the esteem and self-respect of the people by the church. (d) The granting to the con- gregation of the right to choose its pastor and to oppose or approve the policies of the pastor when appointed. From the participation of the individual in forming policies of a church there is an easy step to the participation of the citizen in the determination of the form and conduct of civil government and vice versa. In this con- nection a summary of the writings of Beza, Calvin’s disciple, is illuminating: (a) The will of God is the only foundation of authority. (4) God’s government is founded on pure justice. (Here he identified the will of God with the law of nature, and taught that under this law of nature all men are equal.) (c) The people are not created for the sake of the magistrate, but the magistrate is created for the people. (An early statement of the doctrine of governments of the people, by the people, and for the people. ) (d) Just resistance by force is not incompatible with Christianity. (e) Everyone is in duty bound to oppose usurpers of power. (f) The Estates or those chosen to put the bridle on the sovereigns can and should reprimand them when they become tyrants. (Here is an at- tempt to make government the dutiful and intelligent servant of the people. ) NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 519 (g) The public good and the good of the nation is superior to the sover- eign or any individual. (h) The unjust usurper may become a legitimate magistrate if the people afterwards elect him. The activity of Protestants in shaping the affairs of state as active citizens is reflected in the prayer which recognizes the achievement of religious freedom: ‘““We thank Thee, Oh Lord, for the privilege and the right to worship Thee according to the dictates of our own conscience, none daring to molest us or make us afraid.” Persistent problems of Protestantism—There are, of course, many per- sistent problems of Protestantism. ‘The abuse of great religious tenets may lead to autocratic as well as naturalistic and atheistic ends. There is the periodic attempt to identify religion and democracy., A definition of religion as merely the recognition of and pursuit of social values, without a recognition of the relation of the individual to an ob- jective, personal God, tends to develop a religion of humanity which would identify democracy with religion. We are just now in the midst of a revival of this doctrine. A second danger which persists in Protestant communions is found in the tendency of the Protestant church to lose religious consciousness in the midst of the social, commercial, and political expression of the common religious ideals. These are problems of Protestantism which concern democracy, but which cannot be discussed under the limitations of this paper. Essentials of democracy—Professor A. Duncan Yocum has listed the fol- lowing as the ten most suggestive essentials of democracy: 1. Democratic self-assertiveness in rights, duties, and opportunities. 2. Equal rights and opportunities as distinguished from equal abilities and achievements. 3. A sense of personal responsibility for the rights, opportunities, and duties of both self and others. 4, Equivalent compensating service. (The idea of “something for nothing” is undemocratic. ) 5. Equality through highest effort and the chance to exercise it. 6. Majority rule for the common welfare. 7. The surrender of individual rights conflicting with the common wel- fare, and the safeguarding of individual rights which do not conflict with the common welfare. 8. A stable social equality must result from a leveling up and not from a leveling down. 9. Self-effort is essential to many elements in equality. 10. The democratic control of social conduct requires the accustoming of every individual to the compulsion in himself and others, both through public sentiment and law, of every essential democracy which is not self- acquired. The historic doctrines of Protestantism on individual rights, personal duties and responsibilities, the relation of the individual to society, and the 520 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION like, contain the essential democracies enumerated above. In other words, the development of the ideals which characterize the chief elements of Protestant belief and practice would tend to further the essentials of democracy. Separation of church and state—Protestant churches believe in the sepa- ration of church and state in the interests of political freedom and religious liberty. Their formula is “a free church within a free state.” Protes- tantism recognizes its obligations and responsibility to the state as well as to the church. Patriotism, for Protestantism, comes to have a religious sanction. Democracy and education—The perpetuity of democratic governments depends upon the intelligence and moral integrity of ‘the people. Democ- racy presupposes the capacity of every citizen for self-control in the inter- ests of the common welfare. Democracy cannot survive unless it can de- velop in the masses who constitute its electorate a high level of intelligence and a general desire to foster the common welfare. Social solidarity which is essential to democracy demands that certain common elements enter into the training of all citizens. People who are to live together with mutual understanding must speak a common language, possess certain common habits, attitudes, ideals and have at their command a body of common knowledge. When there can enter into the training of all the people of all the nations of the earth a common body of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and ideals there will be possible the social solidarity of the human race and the brotherhood of man. Democracy thrives on intelligence; Protestantism likewise thrives on in- telligence and seeks to foster the means of the wide dissemination of knowl- edge and the development of the powers of the human mind. In so far as Protestantism has fostered the education of the masses it has fostered the agency which enables democracy to endure. Protestantism and the public schools—The free schools are the chief in- strument by which a democracy develops in each individual the powers of self-direction. Universal education is essential to democratic government. To survive, the democratic state must establish schools in which all its citizens may learn the common elements essential to democratic citizenship. The democratic state owes its free public schools to the Protestant reformation. Protestant churches of the present time are ardent supporters of the public schools. They depend upon them for the literacy of their own children. Because they believe in the free state they pay taxes to support the free schools; they send their children to the free schools to be indoctri- nated in the common disciplines essential to participation in the life of the free state. But the Protestant churches also believe in the free church. They there- fore believe that religion should not be taught in the public schools. To introduce formal religious instruction into the public schools would give some parents a just right to withdraw their children from the public schools and thus deprive them of the training for democracy which the State de- mands. Instead of withdrawing their children from the public schools NATIONAL CouNCcIL oF EDUCATION ~ 521 =. ei eneiaeiaiaaitalimind and thus endangering the perpetuity of the state Protestantism withdraws formal religious training from the public schools and assumes the responsi- bility of the religious education of its children in religious schools operated in cooperation with the public schools but solely supported by the church. Protestantism will continue to support the free schools of the democratic state. The International Sunday School Council of Religious Education—The Sunday school boards of twenty-six Protestant denominations and sixty- seven State and provincial interdenominational Sunday school associations have recently merged their efforts into a North American Protestant Chris- tian education association to be known as the International Sunday School Council of Religious Education. In outlining a constructive program for the Protestant churches of North America which would include both Sun- day schools and week-day religious schools, this new organization adopted the following resolutions: “The International Sunday School Council of Religious Education: “(a) Reaffirms its faith in the public schools and urges upon citizens of all creeds the necessity of extending and developing these schools in the interest of democracy and free institutions ; “(b) Reaffirms its faith in religious education as an indispensable means of preserving both the virtues of the citizens of the state and the spiritual ideals of the church; “(c) Urges the churches to preserve inviolate the principle of the sepa- ration of church and state by the strict observance of all the laws and tra- ditions that have been created to guard the freedom of church and state; and “(d) Urges upon public school authorities the recognition of their obli- gations: (1) To rearrange public-school schedules and build public-school programs in sympathetic codperation with religious schools of all faiths; (2) to grant, under approval safeguards, suitable academic credit to stu- dents carrying approved courses under church auspices; and (3) to provide optional courses in ethical and social training for students not enrolled in week-day schools of religion.” Protestantism’s future contribution to democracy—In assuming full re- sponsibility for the religious education of their own children and depending on the free schools for secular education Protestant churches take upon themselves the task of maintaining the unity of the educative process. They will seek such a close correlation of the work of the religious and secular schools as will enable the church schools to give a religious interpretation to the curriculum of the public schools without, in any way, interfering with the principle of the complete separation of church and state. This dual system.of schools will give to all children the proper balance of those disciplines which lead to conformity, obedience, docility, on the one hand, and to invention, discovery, and initiative on the other hand. It will give the common elements essential to the homogeneity of the citizenship of the state, and it will provide a universal spiritual undergirding of the vir- tues of all citizens and preserve the great ideals of the church. Protestant- ism will continue to foster and to spiritualize the ideals of democracy. 522 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PRESENT CONTRIBUTIONS OF CATHOLICISM TO DEMOCRACY REVEREND AUGUSTINE F. HICKEY, DIOCESAN SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS I am frank to say that I appear before this group with much reluctance. After hearing the carefully prepared papers on the contributions of Judaism and Protestantism to democracy I realize that it is almost unfair for me to attempt to set forth extemporaneously and without preparation the tre- mendous service of the Catholic church down through the ages and in the present day to the cause of democracy. It is a matter of regret that the distinguished Catholic clergyman invited to discuss this question from the Catholic viewpoint has been unable to appear. I hope you will bear with me while I attempt to pay tribute to the influence of the Catholic church in promoting the interests of all people in all time. My attempt will fall far short of the fulfillment of this task. The subject is worthy of careful and finished presentation, which present circumstances entirely forbid. I would call your attention first of all to the fundamental principle of Catholic living. ‘The child in the home is taught the divine truth that every man is made in the image and likeness of God. ‘This fact is the basis of all human dignity. A realization of this truth must impress every in- dividual with a profound respect for the rights of his fellow man. Democ- racy connotes. equalization of rights and realization that individual rights must receive constant respect. This principle of the dignity of the in- dividual is fundamentally a Catholic principle. Upon this we base all our philosophy of life and on this principle we guide and direct all our relation- ships with our fellow men. Let me say, furthermore, that in every democracy each citizen must bring to his citizenship certain definite well-fixed qualities of mind and heart. If _ I dare to enumerate I shall consider briefly at least five. ‘The citizen must have faith in his country, must hope in his country, must love his country, must be prepared to make sacrifice for the common good, and he must be ready to obey the laws under which his relations with his fellow men are regulated. Faith, hope, and love for country, self-denial and obedience— these are the things which the individual must bring if any democracy is to endure. The children of the Catholic church down through the cen- turies have maintained their enduring faith, hope, and love of God. On this definite basis rests their faith, hope, and love of native land. The spirit of self-sacrifice and the spirit of obedience to law are born of their love of God and their respect for His law. Again, let me insist that the qualities for citizenship in a. democracy arise naturally out of fundamental virtues ofthe Catholic life. The Catholic makes the perfect citizen in a democracy because of the virtues which Catholic living develop in his mind and will. Concrete evidence of the working out of Catholic principle in the influ- ence of the Catholic church in the rights of all peoples is clearly written NaTIonAL Councit or EpucATION 523 in the pages of history. Who was it who brought to the slaves of pagan times a realization of their personal dignity and their right to freedom and liberty? Have we not in our Catholic history the fact of the conse- cration of noble hearted men of Europe to the redemption of the slaves taken by the Turks. These holy men of the order of the ‘Trinitarians gladly offered themselves as hostages that freedom might be restored to their brothers suffering under a slavery imposed by their Turkish conquerors. What organization brought the message of personal dignity and personal rights to the barbarians of Northern Europe? It was the Catholic church which preached this truth and which lifted these nations to the high plane of Christian civilization and to an appreciation of human dignity and human worth. It was the Catholic church which lifted woman from the slave of pagan times and placed her upon that pedestal of honor and dignity upon which she accepts the respect of Christian society. If you know the storf of the struggles for the development of our own American democracy you see Catholics prominent at every turn of progress and development. From Charles Carroll, of Carrollton, down to our present day the names of American citizens of Catholic faith are conspicuous for their loyalty and devotion in every great project towards the realization of the ideals of American democracy. In the great World War fought within our own memory to make the world safe for democracy, the Amer- ican Army and the American Navy enrolled citizens of Catholic faith in numbers far above what might be expected in the proportion of the citizen of Catholic faith with the entire citizenship of the United States. It can be said without exaggeration that practically forty per cent of the soldiers and sailors who fought under the flag of the United States in the great World War were American citizens who understand life’s responsibilities and receive all life’s inspiration through their membership in the Catholic church. We Catholics thrill at the thought of democracy. ‘The Catholic church has always insisted upon the realization of the rights of every man. ‘The contribution of the Catholic church to the furtherance of democratic ideals stands clear in her principles and in the facts of human history. I would ask your attention to a most unusual and unique contribution to American democracy which the Catholic church is making here in the United States at the present time. I refer to the work of the parochial school. American citizens of Catholic faith maintain schools where two millions of children receive the highest kind of preparation for citizenship: In our great Republic. ‘These schools exist because the Catholic citizens of this country believe that religion is an essential element in education. Religion is the child’s most precious inheritance. Without religion we can solve no human problems whether they are problems of democracy or of any form of social relationship. It is absurd for me or for others to stand upon this platform and to attempt to suggest satisfactory remedies for world conditions. ‘These remedies can be found only in the acceptance of the truths which God spoke through His Son. ‘These revealed truths are the facts and principles by which men are enlightened to know the way 524 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to walk courageously in the face of the besetting difficulties and trials of life. How foolish to attempt to prepare young children for citizenship and to deny to them their great religious inheritance—the revealed and spoken word of God Himself. It is impossible to bring to the child a proper realization of any of his inheritances, literary or scientific, unless he is taught that in God, Who is truth, the source of all these wonders is found. What is history except the revelation of the providence of God working out the destiny of men and nations. What is geography but a study of the generosity of God in furnishing to His creatures an abundance of the things we need in human life. There is no complete comprehension possible of those inheritances which are the groundwork of education unless religion has its place in the curriculum. We all realize that there must be more religion brought into the lives of American children. Doctor Athearn is right when he says that the Sunday school is not sufficient. Why do you not, then, acknowledge the efficiency of the Catholic method which brings into the classroom the definite influence of religion in the educational process? ‘The Catholic classroom with its religious teacher, its religious symbols, its religious spirit develops true religious character. ‘The study of religion has a place in our curriculum, but we look for the results not in the brief minutes given to this first and fundamental subject of the curriculum but in the spirit of the school which is entirely religious. Citizens in a democracy must have proper respect for law. No educa- tion is complete without emphasis on morality. There can be no morality without religion, for there can be no effective law without a sanction. Religion is the only enduring sanction of the moral law, and until religion has its proper place in the education of young children we can never look for the high quality of Christian character which is essential to the life and permanence of our American democracy. The parochial school in the United States safeguards the highest inter- ests of American democracy, for it places before the child a vision of the dignity and responsibility of citizenship in the light of his faith and his responsibility to God. Of no individual can it be said that he is educated unless he has been led to an appreciation of his fundamental relationship to his Creator. The Sunday school by itself cannot accomplish this result. Religion as part of the work of everyday in the classroom is the only satisfactory means for developing character. The fate of a democracy hangs upon the personal character of each individual citizen. In develop- - ing Christian character to an appreciation of religion and to a sense of moral responsibility the parochial school is making an essential contribution to the welfare of this country. We have our parochial schools because we believe that there is no such thing as education without religion. We have these parochial schools, because we believe that the interests of God are the first interests in the educational process. We have these parochial schools, because as Americans we accept and put into practice the great warning of the father of this NATIONAL CoUNCIL oF EDUCATION 525 country that religion and morality are the indispensable supports of our National Government and our National life. Our schools are American through and through. Our pupils love their native land and glory in the privileges of citizenship in this democracy. The pupils in these schools share all the common knowledge, common ideals, and common ambitions that enter into the background of real American citizenship. The glory of the Catholic method lies in this that this common knowledge and these common ideals are vitalized by religious truth and these common ambitions are motivated by a sense of religious responsibility. Let me say as I close this extemporaneous, and therefore unworthy, presentation of the contribution of the Catholic church to democracy that I urge you most sincerely and earnestly to see the Catholic church on her altars, in her pulpits, and in her schools as the greatest bulwark of Ameri- can democracy. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL ON CHANGES NEEDED IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COURSE KATHERINE D. BLAKE, Chairman, Principal, Public School No. 6...New York City GEORGIA ALEXANDER, District Superintendent.................. Indianapolis, Ind. Assy Louise Day, Professor of Education, State Normal School....Lowell, Mass. Lipa BELLE Earwart, Professor of Education, University of Nebraska........ Ric eNN eee ERS EET IEE ATs St ole stehode & ntehdle, ASSEN UST e Mls PROD cs 0 NEG Lincoln, Nebr. JosepH Marr Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools.............. New Orleans, La. FLORENCE HOovsrook, Principal, Forestville School................... Chicago, IIl. Cuares H. Jupp, Director, School of Education, University of Chicago...... SQ AGHOOD One ICO DDD BAIS ECO AED eae Peer retreat emET | ORSan orth ee Chicago, IIl. WeeA eEWwis, President, State Normal School... ..5)..56+.+0% 026 Hays, Kansas Homer H. SeEervey, (Ex-Officio), President, Iowa State Teachers’ College.... Pate ore stels Volek a ole! ohetes 07 Meleielelsleloiieialsets cisisiteelecieeis setavicetlear COGare hallsmeloywa PACQUESHRED WAY 2 GEOSTADDEL, ce errctie cee tanec’ cues es bee ¢ Mount Vernon, N. Y. ELIZABETH M. SHERMAN, Principal, Jefferson School.............. Oakland, Calif. H. L. Smiru, Dean of School of Education, University of Indiana.Bloomington, Ind. RicuHarp O. Stoops, Superintendent of Schools................200ec00- Joliet, Ill. James H. VAN SICKLE, Superintendent of Schools.............. Springfield, Mass. Kate Van WAGENEN, Principal, Public School 53................ New York City Rosert H. WRiGHT, President, East Carolina Teachers’ College. .Greenville, N. C. In the last decade of the last century the National Education Associa- tion published the Report of the Committee of Ten and the Report of the Committee of Fifteen, and these two reports set the standards for the course of study in the elementary and in the high schools of America. Courses of study in most places have not materially wandered from the standards then set. Yet a generation has come to maturity since then; the world has learned to use the trolley, the automobile, wireless telegraphy, the airplane, the phonograph, moving pictures, the submarine, and poison gas; the World War has destroyed the old map of Europe and changed living conditions all over the world. ‘The child of today faces a new world, and should not be tied to the course of study of the world of 1895. The present elementary-school curriculum is determined largely in its content by the simpler conditions of life which prevailed two generations 526 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ago. At that time the average child went to school only a few weeks in the year and never expected to make fluent or frequent use of the arts which he acquired in school. He lived during the larger part of the year in a simple rural environment where the conditions of life were open to the observation of everyone. “The Commissioner of Education has given us a concrete picture of those early days by estimating that in 1800, the average schooling of an American citizen was eighty days; in 1840, two hundred and eight; in 1870, five hundred and eighty-two; in 1890, seven hundred and seventy; and in 1916, about twelve hundred. During the last thirty or forty years conditions have rapidly changed in the social life of the States, as well as in the amount of schooling received by: the average citizen. “There has been some effort to enlarge the school program to meet these new conditions. “There have been added courses in geography, nature study, history, and the constructive arts. The new courses thus added have, however, by no means kept pace with the needs of the times. We are beginning to be keenly aware of the necessity of a radical re-organization of school work so as to give pupils adequate prepara- tion to take their places in the modern world. No more striking example of the need of the enlargement of the elementary curriculum can be found than that which is brought. out by the persistent demand of the times that we teach pupils about the com- munity in which they live. The simple rural community of former times has disappeared. Even in the rural districts there are appliances of civili- zation, the telephone, the automobile, and the mail, which complicate life beyond the possibilities of direct observation. “The modern child never sees the great majority of the people on whom he is dependent for the ordinary commodities used in his life. If he is to know anything about his personal relationships he must be taught to look beyond his observable environment. The urgent need of expansion of the elementary curriculum becomes so apparent in the light of such considerations that it hardly seems neces- sary to argue further along these lines. It is, however, true that within the schools and in the community there are powerful conservative forces which make expansion slow. The parent wants his child taught as he was taught. ‘Teachers and school officers are reluctant to abandon practices which long usage has made familiar. It is well, therefore, that organized effort be brought to bear on the problem with a view to bringing the schools a richer program, better suited to modern conditions. ENGLISH In most courses of study the literature read and studied in school is “classic.” The real difficulty before the school is, that we are training children who face not yesterday, but tomorrow. Some of the best modern writing should be presented to the youth of America. In any event, the literature of the schools should lead away from the superstitions and folk- lore follies of the days when our ancestors painted themselves with woad, NATIONAL CoUNCIL oF EDUCATION 523 and so feared strangers that anyone painted differently was killed as soon as seen. 5 No fairy story should be told to children unless it has a real ethical value. The old-fashioned allegory trains imagination quite as well as does the fairy story, and has a moral value that lasts through life. So also have the well-known myths which once were the religious beliefs of a people, and they have an historical value as well. Anyone with average intelligence and even a low order of imagination can tell fairy stories by the hour. Knowledge of life, reality, or verisimilitude are not required. That is why fairy story telling is so popular. But to invest with life and interest real people, who have moved the world, requires study and a high order of imagination as well as a certain dramatic ability. Yet such are the only stories worth telling to our children. Such are the tales that will kindle their imagination and lead them to higher levels, and will fit them to take up the burden of life, knowing that each must give his share of work and self-sacrifice in order that all may be happier. Most of the Mother Goose rhymes were originally lampoons, political or personal; for instance, London Bridge was a lampoon of the time of Charles II. When their history is taught, those which have an historic value may be taught to advantage; the others might better be omitted, and simple songs with equal rhythmic value, written by our great authors, be substituted for them. It is absurd to teach to children six or seven years old the foolish rhymes that we older people learned in the nursery at the age of two or three. The task before us in all English work is to try to make it vivid to the pupil. No child should ever be asked to write a composition on a subject which is not clear and distinct to him as a personal experience. Vague subjects and glittering generalities destroy a child’s interest in the composi- tion lesson. It is better for him to write bad English with a punch to it, than to write correct English that is dull. Technical grammar should be omitted from the first six years in school. The grammar studied in the seventh and eighth years should be simple in character. HISTORY America thus far has been the greatest experiment in democracy that the world has seen. ‘The children of today face a new world and must learn history in the light of present-day developments. While world conditions of today must not be neglected, the best training for the child is a study of the laws and government of his own community, the things which he can readily understand. . History, as taught in the past, has focussed the pupils’ attention upon military greatness. Democracy demands that the pupils of today shall study the progress of nations and races rather than the story of kings and generals. ‘To this end periods of history should be chosen and the life of the people during these periods made real by means of research and project teaching, culminating in pageants. The life of the mass of 528 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the people in each period should be studied and the causes for their ad- vancement or retardation discussed and the far-reaching effect of new dis- coveries, new inventions, and new ideas should be shown. Each period studied should be vividly contrasted with the every-day conditions of the present time. ‘This will render interesting research into our own life and community conditions, and these should be carefully studied, defects noted, and the pupils taught that it is their duty to make the world better, and to bring nearer the brotherhood of men and the peace of the world. Teachers should be leaders in their community, not followers. Sir Auckland Geddes, British Ambassador to the United States, in his address last November, before the Annual Convention of the Minnesota Education Association, stated that improved education would make future wars im- possible and that the schoolroom is the hope of peace. He said “An am- bassador’s duty is to promote the cause of peace.”’ How infinitely more it is the duty of the teacher! Continuing, “I have participated in two wars, and I have no desire to see another, nor for my children to see one. . . . You and your companions in the teaching profession have an almost absolute control over the mental bias of the citizens of the future. That knowledge emboldens me to say that if you are under- standingly faithful to your trust there will be new hope for mankind and for the peace of the world.” ARITHMETIC At the conference of the National Council of Education on July 5, 1920, after a discussion participated in by grade teachers, principals, normal-school instructors and presidents, and college professors and presidents, it was unanimously voted to omit entirely from the elementary course all the so- called higher arithmetic—all arithmetical conundrums, and to confine the work in arithmetic to those processes which are fundamental in character and are needed by the ninety per cent of the people in America who do not go to high school. “Twenty-five years ago the N. E. A. urged the elimination of arithmetical conundrums, yet they are still present in most elementary school arithmetics. Elementary school arithmetic (the first six years) should be confined to those processes with whole numbers, fractions, and decimals used in the everyday life of the great mass of our population outside of technical or special vocations. ‘The substantial mastery of a certain number of often used abilities is better than half knowledge of twice that number. The application of these processes should be confined to the problems that arise in the lives of the children and in the homes and communities of the average family. The work should be confined largely to the class period in which the teacher can see that proper habits of computation are formed, as well as that proper methods of attack in the study of a problem are developed. ‘There is little value in out-of-class assignments before the fifth or sixth year. All mathematical puzzles and conundrums should be eliminated: and NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EpucATION 529 all problems, where in the real world the data of the problem are obtained from the answer, and all business, economic, and industrial problems (studied for social instead of vocational needs) should be left for the Junior High School. This would eliminate the addition and subtraction of all fractions except those arising in the expression of units of one denomination in terms of a higher in our ordinary tables of measure. Such an elimination would render unnecessary methods of finding the least common multiple and the greatest common divisor. It would also greatly reduce the amount of complex work in multiplying fraction by fraction and dividing fraction by fraction. Such a course would also revolutionize the teaching of decimals. In- stead of teaching the pupils to express the remainders in long division as meaningless fractions with large terms, the division would be carried to tenths or hundredths as the nature of the problem required. ‘These quotients could be added or subtracted as easily as dollars and cents. ‘Thus the work in decimals would be confined to such use of a decimal in the division of whole numbers; to the addition and subtraction of decimals; and to multiplying or dividing a decimal by a whole number, all of which is paralleled in what he does in United States money when written with the decimal point and the dollar sign. Multiplying and dividing decimals by decimals should be left until the latter part of the sixth year, and then lightly stressed. Percentage should be taught as notation for hundredths and but the two problems of everyday life should be given—namely, finding the relation of two numbers and expressing it in per cent and finding the per cent of a number. The reduction of compound denominate numbers as a separate topic in- dependent of the usual work of multiplication and division should be eliminated, as well as the four fundamental processes in denominate numbers. Mensuration should be confined to the simple needs of areas and volumes of the house. This will not result, however, in a very great curtailment of time, but in giving a knowledge that will function in the uses to which the pupil will need arithmetic in later life rather than in the great inefficiency of today due to the awful waste in studying the non-essentials. GEOGRAPHY The airplane, wireless, telegraph, and telephone link the ends of the world in such close connection today that the people in the antipodes have become our neighbors. It therefore becomes imperative for us to know them intimately. As Dr. Wallace Walter Atwood, President of Clark University, has said: “We have reached the stage in development when our further growth, perhaps our peaceful existence, depends upon our judgment in dealing with 530 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the other peoples of the world.” ‘That is to say, the peaceful existence of nations lies in the hands of the geography teacher, who therefore must become the foremost factor in training humanity to the conscious knowledge which will bring about a peaceful brotherhood and solidarity of nations— their friendly characteristics rather than their objectionable differences. Geography is fundamental to the history of the human race, for geographical features have controlled the development of nations. Physical and climatic conditions dominate human industries, and a study of geography, to be effective, must show how and why human industries are located as they are and why humanity is concentrated in specific regions which are either topographical or climatic. The physical map of the continent should be the one continuously used, so that the geographical features may be firmly fixed in the mind of the pupil, who will thus learn to know why population is sparse in certain regions while others are crowded. ‘The countries should be located ap- proximately, in connection with their geographical features, rather than with accuracy, according to the calico-colored political maps which have hitherto been regarded as the more important. ‘These last have their specific uses, and may be employed when necessary, particularly in the older classes. The regions of production should be placed clearly before the children— the great coal and iron regions, making possible structural steel and in- tensive manufacturing; the grain areas of the world; the cotton districts; the fruit and timber regions; the roadways of commerce, tying cities to- gether with waterways and railways, and ere long, with airways. Some- where or other in the course, both the history and the geography of such trade routes as the Erie Canal and Mohawk Valley, the Santa Fé Trail, The Overland Mail, the Danube, the Khaibur Pass, the Suez Canal, the Panama Canal, the Berlin to Bagdad Railway, and other historic highways should be studied in detail. ‘These are instances of the intense geographic control of human history. Pictures on paper and screen, still and moving, cannot be too strongly emphasized ; they naturally fall under these heads: physiographic scenery, social and industrial life, and transportation. Through pictures the child learns to know people on the other side of the world; their homes; igloos, tents, thatched dwellings, stone and wooden houses, palaces; their occupa- tions; hunting, planting and harvesting, mining, manufacturing, and transportation. The teacher should be the selector of ker own pictures. Various side excursions may be taken through the use of pictures; for instance, the garb of the Bedouin nomad shows that cotton grown in Texas and woven into cloth in New England may be marketed in the Arabian desert. As a rule, motion pictures are less useful than still life scenes. For illustration of plant and animal life development by the use of retarded motion, motion pictures are highly educative. They also illustrate manu- facturing processes more interestingly than any other form of picture. NATIONAL CoUNCIL oF EDUCATION 531 The chief advantage in the use of lantern slides is the fact that the whole class can see them simultaneously and discuss them. And then there is the wonderful story of the world, round and whirling, going no one knows whither, through the starry universe that surrounds us. The geography period should be the joy period of the day’s work. SPELLING The N. E. A. should issue an authoritative list of the one thousand words which form the vocabulary of the average human being who has not had the benefit of a high-school education. ‘This list should be made by a study of all the present lists of scientifically-chosen words, as well as those taught in good business schools. It could be published either by the N. E. A. or the U. S. Bureau of Education. With this could be arranged a simple compendium of the rules required for punctuation in proof-reading. TRAINING FOR PARENTHOOD By scientific research and patient study we have learned the best methods of feeding and environment for plants and animals. The flowers are infinitely more beautiful, the fruits larger and more perfect, the farm animals more productive, than those of half a century ago. But during this half century we have done little to improve the human animal. ‘The training and environment of children have been forgotten while human beings struggled for a livelihood. As a rule, the most wasted years of life are those from birth to school age. Nevertheless, the schools as a whole are not yet awake to their duty in preparing boys and girls for parenthood. This does not mean sex hygiene, but a continuous training in the ideals and joys of parenthood, and a knowledge of the self-sacrifice needed in order to win the crown of loving devotion that children give to wise and af- fectionate parents. Such training must not be left to the high schools but should be taught in the first six years of school life, for a majority of the school population leave school at the end of the elementary school course or earlier. Humane education, care of babies, training for health of children of pre-school age, and the training of their powers of observation, and games that will help to develop either the body or the brain of the younger brother or sister, or the child that may come to their arms later in life—all these should be taught in the schools, to both boys and girls. In our factory-built world of today thousands of children are acting as little mothers or little fathers to younger brothers and sisters. Untutored in the care of children and in the joy of training them aright, their little charges are merely heavy burdens borne in silence, or with grumbling, and sometimes with the abuse taught them by their illiterate parents. Such training as this would come to these little foster-parents as a revelation and a delight. It would help toward bringing to the schools in a short time better-trained kindergarten children, and, for the future, would mean an infinitely better generation. 552 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SCIENCE AND MANUAL TRAINING The world is calling for people who think, because the life of today is dependent on scientific research. Science, more than any other study, de- mands thought; it is therefore imperative that our children should study at an early age the beginnings of science, both organic and inorganic. The child of today faces a world that is dominated by machines. Life is made easier for him by machines, and a great majority of the children will earn their living by caring for machines. It is well, therefore, that their training in the use of machines should begin early. There is a toy typewriter that is not expensive that would train for accuracy in spelling as no amount of written work will do, and there are simple arithmetical calculating machines that are interesting and helpful. ‘There are similar little devices which can be used for “busy work,” and will save the voice and the nerves of the teacher—and of the child—for the machine, like nature, is quietly inexorable. Science work, in so far as it relates to machines, should be spread through the child’s school life and not left for the last two years of school, as is frequently done in courses of study. In the city and on the farm, in its daily life, the child sees machines in use, and its toys frequently contain applications of the lever, pulley, wedge, and the like. A seven-year old child can learn something of the force of gravitation when illustrated by its own bumps, and of adhesion, when it glues a picture to a piece of cardboard. As it progresses in school the child should learn to watch for examples of the power of gravitation, cohesion, capillary attraction, light, heat, combustion, electricity, magnetism, the lifting power of the screw, inclined planes, and other mechanical devices. Our great inventors did not postpone their work until they were ready for high school or college, but tinkered in their childhood, trying to find new ways of doing the things their parents did more slowly. Just as inorganic science should be studied through the grades, so also should simple organic science. The fundamental difference between living organisms and inorganic matter should be taught with special emphasis on feeding, breeding, and growth. In large cities this study must perforce focus on plant life and human life, for dusty, dead specimens from a museum do not train a child in true nature study. Only in rural or semi- rural communities can the great panorama of nature really be studied. Nevertheless, school gardens, parks, and herbariums can do much for the city child, while corn clubs, calf clubs, and farm culture generally, will open the eyes of the rural child to the wonders possible of achievement in the plant and animal world through right feeding and environment. In all study of growth, the needs of plants and animals should be compared with those of growing children, and likenesses and differences studied to the end that the next generation may be better equipped for the struggle of life than the present one. Shop work and cooking should not be confined to the seventh and eighth years, as at present because of expense, but should be taught throughout NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 533 the school life of the child, the younger children taking the place of helpers to the older girls and boys. All manual training, science, and art work should follow taste and ability lines, rather than sex lines. Boys should be free to learn cooking or sewing, and girls to do shop work; for in the industrial world today thousands of men are cooking and sewing, while in thousands of homes women are doing upholstery and carpentry work. In ancient times education was transmitted from father to son by word of mouth. ‘Today visual instruction is far more important than oral in- struction. We appeal to the eye of the child through books and pictures, and the appeal to the eye is more powerful than that which is addressed to the ear. We all know the old saying, “In at one ear and out at the other,” but no one has ever said, “In at one eye and out at the other,” because things seen are best remembered. For this reason it is imperative for the up-to-date school to introduce visual instruction in all branches as far as possible. Stereoscopes are excellent, and moving pictures are still better. No town should be without the means of teaching its children through the medium of moving pictures. History, literature, and science can all three be illuminated in this way. Unless our normal schools can teach the inspiration of the new century which lies before us, the course of study suggested in this report cannot be properly carried out. The normal schools of this country should be leaders of school thought and method, not followers of the course of study as already laid out. No student should be permitted to receive a diploma from a normal school who has not specialized along some one line of study as well as accomplished the general course. Only a person who is too dull to make a competent teacher is unable to become a specialist in one or more of the subjects required in the elementary schools. In closing the Chairman desires to thank the entire committee for their willing helpfulness, and especially the secretary, Dr. H._L,. Smith, tor his continuous assistance. Mr. Charles H. Judd, Superintendent Joseph M. Gwinn, and Dr. Jacques Redway have earned the gratitude of the Chairman by their prompt and efficient aid. This final report has the unanimous approval of the committee and was adopted as a whole by the National Council of Education on July 3, 1922. TRAINING FOR PARENTHOOD ELIZABETH A. WOODWARD, STATE SUPERVISOR OF CLASSES FOR IMMIGRANT WOMEN, NEW YORK CITY My topic relates to Parents’ Helpers and would be understood at once if we discussed how to help the children in their capacity of mothers’ assistants—both boys and girls. How to help them to administer these duties of “minding the baby” and “tending” the younger brothers and sisters so that our educational procedure shall be enriched by their duties is the 534 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION problem. At the same time these thousands of little children, parents’ assistants I choose to call them, may also be teachers’ assistants and society’s assistants in the great work of social welfare. In an age when despite all our educational efforts we are still a Nation of “sixth graders,” we must plan to utilize all existing agencies for enrich- ment of elementary education. In our courses of study we must recognize facts. If less than seventy-five per cent of our elementary children advance beyond the sixth grade in our largest cities, where must we work? The large families found in our congested districts, the economic con- ditions particularly among our immigrant groups, throw responsibility for the care of younger children on boys and girls below the junior high-school and the high-school age. For the adolescent in progressive higher schools, such agencies as Camp Fire Girls, Girl Scouts, Boy Scouts, and Junior Red Cross meet the needs and could have their programs on child-care enlarged and enriched. For the younger children who from seven to twelve years of age must regularly “mind” the little ones, the teachers of the first six grades as well as our courses of study must make provision in their regular school subjects for projects that will include helpful suggestions to these little parents’ assistants. Of course we have to educate the mothers, but few schools or agencies within the schools have attempted this beyond mothers’ meetings or English classes for foreign-born. With her large family and needs for special ad- justment to American life the foreign-born mother needs the help of her children. Even with our English-speaking mothers we say: ‘‘Maternity represents the most exacting individual responsibility known to society.” It is taxing, confining work for a little child to watch that no harm comes to the babies or younger children left in his charge. ‘This care must be lightened and made joyous. New projects in the school work could include much that would be valuable as original work and not upset or enlarge the regular school curriculum. For instance, children in the cities need to be taught to play; they need imagination and creative power developed for the joy of the present and the good of the future. Many little children are instinctive in their care-taking, old-fashioned in their responsibility, and autocratic in wielding their power over the younger ones. How many, on the other hand, are good-natured leaders in play with the little ones? What a wonderful and joyful field of service this mothers’ assistance work could be made if teachers knew the pupils’ problems at home and helped to meet them? ‘The teachers must do it. Even the mothers of a few children are frequently baffled. An advertisement like this was found in a paper not long ago: “Wanted, An intelligent person to assist for a few hours daily with answering questions of two children, aged three and five, to relieve parents of said children.” Perhaps the answering of questions and the development of the linguistic powers of these coming citizens can be safely trusted to the school child in the modern city. But health train- ing, handcrafts, games, finger-plays, lullabies and songs, stories and rhymes, nature-study facts, and the English language need a teacher’s assistance. NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 535- Projects for the grades could easily include problems of caring for little children in groups during a mothers’ meeting or an English class. Grade children can prepare real programs for younger and older groups, programs which would include handcrafts, such as clay work, bead stringing, playing with shells, spools, or buttons, making dolls of handkerchiefs, or vegetables, or nuts, Above all things this child-caring work must be converted into play. It must be performed joyously. The children have a right to the pursuit of happiness. City children need to be taught how to play. Even the movies are destroying all thought of the individual’s need for initiative. We need more life, more dramatic work, more interest in nature, more abundant activity, more joy in the achievements of children in our crowded tenements. Not more passivity, not more “minding the baby” listlessly, looking at movies, and “sitting around.” To summarize: (1) Frank recognition of the need of the education of parents’ assistants, girls and boys under twelve years in the elementary grades. So long as large families exist and economic conditions remain unchanged the need exists. (2). Direct plans for meeting this need not only in health education but in almost all school subjects. These plans in- clude: (a) The projects and problems so popular now in school work should make provision for these definite home needs. Children might be given credit in school, as the Camp Fire Girls and Girl and Boy Scouts do. (b) Introducing into normal school and kindergarten-training work prob- lems and projects connected with the training of mothers’ assistants. (c) Introducing into our courses of study suggestions for utilizing this great army of premature educators and guiding playfully and joyously these extra-school opportunities for service and nurture. FINAL REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION CHARLES H. KEYES, PRESIDENT OF SKIDMORE COLLEGE, SARATOGA SPRINGS, NEW YORK, ACTING CHAIRMAN The Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Edu- cation Association with the continued cordial and effective codperation of the corresponding committee of the American Medical Association has con- tinued its work during the last year with a sustained interest in the Com- mittee program and a steady demand for the reports which have been issued by the Joint Committee. Educational and health officials, Child Wel- fare organizations, Red Cross workers and other individuals and organiza- tions in this and in other countries are looking to your Committee in in- creasing numbers for health standards and literature. This Committee on Health Problems was created as a committee of the National Council of Education at the meeting in San Francisco in 1911 at the suggestion and request of the American Medical Association, which was in session at the same time in Los Angeles. At the meeting in 536 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION . Des Moines, July, 1921, this Committee was formally adopted as a com- mittee of the National Education Association. After a careful survey of the general field the Committee decided to give attention first to the health problems of rural schools. ‘The first report of the Committee was a valuable bulletin entitled “(Country Schoolhouses,” by Fletcher B. Dresslar, a member of our Committee. ‘This report was printed and distributed in 1912 by the U. S. Bureau of Education. ‘The Committee literature still being distributed in original or repeated editions includes the following: 1. Minimum Health Requirements for Rural Schools. ‘Two editions of 800,000 copies of this report have been distributed. A third edition of 10,000 copies is now being distributed. Unprejudiced evidence from many places shows that this report has exerted great influence in the improvement in rural-school sanitation in the United States during the last eight years. Several States have adopted this report as the standard for rural schools. 2. Health Essentials for Rural-School Children was printed in 50,000 copies. ' This first edition was exhausted, and a second revised edition is now being distributed. Most of the copies of this report have been used as supplementary texts on health in the training of rural-school teachers in the normal schools, and as practical handbooks by rural-school teachers and supervisors. 3. The Health Chart Report. The first edition of 10,000 copies of the illustrated Health Chart pamphlet was soon exhausted, and a second edition of 10,000 is now being distributed. This pamphlet not only serves to illustrate and explain the health chart but is being extensively used for health instruction in both city and country schools and also as a guide in making health posters and scrapbooks. 4. The Health Chart Set comprises 58 charts, each 22 x 28 inches. Over 1000 complete sets of the health charts (including 58,000 charts) have been distributed in our own and in foreign countries. Many orders for individual charts have been received. One State department of health has recently ordered 2400 copies of individual charts. The above-mentioned bulletins and the health charts are being sold by the Committee at the bare cost of printing. 5. The Teacher’s Part in Social Hygiene was published last year with the codperation of the American Social Hygiene Association and this co- operating Association presented the Joint Health Committee with 5000 copies of this valuable bulletin. The demand for this pamphlet report is rapidly increasing. Constructive codperation between organizations and committees 1S 2 prominent part of the policy of the Joint Health Committee. 6. Health Improvement in Rural Schools is a report which has been in careful process of preparation for several years. ‘This is just coming from the press to complete for the time being the introductory plan of the Com- mittee to promote the entire health program of the rural schools. 7. Health Service in City Schools of the United States is the report of a survey, conducted by our Committee this year, of the health work which NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 537 is being done in the city school systems of this country. Six hundred and twenty-two six-page questionnaires were sent to city superintendents of schools. Filled-out questionnaires containing much valuable information of current accomplishment have been received from 340 (54.6 per cent) of the superintendents. Your Committee expresses here sincere appreciation of the splendid help and codperation from the superintendents who responded so promptly. This report will be printed and ready for distribution within a few weeks. 8. Daylight in the Schoolroom is a valuable report on school lighting, prepared in 1921 by a sub-committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Edward Jackson, eminent ophthalmologist of Denver and a member of our Joint Committee. “This report has been printed in several scientific and educa- tional magazines. 9. A partial report on Ventilation of School Buildings has been prepared by a sub-committee of which Dr. R. W. Corwin, of Pueblo, Colorado, is chairman. Further work on this study is being conducted under the leader- ship of Mrs. Ira Couch Wood, of Chicago, another member of this sub- committee. 10. Appointment of Committees on Health Problems in Education in the several States. At the meeting of the House of Delegates of the American Medical Association in New Orleans in May, 1920, it was voted to urge upon each of the State medical societies that a committee of five physicians, members of the society, be appointed to codperate with a similar committee of the State Teachers’ Association as a joint committee on the Health Problems in Education in that State. It will be recalled that at the meeting of the National Education Association held in Des Moines, Iowa, in July, 1921, this action of the American Medical Association was heartily endorsed and each State Teachers’ Association was urged to appoint such a committee in response to the request of the State Medical Society. All but five of the forty-nine State medical societies have appointed such State committees of physicians and have reported their personnel to the Secretary of the Council on Health and Public Instruction of the American Medical Association. Our Committee urgently requests every State Teach- ers’ Association to appoint a like committee of teachers to codperate with the medical committee. While our Joint Health Committee of the National organizations of teachers and physicians can propose material and secure data of great value, and can recommend measures which would secure better health conditions in the public and other schools of the country, it is obvious that if such measures are to be generally adopted and put into practice it must be through the efforts of many groups dealing with these activities in the sev- eral States and communities. Our Committee will find one of its most effective fields of usefulness in serving as a medium of inter-communication and coordination of these several State committees. The codperating medical group of our Committee has initiated the cus- tom of holding an annual conference at the time of meeting of the American Medical Association, of the members of the committees of the several State 538 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION medical societies. Our Committee recommends that a similar plan be instituted for the committees of the State teachers’ associations and that our Committee be authorized to arrange for such a conference at each annual meeting of the National Education Association. “The interchange of in- formation regarding progress in the several States in solving the Health Problems in Education together with the opportunity for discussion and suggestion which such a conference would afford could not fail to be helpful in promoting this great movement. The Joint Committee acknowledges with great appreciation the generous, substantial, and continued codperation and support of the Elizabeth Mc- Cormick Memorial Fund of Chicago. Throughout the existence of our Committee the codperation of the U. S. Bureau of Education has been of great value. At the annual meeting of the Joint Health Committee on February 28 in Chicago unanimous support was given to a resolution that a committee should be appointed to prepare a Program of Health Education for Public Schools and Teacher Training Institutions of the country. ‘This is by far the most extensive and important project which your Committee has yet undertaken. So active was the interest manifested by the members of the Committee in this plan that on April 22 seven members of the Joint Committee met in Pittsburgh, entirely at their own expense, and spent two days in developing the plan for this Program of Health Education. This wave of intense interest in, and intensive development of health work in the schools, accompanied by unprecedented stimulation of interest in health by voluntary organizations outside of the schools, and contribution to the schools of a fascinating and confusing mass of material and devices for health work and health teaching from many outside sources, makes it all the more desirable and necessary that the educational forces within the schools should study, interpret, and codrdinate the materials and methods in the fields of health education so that the schools of the country may be provided with an educationally sound program of health teaching and training. This program adopted by the Committee provides for sub-committees to grade the health teaching material for the kindergarten, elementary, and high schools; and also for the normal schools and other teacher-training institutions. ‘These sub-committees further will provide technical groups to judge and organize material from the standpoint of teachers in the schools, physicians, educational psychologists, dentists, nutrition experts, teachers of physical education, biologists, and public health specialists. This program of the Committee would involve the work of several years and during this period of thorough investigation and consideration of the multitude of problems involved our Joint Committee would plan to issue a preliminary report within a year or eighteen months: to provide the best available guidance to the schools of the country relative to health teaching in the immediate future. Extensive study and experiment by our Joint Committee, assisted by the NATIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 539 various technical committees referred to, would be necessary to solve some of the many problems in this field which are now pressing for answer. | In this new project the members of the Joint Committee have proposed for themselves and for their chairman a task of National scope and of great importance in the program of public education. This Joint Committee seems peculiarly situated and constituted to at- tempt under distinctively favorable auspices this pressing educational task. This work can be confidently undertaken by your Committee, if the proper encouragement is given and if adequate financial support is provided. If the preparation of a Program of Health Education—in scope and character like that briefly explained in this report—is to be carried out with reasonable efficiency an additional appropriation of $5000 a year for at least three years is urgently needed to provide the secretarial and clerical aid required. Perhaps it is not necessary to add that no part of the appropria- tions here recommended is intended for any member of the Committee but simply for the secretarial and clerical work involved. In addition to the committee program and reports already mentioned, we are working toward the following bulletins: - (a) Mental Hygiene for Normal Children: What Every Teacher Should Know About It. (b) Standards of Health Norms and Defects of School Children. (c) Making Athletic Games Safe and Healthful for School Children. (d) Health and Efficiency for Teachers. (e) Essentials in the Hygiene of Instruction and School Management. To continue with reasonable efficiency the program already under way, and outside of the preparation of a Program of Health Education, the Health Committee respectfully asks for an appropriation of $2000 for the coming year from the National Education Association. Your Committee, according to the custom of many years, confidently expects from the Ameri- can Medical Association an appropriation equal to that which may be granted by the National Education Association. Tuomas D. Woop, Chairman. HEALTH AND THE SCHOOL WILLIAM H. BURNHAM, CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS After fifty years of modern scientific study of child hygiene it is now possible to state a few fundamental general truths in regard to the relation of the school to the child’s health. For the ‘sake of brevity these must be stated rather dogmatically. A few of the essential things are as follows: (1) First of all the fundamental aims of education and of child hygiene are the same: normal healthful development and the acquisition of habits of healthful activity physical and mental. For the early period of school life, in the kindergarten and the elementary erades at least, the primary aim of education should be health. ‘The child’s first business is to grow and to develop. Everything else can wait, but the 540 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION demands of health are imperative. At present there is no consensus among educators in regard to the aim of formal education. An eminent educator has frankly admitted that he does not know what the aim of education for the elementary period is. This is an amazing statement, but if pedagogy does not know the aim of education for this early period, then pedagogy should give place to hygiene, for hygiene does know the aim definitely— health, adjustment to a normal environment, and the acquisition of those habits of activity, physical and mental, that represent the alphabets of health for everyone. (2) Physically and mentally the child is literally a different creature from the adult. Hence both our educational methods and hygienic train- ing should be determined from the genetic point of view. This is obvious from what has already been said. In the early period the maximum of freedom for spontaneous motor activity out of doors is essential, in order that the child may make his own adjustments as a reacting organism to a natural environment. In the elementary grades the emphasis is naturally on the acquisition of the alphabets of learning and health and morals. In the high school the emphasis shifts and the aim is more on healthful ad- justment to social environment, and so far as the individual is concerned, on self-discovery, self-adjustment, and mental as well as somatic hygiene. (3) We now see clearly that organization of hygienic activities is neces- sary. ‘The health interests of the members of a community, of the State, and of the Nation are all bound up together; and as regards pure food, pure water, pure milk, protection from infectious disease and the like, the health interests are common interests, and the health of the child is only the most important part of public health. The opportunity of the school for public health is obvious from the fact that in the school all the children of the community are brought together ; here conditions can be organized with regard to the health of the children directly and public health indirectly; and here too is the grand opportunity for prevention of disorder, physical and mental, since many of the most serious conditions that threaten the health of the young have not yet affected the children, and can be removed. (4) Modern investigations and modern studies of education and hygiene have at least clearly shown that it is training in hygiene not mere instruction which really counts. However important instruction may be, it is second- ary and subsidiary and is most effectively given on the basis of individual training. Hence the significance of the aim in the various child welfare societies actually to develop habits of health among school children. (5) One of the greatest advances in child hygiene in recent years is the insight that mental hygiene is quite as important as somatic hygiene, and that objectively excellent methods in hygiene, important rules of health and significant teaching all avail nothing unless right mental attitudes and right habits of healthful mental activity are developed. Thus in connection with every school subject and even every lesson in child hygiene the dictates of common sense and the plain teachings of scientific mental hygiene are to be considered as well as those of physical hygiene. NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 541 (6) To the practical question, what can be done today, the answer is in the training of teachers. In matters of health, as in other things, school reform is always schoolmaster reform. For proper health training properly trained teachers are necessary. No textbooks, no rules for instruction and training, no code of health morals, no methods or devices, however clever, can take the place of good teachers. To insure good teachers they them- selves must be trained in the essential habits of health, given the scientific attitude, a broad perspective, and the genetic point of view, so that lessons may be adapted to individual children and the concrete situations of the schoolroom. This movement for training of teachers in child hygiene is of the greatest significance, but from the outset the instruction and training should be rigorously scientific. The history of hygiene is instructive. Even in modern times children have suffered from the hands of the hygienists. The story is pathetic. They have been dosed with things vile of every description, from calomel and tobacco to human excretions. Even in modern times surgeons have advised slitting the gums, making the incision deep clear to the bone, in order to ease their teething. Even the history of scientific child hygiene has not been free from error. The pathway is strewn with the fragments of exploded theories. To recount the errors even in regard to bad air and the ventilation of school- rooms would be a long story, at the core of which would be perhaps the gruesome warnings in regard to carbon dioxide as a deadly poison and schemes of ventilation based on this idea, although we know today that carbon dioxide in ordinary rooms is a harmless gas and in right proportions as essential for human health as oxygen itself. The lesson is obvious. As others have fallen into error, so may we. No one, because he lives in the year of our Lord 1922, can claim immunity from error; and the teachers, lacking proper training and using textbooks that teach error, cannot be blamed. The only safety is the acceptance of no hygienic doctrines as true that cannot be verified by the scientific method. Among the dangers to health in the schoolroom is the conscientious teacher of hygiene who lacks knowledge. ‘The old physician Gazius who taught the danger of bathing, the teachers in the English school that pun- ished their children for not smoking, those of a later age who condemned night air and the drinking of water, and the kindergartner of today who trains her children in songs beyond the compass of their voices, the teacher in the high school who forces the pubescent boy to sing when his voice is in the period of mutation, the dietician who is satisfied with calories without vitamines, and the hygienist who worries the children about malaria where there are no mosquitos—all alike are conscientious. ‘Thus the suc- cess or failure of the hygienic training of teachers will depend upon whether this education is truly scientific or not. While I would go further and make health the primary aim of all edu- cation in the early years, I wish to emphasize the need of the scientific attitude, of perspective, and of mental hygiene. More concretely, teachers 542 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION should learn that some children and some adults need most of all to forget their own health; that what is one child’s food may be another child’s poison; that while both instruction and training are necessary, instruction is especially for the teacher, training for the pupil; that while talk about hygiene may have flushed the cheeks of eager teachers, it never painted the cheeks of children; that only actual practice of health habits counts; that it is dangerous to teach what is not true, and that when in doubt the only safe rule is to let nature alone. The service the school can render to the child’s health and indirectly to public health is equalled only by the service of the home for the pre-school child. To the door of the schoolhouse the child brings not only the in- heritance of the ages, but the result of six long years of training in the home and on the playground or the street. Not only the primitive emotions of fear, rage, love, and the fundamental instinct to activity, but associated fears, conditioned reflexes, attitudes, habits, some distinctly habits of health, some distinctly injurious. Thus the school beginner is by no means a tabula rasa. (7) The strategic point of attack in school hygiene today is at the entrance of school life. Here a thoroughgoing health examination, physical and mental, is necessary. This is merely common sense, and it is im- perative that teachers should know the character of the training children have received in the pre-school period. Just as at college entrance it is sound pedagogy and common sense to inquire into the mental ability and the high-school training of candidates for the college—and every institu- tion finds this necessary—so it is perhaps even more important to know the associations, attitudes, inhibitions, and mental twists that children bring with them to school as the result of their six years of pre-school training, good or bad. Only by a thoroughgoing examination of this kind at the beginning of school life can the necessary codperation of teachers and parents be obtained. Only thus can the children needing special care be selected, the health of the normal children be preserved, retardation and failure prevented, and the teacher’s time and strength conserved. ‘The first months of school life amount to little for formal education, but are invaluable for health and should be devoted to this. The failure to give such a competent examination at the entrance to school life and the ordinary plan of admitting all children, developed or undeveloped, normal or defective, at the chronological age of six has re- sulted in the admission of many children not sufficiently developed physically and mentally to do school work, the futile attempt to teach these children, the failure and retardation of many of them made inevitable from the out- set, and a general attitude of hurry and waste and neglect of normal health- ful development. Next to ignorance and error the other great enemy of school hygiene is the scholastic ideal in its narrower form, the tendency to yield to the rush and hurry of the present time and the introduction of narrow efficiency ideals into the schools. With this ideal attention centers, not on the children but NATIONAL CouNCcCIL oF EDUCATION 543 on the school curriculum, the exigencies of grading, methods for beginning formal education at an earlier period, devices for acceleration, purely quantitative scales and standards, and in general emphasis, upon the schol- astic product instead of the children to be educated. From the days of Comenius down there has always been this tendency to mechanism and haste.- No one knows just when or how to begin the formal education of a child, but we feel that we must begin as soon as possible. On the other hand child hygiene, somatic and mental, calls us back to a few fundamental things, and today with renewed emphasis it raises the old questions. With Watson, from the point of view of laboratory studies it asks if a child’s mind be twisted and thwarted and handicapped by in- jurious conditioned reflexes and habits in the pre-school period, what can the education of the ordinary school accomplish? With Dr. Williams it asks what would it profit even if all our hygienic ideals were realized, if the children are not happy and attitudes of depression, failure, and the like, are developed? And again, with G. Stanley Hall, what shall it profit a child if he gain the whole world of knowledge and lose his own health, or what shall a child give in exchange for his health? ‘Thus our brief survey ends as it began, with the insight that the aim is everywhere primarily health and normal development, physical and mental, that no other aim is educationally sane or hygienically sound. HEALTH PROJECTS IN THE ELEMENTARY CLASSROOM EMMA DOLFINGER, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, LOUISVILLE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY I cannot resist a word, before speaking on the subject assigned me, about the Conference on Teacher Training, recently held at Lake Mohonk, under the joint auspices of the U. S. Bureau of Education and the Child Health Organization of America. This was a conference of specialists in nutrition, of doctors, dentists, social workers, sanitarians, college professors, teachers, supervisory officers, and child-psychologists assembled to pool their special knowledge, their conception of needs and their ideals for health teaching in the hope that from this pooling would come some principles that all could use and adapt to their particular needs. One thing did come out paramount and shone through the resolutions finally adopted. It was this: The young teacher must leave training school “gloriously healthy” her- self, and enthusiastically eager to bring all her flock up to this standard. The normal school must give her such environment, such instruction, such method, but chiefly such inspiration through her own experience that she will never rest until all the boys and girls in her charge with enthusiasm and intelligence are headed for health. How fine to see this point of view reflected in the courses of study of our “i training schools! Now health, to the extent that it is controllable, is a matter of correct 544 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION habits, practices, and attitudes, and as we all know, habits are formed, and practices entrenched by doing, when children are interested in the results of the doing. To quote from a recent number of the Journal of Educa- tional Method, “Children should be stimulated to initiate schemes and enterprises, helped to develop them, encouraged to evaluate the results. If the activity is their activity, they will develop habits; if the activity is such as real life offers, these habits will be useful acquisitions; if the result is satisfactory to them, the habits’ will tend to become firmly cemented. Education is the successful and satisfactory use of movements and thoughts necessary to present and later life.” Most strikingly is this true of health education. Rare is the child who is interested in health habits, in physiology or sanitation, as such. But if we can help this youngster to initiate schemes and enterprises, where ac- quiring health habits or health knowledge become his activities, or are such as real life offers, and where the results are satisfactory to him, then we get the release of that unquenchable energy of children, then children give themselves health-training that is the real thing. In the school system from which I am about to describe an example, the returns in defects corrected, were not satisfactory to the supervisor of nurses and the director of health education. “The plan was then devised of carrying to the children certain of the findings of the physical examina- tion, those where it was thought that the child’s spirit of codperation would be helpful in getting corrections. Accordingly a classroom record sheet was made and on it placed the class roll with all points of health O. K.’ed, which in each child were up to the standard set. ‘The symbol of this O. K. was a star of varying colors, and it was distinctly understood that the star was a symbol of a goal to be attained and not a reward or an in- ducement. The children were at once interested in knowing why the particular points on the chart were chosen by nurse and doctor as pivotal health essentials. Discussion immediately centered about the relation of healthy tonsils, the adenoids, sound teeth, proper weight, vaccination, good sight, to vigor, and to your power to function successfully in your chosen field, be it music, athletics, drawing, or dancing. The youngsters next were led to become enthusiastic about having a . “100 per cent A-No. 1 bunch,” as one sixth-grade boy put it. The teacher suggested this ideal, the children adopted it, with their own phrase- ology. Naturally, they, realizing the ideal, wanted to know how to get it and the plans developed by children, teacher, and nurse, working together, included: (1) Visits to dentists and dental clinics (more than had ever before been possible) ; (2) Hospital appointments; (3) Visits to oculists and opticians; (4) Planning of a health regime for all, with special attention to the over- and under-weights. ‘This led in a 5-A 6-B grade to the best study of nutritive value of foods I have yet seen, because the children were ready to put into practice what they were learning in school. This study was arrived at, through experimentation determining the existence of certain easily demonstrable nutrients in common foods; NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 545 through study of the properties of various food groups; through making exhibits of suitable well-balanced meals; through reading government and other bulletins on food; and finally brought to a conclusion in the prepara- tion in very simple but correct terms of “food books” for the younger children: posters and slogans by means of which the group tried to educate the younger children in the school. In the sixth grade, dental defects were found to be so overwhelmingly the class problem, that the children eagerly pursued not only the corrective path, but also the preventive road, of reasons why—so that they might know what to do to keep their teeth in good shape after the defects, cleansings, etc. had been attended to. ‘The relation of food to teeth from infancy to maturity proved to be of special interest. What little physiology and anatomy was here needed was learned with eagerness and accuracy. One test, was the quality of the reading slips, posters, and slogans, made by the class for the younger groups. In short, these groups, 5 ab and 6 ab, planned their own health lessons for two terms and they covered: (1) Interrelations between doing what one wants to do and the condition of one’s body; (2) A plan of immediate corrective activities; (3) A definite list of topics on which information was sought; (4) A distinct recognition cuse of information to regulate conduct, formulated as preventive activities, (diets, health habits.) The results of this work, started in September with its goal set for the following May, are suggested by the following report, made out by a committee of the 6-A class in one of two schools where similar activities were undertaken. REPORT OF THE MARY D. HILL SCHOOL, GRADES 5-6 Our Improvement in the Health Race Percentage Original Defects to be Added Defects of Class stars corrected stars corrected improvement GI Btaigs 5 Ce ae Otay aa 2 46 10 if 59 Gy Noa OSes oaks cere 5 45 17 42 93 Bina ee OLONG ScCere IDI OnE 4 49 7 19 39 GA iter pies \dielesetere 3 31 11 23 74 14 171 45 111 65 100 per cent in Dentist Race ....---..- seers eee erences 5B, 5A, 6A The Dentist’s Race was to see how many classes could be 100 per cent in having gone to the dentist for corrections and prophylaxis before May 30. The work needed not to be complete by that time but must have been initiated. In addition to these concrete returns, (1) Subject-matter studies were made on foods and health habits in relation to good nutrition ; (2) * Teeth (3) Communicable disease (in answer to question, Why is vaccination necessary? ‘These studies were handled between the two grades, not in both) ; (4) Health Books—the reference and supplementary readers were read intelligently for the first time; (5) Experiments were made and written up as English exercise; (6) The sale of milk in the lunchroom in- creased about threefold; (7) The sale of candy and other undesirables at the adjacent store decreased on the report of the proprietor; (8) The 546 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION extension of the interest of the 4th, 5th, 6th grades to the primary classes led to much improvement there, too, along similar lines. It is not the purpose of so brief a paper as this necessarily must be, to describe critically the above class-work, but to show how great are the health returns when the teaching taps the flowing springs of the children’s interest. Stars and banners then become, not paltry and artificial induce- ments, but mile posts on the happy road, or counters in the game. Did time permit, I should like to tell how an eighth-grade class became the center for the marked sanitary improvement of its neighborhood, through its interest in a sanitation map of its school district, which a Woman’s Club lent the school. Interested study in local ordinances and the sanitary science behind these, resulted in home and neighkorhood reforms. In another school, desire to have wash basins in the school, came through the gift of a new white lunchroom. The question of how to get clean hands led to interested study of why we want to get them, of the function of soaps in cleansing, not only hands, but the entire body; of the nature and functions of skin, of the value of such knowledge and practices. “The concrete things, the scales, the lunchroom, the baths, the athletic contests, water supply in the school, these or their lack and the activities growing - into, and out of them, are the valuable starting points; activity, reality, satisfaction, and joy, engendering enthusiasms for results, these are the in- dispensable accompaniments for and of a functional health program. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PARTICIPATION OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT CORNELIA S. ADAIR, ACTING CHAIRMAN, RICHMOND, VA. Teacher codperation in administration has passed from the realm of the merely speculative into that of actualities so that we no longer say “Shall teachers codperate in administration ?,” but “To what extent do they coéperate in administration?” It was with this idea in view that our chairman, Mr. Updegraff, sent out his questionnaire. - So far the response has not been just what he wished. The subject is so far-reaching and the questionnaire seemed at times baffling, so that your acting chairman has deemed it best not to present the questionnaire itself to you for discussion, hoping thereby to gather more material for the final report of your chairman. Before doing so it might be well to make a short review of the Teacher Participation .or Teachers’ Council Movement. Like many of our so- called new ideas it is an old friend under a new name or a general practice that has been dignified with a high-sounding title. If you will think back over your experience you will remember that teachers have always par- ticipated in school management to a greater or less degree. The fact that an activity was not the subject of general discussion does not presuppose its non-existence. NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 547 From the informal discussion between teacher and principal, teacher and teacher, persons interested in educational associations evolved the Teachers’ Council idea. The first form of organization of a Teachers’ Council was in Water- bury, Connecticut, in 1908. The movement took hold slowly, and at the end of 1918 there were only 34 Teachers’ Councils in existence. In 1919- 20 a new impetus was felt and the number of councils more than doubled. Since then their growth has been steady. At a meeting of the Superin- tendence Conference in Chicago in 1920 a National Association of Teach- ers’ Councils was formed, but little has been accomplished by that organi- zation. An increasingly long list of books on this subject shows the continuous interest in which it is held, and a list of well-known authors attests that that interest is spreading from coast to coast and from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. A partial bibliography is attached to this report with a list (incomplete) of cities where teachers’ councils are in operation. An article in School Life for April, 1921, states: Teachers’ councils are generally constituted for some or all of the follow- ing purposes: (1) To raise the standard of the teaching profession ; (2) to encourage professional improvement; (3) to foster a spirit of sympathetic good-will and helpfulness among teachers and a better understanding be- tween teachers and officials; and (4) to democratize the school systems— that is, to give teachers a voice in shaping educational policies. Work generally considered beneficial—School superintendents generally state that the work of teachers’ councils has been reported: (1) Aided in securing a retirement law; (2) conducted successful campaign for school bonds; (3) formed loan fund for teachers; (4) procured general increase in salaries; (5) worked out a new course of study; (6) unified teachers by social gatherings; (7) held meetings for professional advancement; (8) conducted lecture courses; (9) secured use of school buildings for com- munity purposes; (10) established codperation between schools and private music teachers; (11) provided rest rooms for teachers; (12) organized parent-teacher associations; (13) equipped playgrounds. General practice has shown that the best place for a teachers’ council to originate is with the teachers themselves. Rarely does a council other- wise instituted serve its mission. The National Council Committee was formed in 1920. The chairman hopes to get by means of questionnaires definite information concerning the functioning of these councils. We will therefore pass to the considera- tion of these questionnaires as our next order of business. 548 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SUB-COMMITTEE REPORT ON THE COURSE OF STUDY DAVID FELMLEY, PRESIDENT OF ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY, NORMAL, ILLINOIS Three factors contribute to the accomplished teacher—natural aptitude, training, experience. We still hear much of the born teacher, but in teach- ing, as in all other callings, native talent is developed by studies and per- fected by experience. We commonly use the phrase teacher-training because we recognize that teaching is an art in which skill is to be acquired rather than science in which knowledge is to be gained. Yet all of us would rather use the broader term, the education of the teacher, which implies not an empirical art learned by imitation and with practice de- termined by habit, but a rational art resting upon scientific principles and with a larger play of individual initiative. What should this education of the teacher include? As a basis there should be a liberal high-school education with chief emphasis laid upon English, the natural sciences, and the social sciences, with due attention to music, drawing, and handwork. The program of the teachers’ college should provide: 1. A preliminary survey of the school, of its aim and organization, of the work to be accomplished in the primary, intermediate, grammar grades, and high school, the characteristics of children at these different levels, the different types of teaching required and the qualifications of teachers that will enable them to meet the needs of the children. The purpose of this course is to lead the young student to look upon the school from the standpoint of the teacher and to choose wisely the field of teaching for which he will prepare. Its method is inductive. The in- struction in this course will make extensive use of the student’s earlier school experience and of frequent visits of observation and comparison in the training school. ‘This course is not yet to be found in a majority of cur teachers’ colleges. 2. A study of how children learn. In this the chief emphasis is laid upon the instinctive tendencies, the relation of sense-perception to imagina- tion, to conception, and judgment, the relation of attention to interest, of interest to knowledge, the motor-tendency of ideas as revealed in imitation, the laws of habit-formation, the conditions of memory, association, and economy of learning, the feelings and sentiments as creating desire and moving the will. This course under the name of psychology is found early in the curriculums of all teachers’ colleges. 3. A study of the principles of teaching, of classroom procedure as observed in superior teachers and justified by psychological laws. - Here we discuss the different types of classroom exercises, assignments, lesson plans, supervised and independent study, the project and problem method, the socialized recitation, the use of tests and scales, and other questions of instruction and class management. NATIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 549 4. A study of the school, its structure and administration as the organ- ized instrument of education. This includes questions of classification and promotion, the school program, school discipline and incentives, ethical training within the organization, and school hygiene. It embraces also the relation of the school to other educational agencies, its relation to the State and problems of school finances. 5. An inquiry into educational aims and the function of the various studies, school exercises, appliances, and features of school life as factors in the development of the child and the realization of our school ideal. In this course are discussed definitions of education, the aims of education, - educational values, controverted questions of educational theory, such as the doctrine of formal discipline, the doctrine of interest, so-called scientific measurements, the treatment of backward children, and the status of voca- tional education. ‘This course is variously called Principles of Education or Philosophy of Education. 6. A study of the various systems of national education, the environ- mental factors that have determined their development, the work of edu- cational reformers, the origin of the forms, maxims, methods, and studies that prevail in our schools, the historical development of the various con- ceptions of educational values, and the causes of the outstanding differences between American schools and those of foreign countries. “The six courses thus far discussed may be called general courses in education, for they should appeal to all teachers. 7. A re-examination and re-organization of the various branches to be taught in the public schools from the standpoint of the developing interest and aptitudes of the child. In such subjects as geography, history, and nature study these courses will extend, clarify, and enrich the teacher’s knowledge of subject matter as well as determine his method of instruction. 8. Further practice in the schoolroom arts—drawing, construction, writ- ing, singing, reading, and public speaking, as well as the arts of good behavior and good health to improve the teacher’s personal skill, to afford a better example for imitation, and to enable him the better to teach others. 9. Studies in sociology, economics, history, literature, and science— subjects for grown-ups that will minister to the deepening interests of the teacher’s life and promote his insight into the aims and problems of education. 10. Observation and discussion of skillful teaching and increasing par- ticipation by the young teacher under sympathetic guidance with construc- tive criticism of his lesson-planning and of his conduct of the various types of recitation to the end that correct teaching habits may be formed. His voice, speech, position, manner, dress, should be, if necessary, objects of friendly criticism. 11. Personal contact with superior teachers, men and women of fine personality, of high character and consecration through whose inspiration and leadership the young teacher may be stimulated to a resolute endeavor to attain the highest possible excellence. In spite of all that may be done 550 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to indoctrinate the young teacher with correct ideals and principles of action, so powerful is the principle of imitation that his schoolroom practice in each subject will be chiefly determined by the actual practice of the teacher of that subject. That these elements should appear in the program of the teachers’ college almost everyone will agree. We differ chiefly in the order in which they shall appear, in their relative importance, and in the amount of time that shall be allotted to each. In the early days of State normal schools one curriculum was provided for _ all students, no matter whether they were to be primary teachers, grammar- school teachers, or to serve as principals. It was as if the opinion pre- vailed that teaching is an art that can be taught in the abstract, that there is a set of principles of didactics, which once mastered, can be applied to any subject or to pupils of any age. Just as the doctor was expected to prescribe for any sort of ailment, or the lawyer to handle any sort of case, the teacher was expected to function under all conditions. The liberal arts colleges, on the other hand, emphasized knowledge of subject matter, and insisted that if any one knew a subject he could teach it. They ridi- culed “method in an empty head” for which the normal schools were supposed to stand. The modern teachers’ college recognizes that the verb to teach is followed by two nouns in the objective case. Mr. Smith teaches John arithmetic. This implies that the teacher must know John and must know arithmetic; furthermore he must know the art of teaching, that is, of presenting the material and organization of arithmetic to John in the way that will appear to his interests and aptitudes, and secure fruitful experiences in this subject. We do not recede in any degree from our insistence upon a knowledge of the learning process and of the teaching process that ministers to it; but we have added an adequate appreciation of the importance of a knowl- edge of subject matter and of the special method of the subject. Our psychology now recognizes also the changes that take place in the interests and mental activities of the growing child. Accordingly the teachers’ college now provides different preparations for the different fields of teaching—for the primary school and kinder- garten, for the intermediate grades, for the upper grades, for the various types of high-school teaching, for rural schools, art, music, home economics, agriculture, industrial education, commercial education, physical education, and for supervisors and superintendents. ‘The specialization needed for fine performance in all arts and professions is needed in teaching also. It is everywhere recognized that there is a large common element in the preparation of these different types of teachers. The variations are provided for in various ways. In some institutions there is a general curriculum with a few required studies to be taken at a definite time. Elective groups of subjects are added according to the proposed destination of the student. NATIONAL CouNCcIL oF EDUCATION 551 Other institutions provide a minimum and maximum number of credits to be made in education. English, mathematics, the social sciences, home economics, etc., according to the kind of diploma desired, leaving the choice and sequence of courses largely at the disposal of the student. Still others arrange distinct curriculums for the different levels and types of school work. Within these curriculums there is little freedom of choice. For large schools this is the best arrangement. It secures the proper sequence of courses and subjects and by segregating the students in each curriculum, it may give to each group even in the general subjects the special instruction of most value to that group. Shall the general studies in education begin with the four-year teachers’ college curriculum and continue throughout the course, or shall the earlier years be taken up with so-called academic studies and with the courses in special method? The usual practice is to begin courses in education early. Most of the students enrolled in the teachers’ colleges leave to teach at the end of the second year if not before. “They should have the preliminary studies in psychology, the technique of teaching, class management, and practice teaching. This series must be begun in the first year. For many years to come the vast majority of our students will teach with no more than two years of professional preparation. It will not pay the State to give, or the student to take, a longer course before be- ginning to teach in elementary schools. Our students are chiefly young women. Half of them will marry before they have taught six years and it should be so. Other students of both sexes will find teaching uncon- genial or discover that they are ill-adapted for the work. Without further delay they should turn to other occupations. For such elementary teachers as at the age of twenty-five find themselves happy and successful in the work is the last two years of the teachers’ college a really profitable invest- ment for the State and for the individual. High-school teachers in the same manner who begin with the bachelor’s degree may after the five years of journeyman service profitably seek the master’s degree. But even if all our students were to continue through a four-year curriculum without interruption, we still at the very outset should introduce such courses as will develop the teacher-consciousness, and the teacher attitude, and will give to the life of the school the professional atmosphere that is so vital in the education of the teacher. I shall now return to the eleven elements in the education of the teacher and examine the practice of teachers’ colleges. Credits in our teachers’ colleges are sometimes reckoned in semester hours, with from 120 to 128 hours required for graduation from the four-year course, sometimes in term-hours or quarter-hours, with 192 to 196 for graduation, sometimes in term-credits each equal to two and one-half semester hours, or to four term-hours. For the sake of uniformity I shall use the term- credit as the unit, each equaling one twelfth of a year’s work or one forty- eighth of the entire curriculum. 552 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. The course entitled Introduction to Teaching is frequently a voca- tional guidance course of twenty or thirty lessons serving merely as a survey of the field, to enable the student to “orient” himself and decide what line of teaching he shall prepare for. Sometimes the course is given ampler scope. Just as the student of history, or economics, or science, should first take a general course that maps out the entire field within whose area later intensive courses shall lie, so there should be provided this general course dealing with the meaning of the school, the end to be accomplished, the qualifications of teachers, the chief problems of instruction and manage- ment. ‘The course should deal with the earlier school experiences of the student and the material gained from observing good teaching in the train- ing school. ‘This course should come in the first year and should develop at the outset the teacher-consciousness in the student. 2. Besides the term-credit in elementary psychology required in all teachers’ colleges, in the first year, we find numerous electives in this sub- ject usually in the third and fourth years. ‘These elective courses usually ’ deal with the psychology of young children, the special psychology of adolescents, the psychology of abnormal children, the psychology of the various branches of study. As many as six term-credits are offered in one institution. 3. A course in principles of teaching is required in all the institutions studied. Sometimes this study of classroom procedure is blended with the study of the aim of education and the educational values of the curricu- lum under the name of principles of education. Sometimes this study is taken up parallel to the practice teaching so that the difficult situations of the classroom shall give point and interest to the teaching devices discussed. The special study of intelligence tests and tests of educational progress is in most schools made a half-credit course in the third or fourth year. 4. School management in most teachers’ colleges finds a place in the second year, sometimes as a half-credit subject studied in connection with the practice teaching, more often as a full credit, when a greater importance is given to school hygiene and to the moral training resulting from wise school management. School organization, classification and promotion, the school program, school discipline and incentives, codperation with parents, the schoolroom, and the school playground are leading topics in this course. 5. School administration from the point of view of the superintendent and educational statesman occupies from one to three terms in the fourth vear of most teachers’ colleges. : That there should be an integrating course in education in which all the various elements of professional instruction and practice shall be brought into organic relation to the purpose of the school is recognized by most teachers’ colleges. Since it undertakes to unify the entire body of educa- tional doctrine this course has been called the Philosophy of Education, but of late years the tendency is to abandon this high-sounding title for the NATIONAL CouncIL oF EpucATION 553 less pretentious Principles of Education. Since the course involves an inquiry into educational values, the distinction between education for discipline and education for knowledge is discussed, and with it follows the inquiry, what knowledge is of most worth. ‘To answer this question re- quires an investigation of modern society and of those social needs that the school must satisfy. Hence this course in some institutions is labeled Educational Sociology. 6. When the liberal arts colleges of the country began to recognize that education as a subject of study is worthwhile, they usually began with the History of Education. Teachers’ colleges have frequently imitated them by introducing courses in this subject early in the curriculum. Such courses should come late for two good reasons. First, young people are not interested in the history of our institutions; they are interested in what our institutions are, and what to do with them. Second, one cannot read the history of education intelligently except in the light of educational theory. This study belongs in the senior year. Our teachers’ colleges are giving from one to three terms of it. The period from Comenius to Her- bert Spencer in European education and the development of American education receive chief attention. This deferring the History of Education till the senior year does not mean that our freshmen shall never hear of Pestalozzi or Thomas Arnold, of Horace Mann or Mary Lyon. Some educational biography should find a place early in the curriculum. 7. The chief component of our curriculum is courses in the subjects to be taught. Sometimes these courses are labeled Method in Arithmetic, Method in Geography, and the like, as if the method of a subject can be learned apart from the subject matter. Huxley once remarked, “It is idle to practice with knife and fork without vittles on the plate.” Much depends upon the teacher. If he has been bred in a good normal school, if he has been a student of education as well as of his special subject the method in his subject will appear. His own practice in teaching the sub- ject will be more powerful in determining the practice of his students than any precepts he may give them. 8. The universities whose entrance requirements determine high-school curriculums have placed little value upon the so-called schoolroom arts. High schools maintain the accredited relation without giving any instruc- tion in music, art, handicrafts, penmanship, or public speaking. Few col- leges would exclude a freshman although notoriously deficient in all these arts. Yet they all contribute largely to the efficiency of the teacher. In the elementary school they should not be subjects for specialists. Yet few teachers’ colleges are devoting to them the attention that their importance demands. 9. While the teachers’ college is a professional school and while its work should be characterized by that vital interest and singleness of aim that gives zest, purpose, and reality to the work of a professional school, its students should not be cut off from those liberal studies that young 554 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION people of promise pursue for their own sake. ‘There is an intellectual life that should be nourished without any regard to bread-and-butter returns. The so-called cultural studies in literature, science, history, politics, eco- nomics, and sociology that minister to the deeper interests of men and women should have ample space in the program. 10. Teachers’ colleges differ widely in the prominence of practice teach- ing. In some the training-school is recognized as the central core of the whole system. In the training-school is tested the work of every classroom. Students look forward with eager anticipation to the day when their real work will begin. The instructors who have genuine fitness for teachers’ college positions follow their students to their practice classes. “They cooperate with the training-school in perfecting its course of study. “They seek opportunities to observe the work and themselves to teach classes of children. } Shall the practice teaching consist of an hour a day extended through a year, or shall it be concentrated within a single term? For the first plan it is argued that the student who teaches but an hour a day can be held to his highest level of effort; that habits are more surely fixed by brief daily practice through many weeks than by extended daily practice through a few weeks; that the longer contact with the principles embodied in good practice insures their thorough mastery, and finally that the school program affords fewer difficulties when practice is spread throughout the year. The advocates of the single term of concentrated work point out that this plan makes it possible to approximate real school conditions where the teacher is responsible for the forward movement of the entire grade in several subjects. In this as in many other fields of thought and action we argue not to discover the truth, but to justify what we are doing. A small teachers’ college with a large training school on its campus usually adopts the first plan. The teachers’ colleges located in large cities, where training op- portunities are provided in the city-school system are using the second. The large teachers’ colleges usually neglect practice teaching because their facilities are inadequate. ‘To afford really adequate facilities there should be three times as many pupils in the training school as there are student teachers to receive such training. How much time may properly be assigned to each of these elements in the education of the teacher? Where the president and faculty of a teachers’ college are college-bred men and women, the teachers’ college is likely to approximate the traditional liberal arts college with undue emphasis upon foreign language and higher mathematics. "Teachers trained in normal schools or with extensive public-school experience are in danger of overvaluing the so-called professional studies. Hence we find as low as four term credits in psychology and education with one in practice teaching out of forty-eight credits representing the requirement in educa- tion. a te et hd NATIONAL CouNCcIL oF EpucATION 555 In the opinion of the writer, on the average twenty per cent of the teach- ers’ college curriculums should be devoted to psychology, general educa- tional courses, and practice teaching. For those intending to be super- visors and superintendents still more should be provided. ‘The program for elementary teachers should contain many courses in special method, school- room arts, and cultural studies. High-school teachers and special teachers need curriculums well loaded with the subject matter and special method of their subjects. “These only may profitably reduce their studies in educa- tion below the suggested twenty per cent. In conclusion it may be said that while there doubtless is for each type of student a best division of his time among the different groups of prepara- tory studies, no one of us at present is ready to declare with confidence just what that best division is. For the present it may be just as well to have the variety in practice that now obtains until by reason and by experi- ment we shall be able to settle a few of the points in dispute. Herbert Spencer tells us that in the progress toward truth there are three stages: the unanimity of the ignorant, the disagreement of the in- quiring, the unanimity of the wise. In the composition of the teachers’ college curriculum, we are plainly in the second stage. REPORT OF PROGRESS OF COMMITTEE ON PROBLEMS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION . ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, ACTING CHAIRMAN COMMITTEE ON VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. A committee to study problems of Vocational Education was designated at the Des Moines meeting of the National Council of Education, July, 1921, and the personnel determined as soon thereafter as possible. In naming the members of the committee two things were considered: (1) Their present relation to vocational programs of work; and (2) their loca- tion geographically to make a representative group. ‘The last condition has placed them remote from each other and from the chairman, so the work has progressed slowly, as personal conferences among the members of the committee were practically impossible and replies to correspondence have been delayed. A meeting of the committee was called during the sessions of the Na- tional Department of Superintendence in Chicago, February, 1922, but conflicting engagements or inability to, attend the Department meeting brought together a very small group. It was decided, however, at the meeting and by correspondence prior and subsequent to the meeting, to take up first the study of part-time education, and a number of bases from which such a study might be made were considered. It was the general opinion that no matter from what angle the study of part-time education was made there were certain objectives to keep in mind throughout the investigations: 556 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (1) Place and purpose of Part-time Education in a public-school pro- gram. (2) Optimum conditions under which to organize and maintain part- time schools and classes. (3) Best program of work as to: (a) Curricula, (b) plant and equip- ment, (c) methods of instruction, (d) teachers, and (e) evaluating results. It was further agreed to initiate the study of part-time education along the following lines: 1. Needs for. part-time education; 2. Financing part- time education; and 3. Contributions of part-time education. For the investigation of these problems three sub-committees from the membership of the full committee were created as follows: Sub-committee I—Needs for Part-time Education. Members: J. G. Collicott, Chairman, Columbus, Ohio; H. Lester Smith, Bloomington, Indiana; Sarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Massachusetts; and R. G. Jones, Cleveland, Ohio. Sub-committee [1—Financing Part-time Education. Members: Frank B. Gilbert, Chairman, Albany, New York; E. C. Brooks, Raleigh, North Carolina; Payson Smith, Boston, Massachusetts; and ‘Thomas E. Finegan, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Sub-committee [1I—Contributions of Part-time Education. Members: Chairman (to be named); Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Los Angeles, Cali- fornia; Jonathan Wagner, Las Vegas, New Mexico; and Agnes E. Doherty, St. Paul, Minnesota. Experts in part-time education were invited to cooperate with these sub- committees in the study of their problems. ‘Those who have accepted and are now actively cooperating with the sub-committees are: G. A. McGar- vey, Washington, D. C.; L. A. Wilson, Albany, New York; and Vierling Kersey, Los Angeles, California. While the chairman feels that important steps have been taken leading to the development of a valuable report, yet at this time only a report of organization and progress can be made. In the absence of J. G. Collicott, Chairman of the Sub-committee on Needs for Part-time Education, I am submitting for him the following assignments and plan of work: R. G. Jones, Cleveland, Ohio—(1) Need for reorganized courses for schools so as to meet individual differences; (2) Suggestive courses for general continuation and trade preparatory classes. Sarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Massachusetts—(1) Part-time classes for girls and women in the home—(a) city, (b) town, and (c) rural; and (2) Part-time courses for employéd girls and women above compulsory school age. Lester Smith, Bloomington, Indiana—(1) Investigate the requirements of compulsory attendance laws in the different States as to (a) Age when pupils may leave school, (4) School grade completed, and (c) Other con- ditions for leaving; (2) Number out on working certificates; (3) Enrol- ment in private schools, correspondence schools, and evening classes. NATIONAL CouNCcIL oF EpuUCATION 557 G. A. McGarvey, Washington, D. C.—(1) Need for trade extension work for boys and men—(a) What employers are doing, (&) Preparation of workers, (c) Types of classes. A note from Mr. McGarvey, who found it impossible to be present, gives the plan of study he has adopted for his assignment : 1. To make a comprehensive list of employers’ associations that are giving any form of extension work for their employees. Such a list should include classes for apprentices covering a definite period of time, and classes covering short periods of training. We are not aware of any compilation of this kind having been made heretofore. 2. To prepare in outline form, the length of the course of instruction, admittance to classes, and character of training. 3. To list these classes under the headings of codperative part-time, dull season part-time, or whatever other arrangement seems to predominate. A statement concerning the teacher and his training will be included. Plans for development of other assignments on this sub-committee have not yet been submitted. It was anticipated that plans for the work of the sub-committee on Financing Part-time Education would be presented at this time either by the Chairman of the sub-committee or a duly authorized representative, but it has been impossible for anyone to be present for that purpose and no report was sent the Chairman of the full committee. In the absence of a permanent Chairman for the sub-committee on Con- tributions of Part-time Education the work has not yet been thoroughly organized. As chairman of the full committee on Problems of Vocational Education, I assumed this responsibility until a permanent chairman could be appointed. In organizing a tentative program for this study, | asked members of the sub-committee to make local investigations as follows: In Los Angeles, Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey ; in Pennsylvania or Massachusetts, J. H. Wagner; in Wisconsin, Agnes E. Doherty. The outline submitted to these members as a suggestive guide is as follows: 1. Length of time part-time program has been in operation. 2. Number of youths that have been reached by the program. 3. Number of youths returned to full-time schools who should un- questionably be there. 4. Number of youths to whose vocational advancement part-time edu- cation has contributed. 5. Number of those who have profited by the vocational guidance ren- dered through part-time schools. 6. Contributions of part-time education to the placement of youth in wage-earning pursuits. ons 7. Report of any studies made as to the contribution of part-time edu- cation to the lessening of juvenile delinquency. 8. Specific instances of better adjustment of youth to home life through part-time education. 9. Specific instances of better adjustment of youth to industry through part-time education. 558 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 10. Specific instances of better adjustment of youth to social and recrea- tional life. 11. Number or per cent of youth who voluntarily remain in part-time schools after the age limit has been reached. 12. Contributions of part-time education in the public schools that could not be made by turning all of this work over to industry. 13. The value of productive work accomplished in the part-time school, that might be considered of money value. 14. Instances of leadership qualities of a higher type brought out and applied in a better way. Vierling Kersey, director. of part-time education, Los Angeles, is co- operating with Mrs. Dorsey in her part of the work. Part-time education in the public schools, especially as a widespread national organization, is so new that a computation of returns as to its contributions, based on a definite scientific inquiry, is not yet available, but a number of localities including Los Angeles, in which the organiza- tion is only two years old, is endeavoring to keep in touch with the move- ments of the students enrolled and determine what contributions part-time education is making to the individual and to society in general. Mrs. Dorsey is present and will report on the preliminary study made for Los Angeles. CONTRIBUTIONS OF PART-TIME EDUCATION IN LOS ANGELES MRS. SUSAN M. DORSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA Los Angeles has been especially successful in interpreting the advantages cf part-time education to parents and employers and in gaining their co- cperative support. Of all the benefits that have come from this work, with the exception of the help to the individual student, none have exceeded the understanding gained by employers of the difficulties and perplexities of young children who are forced into business and industry; the importance of a sympathetic codperation of the employer in helping to adjust the young employee to his task and the ultimate advantage to both employer and em- ployee of the educational assistance given the latter in part-time work. In order to secure the good-will of employers, a distinct effort has been made from the beginning to adjust the training, so far as it related to the particular business task of the individual employee, to his every-day practi- cal needs. For instance, the arithmetic lesson given young girls employed in drygoods stores has been designed to meet the actual problems of the counter; materials have been carried to the classroom to explain textiles and fabrics; lessons have been given in business etiquette and morality, the latter being linked with civic morality as well; the care of the health has been emphasized with reference to the particular occupation, and similar NATIONAL CouNCIL OF EDUCATION 559 up-to-the-minute lesson aids have been adapted to the actual work of the student. Employers have sensed the benefits and reciprocated with sym- pathetic support of the part-time movement.. One great difficulty in Los Angeles is the vast extent of the school district which covers more than nine hundred square miles and a consequent diversity in schools ranging all the way from a one-room country school to a metropolitan high school with thousands of students. This situation makes necessary both a centralized and a de-centralized system, so that in the heart of the business district, where is found the largest number of students, they are grouped in one large centralized school; in a busi- ness suburb is located the Goodyear Rubber Factory, for which a single unit of instruction is provided in the plant itself, while in the remote San Fernando Valley fruit region are located isolated canneries and fruit- packing houses in each of which a student group is cared for either in the place of the industry itself or in some near-by room. Still another variation within the limits of the school district is the town where another part-time unit must be established; examples of this are San Pedro and Sawtelle. In a study of 1673 part-time students, there has been in one year a 135 per cent of promotions ranging variously, 352 young people having received one promotion, and seventy-nine having received four or more promotions. These promotions have involved an advance to a higher grade of employ- ment with more responsibility or an increase in salary on the original job. One hundred eighty-five students have in one school year under the influence of individual attention and because of a new. outlook on school life returned to school to complete the secondary course; 4 per cent, be- cause of assistance received in the part-time classes, have remained in those classes after reaching the age when they were entitled to discontinue the work, even continuing to the age of twenty-one years. Out of the above-mentioned 1673 students, 251 have received definite vocational guidance. Employers who are seeking young help are now turn- ing to the part-time office for suggestions. One hundred twenty-five estab- lishments employ all their junior help through the part-time department. Several of the students have been employed in the elementary schools for minor clerical positions. The report shows that each instructor has made thirty-five home visits each month. ‘This together with the extra work involved in making out lesson helps (the actual textbooks of the classes) makes the position of the part-time teacher no sinecure. Great attention is given to instruction designed to help these young people make a wise use of their leisure time, in the cultivation of the power to discriminate between wholesome and dangerous diversions, in a word to create a desire for the best in recreation. The fact that a good degree of leisure time is coupled with the independence of earning one’s own living creates a problem for young workers in cities. The leisure time of the young person who earns money, and thereby is able to control to a 560 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION degree his own expenditures, becomes a real menace unless the taste has been cultivated to appreciate the best in recreational diversions. In order to cement the department and to create a feeling of comrade- ship among the students, there is issued a sort of school paper, containing information of value to students and employers. It is a difficult matter to say how far part-time instruction prevents delinquency. It must, however, be conceded as more difficult for the young to go wrong when they have the daily restraining influence of an older teacher and friend whom they respect and when they are receiving constant assistance in their tasks so that work grows less discouraging and an honorable, self-respecting, and self-helping life becomes more attractive. RECENT ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN THE CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS ANNA A. KLOSS, STATE AGENT TEACHER TRAINING IN HOUSEHOLD ARTS SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS Continuation schools were made compulsory by referendum vote in November, 1919. ‘The law requires the establishment of continuation schools in localities where two hundred minors, 14 to 16 years of age, are employed during the calendar year. When employed, minors are required to attend school four hours per week between the hours of 8 and 5 on Monday to Friday inclusive. When unemployed, they are required to attend school for twenty hours during the week. In September, 1920, forty-four localities opened these schools at a period when housing conditions were most difficult because of the retarded build- ing program. In June, 1921, one of these schools was dropped and in September four were added, making a total during 1921-22 of forty-seven localities maintaining continuation schools. From point of view of the girls’ work, these schools may be classified under three types: the large schools requiring four or more full-time women teachers; the two-teacher school, in which one teacher is qualified for all phases of homemaking instruction and the other for academic teaching ; and the one-teacher school, where one teacher—qualified preferably as a homemaking teacher—teaches also academic subjects. Approximately two thirds of the schools in the State are of types two and three. The progress made in the continuation schools over this period is com- mendable when it is realized that it has been necessary to demonstrate the value of the training to the child, the home, the employer, and the com- munity. This has been accomplished largely through the concerted efforts of the school authorities and teachers, working with the homes and employ- ers in an effort to determine the girl’s aptitudes, the vocational opportuni- ties in the vicinity, with the resulting vocational training which in many NATIONAL CoUNCIL OF EDUCATION 561 instances has raised the child in her position, or when advisable returned her to school. Because of certain well-defined policies and features of the continuation schools this accomplishment has been facilitated. The continuation teacher aims to give individual attention to every girl, since the numbers in all classes are limited to fifteen, the teacher giving twenty hours of instruction and ten hours of follow-up work in the home and place of employment every week. Well qualified teachers under thirty-five years of age (men for boys’ classes and women for girls’ classes) have been selected who have an inter- est in the child in industry, and have a vision and understanding with ability to guide children intelligently. The project method of instruction is used largely. All work must be planned in short units so that every girl shall receive worthwhile, and in so far as possible, completed instruction every week, because of the fluctuating enrolment in continuation schools. Definite attention has been given the recreational program so that in many communities achievement classes in worthwhile subjects have been organized and taught by competent instructors. Social clubs where girls are taught how to play, out-door clubs with interests in hiking, baseball, or basketball, have accomplished commendable results. Speaking from the point of view of the girls’ work, in every locality homemaking opportunities have been offered which include certain work in clothing, food, care of children, first aid and homenursing, care in man- agement of the house, laundry work, and other problems; in certain com- munities commercial training, store service, power machine operating, and other training which a survey of the community shows to be advisable. The introduction of such a program in certain localities has had a noticeable effect on the training in the regular schools. This richer curriculum has interested for the most part every girl regardless of her attitude towards school when first she entered continuation work. This practical instruction is given from fifty to seventy-five per cent of the time depending upon the need of the girls. During the remainder of the time training is given in citizenship, hygiene, English, arithmetic, and use of leisure time. Work in citizenship emphasizes her civic obligations which include the responsibility of an employee and employer. The hygiene is taught from the practical, personal standpoint of the girl, includ- ing such homely discussions as daily habits conducive to care of health. The English emphasizes oral expression, the appreciation of good literature, and lastly the written expression. A minimum of arithmetic is taught and only that which the girl will need. The use of leisure time is varied and influenced by the advantages of the locality. The continuation schools, because of the merits of their work, are serv- ing in certain localities as a source for juvenile employees. It often happens that an employer will call the school asking for a girl for a certain job. The school learns the nature of the job and then gives special 562 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION instruction to that girl preparatory to and in conjunction with the position. The continuation school aims first to help the girl, then the home, then the employer. It is possible to accomplish this aim only through the con- stant study, through follow-up work by intelligent teachers, of the needs of the girl in her home and employment. The employers throughout the State have been most helpful and generous in their support of this work by their candid, sympathetic suggestions. We feel that in Massachusetts we have made only a beginning in the training of the 14 to 16 year-old minors, but that these initial years have made a splendid foundation for further development of the work in part- time education. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RACIAL WELL-BEING HELEN C. PUTNAM, CHAIRMAN, PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND The committee reports the awarding of two honorariums and two honor- able mentions to studies selected out of eleven made by groups being grad- uated for teaching, these resulting from its three announcements. The first award, made in 1917, was $100 to a group in a two-year normal school, Wisconsin State Normal School at Milwaukee, the work being done under the guidance of Miss Amelia McMinn, teacher of civics. The second honorarium, $250, was given in 1918 to a group in the department of psychology at the University of Wyoming, under the guid- ance of Dr. June E. Downey. The honorable mentions were given to a class in education at the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst; and to the senior class of La Crosse State Normal School, Wisconsin, both in 1917. The judges have been Dr. Charles B. Davenport, of the Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island; Dr. H. E. Walter, of the department of biology at Brown University; Mrs. Henrietta W. Calvin, of the Federal Bureau of Education; William M. Davidson, Superin- tendent of Schools, Pittsburgh. Dr. Davidson wrote in 1917: “I commend most heartily the plan of laboratory work your committee has instituted in connection with normal institutions, and congratulate you on the results. Each of the theses is not only highly creditable but is full of encouragement to all those who have faith to believe that the Normal School itself, as a great laboratory experi- ment in the preparation of teachers, is serving the public schools of the country efficiently and well.” Two other judges believe better studies should be produced. The details of the work are given in the latest announcement (1920) which differs in no important point from the preceding two announcements except that the highest honorarium is $1000, and the lowest $250; and that it is made to all institutions preparing for teaching, instead of to specified NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION 563 sections of the country. ‘This announcement, reprinted from the N. EF. 4. Bulletin, April, 1917, reads as follows: THE WELL-BORN Four Thousand Dollars for Studies It is as much the duty of educators to assure through educational pro- cedures that individuals shall be well-born as that they shall be well-reared. The Committee of the National Council of Education appointed by President Aley in 1916 to study methods of promoting the idea of racial well-being awarded honorariums offered in 21 States in 1917 and 1918. War demands so reduced senior classes that work was temporarily suspended. ‘The committee now offers ‘its final awards in all States as follows for 1921-1922: The committee has been given a fund to be used to help place popular ideals of racial well-being above commercial ideals and above individualism. It offers six recognitions of merit to graduating classes of 1922 in State normal institutions ; and in departments (or courses) of education (including psychology), of home economics and of biology, in colleges (including agricultural) and universities: (Group A) $250 to each of three classes graduating in 1922 that have had a two- year normal course based on high-school graduation; (Group B) $1000 to three classes graduating in 1922 that have had a four-year normal course based on high- school graduation; or classes graduating in 1922 from colleges or universities with courses four years in length, that have had at least two years in education (includ- ing psychology), or two years in home economics, or in biology (including zoology, etc.). These honorariums will be awarded for the best codperative studies by classes, of the proposition, It is as much the duty of educators to assure through educational procedures that individuals shall be well-born as that they shall be well-reared. Suggestions to two-year normal classes—What educational and social facts bear on the proposition? That individuals may be well-born, how can school affect physical condition of pupil, habits, intelligence, life-work, ideal of responsibility for inheritance passed on to the next generation? How can this ideal be impressed wisely in nature-studies, garden work, personal hygiene, school housekeeping, recreations, civics, history? Suggestions to more advanced classes—What is the testimony of facts (and statistics) of history, wars, criminals, defectives, morbidity, mortality, birth rates, poverty, alcoholism, conservation and waste? How can the idea in the proposition be developed in primary, grammar, high, special, vocational schools, in continua- tion and extension instruction for adolescents and adults, so as to result in lessened rates of morbidity, of early mortality, of illegitimacy, of infanticide, and of life failures, as disclosed by the Federal census? Should this be one of the definite ideals to motivate public schools? General suggestions—It is desired that all classes understand the elementary form of Mendel’s theory of inheritance of unit characters with special reference to mental defectives. It is specially asked that each class submit a piece of original experimentation or investigation bearing on the proposition—for example, work with children in practice or other schools; study of a related social detail in village, county, ward, or city; critical analysis of curriculums, and the like. A study of a single family, especially one showing a well-marked trait, is a valuable educational exercise. Standard outlines for such can be had by writing to the chairman. An outline for “study of the self” which includes the above family outline can also be had. The outline for a proposed research may be sent to the chairman who will secure the advice of a specialist on the Advisory Committee of Specialists for the purpose of making it as useful as possible. It is recommended that sub-topics be assigned individuals or groups to work up, and that the long vacation be utilized. The final study must be composite, representing the class. A dissenting minority may present its reasons separately, not exceeding one thousand words. Requirements—Notice of intention to make this study should be sent to the mem- ber of the committee from whom this invitation is received not later than January 564 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION 15, 1921; length of manuscripts from two-year normals 4000 to 6000 words, from all others 5000 to 8000 words, tables not included; concise summary not exceeding 300 words; six typed copies; each copy strictly anonymous, but having in upper left corner of first page a pen name, name of the group to which it belongs, and number of students cooperating, e. g., “Progress,” Group A, 21 codperating. Each package is to hold a sealed envelope bearing the pen name and containing the address of the person to whom the honorarium may be sent. Manuscripts are to be with clerk of committee, Ida P. Greenman, 1022 Hospital Trust Building, Providence, R. I., not later than April 1, 1922. . ; Successful studies—Studies are rated as follows: Experimentation 40 points, research 20 points, accuracy, definiteness, coéperation of departments, and mechani- cal appearance each ten points. Awards and honorable mentions will be an- nounced before commencement in 1918. The committee reserves the right to give none when no study is found of sufficient merit. Successful studies become the property of the committee and may be published. One copy of each of the others will be retained by the committee, the remaining five copies being returned- to the sender when a request is accompanied by the necessary postage within three months after awards are announced. HELEN C. Putnam, Providence, R. I., Chairman SusAN Miter Dorsey, Los Angeles, Calif. Mary C. C. Braprorp, Denver, Colo. FLETCHER B. Dressxiar, Nashville, Tenn. Carroiu G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis. The committee does not publish at this time the successful studies, there being but two. A larger variety is wanted since it is essentially desirable to secure more examples of independent original lines of reasoning and experimentation. The studies first published will have much influence in setting the pace for less enterprising recruits to the profession. The committee was invited to send a delegate to the Second International Congress of Eugenics September, 1921, at New York, and did so, the chairman serving. There is still available over $3500 for honorariums. ‘The committee therefore recommends that it be continued. It also recommends that the Journal of the Association be requested to publish the official announce- ment of the studies invited as promptly as possible after its receipt. PRELIMINARY REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THE STATUS OF THE AMERICAN WOMAN TEACHER ANNA LAURA FORCE, CHAIRMAN, DENVER, COLORADO A question and answer of vital interest to those concerned with public- school education is the status of the American woman teacher. Histori- cally, the ninteenth century movement of the expansion of the economic and professional activities of women outside domestic limits coincided with the development and expansion of the public schools. Large num- bers of women became teachers when they were needed because of social tradition of the relation of women and children and the fact that the service of women could be procured more cheaply than that of men. So - the rapid increase of women teachers in elementary and secondary schools NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EpuCcATION 565 may be ascribed to low standards of compensation. ‘The theory of democ- racy would seem to demand a place for the woman teacher, but not for the exclusion of man. Equal pay for equal work does not affect a few men teachers only. This is a question of economics wide, deep, and far-reaching. Woman has proved in the last generation that she is not inferior to man, just different. ‘The laborer is worthy of his hire. Eventually, however, wage will be regu- lated by law of supply and demand. In June the sweet girl graduate holds the center of the stage. She out- numbers the boys. While the poet is tuning his lyre, the statistician wants to know what becomes of maiden in cap and gown. It is claimed that 47 per cent marry at an average age of twenty-six years. In the old days a well-bred and well-educated woman could teach, and she could do nothing else. Nowadays many professions are open to her. The professions bid fair to rival teaching, as there are few that are not undertaken by women. According to recent statistics the list of occupa- tions followed by seniors of women’s colleges are art, art-craft, journalism, science and research, library, music, drama, secretarial and social service, and foreign missions. Few professions or occupations today exclude women. Women are no longer hampered by sex. Efficiency of service rendered is more important than question of sex. Owing to the large number of women employed in public-school teaching, the wide territory over which they are scattered, the inadequate preparation of most of them, and the short period of service that is characteristic of the professional life of a teacher, it is difficult to maintain a thoroughly well-organized professional consciousness expressing itself in recognition of professional ideals and in a code of professional ethics. The fundamental conditions of professional service are found in the changing nature of educational problems. The chief work of the teacher today is to adjust to a constantly changing and growing human nature, and meet the needs of an evolving social life. The character of the pro- fession must be progressive rather than traditional, thoughtful rather than habitual. To become mechanical is at once to cease to be professional. The essence of professional practice lies in its artful concrete adjustment to constantly varying situations, problems, or crises requiring invention of new technique or modification of methods. Skill acquired through practical apprenticeship will not provide the required flexibility. ‘There must be broader training in basal subjects that will interpret educational factors, and a study of the “philosophy of education that will emphasize assumptions, relations, and principles.” All educational work must be expert service. “The teacher does not deal with knowledge and truth. She deals with the personal and social value of truth. Besides adequate scholarship, superior attitudes and ideals must be added. ‘The former is transmitted by pedagogical technique, the latter by personal influence through unconscious methods. Teaching has a social significance not attained by other kinds of work 566 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION with a consciousness focused on social welfare rather than personal profit. Teachers do more to earn, or fail to earn, their personal living. ‘They incidentally and eventually affect large and fundamental matters, such as the state of civilization, morality of a generation, social potentialities of individuals taught. Many of the women, also men, now teaching in the public schools of the United States have never had any professional training in preparation for teaching. Preparation required in most urban schools is two years beyond the high school; in rural communities frequently less than high- school education is accepted. Because of the inadequate training of those who begin teaching and because those who succeed in any line of endeavor continue to be students © of their field, a large part of the training is secured after they enter service. The degree of training demanded of those who enter the profession will continue to increase. “The improvement of those who supervise and direct the work of teachers must be regarded as of primary importance. In fact the responsibility of teacher training in service is the problem of the ad- ministrative officers and supervisors. When the leaders are adequately trained a higher degree of efficiency upon part of those supervised by them may be expected. The rural teacher, with her inexperience and lack of preparation, is the real problem when the status of the American woman teacher is considered. Reorganization of State systems is the only means of bringing about better administration whereby schools may receive the same consideration as city schools. Educational legislation and revision of taxation laws seem to be the only remedy. In this study of the Status of the American Woman Teacher it is the purpose of the committee to. collect data through questionnaires sent to superintendent, director of rural schools, supervisor or director of normal schools, department of education in colleges, women’s colleges, educational department of women’s clubs, or a member of the medical fraternity. Questionnaires will be prepared to consider the following conditions: 1. Preparation— (1) Number of years schooling. (2) Type of institution attended. (3) Major and minor subjects taken in college. (4) Degrees received. 2. Culture— (1) What she reads. (2) Whether she has traveled in this country or abroad. (3) What she does with her vacations, (4) Whether she belongs to any clubs other than teachers’ clubs, any societies or associations other than teachers’ associations. (5) Relation to civic affairs. (6). Spiritual life. Identification with some church. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 567 3. Economic status. (1) Number of persons in family when she entered school. (2) When she graduated. (3) Estimate of the annual income of family during the time she was in school. (4) Number of persons that were wholly or partly dependent upon her. (5) Salary— (a) Amount she is able to save. (6) Actual living expenses. (c) Amount put aside in investment and insurance. (d) Annual increases in recognition of professional study. (e) Retirement fund. (6) Conservation of teachers’ health in observance of hygiene of teaching. 4, Professional status— (1) Study of revision of curricula. (2) Conferences of supervision council. (3) Participation in school-building program. (4) Nature of supervision and character of criticism. (5) Meetings attended and nature of discussions. (6) Teacher rating by whom, how? (a) For what purpose? (7) More select group through vocational guidance. (8) Recognition in salary schedule of hours of credit for summer school and extension courses. THE STATUS OF THE AMERICAN WOMEN TEACHERS The attached questionnaire concerning the Status of the American Women Teachers was sent to superintendents in all of the cities of the United States above 100,000 in population. ‘Twenty-four replies were received. The replies were tabulated and the results set forth as indicated. In other words the twenty-four replies received give the average per cent of women teachers belonging to the group that has fallen behind in pro- fessional training as twenty-seven. The total number of teachers in- volved in these replies, and upon which the 27 per cent is based, is 9858. Of the total number of replies received, one answers “cynical, 13 “sympathetic,” and 8 “Gndifferent,” and so on through the questionnaire. All superintendents agree that those teachers should be retained who were considered the best ten years ago, but now are far behind in formal preparation for meeting new demands. For those who have been long ‘a the service some way should be found by which their services may be used. Provision of retirement funds should be made if there is no present established law. 568 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Rehabilitation by means of constructive supervision and extension courses are recommended where ability and desire for improvement on part of teachers are shown. One superintendent however believes that teachers lose more by extension courses than by conserving all their energies for the work they are engaged in. Some think that indifference should be overcome by diplomacy, not coercion. The replies of the superintendents who answered questionnaire con- cerning the ranking of types of teachers designated with respect to efficiency, indicated a diversity of opinion. The majority give preference to ‘Type Two, “Women who are not conscious of a marriage motive but who expect to give their lives to the work of the school teacher. Type One, “Young women who hope or expect to terminate their teaching work by marriage in the course of a few years,” receives second place in estimate of superin- tendents who answered questionnaire. ‘Type Five, “Widows who have returned to the teaching profession with the intention of remaining in it,” is given third place. A slight preference is given to the type of married women teachers who expect to remain in the profession a long time and do not have to support husband, children, or relatives. Responsibilities of those who have others to support divide interest, but not more perhaps than social engagements do of the unmarried. Widows are approved, pro- vided they have not been out of teaching too long. They do not differ greatly from types one and two. Some superintendents believe that mar- riage has nothing to do with efficiency. They believe that teaching ability is more dependent upon inherent qualities than on accident of marriage. So much depends upon individual attitude. The marriage motive, conscious or unconscious, is practically universal. One superintendent believes that the ranking of such types is not a basis for discrimination. Replies as to social status of teacher show that the teacher is becoming more of a factor in the social life of the community. Women’s clubs as a rule welcome the teacher, but lack of common interest, hours of teachers’ service, and for class reasons in some instances, teachers are unable to take part in the activities of women’s clubs. However, in some places women’s clubs boast of a large membership of teachers and solicit their support and cooperation. It is gratifying to note that a very large per cent of the women teachers do take their work seriously, and it is the opinion of all who replied that there is an improvement over conditions of ten years ago. QUESTIONNAIRE CONCERNING THE STATUS OF AMERICAN WoMEN TEACHERS (Total number replies, 24) To the City School Superintendents: In recent years we have had such a rapid advance in teaching theories that much higher demands are now being made in the way of teacher quali- fications. This movement has come on so suddenly that many teachers who were considered to be the best ten years ago are now far behind in NATIONAL CouNCcIL oF EDUCATION 569 formal preparation for meeting the new demands. About what per cent of your women teachers belong to this group? 27 per cent. About how many teachers does this per cent represent? 9858. Which of the following adjectives describes the attitude of these teachers as a group toward the higher qualification requirements which are being set up? Show by check. 1 answers “Cynical” 13 answer “Sympathetic” 8 answer “Indifferent.” By check indicate which of the following statements expresses your view as to what consideration should be shown this group in any school system. 1. They should be dismissed at once on the principle that they are too far behind to catch up in a reasonable time and the educational welfare of the pupils sub- ordinates all other considerations. 0. 2. Because of services rendered in the past combined with what they are yet able to do, they should be retained even if they never catch up in professional training and scholarship. 6. 3. They should be retained only if they take advantage of opportunities through extension courses, summer schools, leaves of absence for study, etc. in order to meet present professional training demands. 13. The following questions are submitted in an effort to get a collective opinion from superintendents concerning the professional spirit of women teachers in general: 1. Without reference to your local situation but inferred from your general observations about what per cent of the women teachers do not take their work seriously. 17 per cent. 2. Do you consider your answer to the above question to represent an improve- ment over the condition of ten years ago? No, 5. Yes, 18. TYPES OF WOMEN TEACHERS Designate by numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) the ranking you would make of the following types of women teachers with respect to efficiency : 1. Young women who hope or expect to terminate their teaching work by _marriage in the course of a few years. 8 give rating of 2 6 give rating of 3 1 gives rating of 4 2 give rating of 5 2. Women who are not conscious of a marriage motive, but who expect to give their lives to the work of the school teacher. 15 give rating of 1 1 gives rating of 3 1 gives rating of 5 3. Married women who expect to remain in the profession for a long time, but who do not have to support husbands or other relatives. 2 give rating of 1 4 give rating of 2 4 give rating of 3 1 gives rating of 4 4 give rating of 5 570 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION 4. Married women who have husbands, children, or other relatives to support. 2 give rating of 1 3 give rating of 2 3 give rating of 3 4 give rating of 4 2 give rating of 5 5. Widows who have returned to the teaching profession with the intention of remaining in it. 7 give rating of 1 5 give rating of 2 5 give rating of 3 SOCIAL STATUS About what per cent of your women teachers, would you estimate, take a part in the social life of the community to an extent equal to that taken by any other group of cultured women? 53 per cent. ; Do you feel that, generally speaking, the women’s clubs of the community do not welcome the teacher because of her financial status? Yes, 4. No, 17. : Do you feel that the woman teacher is becoming more of a factor in the social life of the community? 19. Less of a factor? 2. June 19, 1922. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE STATUS OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHER, A SUB-COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION COMMITTEE ON THE STATUS OF TEACHERS CORNELIA S. ADAIR, CHAIRMAN, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA Since the question of the Status of the Classroom Teacher in the United States is such a broad one the chairman of this sub-committee has decided to treat the subject from one aspect only, that of the attitude of the teachers themselves toward their own status. To that end questionnaires were sent out to organized groups of classroom teachers, to individual teachers, and to superintendents with the request that they be given to classroom teachers. Three copies of the questionnaires were sent in each letter, to be filled out respectively by a teacher of two, ten, and more than ten years’ experience. The request met with a generous response and answers are still coming in. This is the questionnaire with such answers as admit of numerical tabu- lation. An interpretation follows: QUESTIONNAIRE ON STATUS OF CLASSROOM TEACHER A. Professional Status. I. Is teaching in your part of the country ranked with other professions? State reasons. 1. By teachers themselves? Yes, 27; No, 29. 2. By members of other professions? Wiesel sr NOwm2bs 3. By other citizens? Yes, 14; No, 26. 4. What place has the teacher in your community— (a) In civic life? Good, 23; Poor, 19. (b) In social life? Good, 19; Poor, 22. NATIONAL CouNCcIL oF EDUCATION ‘sya II. Are teachers loyal— 1. To each other? Yes, 37; No, 13. 2. To their own organized group? Yes, 38; No, 8. 3. To the system as a whole? Yes, 38; No, 4. 4. How may the spirit of loyalty be fostered? Sa 1. Is your organization such as to develop the “group spirit”? Yes, 30; 0, 4. 2. How are the best ideas of the individual teacher made available to the group and to the system as a whole? B. Teacher Training in Service. IE How have you adapted your new salary scale to experienced teachers whose certificates do not meet present requirements? II. How are teachers in service being trained? 1. By school authorities? 2. By teachers themselves? 3. How is the teacher’s work rated? C. Finance. I. Has your salary scale been revised in 1921-22? If so, why? II. Salary Maximum Minimum Winsrancing Senwole estos Boaxqooco am aon Bieta Gaia ssogaesnsndeecssocaruee — yg) ate het ae Remarks: NERO os Rote ClO RR ae Seer bee eee ate Question A I will be interpreted from the negative point of view. ‘The following reasons were assigned for the lack of professional rating: lack of tenure, no proper system of cooperation. between branches of the service, tradition, lack of leadership among the teachers, faulty systems of super- vision, the failure upon the part of the public to realize the high standard of education required of those entering the profession, lack of trained teachers, the factory idea. Various reasons were given by the teachers for their belief, but all agreed that the teacher’s own attitude toward her own profession was the most vital factor in influencing the attitude of others. A number of teachers regretted that more teachers did not take an active part in civic and social life. ‘The common reason assigned was lack of time. A II. A great majority of teachers felt that teachers were loyal to each other, their own organized group, and to the school system as a whole. All felt that teachers’ organizations developed the “group spirit.” A III. Many interesting answers came to the question, “How may the spirit of loyalty be fostered?” All of these answers may be summarized in this statement, “(Give teachers an opportunity to cooperate in the admin- istration of school affairs. Let them help build up the system, and loyalty naturally follows. This can be done only through organization.” Only through organization and codperation in administration may the best ideas of the individual teacher be made available to the group and the system as a whole. B72 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION B I. Experience was the chief basis in the adoption of the new salary scales. Coupled with this was the statement that no new teachers would be employed who did not come up to the minimum educational require- ments. Five cities proudly stated that they had no teachers who did not come up at least to the minimum requirements. B II. With the increase in salaries came an obligation for better service. Many methods of teacher training in service are being used. Chief among these methods are: Extension classes, summer schools, lectures, profes- sional reading, institutes, supervision. In many places increased pay be- yond the maximum (a super-maximum) was based on college credit. Both teachers’ organizations and school authorities favor teacher training in service. B II 3. Everywhere the teachers were rated by the supervisors or the supervisors and principals. ‘There was one interesting contribution. In Delaware teachers have a share in rating themselves. C I. Only one city reported a revision decreasing salaries in 1921-22, as against seven that reported increases. ‘Three cities, Denver, Colorado, Spokane, Washington, and St. Joseph, Missouri, reported a single-salary scale. e This report is in no sense final. The chairman wishes the privilege of continuing her study in order to report at a later date. PRELIMINARY REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON TEACHER WELFARE JOHN W. CARR, CHAIRMAN, FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY At the Des Moines meeting of the National Council of Education, a chairman of a Committee on Teacher Welfare was appointed, and the President of the Council was authorized to appoint other members of the committee. ‘There were no instructions given as to what this committee should do and no funds placed at its disposal. So far, three members of the committee have been appointed: Mary S. Mulligan, of Ohio; David B. Corson, of New Jersey; and John W. Carr, of Kentucky. It submits the following brief report and asks for further instruction. Teacher Welfare is a broad and general expression, difficult to define. As ordinarily used it has to do with salaries, tenure, pensions, terms of em- ployment, conditions under which teachers work at school, living conditions provided for them in the communities where they are employed, rewards other than money which they should receive, opportunities for growth and development, and a chance to achieve some of the highest and best things in life. ‘Teacher welfare has to do with money, health, work, recreation, home life, creature comforts, and a number of other things which affect teachers as individuals and as a group. We have asked ourselves two questions: (1) What specific thing do we wish to do? and (2) What means shall we employ to attain our ob- jective? NATIONAL CouNCIL oF EDUCATION SHS: The specific thing we wish to attain is the actual betterment of the con- ditions of teachers as individuals and as a group—betterment of as many teachers as possible in as many ways as possible and to the greatest extent possible. We wish to get things done for teachers which will promote their health, increase their bank accounts, give them sanitary and com- fortable places in which to work, provide for them decent and homelike places in which to live—in a word make them more important folk in the community and as a result more efficient servants of the community. There is already a number of committees at work on certain phases of teacher welfare, as for example, the committees on salaries, tenure, and pensions. ‘The Committee on Teacher Welfare should not attempt to duplicate the work of any of these committees, but it should strive to find ways and means for carrying into operation the recommendations of such committees as those referred to above. The chief work of this committee would be to form organizations and to keep in touch with organizations whose chief aim is to promote the welfare of teachers. If such work is undertaken, a large committee on teacher welfare should be appointed—a committee consisting of at least one member from each State. It would be necessary to appoint or to secure the appointment through State teachers’ associations of State committees on teacher welfare. Local committees would be necessary also in the larger and more important communities. The particular work of these committees would be to pro- mote the welfare of teachers in various ways. Sometimes this would be accomplished through legislation, more often through the action of boards of education, but ultimately through public opinion. It would be necessary to have a program. This would change from time to time and be in different stages of development in different places. It is not necessary to attempt to outline such a program in detail, but it would have to do with better salaries, securer tenure, more adequate pro- visions for the care of the aged and incapacitated members of the profession ; better living conditions for teachers—teacherages, suitable rooming and boarding places and such social privileges as men and women of character and refinement are entitled to receive; better working conditions relative to terms of employment, and care and sanitary condition of school build- ings in which they work; means for protecting the rights of teachers—legal and professional; better code of professional ethics more generally ob- served. ‘These and kindred topics might well be included in the program for teacher welfare. If the committee is continued, it should not only be enlarged, but it should be made a standing committee with adequate funds to carry out its program. It is impossible for this committee to do much in a year or two, but worthwhile accomplishments can be made only by continuous work. The membership should change from time to time but the com- mittee should be continued as long as it does effective work. Its reports should not be essays on professional topics, but a summary of actual achieve- ments. 574 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The committee should have necessary funds at its command to enable -it to carry on its work. A large appropriation is not needed at first, may never be needed. Members of the committee should be expected to give their services free, but funds should be provided for clerical assistance and other necessary expenses. This report is submitted with the recommendation that the Council give it such consideration and take such acticn as it deems proper. Department of Business Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President—Ciay D. Suiinxer, Director of Business Education...........- Des Moines, Iowa Secretary—G. F. Knippratu, Head of the Bookkeeping and Accounting Department, Technical High SHO OL eee ere ere teee teers eae erarar en: ciohes sor suofoh onelve: esehens le (elalslier gitersue ters: ote Omaha, Nebraska Chairman—Raymonv G. Larrp, Principal Roxbury High School............-- Boston, Mass. First Session—Monpay AFTERNOON, JULY 3, 1922 The Department of Business Education of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Monday afternoon, July 3, 1922, at 2:00 P. M., in Room 43 of Boston University, at 688 Boylston Street, Boston, Massachusetts. The meeting was called to order by Raymond G. Laird, chairman. The following addresses were given: TRAINING OF THE PENMANSHIP TEACHER OF THE Next DecapEe—Bertha A. Connor, Director of Penmanship, Boston Public Schools, Boston, Mass. CobPERATION BETWEEN Civic ORGANIZATIONS AND ScHooL AurTHoritizs—Karl F. Adams, Principal of Lincoln High School, Seattle, Wash. PLACEMENT ProsLEMs—Eleanor J. O’Brien, Department of Vocational Guidance, Boston, Mass. Tue Next STeps In CoMMERCIAL EpucaTion—Frederick G. Nichols, Director of Commercial Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. SECOND SESSION—WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 5, 1922 The meeting was called to order by Chairman Laird. ‘The following addresses were given: PurTInc THE SHORT IN SHORTHAND—Edina Campbell, Principal of the Hickox Shorthand School, Boston, Mass. TRAINING FoR RETAIL STORE SERVICE—Isabel Craig Bacon, Special Agent for Retail Store Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. INTENSIVE TRAINING FoR Bustness—George L. Hoffacker, Head Instructor of Book- keeping, Boston Clerical School, Boston, Mass. CoRRELATION OF COMMERCIAL CouRSE OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS WITH COURSES OFFERED In COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS oF Business—Charles F. Rittenhouse, C. P. A., Boston, Mass. The department now proceeded to the election of officers. Moved by E. W. Barnhart that a committee of three be appointed to cast a unanimous ballot for the officers of this department after the place of the next meeting is known. Seconded. The purpese of the above motion was to secure officers in the locality of the next meeting, and thus be assured of their presence. After discussion as to its legality, the motion was withdrawn with the consent of the second. The following officers were nominated and elected from the floor: President, E. W. Barnhart, Chief, Commercial Education, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. Secretary, Mrs. Luzetta Erickson, State Supervisor of Commercial Education, Boise, Idaho. The meeting then adjourned upon motion. G. F. KwnippraTH, Secretary. [575] 576 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION PLACEMENT PROBLEMS ELEANOR J. O'BRIEN, DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS The first problem of placement is one of organization, whether or not a central placement bureau is desirable or necessary in a public school system. In Boston that problem has been very much discussed for many years; it is generally conceded that such a system is necessary. The Boston Placement Bureau was established under private auspices in 1912, with codperation of the Boston School Board in the use of school buildings for meetings. “That codperation grew from year to year as the field of placement widened until in 1915 the Department of Vocational Guidance was organized, and in 1917 had assumed control of the Bureau. The department uses both titles because of the associations formed in the five years when the work was carried on under the. Boston Placement Bureau. The Department of Vocational Guidance is organized with a director, Miss Susan J. Ginn, and a staff of vocational assistants (women) and Vocational Instructors (men) appointed under a special certificate. In addition, each school—elementary, intermediate, and high—has at least © one vocational counselor who is a teacher appointed by the Head Master of the school and who serves as a connecting link with the Department of Vocational Guidance. It is difficult to outline the work of the vocational counselor in the schools because it is voluntary; as usual under such conditions definite standards cannot be set. ‘The vocational counselor should interview all children who express an intention of leaving school, for the purpose of discovering means of retaining them. He or she should act as adviser in the 7th grade on the choice of a secondary school. The Vocational Guid- ance Department has just prepared a booklet ‘““A Guide to the Choice of a Secondary School.” Classes in English or civics should be conducted by counselors in which studies of occupations could be made. She should attend frequent conferences with the director and members of the Voca- tional Guidance Department in order to keep in touch with legal decisions on child labor, changes in business conditions, or other matters relating to children. There is great need on supervision of part-time employment of school children, and it is possible that this might be one of the duties of the counselor. On the other side, the counselor should unquestionably be allowed time for her duties and additional compensation. When a child is obliged to leave school under sixteen years of age the counselor may recommend him to the placement bureau to secure his first job. Once secured, that child becomes the charge of the Continuation School until he is sixteen years of age, when he returns to the supervision of the placement bureau. If the child secures his first job himself, he may or may not be sent to the bureau. ‘This is one problem for close codpera- tion between the Continuation School and the Placement Bureau if there DEPARTMENT OF Business EDUCATION Sia is to be an inclusive, school placement system, as it is very important, from the employer’s point of view, to have all school placement agencies act through one junior placement clearing house. It is confusing and waste- ful of time for an employer to be obliged to call one office for one class of workers, another for another, or worst of all several offices for the same class of workers. If he has been shown the advantage of hiring employees from a bureau that knows its young people, and has access to their school records and working experience, it seems ineficient and un- businesslike to have placement work scattered among several school offices. Another point is that the Continuation School is closed during the summer months. In ten high schools the graduates are registered by personal interview before graduation by the vocational assistants and instructors of the Central Office, and are followed in their after experience at school, college, or work until they are twenty-one years of age. The only general high school outside of this plan is the Dorchester High School which up to this time has undertaken the placement of its own pupils through the office of the head of the Commercial Department. Now, steps are being taken at the request of the Head Master to bring the school into the central Vocational Guidance and Placement system. The only remaining secondary schools are the two college preparatory schools, the Girls’ Latin and the Boston Latin School, the High School of Commerce, High School of Practical Arts, Girls’ Trade School, and the Boston Trade School, each of which has a specially appointed vocational assistant or instructor. The Vocational Instructor at the Boston Trade School is a member of the Vocational Guidance Department, assigned to that school. One other member of the staff is assigned to work in the intermediate school grades of the Hancock School. While theoretically the Latin Schools and the other secondary schools mentioned are not registered nor followed by the Vocational Guidance Department, actually many students from all these schools are referred or come to the bureau each year for part-time, summer, or full-time work, particularly in the summer when the schools are closed. Drop-outs from the high schools may be referred by the vocational coun- selor to the placement bureau, and here is the next problem of placement organization, to enlarge the Vocational Guidance Department to the point where it may be possible to take care of every drop-out who should be registered automatically just as the graduates are. That step is also being planned, as is the inclusion of the Dorchester High School. ‘These steps are logical, first from the point of view of the child, that every Boston public school pupil is entitled to equal consideration, and secondly for the value to the system of complete and inclusive records and statistics. Whether a school system should maintain a central placement depart- ment or not is a question which can only be settled by impartial scrutiny of the results of such a bureau operating over a span of years. Placement and placement alone is not of sufficient importance to justify the existence 578 NatTIonaL Epucation ASsociATION of such a department. ‘The schools have always done a certain amount of placement but without the follow-up work which checks results. Even now, many young people are placed before graduation, but reports are passed on to the Vocational Guidance Department for record and follow up. It is impossible for the teachers to do this work except in the most superficial way. ‘They have not the time, nor the means at their command. Vocational Guidance through the curriculum should prepare students by vocational information and advice for an intelligent selection of a vocation and after that selection has been made with the greatest possible freedom of individual choice, should stimulate students to seek the most advantageous field of development. Many people believe that a school which has done this has accomplished all its purpose. ‘This implies a highly idealistic condition and supposes that the school adequately reflects real life—for our particular discussion the real life of the commercial and industrial world, for although the placement department follows all its registrants, it is most concerned with the large number whose next step after leaving school is entrance into occupational life. No one knows better than the placement worker that the school does not adequately reflect real life, not yet. If every teacher in commercial education could spend just one year trying to place his young students, all, not just the upper ten per cent, he would probably return to teaching with a reorganized attitude toward his work, both as to content and method. The next best thing is for the placement department to send back to the schools frequent and carefully prepared reports from the field. Until we have vocational guidance perfectly codrdinated throughout the grades, there will always be need of a placement department, even in its narrowest sense. Broadly, for the value to the whole system which must come from careful follow-up work after placement there will always be need of a placement department. For follow-up is the only agency working to connect school with the real world for which it prepares. It is the medium through which the occupational world makes known its complicated, constantly-changing needs. It is also the medium through which it must always be the function of the school to send out to the busi- ness world high standards of working conditions, limitations of hours and burdens of work for minors, standards of loyalty and coéperation. One of the most recent activities of organized industry is the compiling of vast amounts of occupational information. The Boston Placement Bureau collects and disseminates to vocational counselors, booklets, leaf- lets, and studies along this line on every available occupation. It also keeps a vocational information file at the central office, and catalogues of over two rundred schools and colleges for use of counselors and registrants. In 1921 ten Boston High Schools graduated 688 boys and 997 girls. Each graduate was asked to indicate his or her vocational preference on the registration card at the time of the interview with the vocational assist- ants. ‘The results were tabulated as follows: DEPARTMENT OF BuSsINEss EDUCATION 579 Boys GIRLS Number Per cent Number Per cent A\RaCWIAG. Gasiehdlea he Fo AUS NBSE aS 15 2.2 oe Manufacturing and Mechanical.... 65 OST ‘ 1 Mercantile .trade ferme tree ns 114 17 A 5 PublieaServices.\. . ciate eae elas 2, A ce es Professional Service. one. oes esse 304 45.5 179 18 Domestic and Personal service.... ‘1 ie 1 ae Glanicall tr «At 8 Aare eee 41 6.1 712 71.4 509 stenograph incerese mot ‘stated. ..s...scscee ss 59 8.7 : 28 : 2. Re In Boston the Placement Bureau makes a detailed report to the Head Master of each high school of each individual graduate within a year of graduation. ‘This information is obtained from the young people from personal interviews at the central office, from letters, by telephone, or by home visits. A detailed analysis was made of the results of follow-up work of the class of 1921 whose vocational preferences have been listed above. Boys GIRLS Number Per cent Number Per cent Apricultne) neretete ctemisettr- eo nicisit 2 6 af gc Manufacturing and Mechanical.... 63 18.18 12 FUR Mranspottation «oc gerece erie ae 17 cyl iE ee WihenGantile. mreteste stete trations siereteote «te 108 B22 41 6.8 Rublicy Seti iCeiy ta snenyt ons eres epert: + ie 15 25) Professional Service ...........-- 18 oe 14 23 Domestic and Personal service.... 12 2445) 9 15 Glericalae seer se Pci n eth tetteeneie se 63 18.8 471 Bait F (140 stenography) ING) SEATING as aL ile cee 14 12 Wanting WOrK, so. ..0. 002 e2--- 5° 7 ue 29 a In the manufacturing and mechanical group where only one girl had expected to find work, 12 girls found employment. In the mercantile group five girls hoped to find their openings but 41 were actually placed, 30 selling and 9 in stock or examining in department stores. No girl had expressed her intention of entering any kind of public service, but 15 girls became telephone operators. Of the 179 who preferred professional service, only 14 succeeded in finding opportunities, easily understood because one year is not sufficient time in which to prepare for professional work. Nine girls were employed in domestic or personal service, hairdressing, mothers’ helpers, or restaurant workers. The widest variation was in the large group who elected the clerical occupations, 46 different types of work, corresponding very closely with a recent analysis of commercial occupations made by the Federal Board of Vocational Education, not yet published. Stated simply, the available commercial occupations do not correspond either in kind or number of openings with the available candidates, accord- ing to the candidates’ own stated preferences. Some adjustment has to be made, and it is perfectly obvious which side gives way. ‘The pressure to 580 NaTIONAL EpucaTion AssociATION earn one’s living is greater than the pressure to get a certain job done, and after much running about to employment offices, the young girl decides to accept that typing job, bitterly disappointed perhaps, and more than half sure that it is the fault of the placement worker that she does not secure a secretarial position. ‘The latter has to face facts daily, not hopes nor opinions, and it is still her business to keep her relations with the disappointed young typist friendly, to try to get her to keep in touch with the office, either by coming in during her lunch hour or in the evening hour held twice a month for just such a purpose. The young girl, if alert and intelligent, studies her particular field, watches her opportunity, learns when a vacancy is coming, and prepares herself by taking evening dictation courses to be ready for the time when she may be advanced to the coveted stenographer’s desk. Her daily practice in typewriting is very valuable when that time comes and finally all is well. If the schools do not find material for study in two such reports, then the work of the Placement Bureau fails in one of its most important aims. If more than half of the girls of our general high schools elect stenog- raphy as a vocation, it is, perhaps, not so much because of any particular fitness for the work as because they do not know what other openings modern business offers. A young girl of the class of 1921 came to us last July wanting stenography. She came with only a C record of achievement in preparation, but with absolute confidence of getting an A record of achievement in a stenographer’s position as expressed on the payroll. It was impossible to place her as a stenographer but after a short time she accepted a temporary opening in the marking room in a department store. Four or five months later the vocational assistant who placed her visited that store and found the girl still employed and very happy. The head of the department said that the girl was “a wonder on the tagging machine” and had been placed in charge. A few weeks ago the head left to be married, and our young girl was promoted to the vacated position. She has the satisfaction of liking her work and doing it successfully. The argument may be advanced that the young high-school graduates show commendable adaptability and that the record shows flexibility of commercial education. It must however be remembered that hundreds of precious hours of high school time were spent preparing for vocations which were not followed. That is not the aim of commercial education. There is no doubt that a report of the class at the end of five years will be of greater value as Suggestive material to teachers in commercial educa- tion. That will demand the highest degree of codperation between the employers and young people with the Department of Vocational Guidance. Nothing can be done to compel this codperation; it must be voluntary and rest solely on mutual respect, interest, and understanding. It is not the function of the Placement Department to settle any of the organization or administrative problems. It can only state the case and leave decisions with the departments empowered to make changes, furnish funds, or inaugurate policies, DEPARTMENT OF BusINEss EDUCATION 581 If all the forces at the command of the school system could be combined to support a placement bureau, its work would be half accomplished. For example, we are just beginning to realize the value of the older graduates as employers, office managers, heads of departments, or wives of employers. We have not mobilized the parents of pupils, friends, and relatives of teach- ers into a compact employing group because we are still a young department in the school service, but each year adds new power, new friends, new strength to meet problems. We believe that time will show the value of the work. PUTTING THE SHORT IN SHORTHAND EDINA CAMPBELL, PRINCIPAL OF THE HICKOX SHORTHAND SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASSACH USETTS In teaching shorthand the longest way round is likely to prove the shortest way home. Some one has truthfully said that the girl who learns shorthand in two months usually takes a post-graduate course of two years at her employer’s expense. However the length of time it takes and the amount of effort intelligently expended or wasted upon this study depends largely upon the teacher. We must face the music; but we may face it with supreme confidence and courage, if we are imbued with the consciousness that if conditions are new and different that we must adopt new and original methods and drop forever the dead formalism of the past. Our task is a big one: the tendency of the times is towards superficiality and general laxity in study, yet we find ourselves in an era when world conditions embracing all branches of study demand an extraordinarily minute analysis and a relentless probing into the source of things. Herbert Spencer said “Teach thoroughness, the first great essential of education.” Not one of the ten commandments has ever been broken as that precept has been. Let us no longer be content with turning out students who write 100 words a minute, but push the standard up to 150. It can be done and in a reasonable time, but the seed must first take root in the mind, yes and in the heart of the teacher, for every true teacher should love her subject and particularly her pupil. We know the pupil justifies this attitude ; surely the subject justifies it—it is as big as all the languages put together that we have taken all these years to perfect, as big as commerce, as big as the world. It makes no difference what phase of business it is, from the factory to the President’s office, shorthand may come into playaw 2h big subject demanding great big open minds to handle it! The first question that presents stself in the technical side of teaching shorthand is the need for variety. This need is most acutely felt today when most boys and girls are subjected to the rapid, delirious excitement of the moving picture, the absurd over-attention to dress and the wild, free rhythm of jazz music. Well, these conditions are here; we are not going to quarrel with them; we will as far as possible offset them by putting a little jazz into our teaching. 582 NatTionat Epucation ASSOCIATION In developing the attention faculty, which should be a preliminary step in undertaking the teaching of any subject, it is well to attack it by means of psychology. ‘Try the old experiment of telling a story to the class, occupying perhaps a half a minute to a minute. ‘Then ask them to give you the gist of what you have said—no two will tell it alike, and the wide divergence of opinion conclusively demonstrates that if they are to receive the impressions to which they ‘are entitled, in order properly to concentrate, they must keep their mental decks cleared for action. You have told them nothing; they have just discovered it for themselves, and right there you touch on one of the most important principles in pedagogy— we do not educate by implanting ideas in the mind of the pupil, but by educing or drawing out. In the interest of keeping this atmosphere of enthusiasm in the school- room I believe it is not advisable to give the drilling exercises day after day in exactly the same manner. For instance, after the class has taken the material in shorthand and it has been read by a pupil, the instructor re-dictates the letter beginning at the end and working backward. This may be followed by her dictating every second word, reading forward; and to permit the fastest writer to operate without that sense of boredom that comes from waiting for a slower member to “catch up” each pupil is- required to write the outline as often as she can until the next word is spoken. The following day the instructor will change her tactics, and ask a pupil to re-read the matter while the rest of the class write it. Two Purposes are thus served—the delight of variety, and the advantage of “taking” from another voice. In learning the tiresome lists of word signs, which are an essential factor in every system of shorthand, I have had the best results from having the pupil take the words in groups of three, thus avoiding the automatic action of the mind that results from taking one or two words over and over again. The thing I would try to impress upon the instructor is that she keep her methods, her mind and, so far as possible, the mind of her pupil, like a running stream, constantly throwing off those elements that tend toward stagnation. Walking amongst the pupils while they write is an important phase of the teaching. Thus will the instructor, even in a very large class, do individual work: she will ascertain the peculiar tendencies of each pupil and while insisting on the same technical perfection in the writing of all, she may make the personal appeal to each one in a different manner. The girl with the developed or potential imitative faculty will be spurred on by your writing a few words for her personally, she will naturally copy the correct outlines; her phlegmatic neighbor, lolling side- wise, head on arm, thoroughly bored with the whole business can perhaps best be moved by a telling bit of sarcasm, which may be given out to her individually and which would doubtless prove most destructive if admin- istered to the class as a whole. Another fancies she has a handicap peculiar to her only, poor eyesight, left-handedness, or something of the sort, and her we may remind that the Creator very often selects those with just such DEPARTMENT OF BusiINESS EDUCATION 583 handicaps to do His biggest work—Edison is totally deaf, Milton was totally blind, Pope a physical weakling. Then there is perhaps the most interesting and at once the most bother- some pupil of all, the analytical, questioning mind that fights every inch of the way. ‘his one can only be satisfied with a clear logical answer. Now the skilful teacher can find a reason for everything in shorthand, and by this gauge you can about measure the size of your teacher. After ail it is not teaching machines that are needed—but honest, enthusiastic stu- dents of education whose minds are so imbued with the bigness and beauty of the subject that they will run down right to its very lair every exception, every thought that seems to confuse and find out the reason why. In this connection it is important for the teacher to remember that the more the student’s mind is exercised the less drill will be necessary; in other words, the more reasoning the less memorizing. Now those of us who are expert writers and have been so for a number of years never heard the word rhythm in connection with our study of shorthand—we just hit upon it. No wonder that we wish to abandon the old-time methods, when we know today that the most important ele- ment in rapid writing is rhythm. Professor James has aptly said that we are bundles of habits; then on the first lesson in shorthand the pupil should be started on writing sentences from dictation, thus beginning at once, constantly under the eye of the teacher, the habit of rhythmical continuity. There should be no transition period between theory and practice; they go hand in hand. The pupil should use all of the time in writing, not in jerkily slapping down a word and halting until the next word is spoken. The time will of course be changed, depending on the speed of the dictation, but this need never interfere with a perfect rhythm any more than the change of time in music would interfere with the rhythm. The outlines should be close together and the hand raised the least possible distance from the surface of the paper between words, thus making the whole operation as compact as possible. The rhythm in the writing will preclude the tendency to cramp the hand. On the second lesson these sentences may be given over and over again, and behold after, say, twenty-four hours we have the pupil writing at sixty to seventy-five words a minute. Of course this speed in itself means nothing, for speed on matter so familiar is no speed, but it has the desired psychological effect of egging the pupil on while writing accurately, rapidly, and rhythmically at once. In reading, the word should be pronounced phonetically aloud. It will speak itself. By phonetically I mean that if the outline be gay for instance, ask them to say gay, not g, etc. It is useless to sit staring at it as a whole or stabbing at it by guess. It is an excellent plan to write on the board before the class and have them follow in their notebooks. They will instinctively drop into the instructor’s method of correct writing. To vary this, have them cease 584 NatTIonAL Epucation ASsocraATION writing while you continue purposely making mistakes, and have them correct you. Urge the pupils from the beginning to make small notes. The advantage of this can be quickly and interestingly demonstrated by having one set of pupils race another group in the making of two outlines. These out- lines should be of about the same shape but one about twice the size of the other. All are convinced when the group with the small outline find that in a given time they have made twice as many outlines as the group with the larger outline. Try to impress upon the pupil that she is not in a school but in an office with all the responsibility incident thereto. If it can possibly be arranged have the pupils write letters that are really going out. Insist that they have everything ready when the dictation begins—pointed pencils, open, dated note-books, and set a time limit when the letters must be mailed. This will sometimes result in a panic, but it is better to burn out all the panic energy in the school room than later when it may mean the loss of a job. Now, we have discussed various methods for putting the short in short- hand, yet, paradoxical as it may seem, shorthand as such is to my mind the least important part of the teaching of shorthand. Would we think of attempting to make a historian out of a person whose knowledge is confined to history and who knows nothing of geography or ethnology, or an army officer by merely teaching the manual of arms, eliminating mathematics? Certainly not. No more should we attempt to make a shorthand writer out of a person who is not in command of a large work- ing vocabulary of the English language. Before she attempts to learn the language short we should be sure that she knows it long. It is a fact that the Yahgan Indians of Tierra-del-Fuego have a working vocabulary of forty thousand words, and it is also a fact, as nearly as it can be estimated, that the average American stenographer—I speak now of the great rank and file, mostly high-school graduates, not the product of university or college—has a vocabulary of between two and three thousand words. What availeth it if she write the Hindustani language in shorthand if she cannot transcribe it except by the very precarious method of writing literally by sound. This method is particularly unsafe in transcribing the English language where the spelling of words exactly as they are pro- nounced is the exception rather than the rule and where words similarly pronounced have entirely different meanings. In this connection, rather than giving long, formidable lists of words to memorize, it seems advisable to have selected reading in connection with the shorthand work. It can be worked out to advantage with the period of writing for demonstration on the board. This reading may be selected with the idea of covering important fields of knowledge, as well as having unusual words. During this period the pupil will have the privilege of not only having explained to her in full the formation of an outline, but | DEPARTMENT OF BusINESS EDUCATION 585 the meaning or spelling of a word, or the discussion of the subject matter. Placards may also be posted in the schoolrooms calling attention to this vocabulary shortage, one reading perhaps like this: “How many times a day do you use the words, nice, splendid, awful, fierce, elegant?” In cast- ing about for substitutes they will probably visit the dictionary, and the vocabulary consequently become enlarged. A knowledge of words and the technical knowledge of shorthand are not separable subjects. “The student may learn words without shorthand, but she can never learn shorthand without words. From this standpoint they are essentially the same study. If a dictated word be unfamiliar to the stenographer, she has to write it out laboriously every stroke, every vowel, missing perhaps several words during the process, and even then, it is fifty-fifty that she gets it wrong; whereas if the word be familiar to her she may write a small part of it, just enough to give the cue, and her dependable vocabulary will give her the remainder; obviously then the wider the general knowledge and greater the vocabulary the greater will be the technical speed of the shorthand writer. Let us turn out not writers of shorthand, but shorthand writers, and I insist on a sharp distinction between the two. The one involves merely an automatic, machine-like record depending entirely on the dictator, where the shorthand writer means the development of an intelligent, useful human agent with the qualities that admit of progress. INTENSIVE TRAINING FOR BUSINESS GEORGE L. HOFFACKER, HEAD INSTRUCTOR, BOSTON CLERICAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS You may well ask the question, why should one have intensive training for business? Why make it intensive? We have our splendid school sys- tems all over the country with their school organizations, buildings, and equipment, well-trained teachers, courses of study carefully planned out— the result of experience covering a good many years, and all this should satisfy the requirements of business men for office workers. At the same time, there are in every community two groups of young people who have taken advantage of the opportunities offered by the public-school system, who are not trained sufficiently to meet these requirements; the first group, those young people just out of elementary school who want to go to work as soon as possible, either because of necessity or because they do not like school, and the second group, those who have gone through high school but haven’t acquired enough technical knowledge to satisfy the needs of busi- ness. In different parts of the country attempts have been made to put some quick, rapid-fire, intensive courses in the first and second year of high school, with the hope of training boys and girls to fill positions in business 586 Nationat Epucation ASSOCIATION offices. Most of these courses have had subjects in them which should train a boy or girl for general clerical work. Some of them were so am- bitious that they thought they could train pupils to be stenographers. If you think about it a little you can easily understand why most of these courses were failures. The pupil is too young, too immature to appreciate the things that the teacher is trying to teach him. He cannot absorb it, nor at that age be sufficiently benefited by it to go out into business, after a year of training, and do the work that a business man is willing to pay for. Business people pay the bills; they turn the money into the city treasury from which teachers are paid, and they expect the pupils to be properly trained for them. A teacher has no right to be teaching unless he can do well the thing he is trying to teach. ‘Teachers ought to go into the business world during vacations and get practical experience. It is quite possible, even in the dullest times. It has been our experience here in Boston that if a really earnest teacher desires to get a job in a business office, he can get it; Teachers have no right to teach shorthand unless they can hold a steno- graphic position. Bookkeeping teachers should be capable of keeping a set of books. If they cannot demonstrate before the class the pupils cannot have much confidence in them. The second group I have divided into five sections. Give this group of pupils, who, after getting through elementary school feel that they want to do something, a chance to get into high school for two years, and keep them away from the commercial course if you can. Give them two years in high school—then they are fifteen years old perhaps, and are better able to decide whether they would like to train for office work or not, and you have a group who have a pretty fair foundation for commercial train- ing. The second class is made up of those who have had two or three years in high school, but somehow or other have not derived much benefit from it. The third class is made up of high-school graduates who have taken partial business courses and desire to secure further training. The fourth class is made up of high-school graduates who have not had any commercial training at all. They have taken a college preparatory, nor- mal, or general course, and decide that they do not want to go any further in that line. The fifth class is made up of those who have been employed and feel the need of further training to secure advancement. These five groups seem lost somehow. There should be some way of taking care of them. ‘They are not productive, and society gets no benefit from them except as consumers. Many of them might succeed in business. A graduate of an academic course in high school is the best kind of pupil to study shorthand, if adapted for it, on account of the good general edu- cation he has had. The city of Boston has provided a special business training school for these various classes of pupils, in which an opportunity is given to girls to secure a business education, if they want it, and to qualify those not prop- erly trained for better positions. It is really a free public business college and we believe the only one so organized in the country. DEPARTMENT OF BusINEss EDUCATION 587 “feln the courses offered, the business course prepared for such positions as assistant bookkeeper and general clerical work. Pupils must have com- pleted at least two years of high school with full credit to be admitted to this course. The shorthand course prepares for stenographic work. At least three years of high school is required for admission to the course. When pupils have completed three years of high school they are very likely to finish the fourth year. For this reason, there are very few pupils studying shorthand who have had only three years of high school. Nearly all are graduates. The secretarial course is a combination of the business and shorthand courses, with some additional features. A pupil must be at least a high- school graduate to enter this course. A course in higher accounting is open to high-school graduates or girls who have finished the business course. It is still in the process of develop- ment. ’ These courses were planned with the business man in mind. He wants 4 person who is competent, who has had enough fundamental training. Why shouldn’t we let everybody in? you may say. Because everybody isn’t fitted to be a bookkeeper or stenographer. If we have a school for training people for stenographic service then only those people who are especially adapted to that work should be admitted. There is many a good cook trying to be a stenographer, and perhaps vice-versa. As to the subject matter in these courses: in the business course are taught those same subjects that all of you are familiar with: bookkeeping, penmanship, business English, business arithmetic, rapid calculation, com- mercial law, spelling, and office practice. In teaching bookkeeping no attempt is made to over emphasize the subject. Just as much importance is attached to every other subject, and pupils are not taught to think that if they pass their bookkeeping easily they are practically through their course—they must pass all other subjects just as well. We lay great stress upon penmanship, rapid calculation, and business English. What has been said here today about English seemed to me splendid, and of course, all of you believe in it; but can you accomplish it? Do you have the co- operation of all the teachers in the school in stressing the importance of this vital subject? We have such codperation in all of the subjects in this school. The aim in giving the course is to supplement what has been taught in the high school, to increase the vocabulary, to teach them the correct use of words, and how to punctuate. We make penmanship an educational subject, and we impress upon the pupils that good penmanship is just as important to them as anything else—but I imagine they look upon it as a nuisance. There is the key-note of success to the whole train- ing of the young women in this school—making them believe that every subject is an educational subject. The habits of mind and body that are cultivated in studying penmanship are helpful in learning other things and in doing the daily work after being employed. Pupils are classified in small groups, and in this way are permitted to 588 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION advance rapidly. ‘The progress of the class is not determined by the speed | of the slowest people in it. We have constant classes into which pupils come when they are ready for them, and are then promoted when they have done the work outlined in the various groups. If one girl is a little slower to learn she can take all the time in the class she needs, instead of being dragged along with the other girls whom nature has endowed with a little more ability or ambition. A brilliant girl is not held back with the class—she is given every opportunity to advance as fast as possible. One 45-minute period each day is devoted to drill and instruction in most of the subjects. In bookkeeping, shorthand, and typewriting, at least two periods each day are given. When a pupil has finished a subject such as commercial law, or penmanship, or perhaps English, this period is added to the time for bookkeeping or shorthand, and larger assignments are made each day. In the whole school, the plan is to drive just as hard as the pupils can stand, and give as long home lessons as possible without overworking the pupils. ‘The teacher is able to observe each day just how every pupil is getting along; that is, oversight is exercised so that if a pupil is being worked too hard, she is sent to the school doctor. In the shorthand course the same plan of small groups and drive, drive as hard as possible, is followed, and yet there is thoroughness in everything. In shorthand theory, a pupil must pass a test on every lesson before she can go on to the next. She must pass with a grade of ninety per cent. The test covers everything in the lesson that the pupil should know. When a pupil finishes the theory class, she goes into the 75-word a minute dictation class, where she must pass eight test letters—that is, several letters are dictated every day, and when the class goes to the typewriting room to transcribe, the number of the test letter is announced, and the letter is transcribed. “There are a certain number of points taken off for every error, but if the pupil succeeds in getting ninety per cent on the letter, it is passed. When she gets eight of these, she enters the 100-class, where she must pass ten of these letters, and then the 125-class, where she must pass twelve of them. Office training consists of two or three months’ work in a model office, where the pupil learns to use all kinds of office machines. Then she must pass a final test in shorthand, consisting of dictated matter at a speed of not less than 125 words a minute. After working two weeks in the school office, she is graduated. We think then, that perhaps she will be able to get a good position and hold it, and most of them have, in the seven years that the school has been in existence. The requirements are high enough, so that we seldom find a failure among the girls. After they have completed their school work, the employ- ment bureau secures a position for them and keeps in touch with them to follow their progress. , Other prominent features are lectures and talks given to the girls from time to time by graduates and by prominent business people in the city, who come to the school and explain the needs and requirements of business, DEPARTMENT OF Business EDUCATION 589 These talks are inspiring, and help to encourage the girls in their work to reach the highest point of efficiency. Many after securing employment continue at night school, in Boston University, until they get a college degree. Such girls succeed rapidly and are an important asset to the community. CORRELATION OF COMMERCIAL COURSES OF SEC- ONDARY SCHOOLS WITH COURSES OFFERED IN COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS CHARLES F. RITTENHOUSE, C. P. A., BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS Not so many years ago, the commercial course given by our secondary schools was regarded as a finishing course; today we must look upon it more in the nature of a preparatory course. Business now receives general recognition as our newest profession. Collegiate schools of business have been organized as an important part of the work of the larger number of our colleges and universities. Students are flocking to such schools from all parts of the country to be trained for this new profession. A technical college course is thus provided for the young man who can spare the time necessary to obtain such a training. Collegiate courses in business should result in more definitely defining the scope and content of the sec- ondary school course. In view of the rapid spread of a professional training for business offered by our collegiate schools, the secondary schools should recognize the fact that they are less and less finishing schools for business and more prepara- tory schools for colleges and universities giving business courses. Rather, our secondary school course should accomplish a twofold purpose: (1) Provide an elementary training for business for those students who cannot continue their studies beyond the secondary school; and (2) Provide a thorough training in the preparatory branches of business for those students who expect to continue their work in a higher institution. The question which naturally arises in your minds is whether both purposes can be accomplished by one and the same course of study. I believe strongly that they can. The business world has strong convictions about the training for office work which a young man or woman should possess upon leaving high school. Likewise our collegiate schools of busi- ness have definite standards by which to measure the preparatory training which their entering class has had. It happens that the entrance require- ments of the business office on the one hand, and the entrance requirements of our collegiate schools of business on the other are closely parallel. Excluding mental, moral, and personal characteristics, the business man expects the graduate of a commercial high school who comes to him for a position to be thoroughly trained in the clerical arts of business. If he is looking for a stenographer, he expects the high-school candidate to be able to take ordinary business dictation at a reasonable degree of speed 590 . NaTIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION and to transcribe her notes easily and accurately ; to write a neat, legible, and business-like hand; to be able to spell and to punctuate; and to have a sufficiently high regard for her mother tongue to enable her to express herself either in conversation or on paper in a clear, simple, and gram- matical manner. If the business man is looking for a bookkeeper, he expects the candidate to possess a thorough understanding of bookkeeping theory and sufficient skill in the application of theory to enable her to keep a simple set of books in an accurate and intelligent manner; to handle ordinary banking matters and to understand the use and purpose of com- mercial paper; to be accurate in figures and thoroughly familiar with the ordinary processes in commercial arithmetic; to write rapidly, neatly, and legibly. Everyone will readily admit that the secondary school fails of its purpose if it fails in any of the aforesaid respects. It is equally true that the college or university-giving courses in business sincerely hopes that it will be saved the necessity of teaching its students to spell and punctuate, to perform computations in arithmetic, to write a rapid, legible hand, and to use good English in speech and written discourse. In other words, the constant cry which is becoming almost a clamor both from the business office and collegiate schools of business is for emphasis on the fundamentals; for concentration of effort on the essentials of business. In this, there is no room for doubt. ‘There is entire harmony between the collegiate school of business and the business office in expecting and insisting upon these fundamentals. The fact that business men and the deans of our collegiate schools of business have so much to say about the high-school product in these respects would seem to indicate that there is reasonable ground for criticism of the secondary-school course. The fault cannot be wholly that the instruction is poor but that much needed time is “stolen” from these fundamental subjects and given to the higher branches of business which belong essentially to the technical schools of business. The training which the high-school student thus receives is too diluted and is spread thin over too wide a surface. The mistake is a pardonable one. Most progressive and scholarly teachers would prefer to teach money and banking rather than commercial arithmetic, salesman- ship rather than penmanship, cost accounting rather than bookkeeping, economics rather than spelling and punctuation. It is natural for us to want to give all the tone and dignity which we can to the work in which we are engaged, but we must remember that, in the last analysis, our efforts are judged by the results which we obtain. Tf we fail to turn out a finished product which comes up to certain definite standards, we fail in everything. Department of Child Hygiene SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President—O. B. Nxszit, M. D., School Health Commissioner......-.-++++++++: Gary, Ind. Vice-President—Maupr A. Brown, Supervisor of Hygiene.........+++--+- Kansas City, Mo. Secretary—Witt1am A. Hows, State Medical Inspector of Schools........-+++ Albany, N. Y. During the Boston meeting six sessions were held by the Department of Child Hygiene. The first on Monday afternoon, July 3, was largely devoted to health education and health training. In the absence of Dr. Nesbit, Dr. Howe presided. The following program was presented: Monpay AFTERNOON, JULY 3, 2:00 O'CLOCK Tue TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN HYGIENE AND IN SaniTaTion—C. E. Turner, As- sistant Professor of Biology and Public Health, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. Tur PREVENTION AND CORRECTION OF SPEECH Derecrs—Dr. Frederick Martin, Ithaca Conservatory of Music, Ithaca, N. Y. (With presentation of pupils.) TEACHING THE DEAF CuiLp—Harry P. Cahill, M. D., Department of Medical In- spection, Public Schools, Boston, Mass. Mabel Ellery Adams, Principal of the Horace Mann School for Deaf Children, Boston, Mass. Tue AWAKENING OF LATENT HEARING BY MEANS OF MusicaL SOUNDS AND VIBRA- TIons—Jennie M. Henderson, Assistant Principal, Horace Mann School for the Deaf, Boston, Mass. Witt Instruction iv HyciENE AND PuysicAL EDUCATION IN THE COLLEGE BE MADE WorTH-WHILE?—Eugene C. Howe, Department of Hygiene, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. Tue IMPORTANCE OF SUBJECT CONTENT IN HEALTH Epucation—C. E. A. Winslow, M. D., Professor of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. The second session was held at eight o’clock on Tuesday morning. Dr. Charles H. Keene, of the Department of Public Instruction of Pennsylvania, was chairman. The following program was presented: Turspay MorninG, JULY 4, 8:00 0’CLOCK PuysicaL FirNEss FOR SCHOOL Apmission—C. N. Jensen, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah. E. G. Gowans, State Director of Health Education, Salt Lake City, Utah. Tue RESPONSIBILITY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN HEALTH SUPERVISION—Charles H. Keene, M. D., Director of the Bureau of Health Education, Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. SANE INCLUSION OF SEX HYGIENE IN CHILD Hyciens—T. W. Galloway, President . of the American Social Hygiene Association, New York, N. Y. On Wednesday morning, July 5, at 8 a. m. a session on nutrition was held. Miss Clyde B. Schuman, of Washington, D. C., was chairman. The following papers were presented: Wepnespay MorninG, Juty 5, 8:00 O’CLOCK Tur RELATION oF NutRiTION TO DENTAL Conpirions—Percy R. Howe, D. D. S., Chief of Research Department, Forsyth Dental Infirmary for Children, Boston, Mass. Wuat CAN THE SCIENCE OF NUTRITION CoNnTRIBUTE TO A HEALTH PROGRAM ?—Alice F. Blood, M. D., Professor of Dietetics, Simmons College, Boston, Mass. A PracricaAL SCHOOL PROGRAM _IN Nutrition—Mary G. McCormick, State Super- visor of Nutrition, State Education Department, Albany, N. WG j Fresu Air, DieT, AND REST FOR Spiecrep Pupits—Carlisle Reed, M. D., and Miss Mary Callaghan, Public School Nurse, Boston, Mass. [591] 592 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION Discussion LED By Mary E. Mourpny, of the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, Chicago, IIl. : j On Wednesday afternoon, Dr. E. A. Peterson, of Cleveland, Ohio, presided over the session at which the following papers were presented: WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 5, 2:00 0’cLOCK Aw ErrecTivE Rurat ScHoot HeaLTH SrrvicE—Augusta C. Turnbull, Schenectady, IN. ay. y CoMMUNITY COOPERATION IN ScHooL HeaLtTH Worx—Courtenay Dinwiddie, Executive Secretary, National Child Health Council, Washington, D. C. ) BrtTER PuysicaL EXAMINATIONS AND INSPECTION IN ScHOoLS—LeRoy A. Wilkes, M. D., Medical Director, Board of Education, Trenton, N. J. How Can ScuHooits Repuce Morsipiry oF COMMUNICABLE DisEases?—Edward S. Godfrey, Jr., M. D., Director of the Division of Communicable Diseases, New York State Department of Health, Albany, N. Y. The session on Thursday afternoon, July 6, was devoted to mental hygiene. Dr. Frankwood E. Williams, of New York City, was chairman. The following program was presented: THURSDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 2:00 o’cLOCK MENTAL HYGIENE FOR THE SCHOOL BEGINNER—William H. Burnham, Professor of Pedagogy and School Hygiene, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. ‘THE INAUGURATION OF A STATE-WIDE SCHOOL CLINIC IN MassacHusEeTTs—W alter E. Fernald, M. D., Superintendent of the Massachusetts School for the Feeble- minded, Waverly, Mass. FATIGUE AS A Facror in Epucation—Francis N. Maxfield, Director of the Bureau of Special Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. SoME INTERNAL GLANDULAR INFLUENCES UPON CHILD MENTALITY—Walter Timme, M. D., New York, N. Y. THE RELATION OF PuysicaL To MENTAL DevELOPMENT—Frank P. Graves, State Commissioner of Education, Albany, N. Y. The closing session was held on Friday afternoon at two o’clock. Dr. William H. Devine, School Medical Inspector of Boston, was chairman. The following program was given: FripaAy AFTERNOON, JULY 7, 2:00 o’cLocK TONSILS AND ADENOIDS AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN—D. Crosby Greene, Vip, Harvard Medical College, Cambridge, Mass. THE Earty RECOGNITION AND Proper CARE OF Heart DIszAsE AMONG ScHOOL CHILDREN—Robert H. Halsey, M. D., New York Post-Graduate School and Hospital New York, N. Y. CONSERVATION OF THE Eyes oF SCHOOL CHILDREN—George S. Derby, M. D., Assistant Prefessor of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. Outo’s Errort TO BRING CHILDREN UP TO A NorMaL Hearty StanparD—T. Howard Winters, State Department of Education, Columbus, Ohio. _THE Scuick Test anp DIPHTHERIA PREVENTION IN THE PuBLIc ScHOOLS IN NEw nie Ciry—Abraham Zingher, M. D., Director of Public Health, New York, eaXe Preceding the session on Friday afternoon the business session of the department was held. The following officers were .elected for next year: President, Dr. William A. Howe, State medical inspector of schools, Albany, N. Y.; vice-president, Dr. E. A. Peterson, Cleveland, Ohio; secretary and treasurer, Dr. Charles H. Keene, director of the bureau of health education, department of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. The following resolutions were unanimously adopted. Resolved, That the officers of the Section on Child Hygiene be instructed to DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 593 SS SS eae THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS IN HEALTH EDUCATION Cc. E. TURNER, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY AND PUBLIC HEALTH, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS I shall deal with only the somewhat immediate problem of supplemental training for the teachers who are already in the field. May I take the liberty of telling you the opportunities for training which we are providing in Boston, first, for the general or grade teacher, and second, for the special- ist? It is not vanity which prompts me to do this because we are not con- fident that we have ideal methods. It would, indeed, be much easier to escape criticism by outlining what one thinks would be ideal than by stating definitely what is actually being done. But this is a place where we profit from each other’s experience, and I am asking permission to discuss our own work, first because it is typical of the sort of thing which can be done in any educational center, and secondly because it is definite and specific and therefore more readily provocative of criticism and discussion. For teachers and school nurses we provide special summer courses, such as might be made available at any university where there is a department of public health. One course is offered in Methods of Teaching Hygiene and Public Health in the Public Schools. In this course we outline the nature of a sound and complete school health program, indicating the part taken by the various professional workers and the possibility of liaison between the various groups. Following this we discuss grade by grade the instruction program for the elementary schools indicating a variety of methods which may be adopted, providing for the student insofar as pos: sible a complete list of teaching aids and sources of both information and inspiration. ‘There is an exchange of experiences in the class and there are visitations to places where various kinds of child health work are being carried on in the vicinity of Boston. Such a course we believe gives the teacher a broader perspective and a stimulus for the development of her own initiative along various suggested lines. In addition we are offering at the Institute this summer three courses in subject matter designed to present fundamental details in a form to be most useful to the teacher in elementary schools and avoiding much of the tech- nical detail which is insisted upon in courses provided for the training of specialists in the field of public health. These courses are Personal Hygiene and Nutrition, Sanitary Science and Public Health, and Elementary Bac- teriology. The second phase of my discussion has to do with the training of special directors, supervisors, or teachers, who are to assume the responsibility of organizing and putting in operation the health instruction program for the municipal school system. Pennsylvania and Michigan are already work- ing upon a four-year course of study which will take the student directly after high school and produce this particular kind of specialist. We are not offering this type of program in Boston. because we are not well organ- 594 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION ized to do so. What we are doing, however, is to provide a supplemental course of study for those people who are already at work in this field. The student’s previous training is taken into consideration and there is prescribed a program of study which will round out the fundamental training in physi- ology, hygiene, sanitation, teaching methods, and physical training. We arranged last year in the School of Public Health a one-year course of study open to people of four types of preliminary training. "They must all have had a high-school education and in addition to that their training may have consisted of (1) graduation from an approved school of Physical Education with teaching experience; (2) graduation from an approved college. with specialization in health subjects or their fundamental sciences ; (3) graduation from a normal school or teachers’ college with teaching experience; or (4) training in public-health nursing with school nursing experience. We assumed that people who are to develop a program in health education should have a good grounding in, first, the subject matter of physiology, hygiene, sanitation, and public health; second, teaching methods; and third, the nature and place of physical activities in public schools. On this basis we accepted people well prepared in one or more of these fields, and provided a one-year program which would supplement their previous training where additional study was most needed. ‘This course of study was offered under the codperative arrangement through which the Harvard-Technology School of Public Health has been con- ducted and with the additional codperation of the Graduate School of Education at Harvard which includes in its curriculum courses in physical education. THE PREVENTION AND CORRECTION OF SPEECH DEFECTS DR. FREDERICK MARTIN, DIRECTOR OF THE INSTITUTE FOR SPEECH DEFECTS, ITHACA, NEW YORK The prevention and correction of speech defects js a subject which should be understood by everyone but is often misunderstood by parents, teachers, and those in charge of the health of school children. The importance of speech correction has been emphasized during the past few years by the organization of special departments in the school systems of our largest cities. Fourteen cities have special supervisors of speech improvement and two States, directors. Wyoming was the first State to engage a special director of these activities, Pennsylvania, a year later, followed her example. Both of these directors received their training under the speaker in the New York City clinics. Several other States are now interested and have tentative plans for the institution of a similar department in their curriculums. To quote F. H. Bair, of the New York State Department of Education, “It is the business of the schools to see that the word is made articulate and that it speaks to men, inescapably, the thing it was sent into the world to say.” DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 595 Water will not rise higher than its level, and before pupils can be taught to improve their speech the general level of articulative efficiency among teachers must be raised. The beginning should be made in the normal schools. No one should be permitted to take charge of a class without a thorough training in speech and without the ability to enunciate clearly. The note of paramount importance, which we are trying to impress upon the social mind, is that of general speech improvement and the prevention of defects in their incipiency. In making a resumé of statistics, it has been proved that most speech defects develop during the school age—that is, between the years of five and nine. ‘They occur after the child has entered school. ‘here are many psychological reasons for this. I do not attribute the fault to the teacher but rather to the course of study which has neg- lected to allot sufficient time to this most important subject. We should develop better voices. You can obtain good voice production in almost any child, unless there is an organic defect or some lesion in the brain. The simplest mode to follow is the daily practice of vocal gym- nastics, which will exercise the muscles controlling the vocal cords. If these are brought into play, continually and sufficiently, you will produce the proper voice and a speech which can be heard. The exercises are built upon the six fundamental sounds and may be obtained by applying to the Institute at Ithaca. In the production of audible speech, it must be remem- bered that it is necessary to properly deliver the vowels. When we bring out the vowels we make our words carry. ‘This is a point I stress with public speakers, singers, and teachers. At the close of the day, when the teacher is tired, the tendency is to tighten the muscles of the face, to close the teeth, to raise the pitch and to force out the word. At such a time, if one will think of the vowels (opening tne mouth to let them carry) and lower the pitch, the effect upon the class will be noticeable and the expendi- ture of nerve-power be diminished one third. In the New York City schools, with young children, our department instituted the practice of calling the vowels the “round tones’ or “open-mouth sounds.” ‘This meant more to the child than the appellation “vowel.” The vowels or open-mouth sounds are the vehicles of our speech. For example, take the word “vowel.” If I say to you “vow-el” you can distinguish the word at 4 great distance, but, if I mouth the vowels (no matter how great the breath force expended), by the time the word reaches the rear of an audience, it may be interpreted as “owl,” “foul,” or many other analogous words. Children, in the lower grades, who are permitted to continue day by day the practice of faulty articulation and mumbled speech, gradually develop defects which manifest themselves in the competition of later grades. To this add the complexities arising from speech conflict, conse- quent upon difficult studies, and we have our major disorders. Correct habits of articulation and enunciation are based upon scientific principles of production. With daily practice and application of vocal gymnastics and phonic drills, the teacher can soon produce a proper vowel resonance, 596 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION a clear enunciation and distinct pronunciation. Spoken language is the result of a process of imitation. “The only way in which the pupil can attain a faultless enunciation is for the teacher to constitute herself a model from which he must pattern his speech. The proper development of voice and of the speech organs should precede reading because of the mental con- flict in the visualization of thought. .Stammering very often finds its in- ception in the schools in the pernicious practice of forcing children to articu- late words before the areas controlling voice have been properly developed. The brain centers for the production of speech very often do not keep pace with the centers wherein we form mental images of words or of written language. ‘The result is that the child will think faster than he can speak; speech conflict will ensue and stammering be engendered. Great progress has been made in solving the functional difficulties of the voice. “These defects we have divided into five major classifications—each of which I shall briefly describe under their respective headings. Stammering and stuttering—More noticeable in its manifestations than other defects, because of its many acute phases, is stammering. ‘Those suffering with this defect are probably the most neglected class of afflicted human beings in the world, having received until lately but little attention from either the pedagogic or medical profession. Stammering, according to its universally accepted meaning in English, is a halting, defective utterance. The sufferer has difficulty in starting a word or in passing from one letter to another. It is a momentary lack of control of the muscles of articulation in the effort to speak. Often the stammerer will come to an absolute halt, being unable to produce voice. The defect is sometimes accompanied by irregular, spasmodic movements of the organs, often terminating in a partial or serious derangement of the articulate speech. One form of stammering is commonly known as “stut- tering.” It is the unnecessary repetition of a letter or a word before pass- ing to the next, as “d-d-dog,” or “they— they— they went— went out.” I am forced to epitomize my remarks upon this class of speech defects which itself constitutes an entire paper. I would refer those eager for an exposition of the subject to my pamphlet published by the Department of Health of the City of New York. The cure of stammering is at once complex and delicate. The slightest mistake may interfere with an effective treatment. There must be de- veloped an equilibrium of emotions, a precision of thought, and a new habit of speaking. The instructor must make a psychological study of every case, treating each as a personal equation. He must induce an attitude of mind on the part of the sufferer, which will increase determination and confidence. The habit of stammering is, in itself, sufficient to derange the nerve mechanism, producing a lack of confidence and excessive inhibi- tion. ‘The result is timidity and mental retardation. Stammering is ab- normal and contrary to the proper functioning of the organs of speech, often terminating in an upset condition of the nervous system which can only be corrected by removing the cause, stammering. The stammerer is DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 597 inharmonious in his being. We must vitalize and harmonize his three elements—mind, body, and voice. There is an inability to respond to stimuli because of imperfect codrdination. This sluggishness must be eliminated by quick, snappy response in all gymnastics whether mental, physical, or their combination in vocal effort. He must acquire control of his speech mechanism. That is a physiological cure just as control of thought mechanism is psychological. It is not by the laying of a corner- stone that a building is completed but rather by the careful placing of one stone upon another. So must constant exercise be given the stammerer until the larynx functions normally and the proper auditory images become fixed. Lisping—Lisping is an imperfect production of sibilant sounds. A com- mon form of this defect is the protruding of the tongue (lingual pro- trusion) when giving an “‘s” sound, saying “thith” for “this” or “thoo” for “zoo.” ‘This usually is merely a habit and is corrected by rigid super- vision on the part of the instructor. The lisper must be taught to discipline his unruly tongue. A system of tongue gymnastics and a manual for lispers, with daily lessons and drills, are employed with such cases when referred to our speech clinics. There are other more acute forms of lisping which need the attention of a specialist. Most cases of lisping find their inception during the period of dentition. This must be corrected immediately by insisting upon an imitation of cor- rect production, with the teacher or parent as a model. Lalling and cognate defects—Lalling, as the word implies, signifies an acute sluggishness of the lingual muscles when speaking. This defect is rare in the high school but commonly encountered in the elementary grades, especially among subnormal children. Many of the cases of lalling are given the misnomer “tongue-tied.” However, out of an average of fifty cases brought to me as “tongue-tied,” I find that but one really is. “This defect is usually caused by a lack of coérdination of the muscles of the tongue and is corrected by tongue gymnastics and the development of a faster response to stimuli. Associated with lalling we find many similar defects, such as nasality and nasal twang. Nasality is the emission of too much sound through the nose. You will find, as a rule, that this has been caused by hypertrophied tonsils. It may, in exceptional cases, be directly due to a paralysis of the palate or cleft palate, but usually is simply the result of improper usuage of the palate, which is corrected by stimulation and the exercise of raising and lowering the uvula, as employed in the tongue gymnastics. Nasal twang is the emission of all the sound through the mouth. In order to have perfect speech the fundamental sounds should issue from the mouth, but these must be reénforced by the resonance of the nasal cavities. The child with adenoidal growths, deflected septum, or any interference in the nasal passages will not be able to use these different sounding boards and the result is a nasal twang. In such cases a specialist should be consulted, 598 Nationa Epucation AssocIATION Defective phonation—Defective phonation is the improper production of sounds, due to slovenly speech and the lack of sufficient training in the proper phonic values. We hear “dat” for “that,” “lidle” for “little,” “couldjer” for “could you,” and Wich is Fit Avnoo?” instead of “Which is Fifth Avenue?” ‘There is no organic cause for this. It is merely a habit, which may be easily corrected by drawing the child’s attention to his imperfect production of these sounds. It is usually the result of environ- ment. Foreign accent—This is the largest class with which we have to deal in the public schools of our largest cities. It is the proper understanding of effectual methods for the elimination of this form of speech which will be a big factor in the present National movement for the Americanization of the foreigner. Continued use of the mother tongue causes a foreign articulation of the organs of speech and a different auditory conception of the vowel sounds. In developing a better habit of speech in these foreign- ers, we must always bear in mind sound production and tone variation. From careful study, I have divided foreign accent into three classes: (1) The giving of improper or false value to our vowels, for example, “Harry” pronounced as though it were spelled “Hairy,” “Morris” as “Mawrus,” “out” as “aout,” “peach” as “pitch,” and “apple” as “epple” ; (2) Placing stress on the wrong syllable, as “cha rac’ ter” instead of “char’ ac ter,” “car pen’ ter” for “car’ pen ter” and “tea cher’”’ for “teach’ er’; (3) The rising inflection at the end of every phrase and sentence. ‘These various forms of foreign accent are corrected by developing a proper pro- duction of the vowel sounds, by a study of the phonic elements, and by a rehabilitation of pitch. I have prepared a syllabus upon the subject which is now used in our public schools and may be obtained upon application. TEACHING THE DEAF CHILD MABEL ELLERY ADAMS, PRINCIPAL, HORACE MANN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS There used to be problems in Symbolic Logic long ago in college in which one field would contain all A’s and another all B’s, and where the fields overlapped we said that within that overlapping space all A’s were B’s and all B’s were A’s. Now I conceive that in our particular discussion this afternoon the A’s represent the otologists’ problem consisting of the scientific treatment of deafness, and the B’s represent the teachers’ problem of adapting the processes of teaching to the mind of the deaf child so as to make it as nearly normal as possible. The common ground where all A’s are B’s and all B’s are A’s is the overlapping space where the otologists and the teachers meet in mutual helpfulness making a concerted effort to insure the proper placing of deaf children where they will have the best chance of an education. This concerted effort must include the education of public opinion, especially the opinion of parents and teachers and school DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 599 boards, so that they may become aware of the needs now so little understood outside the clinics and the schools for the deaf. Of the otologists’ problem I shall say nothing, both because my knowl- edge is of necessity empirical, and also because Dr. Cahill is here on purpose to discuss that side of the question. My subject, then, narrows itself down within the limits of that part of the field where doctors and nurses and social workers on the one side and the educators of the deaf on the other must meet and exert their best powers to secure adequate service for the deaf child. Let me pause for some limiting definitions. For the present purpose I use the adjective “deaf” as a general term to connote any degree of deaf- ness, ranging from total down to the smallest amount liable to attract the attention of parents and teachers. Presently | shall use the term “totally deaf” and I wish this phrase to stand in your minds for “practically totally deaf,” that is to say, too deaf to understand any spoken language. ‘Then I shall use “hard-of-hearing” to denote the whole long range between practi- cally total deafness and perfect hearing. I shall studiously avoid any use of technical terms from either your vocabulary or mine. I have a rooted belief that half the misunderstandings which arise between professional folk and the laity are occasioned by mysteries attached to professional lingo and that for most occasions in life it is quite possible to say everything in plain English if one is willing to take the time and the trouble. I take for granted that the medical gentlemen here present are well con- tent to leave to educators of the deaf the specific problem of so organizing and administering the education as to get the best results according to our different lights; and our lights are different, there is no use in denying it. The eastern part of the country stands pretty solidly for oral teaching of the deaf and the western and southern States—in their State institutions at least—are pretty apt to hold to the Combined System which includes conventional signs and the manual alphabet with more or less of an ad- mixture of oralism. : Then there is much difference of opinion as to the relative advantages of teaching the deaf in boarding institutions or in day schools. ‘This ques- tion in the past has been most potent in provoking controversy. But neither oralism, manualism, boarding institution, or day-school shall receive aid or comfort from me today, because of the character of my audi- ence. You are here from all parts of our country. I dare say some of you at this very minute are thinking how flat and Bostonese my speech is and wondering how we can stand it to hear ourselves talk. Being from all parts of the country you naturally must solve your problem under existing conditions in your home-school systems, and argument as to how much better some other kind of school might be is quite valueless. Granted, then, that you are working in a community which recognizes that deaf children have special school needs and stands ready to make suit- able provision for them, what types of children should you, school physicians 600 NaTIOoNAL Epucation ASSOCIATION and school nurses, turn over to the teachers of the deaf, and what types should you try to retain in the ordinary classes? There is one type about which there can be no question, that is the totally deaf: the children who by reason of deafness, congenital or acquired in infancy, have never learned to talk. These are the so-called “deaf-mutes” or “deaf and dumb” children. The deafness may be total or there may be some perception of sound, but if a deaf child is apparently bright and has not learned to talk, that child belongs in a school for the deaf. He is dumb because he has never heard the speech of his kind, and for no other reason. All of us were born dumb. Spoken language is an acquired art, and those of us who have heard from birth acquired it gradually and naturally from the speaking world about us through our hearing, and have never realized that we did acquire it. We have always considered that we were born with speech, but we were not; we were only born with the speech apparatus and the inherited tendency to speak. The deaf child comes into the world with a normal speech equipment, but the correlative ability to hear is lacking; therefore he remains dumb instead of beginning to grow out of his dumbness while still a baby, that is to say, beginning to learn to talk. It would seem as though there could be no doubt whatever that such children, dumb because they have never heard spoken language to imitate, should be sent to a school for the deaf, and of course a majority of them are so sent; but many individual cases escape attention every year, and you will find typical deaf children scattered about in every school system sitting drearily through the session, doing a little writing and draw- ing, and sinking into an apathy closely resembling low-grade feeble-minded- ness. The school nurses here in Boston under Miss Helen F. McCaffrey, supervising nurse, have recently conducted a campaign to round up all such cases. They actually found several in grades from the first to the third and applied themselves to the task of inducing the parents to send them to the school for the deaf. The nurses encountered opposition from the parents on two main grounds. The mother either refused to believe that the child was “deaf and dumb” because he heard certain sounds, or she was pinning her faith to the fact that’some doctor had told her that the child would hear better when he was older. Often the removal of tonsils and adenoids had been recommended as a general health measure and a possible chance to improve the hearing and the mother was looking forward to some vague time in the future when an operation would bring back the hearing. Without venturing too far into the territory of the otologist, may I say right here that in over thirty years’ experience in one school for the deaf I have never known the hearing of any one of its pupils to be sufficiently restored by any operation to warrant his being placed in a hearing school. This of course is probably because hopeful cases are ordi- narily kept in the public schools during treatment and never reach us at all, anyway. Congenitally deaf children have no language, no medium of thought, nothing but a few natural signs which they have built up for communica- DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 601 tion with their world. It is for the school to give them language by what- ever method the authorities designate, and utilizing this language as they learn it, to teach the subject’ matter of the curriculum as far as it is practicable. For the sake of getting on let us agree that the totally deaf, born so or become so in early childhood must go to a school for the deaf and that the otologist’s clear duty is to direct the parent to the nearest school, taking care that some sympathetic kindly expression of his cannot be wrested inte an excuse for waiting and putting off the day. We have had apparently intelligent parents bring children of fourteen and fifteen to us utterly ignorant, needing to begin at the beginning, and the only excuse the assertion that the doctor said his hearing would probably come to him when he began to develop. , We now come to another type, about which there should be no doubt— the children suddenly deafened by accident or disease. “These unspeakably pathetic cases should be hurried into school just as quickly as their health permits. ‘The shock of sudden deafness is so terrible, the great silence that settles down is so oppressive, and the inconvenience and annoyance of not understanding what is said is so nerve-racking that no time should be Jost in opening up the new method of communication by lip-reading, and surrounding the child with companions who regard the difficulties of his situation as quite commonplace and so unconsciously smooth his path for him. Lip-reading usually comes easily and quickly to these children. A good school makes provision to give just as much individual intensive teach- ing as the pupil’s physical condition will allow, and in three months a working knowledge can often be acquired. Early placing in school also helps to keep voice and speech natural. In old times children who lost their hearing after learning to talk were often allowed to forget their speech and to lapse into dumbness, or if they kept their speech it usually became thick and somewhat unintelligible. Modern methods however are lessening these consequences every year. Again the otologist’s duty seems to be clear for these cases, and he seems to have no choice but to recommend a school for the deaf and to use all his powers of persuasion to quicken the action of the dazed and sometimes reluctant parents. It is fair to presume that every doctor and every nurse in this room would refer children of the two types just discussed to the nearest school for the deaf tactfully, sympathetically, but promptly. We come now to the hard-of-hearing, where there is ground for a dif- ference of opinion. Doctors and teachers are not agreed upon the proper place for the hard-of-hearing. We will, if you please, leave out of account for the present the slightly hard-of-hearing, and direct our attention to those hard-of-hearing children who cannot make proper progress in an ordinary school. Let us begin with those having the least hearing. There are children who have enough hearing to learn to talk imperfectly. “They get the principal words of a sentence, usually the nouns and verb-roots and adjectives, but they leave out connectives, prepositions, and inflections—in 602 NaTIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION short, they learn to talk baby-talk in a way that seems fairly normal. ‘They hear pretty well at short range, and in homes where they are given great care they sometimes go on to almost normal speech. But where this care cannot be given their speech remains baby-talk. If they are bright, and are quick learners they sometimes get through the first two or three grades if they are given front seats, mastering the greater part of the subject matter and giving the impression that they are simply defective speech cases. ‘They are defective speech cases, but their speech is defective because they do not hear the obscure sounds, the prefixes and suffixes and parts of the verb which we Americans slur over and indicate by a half-spoken syllable. If these cases go to the defective speech classes the teachers recognize and undertake to cure the specific defects, and having the children at close range they make some progress; but the trouble is too fundamental for mere speech correction to. be effective. The mental aspect must be considered. Their whole mental life is blurred and hazy and defective, just as their speech is. ‘The baby talk the child uses is probably a fair reflection of what he really hears and no correction of defective elements of speech is going to help him permanently unless his whole education is so arranged as to enable him to understand what is said to him and to give him constant practice in the use of correct English. An hour or two a week spent in improving his speech obviously cannot produce the desired effect. Not only must he have attention to his English but every subject of the curriculum— arithmetic, geography, or history—must be presented to him with a thoroughness and care for detail entirely unnecessary for children with perfect hearing. The speech-defect teacher soon discovers this, and in conference with the nurse proposes a school for the deaf where lip-reading and individual teaching will help out the faulty hearing; but the moment the question is mooted to the mother that lady is up in arms because she doesn’t want her child to go to a “dummy school.” She takes the child to the nearest clinic and upon the advice she receives there will depend the child’s fate. If the doctor or the social worker happen to be of those who believe that lip-reading hurts the hearing, the mother may be advised to keep the child on in the regular school where he will fall farther behind year by year, spending two years in a grade, pushed up because he is over- age, struggling along until he is sixteen when the law allows him to go to work. Without going into the psychology of the subject we all know that early childhood is the time to learn speech and language and that habits acquired then, whether good or bad, are pretty likely to stick. Now if you have a child ‘so hard-of-hearing that it has not learned to use its mother-tongue like a normal six-year-old when it is six years of age, it should be put where it can learn as quickly as possible. I have the greatest sympathy with the mother who doesn’t like the sound of deaf voices, but she can be told that if her child cannot hear well enough to learn to talk the deaf voices won’t trouble him. I sympathize with her fear that he will learn to make signs, but if she is a Jewish or Italian mother or has French blood in her, as I DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 603 have, she often makes more gestures than our totally deaf older children, and if she never allows any gestures at home the danger is not great at least in a day school. But with her fear that the child’s hearing will deteriorate if he learns lip-reading I have no sympathy whatever, because it has no foundation in fact. Lip-reading never hurt anybody’s hearing and never will. ‘The hard-of-hearing themselves who have achieved any degree of success in the art will tell you that it improves the hearing. Whether or not it can do that it certainly renders them more comfortable by relieving the misery of nervous tension which constant strain to hear engenders. I put the question to a convention of hard-of-hearing persons here in Boston last year, asking if they knew of any one who had ever suffered diminution of hearing as a consequence of learning to read the lips. I made sure that everyone understood the question, and there was not one affirmative answer! On this subject of lip-reading being an injury to existing ability to hear, then, doctors and nurses ought so to inform themselves as to be able to assure anxious mothers that the danger does not exist. Besides, in any progressive school for the deaf daily lessons in the utilization and educa- tion of the hearing are given to those children who need it, so that the hard-of-hearing child’s hearing will be much better cared for in the school than anywhere else. Miss Henderson is going to show you how she does it. There are many hard-of-hearing children who have normal speech and whose education could proceed under normal teaching if they could only hear what was being said. Such children are usually given a front seat and so are able to hear what the teacher says; but they lose all that is said by their classmates and consequently fail to grasp what follows and so drift along with only half-knowledge from day to day. When we remem- ber that modern pedagogy measures the success of a teacher by what she doesn’t say, but leads the children to say, it becomes clear that the hard-of- hearing child down front stands a pretty poor show in the rapid give-and- take of an ordinary recitation. Here again I have the greatest sympathy for the mother who does not want to take her perfectly normal appearing child from its normal sur- roundings and send it to a school for the deaf, and she ought not to be obliged to do it. But the child needs more attention than it can get in a hearing class and is actually better off in a school for the deaf than in a school for the hearing. An ideal solution of the problem under city con- ditions would be the establishment of a graded elementary school for the hard-of-hearing where the pupils could proceed from grade to grade in the usual way but where the classes would be small enough to put every pupil within hearing range of every other one, and skilful instruction in lip- reading would supplement the other teaching. A few such schools have been established in Europe and we ought to have them here. But in the country or small-town school-systems such a school for the hard-of-hearing probably would not be practicable as there would not be enough pupils to allow proper grading, and any plan which extracts the hard-of-hearing from 604 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the grades and simply dumps them in small ungraded classes is most unde- sirable. As between two admittedly imperfect courses then, that is, keeping hard-of-hearing children where they are losing a good portion of the instruc- tion or putting them into a school for the deaf it is natural that I should consider the school for the deaf the lesser evil, especially as such children are usually very happy with us; but a separate provision would be a much superior plan. There remains for consideration one more type—the slightly hard-of- hearing who can get on fairly well in an ordinary school, but need lip- reading not only for present needs but for a future when their deafness may increase. ‘These children should attend special classes in lip-reading and every community ought to furnish them with an opportunity. Our own Massachusetts city of Lynn was a pioneer in this work, and Boston has maintained such a class for two years. All children who cannot hear any speech must go to a school for the deaf, and I believe that all children too hard-of-hearing to learn to talk naturally ought to. ‘The lesser degrees of deafness must have special teaching somewhere. It is for doctors and nurses and social workers to see to it that the deaf children of our country get what they need, and my last word to you is: If any one tells you that lip-reading will injure the hearing, don’t you believe it for it isn’t so! We should have been glad to have invited you all to the Horace Mann School for the Deaf to see the work as it is carried on there, but the rooms are so small we could not accommodate you. So we have brought to you here that part of our course of study which we thought would inter- est you most, and Miss Jennie M. Henderson, the assistant principal, will demonstrate it to you. It has been a great privilege and a great pleasure to be allowed to address your department. I thank you for your attention, and if, in consequence of this paper, one deaf or hard-of-hearing child is placed where it belongs in some school system, the effort will have been well worthwhile. THE AWAKENING OF LATENT HEARING BY MEANS OF MUSICAL SOUNDS AND VIBRATIONS JENNIE M. HENDERSON, ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL, HORACE MANN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS The first period of our school day is divided among three groups of children: (1) Those who need more work in speech; (2) those who need special lessons in lip-reading; and (3) those who will be benefited by auricular training. In my demonstration this afternoon, I shall attempt to show you what has been accomplished in a class which has been trained to listen. Some of these children have been classified as semi-deaf and others as totally deaf but all have responded to systematic auditory stimulation. ‘They Have DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 605 made definite progress which has been encouraging and surprising. I base my whole success in this method upon the awakening of latent hearing by means of musical tones and vibrations. Stimulation by means of musical instruments is necessarily passive be- cause the child is making no conscious effort to hear. Different instruments are used with the hope that there will be a mental response on the child’s part as to pitch, quality, and volume. As soon as the pupil’s sense percep- tion is awakened we aim to develop a mental response to a second sound. In this way we build up the child’s hearing reaction to many sounds. ‘The class is trained at first to tell the difference in pitch, whether it be high or low or middle, according to the part of the keyboard of the piano which is played. I have found that the child will respond to a singing tone rather than to a spoken one. Beginning with the elementary vowel sound of ee which is prolonged and sung on the octave above middle d, the children are taught to recognize through the ear 00 and ar. The pupils differentiate between these vowel sounds as I sing them interchangeably. When I first began work, I had to stand near the children, but I gradually increased the hearing distance, so that now I can stand a number of feet away from them, and they readily tell me the vowels sung. It is a harder test for the children to distinguish between the diphthongs. You will see in this demonstration that I shall have to lessen the hearing distance for the spoken vowel, words, and sentences. These children have become acquainted with a great many popular airs. They have been trained to feel the vibration, and to listen. At first, be- cause I firmly believed that the singing voice would carry better than the spoken word, I myself, sang to them. Then I conceived the idea that I wanted them to take a more active part in the lesson. Accordingly I asked them all to try to sing with me. ‘They were able to keep the time and rhythm because we had done a great deal of this work in our speech lessons. [his seemed to stimulate the auditory mechanism to an increased degree. When they had learned two songs I began to help the children to dif- ferentiate between them. We have added to our list of songs as you may readily see. At first it was necessary for me to sing the songs through, but the children now respond after I have sung a few measures. Please remember that the children are not being trained to sing. All this work is given for the reaction it will have upon their hearing, making for better speech. It is done with the hope that they may go out into the world as hard-of-hearing pupils rather than deaf. They will undoubtedly approach nearer the type of the normal child. A younger group of children are being trained along similar lines. In- stead of community songs, they are becoming familiar with the Mother Goose songs. All the pupils have been stimulated by the music of the victrola. Many can tell whether they hear an orchestra or a band, or whether a song is sung by a man or a woman. 606 Nationa Epucation AssocraTION We use the Montessori Bells in testing for distance. The children tell whether the bells struck by the teacher are the “same” or “not the same.” They are trained to match the tones and to note the relation one bell bears to another in pitch whether high or low. Some of the pupils can build up the scale with the bells. This is difficult and requires a keen sense of pitch. The class has constant drill in recognizing vowels, syllables, words, phrases, and sentences. Some of the children have progressed so that they can understand a story spoken into the ear. One child who is here today thoroughly enjoys taking part in a little play. Her enjoyment is manifest by the inflection which she puts into her reading. A teacher who works with children in this way must be optimistic and enthusiastic. She must never lose hope that time spent in auricular work will eventually give results. THE IMPORTANCE OF SUBJECT CONTENT IN HEALTH EDUCATION C. E. A. WINSLOW, PROFESSOR OF PUBLIC HEALTH, YALE SCHOOL OF MEDI- CINE, NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT We progress in all human undertakings by oscillations between one ex- - treme and the other, a principle which is admirably illustrated in the his- tory of the teaching of hygiene. Ten years ago, where such’ teaching existed at all, it involved chiefly the memorizing of the names of the bones of the human body and similar mental gymnastics. Today we are in the flood of a wholesome reaction against the teaching of unimportant and dis- connected anatomical facts. The motive of the time is habit formation, and largely through the stimulus of the Child Health Organization of America we have developed a whole host of devices for making health education vital and compelling. Conduct, as Matthew Arnold said, is three fourths of life; and the object of education is to modify conduct. The basis of our present attack is the height and weight chart with its direct appeal to the competitive instinct and grouped about this funda- mental device we have a whole technique of health stories, health poems, health plays, health clowns, and health fairies to aid in seizing the imagina- tion of the child and enlisting his interest in the new movement. All this is admirable, but I suspect that we shall soon face a real danger of swinging the pendulum too far. Habit formation should no doubt be our first aim, but it is by no means our only aim. We must also lay a sound basis of knowledge if the child is to be something more than an au- tomaton, if it is not only to learn certain tricks but it also to acquire intellj- gence which will enable it to modify its habits to meet the changing con- ditions of its after life. With every year health problems loom larger in our community life and if the citizen is to deal competently with such problems he must know something more than that he was taught in school to brush his hair in the morning, to operate the tooth brush with a rotary DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 607 motion, to eat carrots, and drink milk. It would seem unnecessary to emphasize the fact that a little fundamental knowledge may properly enter into health instruction if the very word “physiology” had not become taboo to the ultra-progressive educator. ‘There is of course no necessary antago- nism between the two viewpoints. We used to teach the structure and function of the body without applying our knowledge. Now that we have learned the importance of application shall we forget our knowledge and apply any chance hygienic fad that happens to dominate the passing moment? I believe we may advance as a fundamental postulate that a program of school hygiene should include not merely the formation of health habits immediately necessary to the child, but also the acquisition of a certain basic body of knowledge which will be necessary for the continu- ance of healthy living in the future. In the words of the committee on a school health program of the American Public Health Association: “The goals of health instruction are to establish health habits, to give the child the practical knowledge in the ‘principles of healthful living, to develop health ideals, to arouse a sense of individual responsibility for the health of the community, and community responsibility for the health of the in- dividual.” In the second place it seems clear that the inculcation of a necessary knowledge of the fundamental principles of healthy living requires a cer- tain amount of systematic instruction in a classroom. I know that many members of this audience will rise up at once and tell me that the most effective teaching of hygiene is being accomplished today in certain schools ‘where no textbooks are used and no formal period set aside for the study of this subject. Hygiene permeates the whole school curriculum as an intangible but ever-present influence, so that as a speaker remarked at the Lake Mohonk conference last week, “It is not a question of the place of health education in the curriculum, but of the place of the curriculum in health education.” I acknowledge the fact that brilliantly successful health education is being accomplished in this way, but I deny that it is a fact upon which we may safely base general deductions. Professor ‘Thorndike once remarked to me that all educational experiments succeed and it is perfectly obvious that in a dozen school systems in the United States geniuses have arisen who are accomplishing marvelous results by extra- curricular inspirational methods. I submit, however, that it is absolutely out of the question to expect that any large proportion of the vast numbers of teachers in the public schools of the United States can ever be trans- formed into inspired missionaries of health; nor can they be expected to be- come automatically equipped with the basic knowledge without which in- spirational project teaching becomes a form of expert salesmanship, with no goods to sell. The Rules of the Game form an excellent peg on which to hang health teaching, but if they comprise the whole knowledge of physiology possessed by the teacher herself the ultimate results will not prove of high value. ‘The average teacher in the average school will never achieve real results in health education except where there are hours set apart for the 608 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION subject, and until she is graded and promoted by her work in hygiene as in other subjects and until she is trained in hygiene in a normal school as she is trained in arithmetic or English grammar today. I would not give up one whit of what has been accomplished in emphasis on habit formation and in the development of extra-curricular methods of appealing to the imagination and the will of the child but in the long run such appeals will only have their maximum effect if they are correlated with definite class- room instruction in the biological principles which underlie the sound con- duct of the individual life. The exact stage of school life at which such classroom instruction should begin is still to some extent a debatable problem. Of fifteen States whose hygiene programs happen to be accessible to me as I write, seven provide for the use of textbooks in the fourth grade, four in the fifth grade, three in the sixth grade, and one in the eighth grade. The committee on school programs of the American Public Health association believes that “in the kindergarten and lower four grades, the chief effort should be to develop health habits mainly by inspections and special devices. In subsequent grades systematic instruction should attempt to crystallize and fix the health habits which have been taught heretofore, and to provide the pupil with necessary information concerning the physical basis for healthful living, principles of bacteriological cleanliness, and the sanitation of the com- munity.” In the first three grades, and perhaps in the fourth grade, primary emphasis should be placed on habit formation but always with the accom- paniment of sufficient information to make the reasons for the habit as clear as the child’s age will allow. In the fourth or fifth grade there should be a change to a more fundamental biological emphasis. Subject content should still be closely correlated with habit formation but the habits should no longer be approached as isolated rules of conduct but_as applications of a broad conception of the structure and functions of the living body. On this assumption I should like to outline what seem to me as a biologist a few of the broad and fundamental elements of knowledge which such in- struction should inculcate. First of all, and most important, is the basic conception of the body as a living machine, working in accordance with physical and chemical laws, and working as a coérdinating whole with the health of each part depending on the normal functioning of the rest. It is essential that this conception should be grasped, not as a form of words, but as a solid and vital basis of all the student’s thinking about health. If such a view were really held as a basic conviction by our adult citizenry it is probable that four fifths of the delusions and superstitions and quackeries that weigh upon the human race would vanish like a dream. The development of this funda- mental viewpoint depends of course on other types of instruction than that given in hygiene. It is rooted and grounded in a knowledge of general biology. As President R. L. Wilbur, of Stanford University, wrote me a few weeks ago in connection with the program of this conference: “I DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 609 feel that there should be particular emphasis laid upon biological work— nature study, zodlogy, botany, and the like—as a basis for thinking in terms of life. Otherwise hygiene is too apt to be a series of more or less true so called ‘precepts.’ My feeling is that sound and universal training in biology for our college population would soon give us the teachers to handle hygiene in the schools and a proportion of citizens with an apprecia- tion of hygiene in ordinary life. ‘The teachers need to think biologically more than to put over rules.” If we could really inculcate this conception of the living machine with all that it implies I should be almost satisfied with the accomplishment of the course in hygiene. It is impossible however to teach this general les- son—except as a form of words—without a sufficiently detailed exposition of physiology to make its meaning a vital element in intellectual experience ; and there are a number of subordinate principles in the working of the living machine of sufficient moment to make their inclusion in our course essential to its adequacy. Among such I would call. particular attention to the following, always remembering in the words of the outline recently issued by the Pennsylvania Department of Education that “only so much formal information should be given as will render possible good health in the parts described.” (1) It is not important to know the number and the names of all the bones, but it is essential to know something of the structure and inter- relations of the parts of the bony system and to understand the structure and the general arrangement of the muscles if the child is to have an intelli- gent grasp of what is involved in correct posture, if it is to comprehend the real value of exercise and if in future life it is to respond intelligently to the professional advice of the orthopedist. (2) A knowledge of the mechanics and the chemistry of digestion is vital to the continued maintenance of sound elementary habits and only a real knowledge of the elements of nutrition will make possible a judicious appraisement of the dietary fads and fancies with which the citizen of the future is likely to be confronted in increasing degree. Under the general heading of the digestive system we may also mention the importance of some conception of the structure of the teeth and of the processes of dental disease which will facilitate a future utilization of the resources of dental hygiene. (3) A clear comprehension of the physics of the circulation is basically important for any conception of the effects of the atmospheric envelope upon the body and for a rational control of the effects of this atmospheric envelope through ventilation and clothing. (4) A knowledge of the ways in which wastes are eliminated from the body is fundamental in avoiding constipation and in maintaining the kid- neys in a healthy condition. Here, as in circulation, it is through a real knowledge of the machinery ‘nvolved that the individual will be disposed to take the fullest advantage of medical counsel bearing on the postponement of the degenerative diseases of later life. 610 NationaL EpucaTion ASsociATION (5) A vital conception of the structure of the nervous system furnishes the only sound basis for intelligent mental hygiene, for habit formation, rather than the learning of tricks like a pet dog, and for the adjustment of work and rest so as to insure a maximum of productive performance. The practical hygiene of the eye and ear requires an intelligent compre- hension of the structure of these complex but frequently defective append- ages of the central nervous system. (6) Finally, under this general head of Physiology the pupil should be given an elementary view of the cyclical changes in the human body, of the ways in which developmental and degenerative diseases arise and of the possibilities of medical science as applied to the early detection and hygienic treatment of incipient disease. In addition to these points which appear to me to constitute the most essential elements in a sound knowledge of Physiology, proper, the pupil should also be equipped with an equally basic comprehension of those fundamental relations between man and his microbic and other enemies which underlie the control of the environmental diseases. In this field again there are a half dozen outstanding points which deserve special mention. ; (1) The expansion of everyday conceptions of cleanness, to include the vitally important sorts of cleanness can only be acquired through knowledge of the principles of bacteriology, best by actual demonstrations of cultures which the student can see and handle. Much of the inspirational health teaching of the present day shows that even the would-be teacher of hygiene has quite failed to grasp the essential distinction between dirt which is dangerous and dirt which is merely unsightly. (2) In the second place the distinction between the harmful and the harmless bacteria should be made clear, with the fact that the dangerous _ types have their origin only in the human and animal body, so that a vague fear of dirt and disease in the abstract may be replaced by an intelligent sanitary conscience which will facilitate the isolation of disease in its early stages. (3) Thirdly, the pupil should be given a conception of the way in which disease germs are transferred from one person to another by water and other articles of food and particularly by insects; and of the methods of preventing such transfer by measures of public sanitation. The control of the fly nuisance offers a peculiarly valuable direct contact with personal experience in this field. (4) Next in importance is a comprehension of the nature of the struggle between the invading microbe and the human host with an intelligent grasp of the principles of vaccine and serum therapy, which Promise to play an ever-increasing réle in the control of communicable disease. With instruc- DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 611 (5) In the higher grades the principles involved in the control of tuber- culosis and infant mortality should find a place. In these and other fields an intelligent codperation of the citizen is vital to success and that codpera- tion can only be secured in a community where the elementary principles involved are understood. (6) If the citizen is to play his part in the broader community struggle against preventable disease he should understand something of the main objectives and the general activities of the health departments of city, State, and Nation. The health officer who operates in a community where any substantial proportion of the citizens have received a basic instruction of this kind would be able to accomplish results in the saving of lives of which we have scarcely dreamed in the philosophy of the past. (7) Finally, we should recognize a erowing and a very sound tendency to introduce into the school curriculum well planned instruction in regard to safety in the street and in the home. One half of the victims of auto- mobile accidents are children, of whom over 500 are killed and 12,000 in- jured in New York City every year. The schools of St. Louis reduced fatal accidents of school children by more than 60 per cent through intensive safety teaching. The Safety Institute of America is planning to furnish next year a special information service for the teachers of New York City along this line. Without the acquisition of such broad elements of knowledge as those outlined above, our scheme of health education will fall short of the attain- ment of its highest possibilities. Let us continue to emphasize the acquisi- tion of health habits as the primary aim of such education, but let us base these habits and their modification in the coming years upon a sound knowl- edge of the underlying principles of physiology and hygiene. Let us utilize all the resources of correlation and extra-curricular inspirational technique, but let us provide also for such systematic classroom instruction as can alone insure for hygiene its definite and permanent place in our educational system. PHYSICAL FITNESS FOR SCHOOL ADMISSION Cc. N. JENSEN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT PUBLIC INSTRUCTION ; E.G. GOWANS, STATE DIRECTOR OF HEALTH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH In Utah we have the same situation as elsewhere in the Nation—our educational program is in advance of our financial support. ‘The past year we have been trying to hold on to what we have so far achieved, and it appears as if this procedure will absorb a good part of our interest and effort during the twelve months ahead of us. Our legislative program therefore will be mostly concerned with correcting minor defects in our present school laws. Since this situation began to prevail, we have busied ourselves in advanc- ing our educational program through such avenues as would call for no special legislation. This has been particularly true with our health work 612 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION and Americanization problem. Our efforts have resulted in the creation of a situation that will, we hope, in the near future, make it possible to enforce by law some of the things we are now doing without this valuable asset. yoit; Our health program in Utah is enlarging itself to include children below school age as well as those who are already in school. You are familiar, we presume, with our activity among the school age group, so we shall add nothing at this time to this phase of our school work. It is a sad reflection when we think of the great waste and injustice in this land, resulting from negligence and misdirected effort in the teaching of hygiene. Particularly is this true in teaching formation of health habits and the care of the pre-school child. We are firmly convinced that what- ever is done by the educational system of our State in the interest of the physical welfare of children must take into consideration the pre-school age group. It is not doing justice nor is it fair play to take children from their homes at the age of six to enter upon the new phase of life incident to their entrance into the school. We feel we have not attached as much importance to this event in the life of the child as we should. As a matter of fact and ordinary observation, it is an important epoch of life. Prior to school entrance children quite generally enjoy great freedom in the home and the street. ‘They are accustomed to a life in the open air and sunshine, coming and going largely as they please. Now at school entrance we take them out of this environment of almost perfect freedom and subject them to the restraint of the ordinary school- room. ‘They are subjected to a new set of stimuli. New inhibitions and forms of response are imposed upon them. ‘This new experience with its physical restraints and its training in voluntary attention makes of the first years of school life a period of danger and difficulty. The studies and observations of a number of careful workers have made clear to us that many children are admitted to school before they are fully fit to endure the trying experiences of beginning school life. The evidence of their unfitness consists in failure of promotion, repeating of grades of school work, physical breakdown, and the development of certain mental disorders. Dr. Burnham has so wisely said: “Our present haphazard method of taking in (to school) the sick and the well, the developed and - the undeveloped, the normal and the feeble-minded, the defective and the sound, and of teaching them together at the outset is wasteful and absurd.” And not only that; it is unfair to all types of children themselves. Dr. Burnham further says that “One of the reasons for retardation is the fact that children enter school prematurely or in such imperfect physical or mental condition that they cannot do the work of the school. Failure occurs from the first, and the pupil, handicapped both physically and men- tally, is turned back at the close of the year to repeat the same dreary routine. The place to begin the prevention of retardation is at the entrance of school life.” Our law in Utah says that children may enter school at the age of six DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 613 years, and many parents have come to feel that if they do not get their children into school at that time they are in some way being cheated out of their lawful rights. If parents could come to understand that the suc- cessful doing of school work depends upon a number of other very vital things as well as upon chronological age it would be a good thing. The past year, we have tried to point out as concretely and definitely as possible what is meant by fitness to enter upon school life in order that parents, mothers particularly, might know just what they should aim at ‘n their work for the physical welfare of their pre-school children. Not far in the future, we hope to pass a law requiring of all children before they are permitted to begin school work to pass a carefully prepared physical and medical examination to find out whether or not they are fitted to undertake the new life. The information we have sent broadcast throughout our State contains a statement of standards. The standards are not the result of our own work. We have taken the liberty of appropriating from such authorities as Dr. Burnham and those of the Children’s Bureau at Washington, D. he In our appropriation of this material, we have tried to be fair and give proper recognition to those from whom we use material. Very briefly stated, the standards we are encouraging the parents to adopt are: (4) Whe child should be six years old or over before entering school; (2) Should measure not less than 43 inches high; (3) Should weigh not less than 40 pounds; (4) Should not measure less than 21 inches around the chest ; and (5) Should possess all four of the six-year molar teeth. In passing, let us say that we try to impress upon parents the idea that standards are not to be followed blindly but that they are simply indices of the normal and desirable. It is not sufficient to give a simple statement of standards, so we have consistently attempted to educate parents to the value, both to them- selves and others, of what a knowledge derived from these examinations gives. The reasons for these examinations have been so well stated by the authorities mentioned that our State Health Directory has copied them verbatim. They are: 1. To prevent those children who are in ill health or not sufficiently developed physically and mentally from entering. 2. To provide the necessary data to enable teachers so to order the school work that it will not result in injury to health or check to development, as often happens in the first year of school life. 3. That proper grading and adaptation of school occupations to indi- vidual capacity may begin at the outset of school life. 4, To give school physicians the data necessary for safeguarding the health of children against contagious diseases and the like. 5. To give teachers proper knowledge of the new pupils and the right attitude toward them. 6. That children may begin and be saved from unnecessary failure and retardation or elimination in later grades. 614 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 7. To educate parents and foster a right attitude toward the school. 8. To save the money of taxpayers, now largely wasted, and so badly needed to provide for absolutely essential hygienic conditions.” We have éncouraged parents to keep from school those children who fall under the following groups: 1. Children who have an infectious disease. 2. Children who have rickets, or the after-effects of rickets to the extent that they are in poor physical condition and liable to develop neurosis or some other defect from the influence of school work. 3. All children who have tuberculosis, unless there are outdoor schools in which they can be placed. 4. Children who are in a serious condition of anemia, unless again there are outdoor schools in which they can be placed. 5. Those who have any chronic disease which is liable to be aggravated by school attendance or would interfere with school work. 6. Those who are in a retarded state of physiologic development or mental development, where this would be improved probably by keeping them out of school, and where injury would be done by admission to school, or where it would interfere with school work. 7. Those who have serious sense defects. 8. Those who have any neuroses or the like which would be physically contagious, epilepsy, chorea, stuttering, and the like. 9. Children who have not been vaccinated. While this information, together with much other material, has been put over in our State, you are probably anxious to know just how it has been done and what are the results. An effort was made in one of the forty school districts of Utah to organize a procedure that would not only secure some reliable data but would also make a demonstration of what could be done at reasonable expense. The work was undertaken in the Jordan School District and in the Training School in connection with the School of Education at the State University. . The examining staff in the former case consisted of the superintendent of schools as psychologist, a worker from the State Department who hap- pens to be a specialist in the field of eye, ear, nose, and throat, a nutrition specialist who volunteered his services for the experiment, the supervising nurse, and two assistant school nurses. The examination given was extensive and accurate enough to entitle it to be called an expert examination, and with such an examination as a beginning the second examinations to be given annually or biennially there- after might well be of the type that can be given by the teacher and a trained nurse. This year we expect the same work to be carried on in other districts and continued in the present one. We have made children of pre-school age the topic for discussion and study the past year in our Parent-Teachers Association. This association DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 615 is organized very similar to our educational system. State officers are elected yearly. ‘They have general supervision of the forty school districts. Each school district has a set of supervising officers who work conjointly with the district school superintendent. They give general supervision to the local association. Thus, a local association will be working on local problems and at the same time, all local associations will be devoting part of their time to a State-wide general problem. Such organization makes it comparatively easy for the State to concentrate on problems of general interest. We are disposed to feel that this year our efforts have yielded better results than we anticipated. Our greatest drawback has been that we have not had sufficient lecturers on dietetics and technical hygiene problems to cover the field as we would have wished. ‘The University of Utah, the Utah Agricultural College, and physicians have come to our rescue end contributed much to make the plan a success. We are happy over this beginning and we trust it shall finally end in each child on school entrance being physically fit. THE RESPONSIBILITY OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN HEALTH SUPERVISION CHARLES H. KEENE, M. D., DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF HEALTH EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA It is only recently that any considerable proportion of the schools of America have made real effort to carry out the Spencerian ideal of educa- tion. His definition, that “Education is training for complete living,” has been a pretty thing to talk about, but there has been little real progress toward building up a child who was properly equipped for complete living. Too many educators have felt, and practiced, that the function of the school was merely to pour information into the little machines sent them by fond parents. Only within a very short time has it begun to sink into the consciousness of most of those engaged in public-school education that it was of little value to pour information into children unless at the same time there went on a steady building up of the health and physical side. Today progressive educators believe, and many of them carry into their practice, the idea that it is not information which counts for success and happiness, not even knowledge, but doing. This is particularly apparent in the strenuous efforts made in many communities, and in some States, to get a type of physiology teaching which shall result not so much in informa- tion as in action. At the present time almost the whole effort in that particular phase of education is to build up proper habits in regard to health matters; in other words, we are changing this school subject from a dry, little-interesting, extraneous thing into a living, throbbing part of the daily life of the child. The real function of the school, then, is training for complete living. 616 NATIONAL EpuCcATION ASSOCIATION In other words, we need a training for citizenship which shall make chil- dren not only informed, but well and strong, physically as well as mentally, so that these growing boys and girls, possessing real citizenship, may become the bulwark of our civilization. : In health matters the duty of the school is three-fold—protection, cor- rection, prevention—protection from acute and chronic infectious diseases, from the evils of poorly planned, poorly constructed, and poorly adminis- tered school buildings, and from the menace of the poorly trained teacher ; correction of the defects which, have arisen because of poor surroundings in the school, home, and community, lack of information on the part of parents and teachers, and as the sequale of acute infections; prevention in the nature of a marked improvement of habits of living, a vigorous up- building of physique through proper physical activities properly taught, through proper content and arrangement of the school program, and through the proper planning, construction, and sanitation of the school plant. Educators must no longer be satisfied to put forth a program which does not injure pupils, but they must go further and put forth a program which will build up pupils, not only on the mental side, but on the physical. Proper content of school health activities, properly and vigorously carried on, will do this. If it is ever to function properly, this must be the real program of the schools for health. This program must have a definite content, which may be divided roughly into five parts. First, that thing which most of us were brought up to speak of as physiology, but which we now conceive as a health training and instruction; Second, that factor which was formerly spoken of as “physical culture,” later developed into a more vigorous ideal spoken of as “‘physical training” and now conceived as a real, vital part of the education of the child—physi- cal education. Third, the hygienic management of the school program, covering not only the number of hours per day which pupils of different ages should attend school, but going into details regarding: the proportion of different kinds of subjects which should be taught and the times of the day at which these may be taught, proper interspersion of these teaching periods with relief drills, and various other physical activities, and including within its content the consideration of the feeding of the child, particularly the noon hot school lunch. . Proper arrangement of the daily program will keep fatigue at a minimum and help to build strong, properly functioning bodies and minds. Roughly, this program would be as follows: Open school at such a time as to permit @ proper amount of sleep for young children between one hour after dark in the evening and at least one hour preceding school time. The amount of sleep required at various ages is approximately, as follows: four to seven years, twelve hours; seven to ten years, eleven hours; ten to twelve years, ten hours; twelve to sixteen years, nine hours. This opening time on the average, therefore, should be between 8.30 and 9 A. M. standard time. DEPARTMENT OF CuiLp HYGIENE 617 Certain times of day lend themselves best to certain types of work. Opening exercises followed by cleanliness and health habit inspection should begin every school day. Things which in themselves act least as a motive for accomplishment should come when the mind is freshest, probably im- mediately following the opening exercises. Abstract concepts of number such as the usual arithmetic fall in this class. Subjects having human interest, such as geography, history, or civics, should follow. The recess period should be placed at approximately the middle of the session. It should be at least fifteen to twenty minutes in length. Memory work such as spelling and formal grammar should follow a relaxation period such as the morning recess or noon intermission. The period following the noon intermission is a highly efficient one if pupils have been properly fed. Here should come subjects requiring con- centration of little less severity than abstract number work. ‘These may be English composition, history, geography, or drawing. An afternoon as well as a morning recess is essential in all grades below the seventh. Sub- jects containing large social elements should end the classroom program. These may be art from its appreciation side, music, current events, health discussions, dramatizations, excursions, and the like. The various activities of physical education should beso spaced as to provide the maximum of relief of fatigue, and for body building. Relaxa- tion periods of from two to five minutes each should be placed between each two study or recitation periods. Windows should be opened and vigorous physical activities given. Recesses, weather permitting, should always be out of doors. ‘The activities at this time should be so organized that every child has desire and opportunity for safe, vigorous play suited to his age and strength. Hot school lunches should be provided for all pupils if they are unable easily to get home during the noon intermission. All children below the ~ second grade should have opportunity for a lunch of milk or hot chocolate at morning recess. Whenever the financial condition of parents requires it this midmorning lunch should be provided at public expense. The length of the school day should be graded to suit the age, and mental and physical resistance of the child. “The question for boards of education to decide is not, ‘“‘Can the child get a certain amount of informa- tion in a given time,” but, “Is the length of the time decided upon within the limits of the child’s fatigue resistance?” ‘The process of accustoming a child to the routine and restrictions of the school must be a gradual one. Children of the kindergarten age, under six, should not be permitted to remain in school more than two and one half hours per day. During the first and second grades this time may be raised to not more than four and one half hours per day; in the third and fourth grades to five hours a day; in the fifth and sixth grades to five and one half hours; in the seventh and eighth grades to six hours per day. Chronological age is not a proper qualification for entering the first grade. Pupils should be admitted only after successfully passing definite physical, 618 NatioNAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION physiological, and psychological tests. In other words, the basis of admis- sion and promotion should be physiological and psychological rather than chronological. Time allotment, minutes per week, should approximate the following: Grade ease I VO) ULE IV Vv Vi Vil@ Vill [xX xox Length of schoo ; GER eg IeSe ae 8 o 1350 1350 1500 1500 1650 1650 1800 1800 1800 1800 Recess tants. ee 150 T5ON et50v ol 56.0r5.0n eel 50 75 75 IS) i oecs Physical Educa- ALOIS Sats hele 180" 180) 180 180) 180 180 180 180 §=6.180 180 Hygiene and Phys- iology, (Health teaching) .... 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 45 Noon _ intermis- ‘ SiGL Tea at. 2237 5am 3,1) B 75009375 14375 eu Se IES 150 Fourth comes hygiene of the school plant, which includes insistence upon provision of proper facilities for heating, ventilating, air moistening, light- ing, arrangement of blackboards, sanitary toilets, proper floor area, play- ground area and equipment, and proper cleaning methods. Fifth is that part of the health program which is going through such a rapid development and transformation, particularly as this is seen to be more and more a vital part of the activities of the schools and of the responsibility of school officials. ‘This activity which has evidenced its broadening by its changing name, rising from a primitive medical inspection concerning itself almost entirely with acute infectious diseases, to become a physical examination with some corrective activities, but now broadened into a real health examination and inquiry into all of the health factors surrounding the child, and adding efforts to improve these factors as well as to remove his physical defects, so that it has become what we may best term a real “health supervision.” : This health supervision is an essential part of the school program and cannot be carried on successfully without taking into careful consideration its relation to health training and instruction, to physical education, to the hygienic management of the school program, and to the hygiene of the school plant. Insomuch as this interrelation is ignored, health supervision of school children is a failure. It cannot be a field of activity set aside by itself under the direction and control of any board or body outside the Board of Education. To advocate such a procedure shows a definite lack of vision as regards its possibilities in relation to health training and in- struction, its responsibilities in physical education, its duties in the hygienic management of the daily school program, and its function in guiding and largely controlling the hygiene of the school plant. Medical inspection was started abroad many years ago by certain boards of education for, first, the physical inspection and examination of children; second, for the examination of buildings. In the United States it was started by the local board of health in several of the larger cities, examina- * Not included in the specified length of the school day. * Luncheon. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 619 tions being made by physicians primarily to find; isolate, and quarantine children having acute infectious diseases. It was hoped thereby to check the spread of those diseases. It was soon found that such an effort was pitifully inadequate as a real health measure. Only about four per cent of the pupils even at that time had such infections. At the present time the percentage usually runs less than two per cent per year. “The field was gradually broadened to include the physical examination of all the pupils. It was soon found that even this broadened activity was not fulfilling the need, so that its purpose gradually shifted and the concept became more ‘ and more prominent that, while checking contagious diseases was important, and while finding physical defects had a value for propaganda purposes, the finding of these defects had little value to the school or to com- munity and no value to the child unless something was done about it. It became necessary then to add another factor to the personnel—the school nurse. The percentage of correction of physical defects thereafter rapidly doubled and often trebled. It was then found that there were some communities, and some parts of almost every community, where it was impossible to get corrections because of lack of facilities or poverty of parents, so that it was necessary to add to the machinery different kinds of clinics, those for the care of the teeth, for the care of the eyes, and for the nose, mouth, and throat, being most common. t Even with our best efforts, and with all the above facilities, we find that there are certain groups of children whose physical defects may be corrected only very slowly or not at all. In the former group fall the mal-nourished and the tuberculous. In the latter group the semi-deaf and deaf, the semi-blind and blind, the crippled, and that very large group of mental defectives roughly covered by the terms “epileptic” and the “‘feeble- minded.” It became necessary, therefore, to establish special classes for the care, protection, and education of these groups. “These are so intimately woven into the general school machinery and so vitally affect the health and welfare of all the pupils in the schools, that it becomes more and more apparent that it is extremely unwise to have this health supervision carried on by other than school authority. The personnel for this work includes such factors as the regular school physicians and the specialists who work with them, the school nurses, the dentists, the dental hygienists, the teachers of special classes, and the regular classroom teachers, whose activity, properly directed, is becoming more and more a valuable asset in the health of childhood. The ratio of personnel to the number of children enrolled is a most important factor. There should be approximately one school physician working three hours each school day for each 3500 to 4000 pupils enrolled, counting both the high-school and grade-school pupils. For small com- munities this works out roughly in the ratio of one hour per school day for each 1000 school pupils. The usually accepted standard for school nurses is one nurse for each 2000 pupils. In small, rural, scattered com- 620 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION munities it may be necessary to supply one school nurse for each 1000 pupils. The number of nurses and doctors above given presupposes that the nurse will work with the doctor while he is making the physical examination, keep most of the records, and make certain parts of the physical examination, such as measuring, weighing, testing sight and hearing, and otherwise ex- pediting the work of the physician to the fullest extent. There should be one school dentist giving three hours’ time each school day for each 16,000 pupils enrolled. This is presupposing that there are employed dental hygienists in the proportion of one full time dental hygienist for each 4000 pupils enrolled in the lower six grades. “The number of pupils per teacher in the special classes varies according to the type of class, being from twenty to thirty pupils for the classes for tuberculosis and for nutrition classes, ten to twelve for deaf and semi-deaf, for the blind and semi-blind, twenty to twenty-five for classes for crippled children, and approximately fifteen for classes for the mentally subnormal. Properly advised, directed, and codrdinated by the superintendent of schools and the board of education all the above make a wonderful team for health. The closer the coérdination of the health supervision with the health training and instruction, the physical education, the daily schedule and school sanitation on the one hand, and with the other school activities on the other, the better the results will be. “here must be a definite work- ing together of the doctors, nurses, dentists, clinics, special classes, of the special, physical education, and regular classroom teachers and of school time, after-school, and vacational activities if we are to get the worth of the money which is expended for this activity. There must be a more definite codperation than we have as yet succeeded in getting, except possibly in some rare instances. Most of the personnel used for health supervision has at times a definite function in health train- ing and instruction, in physical education, in advising on the arrangement of the daily schedule, in supervising and correcting the sanitation of the school plant, in advising and building up the health of the teachers as a whole, and in training and building up community health ideals on the part of parents and public. This health supervision must be given a definite type of organization. It should work subordinate to some individual who has the responsibility tor the whole school health organization. In the smaller communities this may be the superintendent of schools or even the supervising principal. In the larger communities there should be a director of school health, under whom shall work specialists in physical education, in health training, and in instruction including the teaching of nutrition, psychologists, and a super- visor of health supervision. This supervisor must be a physician responsi- ble for planning the work and co6érdinating the activities of school physicians, school nurses, school dentists, dental hygienists, school clinics, and health phases of the activities of the teachers of special classes, whose aa so een affects Ease and possibilities of the unfortunate group A : we et either temporarily or throughout their school career occupy such DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 621 As to the definite place of control and authority for this work in health supervision, the weight of the argument seems to make certain that the only logical body to control is the board of education. Those who favor board of health control have only two real arguments, and these are more superficial than fundamental. First, that because the control of contagious diseases is primarily one of the functions of the board of health and because the board of health only has the police power neces- sary for the enforcement of quarantine, it should have control of this school activity; and second, in order that this health work may be codrdinated with the other health agencies of the community. In rebuttal, those argu- ing for board of education control maintain that whatever the power and authority, the school doctors and nurses in the field have to report con- tagious diseases to a central office and that oftentimes their diagnosis is confirmed by special investigation before quarantine is enforced, that neither time nor efficiency in the control of contagious disease is lost when these doctors and nurses in the schools are working under school authority, as even then they report communicable disease cases direct to the health de- partment. It is, of course, accepted by all parties that the board of health shall make the necessary rules and regulations in regard to exclusion from school and quarantine. So far as coédrdination with other health agencies is concerned, school health work, outside of the attempted control of con- tagious disease, has little in common with the other health agencies of the community or State. The attention of the board of health is largely occu- pied by inspections of premises and enforcement of city ordinances regarding such factors of health as purity of food and milk supplies, sanitary disposal of refuse and sewage, guarding of water supplies, the correct handling of vital statistics, and numerous other things that per se have little direct relation to the activities of public schools. Control of all school health activities by the board of education, how- ever, seems advisable first, because they can do just as well and as efficiently as the board of health all those things relating directly to the health of the school child while in or about the school. There are strong additional arguments. In the vast majority of communities the board of education machinery is much better developed than is the board of health machinery. ‘The smaller the community the more this is true, because there is always a func- tioning board of education no matter how tiny the unit, whereas it is rare to find a board of health that does much in communities below the city class. ‘The attitude of the teachers is necessarily better toward board of education control because the board of education has direct control over them. Parents are much more cooperative toward the board of education. Their whole experience with the board of health usually has been dis- agreeable—a compulsion rather than a codperation. On the other hand parents, throughout , the school career of the pupils, are accustomed to dealing with board of education employees and to a large extent codperating 622 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION with them. Under board of education control the whole activity is a leading and aiding, rather than a driving. Because the public has been accustomed for generations to accept various kinds of aid from the board of education, they will accept this additional aid on the health side just as naturally as they accept free paper and pencils and textbooks, and with just as total lack of feeling of charity or obligation. ‘This direct aid coming from the board of health unfortunately often does have the charity taint. Moreover, health supervision under board of education control can and will go farther in building up physical and mental health than it can pos- sibly go under board of health control. ‘This is due largely to the funda- mental concept of the sphere of action of the two bodies, and to the fact that such a large proportion of the proper kind of health supervision work is totally and permanently beyond the power of control of the board of health or any other organization other than the board of education. Work- ing under board of health control there can never be the intensive codrdina- tion and codperation of the various factors of school health activities that there may be under board of education control. ‘To name only two or three of these factors, consider how little the board of health could reach such problems as health instruction and training in the schools, or the con- trol of the daily program of the schools, or any proper development of mental hygiene, the importance of which we are just beginning to realize. Furthermore, it is a fundamental concept of the leading educators that all of the activities which go on in the schools must be controlled by school authorities. ‘This is necessary not only for the best working out of these activities, but in order to prevent a chaotic disintegration of those activities already in the schools. The health of children of school age is fundamentally a board of educa- tion problem. It has a definite relation mentally and physically to the growth and development of the pupils in the schools. The physical char- acteristics are largely fixed for life before the age of eighteen, and the school is the only organized agency which can materially affect these char- acteristics. “The child spends more time in school than in any other place except the home. The school is the nursery of the Nation, and anything which tends to dis- integrate the unity of its authority is a distinct menace to our future. ‘The school age is the habit-forming age, and the school teacher more than any other person, except the mother, is in a position to control and develop these habits. And, lastly, the standards of the home itself, particularly in such health matters as personal cleanliness, sleep, fresh air, and food, are often developed through the school child. Then, too, the relative aims of the health department and the board of education are fundamentally different. The vision of the health depart- ment looks toward the detection and segregation of communicable diseases, the detection of physical defects, and the statistical bearing of these defects. The edueational department has a more fundamental vision looking toward DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 623 prevention and up-building, working through such fundamental school problems as habit formation, exercise, cleanliness, healthful surroundings, ventilation, rest, recreation, nutrition, growth, protection, checking retarda- tion, correction of physical defects, special education of those with such defects, hygienic program arrangement, and education through organized physical activities. As regards the controlling authority of this health supervision, the present condition of affairs is interesting. In practically all foreign countries it rests in the national board of education, and always has so rested. In the United States, whereas the work was started as a board of health activity it has gradually become, because of its broadening scope and because of the better organization of those in control of the schools, a board of edu- cation function. So that at the present time the vast majority of the com- munities carry on this activity under the board of education. Of the twenty-three States whose superintendents report special health super- vision laws, only 17 per cent of them place the control under the board of health, 26 per cent place it under the joint control of the board of health and of the board of education, and 57 per cent place it wholly under control of the board of education. Of those State superintendents replying to a questionnaire, only 15 per cent suggest the advisability of placing this activity under the board of health. If this work of school health supervision is placed under the direct control of the boards of education it will not only do all that it could do under board of health control for the better health of school pupils, but it will bring about this closer coérdination with all other school health activities which is essential for real progress. It will bring about a definite training for proper attitude toward social hygiene through classroom activities, particularly in such studies as biology, science, and nature study, rather than encouraging the most undesirable activities of the itinerant lecturer. The program of mental hygiene will be a program on the up-building side, an effort to create a proper attitude toward life on the part of all pupils, rather than a mere effort to segregate those who are mentally unsound. This program will never function properly nor make any real progress unless all the health activities of the schools are coérdinated and gathered together under one thoroughly trained head who, together with all of his subordinates, shall be employed by and responsible to the public school authorities, upon whom devolves the real responsibility for guiding and guarding our children through the formative years. Of these various health activities this health supervision is a real and fundamental part, and only by its being made an integral part of the school program, given the same standing and authority, and under the same control as other school subjects, will the schools be able to turn out products which are really educated—trained ‘“‘for complete living”—and for citizenship. 624 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE RELATION OF NUTRITION TO DENTAL CONDITIONS PERCY R. HOWE, CHIEF OF RESEARCH DEPARTMENT, FORSYTH DENTAL INFIRMARY FOR CHILDREN, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS Decay of the teeth, the most common pathological condition, does not seem to have been arrested by modern treatment. Primitive races or races living on natural foods are free from it. ‘The present theory that caries is wholly a local process, the result of the fermentation of car- bohydrates, does not explain its periodic occurrence. The caries of child- hood, adolescence, pregnancy, and of old age occurs in life when there is an especial demand for calcium or when the calcium is not properly used. Animal experimentation does not support the present theory, but it is when insufficient calcium is furnished animals or even when this is furnished, if an irregular use of the calcium is brought about, that caries occurs. The teeth and bones are similar chemically, in the method in which the calcium is held in combination and in the process of calcification. In most bone diseases, an increase in the magnesium content is found. We have found that carious teeth have twice as much magnesium as sound teeth. Other evidences that the teeth change in structure may be seen when animals which are capable of showing effects similar to those that occur in man in respect to foods, are fed diets comparable to modern diets. Their teeth become badly affected. The guinea-pig or monkey shows caries and pyorrhea. Other pathological effects occur, such as joint trouble, eye trouble, reproduction may be stopped or abnormal young brought forth, and growth is affected. These effects were obtained prin- cipally by a long-continued deficiency in the antiscorbutic vitamines. They were accentuated by a deficiency in calcium. Recent estimations have shown that children need more calcium than has been thought. For sound teeth, we recommend first mother’s milk. Cow’s milk must be modified so as to prevent dense curd formation and hence calcium loss by excretion. When milk is pasteurized, orange juice must supplement it. In older children, milk and green raw leafy vege- tables, and citrous fruits in addition to their other foods, also whole grain products are to be recommended. The greatest harm from sugars is not their local action, but that they are so taken as to spoil the appetite for the foods which they need for tissue building. The food requirements of children are not those of the adult. They have the growth factor to be considered. They are more active and the important thing is to see that their foods are not deficient in any known factor. Proteins, carbohydrates, inorganic salts, fats, vitamines, and roughage should be amply supplied. Tooth decay is to be regarded as a deficiency disease. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 625 A PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROGRAM IN NUTRITION MARY G. MC CORMICK, STATE SUPERVISOR OF NUTRITION, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, NEW YORK Experimental work in nutrition has followed two lines: 1. The attempt to discover the nutritive requirements in quantitative terms; 2. The study of the effect on laboratory animals of feeding diets known to be inadequate. While the first kind of experimental work is of supreme importance, the second kind, that of feeding insufficient diets to animals has led to such disastrous physiological results that a very widespread interest in nutrition has been stimulated. Most organizations devoted to child welfare are considering a nutrition program; some have already adopted one. One wonders how soon the schools will introduce a nutrition program. It has been my experience during the past four years to work for the school authorities of New York State. I have found them most interested in child welfare and ready to adopt a nutrition program when an effective and practical one is presented to them. _ What is a practical-nutrition program for the schools? School taxes are high and the nutrition program must not be inordinately expensive. ‘The present school curriculum is a heavy one and the nutrition program must therefore be very simple. It must be admitted that our knowledge of the nutritive requirements of children has been much further developed than our knowledge of the best way in which to organize a nutrition program in the schools. From the standpoint of school administration, nutrition programs are in their initial experimental stage. The one who is guiding this new experiment in the school schedule must have the mind of the scientist ; he must exercise a constant criticism of his own method and be ready to change or even abandon it when a better one has been developed. Probably the nutrition method which has attracted the most general atten- tion is the nutrition class method. While the nutrition class is an effective means of arousing the interest and codperation of the undernourished child and his mother, a school program devoted exclusively to the organization of nutrition classes is to my mind neither practical nor complete. It is not practical because of its cost; the number of persons needed to conduct such a program requires an expenditure of money for salaries which few boards of education would sanction. It is not complete because even if fully organized it reaches directly only the undernournished children— about twenty per cent of the school population. The purpose of this paper is to present a nutrition program that does seem to be complete and practical and does not require an expensive budget. This plan has been adopted in two cities in New York State—namely, Auburn and Binghamton, and has been demonstrated to be successful. In Auburn a well-trained supervisor of nutrition was placed on the school faculty. This supervisor of nutrition met the teachers periodically and gave them lectures, the teachers in turn presented lessons in nutrition to the children in the light of the knowledge gained by these lectures. Asa 626 NaTIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION result the percentage of malnutrition in Auburn has been reduced from twenty-three per cent to eleven per cent, only three nutrition classes have been organized. “The emphasis has been placed in training the teachers in the principles of nutrition. In Binghamton a well-trained supervisor of nutrition has also been placed on the school staff. She has given lectures to the teachers in the nutritive requirements of children. The teachers in turn have transmitted these lessons to children and have inspired the children to practice good food habits. The undernourished children in Binghamton have been reached by their grade teacher who has the consultation service of the nutrition supervisor. ‘The prevailing percentage of undernourished children at the present time is eleven and five tenths per cent. Contrast the nutrition class method with the plan of having a supervisor of nutrition to train the teachers. ‘The elementary-school population of Binghamton is 8481. The number of undernourished children would be one fifth or 1700 children. To organize all of these children into nutrition classes at once would require a staff of seventeen persons. Even then only the undernourished children would be reached directly. Under the other plan of having a Supervisor of Nutrition one person reaches 8481. The kind of nutrition program here presented—that of having a supervisor of nutrition on the school staff—has demonstrated in two cities in New York State that 1. Teachers can be made interested in the subject of nutrition. 2. The lessons presented by these teachers trained in nutrition are so effective that in about 18 months the percentage of children classed as undernourished has been reduced fifty per cent. The success of such a program depends upon three essential conditions: 1. A well organized school system in which superintendent, principals, and teachers are vitally interested in nutrition. 2. A staff of school medical inspectors and school nurses for the correction of physical defects. 3. A well-trained supervisor of nutrition, one who is a graduate at least of a four-year college or university and who has specialized during her course, in physiology, biological chemistry and food chemistry, and nutri- tion. She should also have a knowledge of psychology and the principles of teaching. FRESH AIR, DIET, AND REST FOR SELECTED PUPILS CARLISLE REED, SCHOOL PHYSICIAN, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS The open-air classes in the Washington District have been under my observation for the past six years. There are two classes, a second and third grade. These two grades have been selected because the great ma- jority of children who can be benefited by open-air class treatment are to be found in this district, at least among the younger children. Some con- sideration has been given to establishing a first-grade class, but as yet it has not been found practicable to do so. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 627 The object of these open-air classes of course is to improve the health of the children. There are many children whose physical condition is such that they are unable to perform the regular grade work in the ordinary classes. These children need special care and attention and an attempt is made in the open air to build them up physically so that they may be better able to benefit from their education and more nearly compete with their fellows. The Washington district is located in the West End of Boston, a densely populated congested tenement district. The population of the school district is practically all of foreign birth. There are over 1800 children in the school district mainly Jewish and Italian, with a sprinkling of Poles and almost no native Americans. Selection—A preliminary selection of children is made at the end of the school year to form the open-air classes for the succeeding year. In Sep- tember, these children are carefully re-examined. "The children of the regular second and third grades are examined as early as possible in the year, and the final selection of candidates for the open-air class is made. Thirty children make up a class where there is but one grade, twenty-four where there are two grades. Examination—All examinations are made with the child completely stripped to the waist after being weighed and measured by the nurse. ‘The importance of having the children stripped cannot be too greatly empha- sized; many defects are readily apparent that might easily be overlooked ‘£ the examination were made through the clothing. “The heart and lungs cannot be properly examined through clothing, nor can one accurately and rapidly detect such defects as slight curvatures of the spine, faulty posture, the milder cases of malnutrition, and the like, if the child’s body is clothed. All examinations are made in a special room devoted to the use of the doctor and the nurse. “The examination is fairly comprehensive, including height, weight, general condition, examination of teeth, nose, throat, heart, lungs, spine, glands,’ orthopedic defects (posture), etc. All defects are recorded on the regular Physical Examination card which accompanies each child through his school career. Type—The children selected are those who are physically below par; not sick enough to remain out of school for treatment, but still not strong enough physically to get along in the regular classrooms. These children on account of their debilitated condition frequently are unable to keep up in their regular classroom work and are obliged to repeat a grade. Those chosen are the pretubercular, anemic, glandular, those with mal- nutrition, children who are weakened from some serious illness, occasionally some cardiac cases both functional and those with failing compensations, orthopedic cases, contact cases (i. e., children who have been exposed to active tuberculosis in their immediate family), a few with enlarged tonsils and adenoids where the child is underweight, and a few with nervous troubles. 628 NatTIoNAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION Duration of stay—Once in the open-air class, the child is kept through the entire year. Many of those entering the second grade open-air class go into the third grade open-air class for the following year. The policy of keeping the children in these classes for the entire year or even longer is simply a policy of building for the future. It is not enough to simply get the child up to normal weight and then put the child back in the regular grade; the child’s strength and resistance must be built up as well, so that he may hold the gain that he has made and continue to thrive. That this policy is sound is borne out by the results. Before a child is placed in the class, a special home visit is made by the nurse to get the consent of the parents for the child to attend an open-air class and also to get their codperation. The parents are greatly interested and there has never been any difficulty in obtaining this consent. Fre- quently parents come in and request that their children be allowed to join an open-air class. The children are followed up closely by the nurse and all remediable defects noted during the physical examination are cared for as early in the year as possible. All children have their teeth in perfect condition quite early in the year. The nurse sees to it that all children go to their family physician or dentist or where there is none, to one of the hospitals for treat- ment. Many of them she takes herself. This early cleaning up of defects helps them to get the full benefits of their classes. Fresh air—The value of fresh air in the treatment of the habitually deli- cate children, such as are chosen for a fresh-air class, has long been recog- nized. It is certainly readily apparent that children who droop and appear dull in the regular classrooms become bright and alert with increased evi- dence of mental and bodily vigor after a few weeks in the open-air class. Their eyes are brighter, their cheeks show color, and their minds become more alert. One thing is quite apparent; the children are very happy in these classes. Catarrhal conditions clear up rapidly and soon disappear. These children practically never have a cold, and are rarely sick. Con- tagious disease is practically unknown. Their attendance improves and children who, in the preceding year, showed absences of many school days, even weeks, have a perfect attendance record at the end of the year. In fact, the attendance: for the two Washington Open-air Classes for the past year was over 99 per cent, a fine record. On account of their increased vitality they learn more rapidly, although less actual time is spent in in- struction. Granting all these benefits, the question then of how much open air is necessary arises; that is, must the school be entirely outdoors with only a roof for shelter, and perhaps a canvas wind-break on one side, or may it be held in a regular room with special window arrangement. Dr. River’s private school in Boston, the Elizabeth McCormick School in Chicago, and many others have shown excellent results with the wholly out-door type of school. This is the extreme, but perhaps the only real type of open- air class, in the true meaning of the word. In a class of this kind, more ‘ DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 629 warm clothing is required and more and heartier food is necessary than in the in-door open-air class. “This, of course, means greater expense which cannot always be readily met. ; On the other hand, excellent results are also obtained in the type of room that is more widely used and which is open on one side only. A room of this variety was made use of in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1908, in the first open-air class in the United States. The first Boston open-air class was established a few months later in the same year. In the original Providence room one entire side was taken up by windows reaching from near the floor to the ceiling and hinged at the top. By means of pulleys on the lower ends of those windows, they can be raised to the ceiling. In the Washington School, the windows are divided in the middle like French windows, and have a device which locks each half of the windows open at any desired angle independent of the other half. ‘There are other similar devices in use for utilizing the whole air space provided by the windows. In any event, the windows take up the whole of one side, so that the room is entirely open on one side. ‘The exposure on the open side should be toward the south so that there may be an ample supply of sunshine. In many cities a certain amount of heated air is admitted during the cold season. In New York the minimum temperature was fixed at 50 degrees F. in 1915; in Boston the temperature is kept as close to 55 degrees as possible. In a cold raw climate like Boston, with its east wind, a totally unheated room soon tends to become damp and cave-like, unless some heat is supplied. Diet—On the question of feeding, there is a great variety of opinion. In the original open-air school at Charlottenburg, Germany, in 1904, the children were given five meals a day. In. England, three meals were served. Many others have followed similar programs. The number of meals given varies from the five meal a day plan down to where no meals are furnished, but the pupils bring food from home which is consumed in the mid-morning. In a great many schools, a mid-morning lunch alone is provided. In Boston, no food is provided by the city; instead, an attendant is furnished to prepare the meals which are paid for, at cost, by the children. The attendant also cleans up. The city provides a gas stove, an adequate supply of cooking utensils, enamel cups, spoons, etc., and facilities for pre- paring food, and cleaning and washing up. ‘The cost varies in different districts. In the Washington School, two cents a day has been found adequate. With careful buying it has been found that this sum will purchase sufficient food for a proper lunch. Although it is a very poor district, there has been little difficulty in getting the children to bring in the money. No child is refused food for lack of money. Just what is the best food to serve for mid-morning lunch has always been a question; various things have been tried and all have seemed to work well. One year it has been cocoa with crackers or cookies, another soups prepared in our own kitchen, another time milk and crackers. ‘This 630 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION year we tried an innovation, serving cereals and milk with sometimes cocoa and crackers, and thick vegetable soup once a week. The soup provided contained one big potato, three fourths of a cup of milk for each child, and was seasoned with other vegetables. “The cereals were greatly relished by the children who for the most part were not accustomed to them at home. Next year crackers are to be discontinued and rye bread substituted. The interesting point is that the children improved visibly on all the different diets. An ideal food from the standpoint of handling and cleanliness is a half pint of milk for each child ‘served in its original bottle and taken through straws. ‘The cost in this city is four cents a day. It has, how- ever, the disadvantage of being cold food and in the winter months hot tood has been found to be more acceptable. ‘The question has often been raised whether or not some parents would not send their children to school without their breakfast if they knew that a morning lunch would be served. Careful inquiry has shown this not to be true. It has also been found that the school lunch in no way interferes with their regular noon meal. Consequently the children receive their three regular daily meals and in addition a hot lunch in the middle of the morning. Rest—Rest has always been considered an important factor in treating debilitated children. Perhaps the best way to obtain it is to provide cots on which the children lie supine for a stated interval at a fixed time of the day. More often, cots are not available and steamer chairs are used. These are good, but do not provide the full relaxation that can be obtained on a cot. In some classes, the children simply lean forward in their chairs and rest their heads on their folded arms. This is the least desirable method as it constricts the abdominal organs and impedes the breathing. A fairly satisfactory method used in at least one class is to have the children spread their blankets on the floor and lie on them: When it comes to the question of how much rest is required, by these children, there seems to be a considerable variation in opinion. ‘This, doubt- less, is due in a great measure to the difference in the physical condition of the children under treatment as well as to differences in the ideas of those who are caring for them. Markedly debilitated children require more rest, even up to two hours a day. In the Washington School, although steamer chairs are provided, they are little used. The chairs are occasionally used in the early part of the year by individual members of the classes, but are never used by the classes as a whole. Although the Washington district is a densely populated crowded tenement district, populated chiefly by foreigners, we do not have many of the greatly debilitated children that one might expect. The children we select, although well under par, do not require complete rest. Rest may be obtained in another way beside lying down and that is the method of obtaining it that our teachers follow. It is by frequently chang- ing the occupation, made as soon as the class begins to show signs of rest- lessness. The teacher knows her class, and watching it closely, stops her period of instruction before she overtires them, A lesson period is followed DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 631 by a period of some form of quiet relaxation where the children are engaged in arranging card letters or colored sticks at their desks or some similar task where they rest quietly at their desks. Stories, games, and exercise are interspersed with the lessons. As the year goes on, the teaching periods can be lengthened. ‘The point is that the children are never overtired at one task, but are rested by a frequent change of occupation. In schools where the physical condition of the children is much lower, the periods of complete rest are doubtless necessary, but much rest can be obtained in the manner outlined. If complete rest is desired, it can best be obtained by lying down and should come in the middle of the session. Results—The results of the open-air class treatment are truly encourag- ing. At the end of the year the pale, dejected, hollow-eyed youngsters have been transformed into bright-eyed, rosy-cheeked, alert, happy children. They have gained in weight and strength and have at the same time per- formed the regular work of the erade so that they return to the regular grade classes on an equal basis with their fellows. This spring, in order to determine the results of the treatment, I made a special examination of all the children in the Washington District who had ever been in an open-air class. I wanted to know whether the gains made by the children were permanent or whether they slumped again after a year or so in the regular grades. There were only about 195 children available; the rest had either been discharged to go to work, indicating good physical condition, or had been transferred out of the district. The result of the investigation was extremely gratifying. The great majority of the children had not only held their gains, but had continued to improve; only a few had slumped, and in most cases, there was a special reason for this. Rated on general physical condition, roughly 57 per cent were in excellent shape, 33 per cent were fairly good, and about 10 per cent were poor. There were some splendid physical specimens among them. The gains in weight were interesting. Taking as a basis the weight of the child on entering the open-air class, the average normal gain of weight for the period of two, three, or four years that the child had been out of the class was estimated. This estimated normal gain of weight was compared with the actual gain in weight. The children were then divided into six groups according to the number of years they had been out of the open-air class, and a comparison made between the actual gain in weight and the estimated normal gain in weight. In each group it was found that these children had gained more than the estimated normal gain. As examples, twenty-nine children one year out of the class averaged three fourths of a pound more than the normal gain. Thirty-seven children, two years out, one and three fourths pounds, while the greatest gain was ‘n thirteen children, six years out, who averaged three and seven eighths pounds above normal. Conclusions—(1) Good results may be obtained in a building with one side open as well as in a class entirely in the open; (2) Feeding more than a light mid-morning lunch in school is not necessary ; (3) The amount of 632 NaTIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION rest required depends on the condition of the children. Much rest can be cbtained by a change of pace; (4) The gain in physical health is permanent ; and (5) Economically, open-air classes are a good investment, for they make healthy, self-supporting citizens out of children who otherwise on account of ill health would be a burden to the community. They also reduce expenses by reducing the number of children who have to repeat a grade with its added expense. Recommendations—(1) There should be open-air classes in every school district; (2) Some provision should be made to care for the children in the higher grades where there are not enough children to form a class; (3) Open-air classes should be established in the first grade where there are many children who stand in need of its benefits and who now are obliged to repeat the grade on account of ill health. Miss Callaghan, the school nurse of the Washington School, will read 2 report of the follow-up work of the 197 children who were in the open-air classes during the second or third grade. ‘Twenty-seven of these children completed their elementary training and graduated June 22, 1922. REPORT OF THE FOLLOW-UP WORK OF 197 OPEN-AIR CLASS CHILDREN IN THE WASHINGTON SCHOOL MARY CALLAGHAN, PUBLIC SCHOOL NURSE, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS We nurses are told time and time again that the physical condition is the foundation of education. Recognizing this, Mr. Hinds is always ready with his codperation in the carrying out of every plan for bettering the health of the children in the Washington District. Along with the won- derful aid of our principal, there is the enthusiasm of his assistants who regard the working out of every health problem as an opportunity for helping the child. To help him grow well, doctor, nurse, and teacher work hand in hand with the parent for his physical and mental and moral development. This report was prepared at the close of the school year, June F922: We will follow the order of the health card: Classification—The school physician classified the open-air class children into three physical types. This classification was determined after a care- ful physical examination during May, 1922, of the 197 open-air class children now in our district. Type I represents the best physical condition ; Type II, not quite so good ; and ‘Type III, the lowest physical condition. Physical Neiibet “of enue etal ale se TeVetagats Vous Wr eM NERS ct P S 1g F a Nose and throat—One hundred and twenty-eight children, nose and throat negative; 53 children, adenoids and tonsils removed; 10 children after leaving the open-air class, operation not deemed necessary; and 6 chil! dren, not yet followed advice. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 633 Teeth—From the beginning of the open-air class in 1913 it has been our effort to have all the children’s teeth put in perfect condition while in the open-air class. We have succeeded in accomplishing this, each year with every child, with the exception of seven who refused dental treatment. This year a special effort was made to complete the dental work of the 197 open-air class children. ‘The result is that 190 have had all dental work completed, the same seven children refusing treatment. “Through a special favor granted to us by Miss McCaffrey and Dr. Cross, who are always looking for an opportunity to promote enthusiasm in the care of the teeth, we have been able to accomplish this great piece of work in a few weeks this spring. Cardiac disease—Sixteen children with organic heart disease. All are in school and their hearts are well compensated. “These children are very carefully looked after. They are reéxamined by the school physician at different times during the year as physical indications require. With his advice, they are permitted to ride in the elevator and may be excused from manual training or exercise. It is a rule of our department that the school nurse visit the home of each child who has organic heart disease at least once a year and oftener if medical treatment is advised by the school physician, to instruct the parent on the importance of having the child placed under treatment, and in fol- lowing the doctor’s advice.. There were nineteen children with functional heart disease before enter- ing and during the time in the open-air class; after leaving the open-air class there were only four children who had functional heart disease. Orthopedic defects—Seven children, lateral curvature of spine (all are receiving treatment at the Massachusetts General Hospital) ; 12 children, postural defects (special care and instruction given to them in the classroom and in the home) ; 4 children, pigeon-chested ; 3 children, bow-legged; 3 children, deformed feet; 2 children, deformed arm; | child, deformed arm and foot; and 1 child, one hip smaller than the other. Malnutrition—Fifty-eight children malnourished. ‘There are 34 chil- dren once malnourished now normal. Every child in the open-air class is weighed and measured every year. ‘The malnourished children through- out the district are weighed and measured every month while marked malnourished. Twenty-four children now malnourished. School attendance—The 197 children are in grades as follows: Present open-air class Grade 8 7 6 5 + 3 3 2 Niosschald rem adept ryer-/ore onslaws Pai 13 29 17 39 14 30 30 One child, third grade, open-air class, in Westfield Sanatorium. One child, second grade, open-air class, in Home for Incurables. Ninety never repeated grade. One hundred and seven repeated as follows: Eighty-three before entering open-air class. 634 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION Twenty-four after leaving open-air class; 12 of these repeated before entering and after leaving. Fifty-seven repeated grade once. Thirty-four repeated grade twice. Fourteen repeated three or more times. A review of the illnesses of the open-air class children may account for some of the days out of school and for some of the repeating grades. It reveals that these children have lived through a great deal. If you should ask me how they compare with the other children in the school we would tell you, from experience gained from the children and their parents and in visiting the homes of all the children in the district since 1907, that these children have proportionally a far greater number of defects and have had more serious illnesses than the others. We are interested to show the benefits of the open-air class in a practical way. Is the open-air child a special child, and should it receive special attention and for how long? Yes! As long as it is in our school and it needs attention, it demands attention, it loves attention! AN EFFECTIVE RURAL-SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE AUGUSTA C. TURNBULL, HEALTH TEACHER IN THIRTEEN RURAL-SCHOOL DISTRICTS, SCHENECTADY COUNTY, NEW YORK The school medical inspection law in New York State, which became effective August 1, 1913, made medical inspection compulsory in all the public schools of the State, including the rural schools. The optional pro- visions of the law were broad enough in scope to give the school authorities which were willing and could secure the appropriations ample authority to institute a complete system of medical inspection, but the mandatory pro- visions were few and relate largely to discovery of defects with little emphasis placed upon their corrections. According to the provisions of the statute, the trustee or trustees of the rural-school districts are required to employ a doctor as school medical inspector whose duties are to examine the pupils of the school and make a record of such inspections for each pupil each year. The trustees of several school units, or districts, could combine in the employment of a school medical inspector, but the general practice was for the trustee or trustees of each district to act individually. Contracts were made with the medical inspector to examine the pupils; some paid twenty- five cents or as much as one dollar per examination. He visited the school as he found opportunity, examined the pupils therein, and made the record on cards provided for the purpose. He then considered his duty per- formed and it was according to his contract. He then gave no more at- tention to the school for that year. The record cards of these inspections were left in the school and carefully stored away by the teacher. Thus defects were discovered, but little attempt was made toward cor- recting these defects. In the Schenectady County schools of which I speak DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 635 only a few isolated cases were treated for correction during the first two and one half years under the operation of the law. During that time five thousand dollars or more was spent for inspection’ with little or no cor- rective results. The experience of these two and one half years showed very plainly that the results were far from what they should have been for the money expended. Dr. Howe wishes me to tell you how rural-school health originated and became a successful reality in Schenectady County, New York. This is my field of work. The trustees of several rural districts realizing that no results were being obtained in the matter of correcting defects and promoting health education generally complained to the district superintendent that they were wasting money and asked him to call a meeting with a view of secur- ing a registered nurse who would devote full time to the school health work. ‘The district superintendent called this meeting in December, 1915, and as a result of that meeting the trustees of eight school districts mani- fested a willingness to try the plan of having a nurse for follow-up work and prepared a contract, which was executed by these several school dis- tricts. The work for the remainder of that school year—five and one half months—was most gratifying to both the district superintendent and the trustees, so much so eleven school districts joined in engaging the nurse for the next school year. In order to give some idea of the way in which our work was started I will read the present secretary’s report. ORGANIZATION OF THE ASSOCIATED SCHOOL BOARDS, SCHENECTADY COUNTY This association was organized on October 8, 1917, at a meeting in response to a call from the district superintendent of schools in Schenectady County. ‘Those joining together were the trustees in a number of districts outside the city interested in keeping up in their rural schools a standard of health inspection and super- vision approaching that found in our best city schools. The number of districts represented has fluctuated between twelve and fourteen, but for the past two years has remained at thirteen. The success of the organization in keeping together and promoting the health of our children in the schools, while largely due to the active interest of all the trustees in their schools is also greatly due, it is believed, to the informal nature of the association. It is not encumbered with anything in the nature of a com- plicated constitution and by-laws. A simple agreement signed by the members has been found sufficient, the following being the form now used: “We, the undersigned trustees of schools in Schenectady County, agree to associate and codperate for our several school districts in the employment of physician and nurse, and in carrying out any other work considered necessary in promoting the health of the children in our schools. We mutually contract to pay the expense of this service in proportion to the assessed valuation of property in our districts. Payments are to be made 25 per cent on October 15, and the remainder not later than January 1, next.” Necessary officers will be elected, a budget will be adopted and detailed procedure for carrying out the work within this budget will be determined by majority vote of those members present in any meeting of which notice has been given one week in advance, a quorum being present. A quorum will exist when a majority of the districts are represented.” 636 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The “necessary officers” have been found to be sufficiently covered by a presi- dent, now district superintendent of schools, and by a secretary-treasurer. On the basis of the above agreement contracts have been made with the school physician and school nurse; the use of the City School Dental Clinic has been engaged; the services of the Day Nursery have been employed; and glasses have been fitted by an eye specialist. The needs of various schools have been pointed out and taken care of by the purchase of useful, or necessary, apparatus and equipment. ‘The recommendations of the physician or nurse are usually complied with without question, a good indication of the respect in which their judgment and experience is held. The advantages of the system over the old more or less perfunctory annual examinations by a physician, just to comply with the law, are too obvious to discuss. Among them may be mentioned insurance against the spread of epi- demics; discovery of diseases, or defects in early stages, while the trouble may easily be corrected; proper instruction in hygiene, etc. None of us would will- ingly go back to the old system. It might also be mentioned that the subjects of discussion, at our meétings are not necessarily confined to health work, but that much useful and instructive information along other branches of school work is gained by contact with other trustees having similar problems; and with the representatives of the State Department of Education. The experience of the past five years has proven to us the value of an associa- tion of this nature and such an association is heartily recommended to any similar group of school districts. A. C. FINNEY, Secretary-Treasurer. Schenectady, N. Y., June 23, 1922. There are three essential factors in any effective system of school health work: (1) The doctor who examines the pupils and discovers defects; (2) the nurse to teach health habits, secure codperation of the parents and teachers, and secure and devise ways and means whereby defects may be treated; and (3) facilities for doing corrective work with children. We now had a nurse for this group of rural schools, but each district continued to employ its own school doctor for the purpose of making examination. In 1917 these rural districts combined to employ a school doctor in the same manner in which the nurse was employed. ‘The doctor devoted as much time as was necessary to the school work. ‘The results for that school year were still more gratifying, and more corrections were made. In the territory which I cover we have no facilities such as hos- pitals or clinics where children may be taken for corrective treatment. We, therefore, endeavored to secure this service from such institutions in _the city of Schenectady. We coéperate with the school department of the city of Schenectady and in that way secure dental service. We have access to a splendidly equipped day nursery, where pupils of parents who are unable or unwill- ing to pay for corrective treatment may be sent. In this institution we have access to the eye and ear clinic, general clinics, orthopedic work, and the use of the operating room with a registered nurse in charge. Capable physicians are in charge of this day nursery, and they give a great deal of time to this philanthropic work. The eye and ear clinic is held two days a week with a specialist in charge who has done this work for many years and thoroughly understands the DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 637 handling of children. ‘The eyes of such children as are unable to pay for treatment are examined free of charge, and if found defective a prescription is given to the nurse, who gets glasses at a greatly reduced rate, the com- bined school board providing the funds. Medicine is given free, with full directions for using. When it becomes necessary to operate for tonsils, the child comes to the nursery at eight-thirty in the morning, is prepared by the nurse in charge, and after the operation is performed the child usually goes home about four-thirty of the same day unless they have to stay all night, when an extra nurse is secured for night duty. These children are always accom- panied by one of the parents or an older sister. The dental clinic for our rural pupils is held in the Educational Building in Schenectady every Saturday morning. ‘These clinics are held each week day morning from nine to twelve. The price for this work is sixty- five cents a visit, and is paid by the combined school board representing all of the rural schools which I serve. We have a great many Italian, Bohemian, and Polish children in the rural schools. These foreign people have large families and sometimes the father earns very small wages, so the children often are very poorly pro- vided for, both in relation to food and clothing. I sometimes have to ask and receive help from the poor master of the town for food and clothing, especially shoes. I also get splendid help from the parent-teachers’ associa- tions and the better class of neighbors. I have succeeded in placing weighing scales with measuring rod in nearly all districts. Classroom weight records are kept in all rooms. All pupils are weighed in the fall term, and those requiring special attention are weighed every month. The pupils are encouraged to study their weight. Most of my schools are equipped with first-aid cabinets and first-aid supplies of all kinds needed for emergencies. I find a great many rural children are undernourished, generally because of a lack of knowledge of the fundamental principles of food and nutrition and not because of poverty. The State supervisor of malnutrition has visited my schools and given instructive lectures in high schools and grade schools. I outline diets for poorly nourished children, visit the homes, and question the mothers and make suggestions. ‘These suggestions are well received in some homes and in others not so well. Hot dishes are served in several of the rural schools, consisting of hot chocolate, cocoa, asparagus or tomato soup to be eaten with the lunch which the children bring from home. ‘The teachers report better and more efficient work done in the afternoon where these hot lunches are served. Milk ‘and graham crackers are served at recess in the morning; this also seems to put more pep into the pupils. We have several atypical children registered and while nothing definite has been done as yet we hope in the near future to have them in one build- ing with a specially trained teacher to care for these unfortunates. I want to tell you how much you can get for the asking. In answer- ing various advertisements I obtained abundant supplies for use in the 638 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION rural work, such as soap, dental cream, talcum powder, large and attrac- tive posters for wall space as well as small ones for individuals, first-aid booklets and numerous other things, all of which aided materially in carry- ing out the health program and at the same time served their purpose of advertising. I cover thirteen school districts, including one-room, two-room, and four- room schools, with two schools having high-school departments—all dis- tinctly rural and located within a radius of eight miles of the City of Schenectady. The greatest distance between my farthest schools is six- teen miles. Thus, in 1915, from a few men with a vision in Schenectady County, New York, has developed a successful and effective rural school health service. COMMUNITY COOPERATION IN SCHOOL HEALTH WORK COURTENAY DINWIDDIE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, NATIONAL CHILD HEALTH COUNCIL, WASHINGTON, D. C. The problem of community codperation in the school health program considered in its broadest sense is far from a simple and uncomplicated one. Its solution involves adjustment between both types of work and personali- ties not only in their relation to one another, but most important of all, in their relation to the child, who should be, but is not always, the central theme. Have any of you watched a pond in the process of freezing? Beginning around the edge one sees little crystals shooting out, pioneering their way over the untouched surface of the water, often in attractive patterns. These crystals branch off on widely divergent lines. To conceive of their ever having a common direction or coherence is a strain upon the imagina- tion. Gradually the patterns are woven closer and closer and presently they come together. If it is storming or there is sleet or hail a cloudy covering may form but it is apt to be full of holes or may even be broken up into a sort of mush that may have the name of being ice but has no strength or clarity. If it is a still, clear night there is a merging that leaves no trace of the apparently conflicting lines running in many direc- tions. Instead we see a crystal clear surface which grows thicker and firmer as the process goes on, and at length will support the skater, the sleigh, or the ice-boat. No simile is a perfect one, but we do see in this process something of how the varying branches of school and community health work, apparently 1unning along totally different lines, may be integrated into a strong, clear plan. Such a result requires to a high degree the submerging of individual- istic policies in the bigger, stronger, united plan in which nothing of genuine value in each separate development is lost. Because we are human beings we cannot leave this necessary process to go on by itself as if it would be a natural sequence of events. It is essential DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HycIENE 639 that someone see the health problem of the school child as a whole. Such a leader must have a vision that will not be limited to this or that pattern of work but will see a larger community plan which wisely regards the needs of the child in the school and the home and also the contribution that parent, teacher, physician, and health worker has to give to his welfare. Leadership essential—Cooperation of the community in the school health program should be preceded by the codperation of the various elements within the school which are contributing to this program. A prime requisite is genuine leadership. No amount of paper planning will accom- lish anything without such leadership. A principal of a junior high school, which was considered an excellent one, was asked his opinion as to the possibility of his teachers joining in working out a health program in its relation to the community. He said that he doubted how much they could contribute as a group; that they had nothing in common but the roof over their heads, as their subjects were so widely different. Fortunately, he is not typical of many of the real leaders in the school field today. On the other hand, the superin- tendent or principal is usually too busy to give to that type of leadership the time and attention it requires and some one else is needed. The starting point, the teacher—It might not seem appropriate to the topic of community codperation in school health work to discuss the qualifi- cations and attitudes of the teacher. On the other hand, the teacher’s part in the whole school health program is so basic that attempts at codperation are largely nullified if the teacher is incapable of playing her part. The boy or girl in school has a perfect right to say to the teacher who is telling him how to keep well “Physician, heal thyself!” ‘The educator, ‘f he is to be a real instructor in health, should know what health is in fact and must know what it is in spirit. Teachers working for such low salaries that they are below par physically and mentally, or those suffering from correctible physical defects, cannot give their best to the children and are not the inspirations to a healthful life that they should be. Furthermore, the teacher should have clearly in mind what the principles are that should underlie health education. ‘These principles have been stated admirably by the Advisory Committee on Health Education of School Children of the National Child Health Council. The teacher also must have some fundamental health knowledge through familiarity with authoritative subject matter and through guidance of the specialist. Teachers must be thoroughly acquainted with modern methods in teach- ing, particularly as related to health subjects. It is not necessary to a group of teachers to emphasize the importance of method in vitalizing the subject taught and in influencing conduct more or less permanently. It might be assumed that our normal schools would give the necessary training :n methods but we all know that many of them do not do this as yet and that many teachers now at work, whether normal-school graduates or not, have not had practical training in methods, especially as related to health. 640 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION It is a large field for further work but somewhat outside of the scope of my topic. y In a recent observation of the actual teaching of a lesson in milk in a course of hygiene it was found that the chief impression given to the children was that milk was very apt to be a dangerous poison and therefore should presumably be avoided rather than sought as a part of the diet. Correlation of health with other subjects—Assuming that we have a group of teachers trained and able to teach health we still have before us the extremely important problem of correlating this teaching with the various subjects taught in the schools. Since the Committee of the National Education Association on the Reorganization of Secondary Edu- cation took the position that no matter that could not be justified on the ground of its value in the realization of specific social objectives had any place in instruction, this point of view has been widely applied. To avoid further crowding of an already over-crowded curriculum it is essential that there be correlation of the teaching of health with other subjects. Experience in a number of cities has shown that it is possible to do this without loss to the other subjects and with decided gain to the teaching of health. Just as in French the teacher no longer asks whether the pupil has seen the little house of the gardener’s daughter, so in mathe- matics, for example, training in figures, instead of being in abstract problems, can be put to the practical use of education at:the same time in social objectives. There are many opportunities to teach health lessons in this way. A course in Art, with its work of drawing and painting, gives an excellent chance to inspire children with health ideals. Coordination of personnel and work—A more difficult question, for the solution of which there are none too many definite guide-posts, is the matter of codrdination of personnel and of work of the grade teacher, special teach- ers, and the physicians, nurses, and others who may be serving the schools from the health standpoint. Here again no paper program can possibly secure results unless there is some one with a sufficiently large vision and administrative ability to see the problems of each and to fit the activities of each into a whole, balanced program. There is increasing evidence of the need for greater concentration of the specially trained person upon the problem of helping and guiding the grade teacher rather than upon directly instructing the pupils. It is upon the grade teachers, in the last analysis, that the main responsibility must fall. The specialist can greatly multiply his or her effectiveness by working through them. For example, in one school district the director of physical education had worked hard to build up the physical training of the children. When he was withdrawn it was found that the teachers almost completely ignored the subject because he had at no time given them any feeling of responsibility for it or a real opportunity to take part in it. The contribution of the physician and the nurse in education—School physicians and nurses, in codperation with the teachers, have an unusually DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HyGiENE 641 valuable opportunity to drive home vital lessons in health. If the physician is one who correctly understands the importance of the economic and sani- tary conditions of the child’s home and surroundings, in judging of the clinical symptoms, his diagnosis and recommendations give not only a scientific but at the same time a very practical basis for much of the work of teachers and nurses in improving standards of living. They help to translate abstract conceptions of health and health habits, into practical working motives. One illustration that the lack of sufficient sleep on the part of a particular child has resulted in a weakened and anemic condition and the loss of a grade in school will be far more effective in stimulating habits that develop mental and physical vigor than any amount of theoreti- cal discussion. his is especially true when the gains resulting from a change of habit or the correction of a defect become apparent. The reliance placed by the parent and the teacher upon the soundness of statements by the physician and the nurse enables them to reinforce the lessons taught by the teachers. It also throws a heavy burden of responsi- bility upon them to stimulate teachers, parents, and children to think along lines that are wholesome and constructive rather than morbid in considering the correction of defects and the development of health habits. Administration of school health work—On the question of the general administration of school health work there are widely divergent points of view, particularly the view of those who advocate the complete control of all parts of the health program in the schools by the school authorities and that of those who advocate complete control of this program by the health authorities. Far too much time has been spent in arguing questions of division or assignment of authority and far too little time has been spent upon joint agreement as to program and better methods of codperation. Educational questions should be under the jurisdiction of the Board of Education, especially in so far as they relate to the actual program of the schools. It is clear that the Board of Health should not relinquish its rights in the matter of control of communicable diseases even though it may delegate certain powers to others. ‘Therefore, neither the school nor the health authorities should assume the complete administration of both edu- cational and control measures as related to health, without thorough agreement. It is desirable that there should be one administrative head of health work in the schools who should operate under a definite written agreement subscribed to by both the school and health authorities, outlining the scope and jurisdiction of-such health work. The school and the community—When we come to consider the real problem of the relationship between the school and the community we find much that remains to be answered. Perhaps the most important first consideration is the question of interest and attitudes. It is essential that the teacher, whether a grade or special teacher, shall think of health in terms of life, of the actual daily habits of herself and her pupils, not only in so far as individual habits are concerned but as the individual is affected by com- munity conditions. It is no less essential that the health officer, the nurse, 642 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and the health worker generally shall think of health and welfare in terms of education. By this I do not mean the superficial methods of advertise- ment and sensational news that so often go for education. I mean, rather, the fundamental type of education which influences and molds human life. An illustration of the importance of the teacher’s thinking of health in terms of living occurred in a class where the teacher was actually grading the pupils in health habits. Repeatedly one of the children in answering the question whether or not he had slept with his windows open stated that he had not. . The boy was much distressed to make this answer and the children in his row were annoyed by his bringing down their average health grading and did not fail to “rub it in.” However, not until the supervisor happened to be present at a recurrence of this answer was it learned that the child was sleeping in a room without windows. He had persuaded his parents to leave the door open and to keep the window in the adjacent room open. He really was making, under adverse conditions, a more earnest effort to obey the rule than the other children who professed superi- ority. There was, of course, not only an opportunity for encouraging the child in his efforts but also for initiating measures to improve his home conditions. The school work, particularly health work, that limits its considerations to the health of the pupils in the school is largely lost. The community effort that ignores the fundamental contribution that genuine education has to give to forming life habits and ideals is exceedingly superficial. Persons versus principles—Some believe that the visiting teacher is the solution of our present lack of integration between health teaching and practice in the school and in the community, although in some instances the visiting teacher may not have any fundamental understanding of health problems. “Some believe that the nurse, the nutrition worker, or other health worker must be the instructor in health in the public schools although she may be the veriest tyro in the elementary principles of pedagogy. There is too much dispute over terms and labels and jurisdiction in this whole matter and too little thoughtful consideration of principles. After all, is it not the main thing that there shall be some one whose first consideration is the larger community problem of health, who sees the contribution which the educator and also the trained health person has to give to its solution, and who is devoting his or her efforts to weaving the activities of each together into a pattern that is part of the life of the whole community? Only in the most unusual -cases can the superintendent of schools be the person to do this work. It will demand, in the great majority of instances, some one who is definitely on that particular job, whether in the rural area, the small town, or the city district. System or chance—Because of the irregular development of our school activities, in one place this coérdinating function may be performed in whole or in part by the visiting teacher, in another by the nurse, in another by the nutrition worker, in another by the school physician, and in another by the health officers. But we are rapidly approaching the time when we must DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 643 begin to develop more definitely a system which shall take this out of the realm of haphazard sequence. For instance, there are many possibilities, from the standpoint of health education in particular,.in the movement for a district teaching supervisor, or helping teacher, for rural schools, as an assistant to the administrative head of the schools. Such a person should have training and knowledge in the fundamentals of health as well as of other subjects and should know her own limitations and when to draw upon the resources of specialists. Until there is a person who really has a broad vision and is giving main consideration to the correlation of each special educational program in a complete program, we shall find many of these difficult questions of adjustment, for instance between the physical educator, the nurse, the nutrition worker, the teacher, and the physician. Supervisory health work in the schools needs this sort of coérdination just as much as health education. Upon the ability of the codrdinator depends the answer to the question whether one individual can at the same time codrdinate both the work of health supervision and health education. It is a desirable combination if practicable. Volunteer health associations—The great power for good or ill in the hands of voluntary health organizations must be taken into account in any educational program. ‘Too often these organizations attempt merely to use the school system as a means to put over their propaganda. In too many instances is this propaganda directed toward temporary purposes. We can- not better this situation as teachers by decrying the activities of these organi- zations nor can we as health workers do so by condemning the narrow- mindedness of teachers toward receiving outside help. ‘The health organi- zations must have a keener appreciation of the fundamental problems of education, which unfortunately they often lack. At the same time the teacher must realize that the field workers and specialists in these associa- tions often have an intimacy and freshness of contact with the actual health problems of daily life which equip them to contribute a fund of information, sometimes even a new view of methods in education, which are valuable and of which full advantage should be taken. School and community health inseparable—Perhaps the chief fault of much of our earlier work in the field of school health has been due to the fact that those in charge of it have not looked beyond the school door. Health cannot be put on and taken off like a cloak. It is a matter of habits of life, of attitudes of mind, running through every phase of human existence. Health education during the hours in school must be closely linked up with health education that runs through the child’s family and social rela- tionships. Water can be made to rise above its level if sufficiently powerful pumps are used and much energy expended. But the education of the child in personal habits during a few hours of the school day, when every other wak- ing hour is packed with influences tending to break down that of the school, is a well-nigh superhuman task. It is because the correction of the child’s defects, the changing of his environment, and the shaping of his habits are 644 — NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION so largely a problem of the home and the community that the follow-up work of the nurse and the visiting teacher are recognized as essential. But in addition, fathers, mothers, sisters, and brothers must all contribute their share for good or for evil to the child’s education. lf our pedagogical principles are correct these adults must not only be given information but must have responsibilities and definite tasks to do if they themselves are to understand the importance of healthful living and the relation of health principles to their own lives as well as to the life of the child. In short, the citizens of a community must be drawn into close and responsible relationship to the educational system. It is one thing to per- suade individuals to have their children’s defects corrected because we know that it should be done. It is another thing to have a community-wide dis- cussion of the importance of correction of defects and an organized com- mittee of citizens working hard in a campaign of general discussion and follow-up to secure such corrections because they know they are essential to the children’s well being. Our parent-teacher associations are a wholesome evidence that we are attempting to meet this need for closer relationship between the school and the citizens it serves. Community center committees and neighborhood associations which think of other things besides street paving and lighting are beginning to vitalize the relationship between the school and the com- munity. The names of these organizations is not important but it is what they do and the real degree of responsibility that they have that counts. They should be widely inclusive in their membership. ‘Their work and organization should be properly integrated with other work and organiza- tion in the community. Consider, for instance, the far-reaching educational opportunities of the physicians and clergymen of a neighborhood. All of such special groups as well as citizens’ committees should be part of the educational system if we are using the term in its broadest sense. However, it takes educational leaders of large vision to see the relationship of these groups to the larger community educational movement. Too often the educator attempts simply to compress them into the mold of a school system which is bound about by tradition and purely academic limitations. District committees—District Committees which bring together all of the groups that can contribute to the solution of the school health problem will develop greater responsibility and understanding on -the part of the com- munity for the problems of the schools. They will also help to eliminate much of the wasteful lack of understanding and of genuine cooperation between the various types of community servants who are dealing with the problems of health, recreation, and education. City-wide or county-wide civic associations, Councils of Social Agencies, Chambers of Commerce, improvement associations, are invaluable in dealing with these problems. However, they can never be a substitute for an inti- mate coming together of neighbors, who know one another and their own neighborhood problems, and who can all take off their coats and go to work in a mutual service. It is remarkable how frequently a difficult DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 645 problem of jurisdiction between two health associations, or between a private organization and the school staff will be ironed out by simple con- sideration of the needs of the children or their parents right on the spot. Not only do we find that the trouble-making youngster receives individual attention but the community is aroused to an organized effort for recreation when it is discovered that this boy’s difficulties are due to lack of oppor- tunities for play under wholesome conditions. Such a type of community codperation does not spring into being unless some one has had a vision. ‘To bring it about takes a leader, whether the school principal or some one else, who sees the latent possibilities of the average citizen. The leadership which starts a recreational program or a movement for correction of defects and does not develop real responsibility will vanish with the individual. It is when our leaders see to it that the average citizen has a chance to play his part in our community programs, whether of school health work or any other kind, that we shall begin to develop a type of community codperation that we conceive of as existing in our old New England town meetings. IMPROVED MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS LEROY A. WILKES, M. D., MEDICAL DIRECTOR, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, TRENTON, NEW JERSEY Where adequate salaries are paid and the engaging and discharge of med- ical inspectors, nurses, and dentists is placed in the hands of the Chief Med- ical Inspector without political interference, medical inspection can be made an instrument of great good to the school child. Personally, I prefer full- time and specially trained employees, and I should free the medical man from all work not specially requiring his professional training. In this way he can handle a large number of children—with adequate aid by the nurses and teachers. Where earnest, interested physicians are obtainable on part-time, this may prove satisfactory, but many corps I have seen have a considerable number of men who are holding the position for the smal! salary paid, only as long as they can do so without interference with their private practices. As they become more experienced in this work, and hence more valuable, the demands of their private practices are also growing, and they must begin to slight the work of one or the other—or choose definitely which work they shall continue. It is but natural that they will give preference to the work from which they derive the major portion of their income. With a large corps, we inevitably have some members who are “on the fence’”—they need both incomes, but cannot give adequate attention to both types of work. In these cases the school work suffers as a matter of course, since the income derived therefrom is less than from their private practice. Many medical inspectors are engaged to examine the pupils of a certain district, for a very small per capita cost. This plan-results in a hasty 646 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION superficial examination, which to my mind is not so valuable as an examina- tion which could be given by a nurse especially trained to do a more limited examination—especially since her examination (or the M. D.’s) is only a preliminary step to the examination by the family physician or dispensary doctor. I know that many of my colleagues will cry aloud at this, but ten years of observation of the actual work as done in the field has convinced me that this is not a radical suggestion. I have seen this plan work in Bridgeport, Connecticut, with success. Of course many State laws require an annual examination by a physician, and so this precludes such a plan under law, but laws can be changed at times. Insufficient appreciation and finances in the allotment of school funds prevents the development of the work to its full possibilities. Ihe big health work of the schools, to my mind, is the educational feature of health work, and this is distinctly the work of the teacher. The teaching of health is primarily and essentially the establishment of the practices upon which the maintenance of health is founded. We call them “health-habits” or, as one organization puts it, “the rules of the game,” and life is a game we all must play. ‘These rules should be formulated by the health experts—that is, doctors, nurses, sanitarians, and dentists—duwt the art of “putting over’ these rules to the child most successfully requires the especial training of the teacher, with her understanding and technique of teaching. Many of us fail to appreciate that teaching is an art and does not consist merely in having the content or material. The teacher should carry the burden of maintaining the health of the child, by example and precept, and leave to the doctor, nurse, dentist, and others, the salvaging of those who have temporarily departed from the normal condition of health, the signs of which the teacher should daily study and recognize in each pupil under her care. The attempt to have the nurse deliver the health talks I have abandoned, except when the teacher requests her to speak to the children upon some occasion. Perhaps her uniform may stimulate interest upon such occasions, but for the nurse to assume the responsibility for the regular teaching of health, is to limit her usefulness in her established field, where her burden is already a heavy one. To demand of her a technique in which she has never been trained tends to lower her efficiency and to overlook the teacher who could teach health if time and subject-matter are supplied to her. In the physical examinations many things are mechanical tests—like vision, hearing, height, weight—and the doctor’s time is or should be too valuable to make these tests or to do clerical work. The teacher’s interest should be stimulated by her presence at the time of examination, and she can assist the doctor and nurse, especially with the clerical work, and she will become thereby conversant with the examination results upon each child. This enables the teacher to intelligently urge upon the parent the correction of any defects found. ‘The effect upon the parent of the teacher’s interest in the pupil’s physical condition is great. Much medical inspection data is never classified and studied; but is merely DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 647 collected and filed away—never to be used again. Such systems do not benefit by their mistakes, but repeat them yearly. Careful statistical study should be made so that a general average for several years would show whether sufficient improvement is shown to war- rant the expenditures made or whether additional finances, changed tech- nique, or increase in personnel is necessary. The question of nutrituion, now prominent in the discussion of the child’s health, is one where the up-to-date physician can be of marked assistance in selecting the children who are to be helped. Height, weight, and age standards aid in limiting the pupils to be examined by the doctor. The dental studies made in the Trenton schools have shown us that there is a distinct difference between clean teeth and healthy teeth. It is not strictly true that “A clean tooth never decays,” or else we have not yet learned how to really clean the teeth. Control of contagion—The endemic index of each school should be known for each of the common diseases of childhood, so that yearly curves would show how near to this index the contagion had been kept or what improve- ment is shown. This index is determined by finding the average number of cases of each disease which had been found in pupils of the school each month for the past five years, or longer. JONES SCHOOL—-SCARLET FEVER Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June 0 3 4 7 6 10 6 4 3 1 2 2 5 6 6 7 4 3 1 0 2 4 4 4 6 5 2 1 0 0 6 6 8 10 10 6 4 2 0 0 2 0 4 6 6 4 4 2 1 0 5)12 15 Ths) 33 34 32 20 12 5 il 24 3 5 6.6 6.8 6.4 4 Vip a ol .2 Endemic Index If scarlet fever then, in any year, in February did not greatly exceed six cases, we should not get greatly alarmed, but if in the next five years the index became less we should be encouraged. Personally, I believe with Chapin, of Providence, that control of con- tagion is largely an educational problem, and that voluntary isolation—even less drastic than we now practice—of a large number of more persons is more valuable than strict isolation of a few, while many run about at large, undiscovered and unreported. I would advocate special accommodation and equipment for exceptional children; with school programs in which the primary provision was made for their physical benefit and their education needs were met more definitely. In crippled children the primary question is this—Is this condition a progressive disease, or is it arrested or improving? Children who are declining physically should not be made to carry a burdensome mental program. 648 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Cardiac cases, anemic and malnourished, epileptic and other nervous conditions, partially or wholly blind and deaf cases, speech defect and tubercular contact cases—all require special attention, as definitely as the mental defectives, and provision must be made for them. Summary—\. Restrict physician’s work to purely medical work so that adequate remuneration can be paid and still be economical as a per capita cost. 2. Whole-time employees are most satisfactory, as they are regular in the time devoted, can follow definite schedules, and are especially trained in this work. 3. Nurses can be trained to do a larger share of examinations, but should not be the regular health teachers for classes, She should give individual health talks. 4. The teacher is the biggest factor in the maintenance of health, and should have time and subject-matter for health education prepared for her by health experts. 5: Contagious control can be accurately determined by use of ‘endemic index” for different diseases in each school. 6. To have healthy teeth is a better aim than to have clean teeth, though brushing of the teeth should be urged as part of oral hygiene advocated. 7. Special accommodations, equipment, and program for physically de- fectives. 8. Teacher should always be present and assist in physical examinations of her pupils to stimulate her interest in the child’s physical condition. 9. Teacher should study daily the “normal” appearance of her individual pupils, so that she will readily detect the first signs of departure from “normal” by the pupil and refer him at once to the school doctor or nurse. 10. Closer codperation between health and educational work is often obtained by placing medical inspection under the Board of Education in- stead of under the Department of Health. 11. All data collected from adequate records kept should be regularly classified and studied for improvement of work. : HOW TO REDUCE THE MORBIDITY FROM COMMU- NICABLE DISEASES IN SCHOOLS EDWARD S. GODFREY, JR., M. D., DIRECTOR OF THE DIVISION OF COMMUNI- CABLE DISEASES, STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, ALBANY, NEW YORK Much has been written on how to prevent communicable diseases in schools, most of it perfectly sound in theory and some of it sound jn practice. By sound in theory I mean that according to our present knowledge a given method should prevent a given disease. By sound in practice I mean that certain measures have been found to be feasible both from the stand- point of general applicability and from the standpoint of results. A method, DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 649 sound in theory, may be so cumbersome or so dependent upon constant attention to minute details that it cannot be generally applied or if applied it reduces the incidence of disease at what may be an unwarranted cost in effort, in money, or in loss of school time. Since different diseases are preventable in different ways, it will make my meaning clearer if the diseases are discussed separately or in groups presenting a common problem. Ordinarily, epidemiologists divide the communicable diseases according to their modes of transmission into—(a) Those transmitted by insects; (2) those transmitted by the alimentary tract; and (c) those transmitted by the respiratory tract. Diseases in the first group are not peculiar to children and in the United States our interest is ordinarily limited to malaria. While the school should serve as a center of instruction and stand as an example in anti- malaria campaigns, the problem of eliminating this disease is essentially that. of eliminating the mosquito and as such is a community problem largely of an engineering nature. ‘This is not to say that in sections where malaria exists the school may not be of use nor that it should be indifferent ; but since malaria is limited in its distribution to certain sections only, we can here discuss more profitably diseases of general distribution. Of the diseases transmitted through the alimentary tract, typhoid fever, dysentery, and diarrhea may be mentioned. It goes without saying that every school should have a safe water supply and a safe method of excreta disposal. These two fundamentals of sanitation are by no means universal though there has been great improvement both in city and country in the last twenty years. This improvement is reflected in the declining typhoid rates of the entire country. There is, however, one point in this connection to which your attention should be directed. The growing practice of providing lunches for school children increases the chances for mass infection by diseases of this type. From a communicable disease standpoint the only safe milk is pasteurized milk and this point is being too frequently over- looked or perhaps disregarded because of real or imagined deficiencies in such milk. Again, the personnel engaged in handling school food supplies should be carefully questioned, before employment, as to their previous experience with typhoid fever—that is, whether they have had it themselves or not and whether or not it has developed in members of their families, families for which they have worked, or other persons whose food they have previously handled. Persons giving such histories should be required either to submit proper specimens for laboratory examination or refused employment. It is a question indeed whether all food handlers in schools should not submit such specimens, regardless of their histories. On the other hand, the history should always be taken and if it shows that the applicant has been associated with a number of typhoid cases he should be refused employment in such a capacity, regardless of the results of labora- tory examinations. Perhaps there should be classed among the alimentary infections, so- called epidemic jaundice. This disease was quite prevalent in New York 650 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State last fall and winter and seemed to show a predilection for country school children. Instance after instance was encountered where the disease attacked almost every child in a country school, the school seemingly acting as the focus of distribution. We are uncertain as yet as to the cause of epidemic jaundice and its mode of transmission, though it seems quite cer- tain that contact is the usual method. When we come to the third group of diseases we reach our principal difficulties. The diseases of the respiratory group are almost always with us. They comprise the diseases commonly called contagious since they are spread almost entirely by human contact, they tend to epidemicity, they cause much loss of school time, some deaths, and many misunderstandings. At the outset we are beset with the difficulty that these diseases occur only among human beings and that they are transmitted almost entirely from one human being directly to another. Changes of environmental conditions, the improvement of our inanimate surroundings therefore, are of infinitesimal effect on their prevalence. Even such an important im- provement as abolishing the common drinking cup has had no measurable effect. Perhaps we can understand why when we observe how many people still cough and sneeze, openly and unashamed, with all the gusto and aplomb at their command. For every drop of infected salivary secretion that was ever drained from a drinking cup, a million from a more dangerous corner of the human anatomy are showered on sneezers’ and coughers’ neigh- bors. Let it also be borne in mind that sneezers and coughers are more apt to carry pathogenic organisms than the casual users of the drinking fountain. “They may be mild or atypical or incipient cases or they may be . carriers. If they be any of these the non-immunes or susceptibles in their vicinity-stand a fair chance of contracting the disease. Our problem in the prevention of this class of diseases consists in keeping the human cases and human carriers of communicable disease away from those who are susceptible. We must do one of two things—either find all the cases and carriers or make all the susceptibles immune. In practice we follow both methods about as far as public opinion will let us. Smallpox is a disease in the prevention of which we rely most upon mak- ing the susceptible immune. We consider as susceptible all persons, of whatever age, who have not had smallpox or who have not recently been vaccinated. Where the vaccination of school children is enforced we do not have smallpox among them, where it is not, we do—sooner or later and the larger the community, generally speaking, the sooner. The favor- able showing of New York State in its smallpox morbidity is hardly to be accounted for on any other ground than the well vaccinated school children of the first and second class cities. This not only prevents the disease in those cities but so reduces the chances of visitors becoming infected in them that the disease is rare even in the rural districts and smaller cities, It is true that we do isolate the sick and the contacts but unless we also vaccinate smallpox is quite certain to spread. Of course as long as there are buyers for wild-cat stocks and followers of wild-eyed reformers we can expect DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 651 disbelief and even opposition to vaccination, but such opposition seldom handicaps a properly conducted campaign. It may not be amiss, however, to give a word of warning. Every physician who vaccinates should know how to vaccinate properly. This is especially true of public vaccinators. Many physicians seem quite shocked to learn that scarifying and cross hatching are not good practice and many fail to appreciate the importance of giving instruction on the after care of the lesion. Scarlet fever, as contrasted with smallpox, is susceptible of control by careful school inspection, by the exclusion and isolation of cases, by tracing the sources of infection and the supervision of contacts. Its amenability to control by these methods is due to its being much less contagious than smallpox—fortunately since there is no proven means of acquiring im- munity except by having had the disease. In New York we have a rule requiring susceptible contacts, that is contacts who have not had the disease, to be excluded for seven days after last exposure. A doubt as to the need of this has recently been raised by the health officer of one of our cities who found that among 135 such susceptible contacts not a single case developed. This means that 675 school days were lost on the chance that a case might develop and spread infection before it could be detected. This looks like a very high premium for the risk and suggests the possibility of maintaining equally effective control through special observation of such contacts by the parents, the teachers, the nurse, and the school physician. Diphtheria has in the past been combated entirely on the theory that by culturing schools we could discover and exclude and isolate all the cases and carriers of this disease (and its organism) and thereby eliminate the sources of infection. Generally speaking this theory is sound and it will work out in practice in small communities, and at times or even for a time in large ones. Perhaps with proper enthusiasm and support, financial, legal, and moral, it can be made to work in a large community continuously. But it requires constant attention, a properly equipped and immediately available laboratory, adequate personnel and an enthusiastic, careful, and persuasive school physician to make it work effectively and without friction. Defects of this method—1. The disruption caused by culturing an entire school is not considerable, and this is usually deemed necessary when an outbreak has to be suppressed. ‘This is especially apt to be true if the cases come from different grades and if the outbreak refuses to be suppressed following the culturing of abnormal throats and noses. 2. There is a likelihood that the procedure will have to be repeated at intervals in order to check errors and to discover new carriers. 3. The method is susceptible of error at practically every stage—in tak- ing the cultures, in their handling, in their examination, and in the reports upon the examination. These are avoidable errors it is true, yet it is remarkable how frequently they do occur. They are apt to be especially numerous in the presence of an outbreak when everyone is working under pressure. 652 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 4. A certain percentage of carriers are sure to be found. ‘The number is usually estimated to be about four or five carriers for every case, but this varies greatly. It depends largely, I think, on what the laboratory con- siders a diphtheria bacillus. These carriers must be excluded until they have cleared up or until a test shall have shown them to be non-virulent. This may be as little as five days or a week—though it can be less—or as much as several months. The loss of school time on account of carriers is apt to be greater than on account of cases. 5. The culturing of cases for release involves numerous domiciliary visits, consuming much time and causing not a little annoyance. ‘This is quite apt to arouse public opposition, thereby increasing the difficulty of con- trolling not only the carriers but the cases as well. I cite these objections not for the purpose of utterly condemning the method, but in order to show how unsatisfactory it is and how important it is that we seek something better. Let us now consider measles for a moment. ‘This disease annually causes about half as many deaths as diphtheria and about twice as many as scarlet fever. But mark this: Sixty per cent of the deaths are in children under school age. While it is a very fatal disease during the first three years of life and in orphanages and infant asylums, the general mortality between 5 and 9 is less than 0.5 per cent of the reported cases at that age. On the other hand about two thirds of the cases occur after school life begins and unless they have had it previously adults are just as susceptible as children. ‘This is a matter of some importance since an attack in adult life means a greater economic loss than does the loss of school time. Furthermore, in time of war, a large number of non-immunes among the troops is quite certain to result in high mortality and a considerable dis- ruption of military routine. Except in the rural districts of our more sparsely settled States. practically everyone is certain to acquire the disease before reaching adult life. Disease censuses taken in two New York counties this past year showed this to be true of from 90 to 95 per cent of rural-school pupils. Measles is spread for the most part by cases in the incipient stage and it can only be prevented by isolating cases at the very commencement of this stage or before—that is, isolating contacts during the period of incubation. The disease can be detected early enough to prevent its spread by means of the clinical thermometer. This entails, however, a great deal of work and not a little disturbance of the school routine since the temperature must be taken of every susceptible exposure every day for a period of from five to fourteen days. ‘The isolation of contacts is sometimes successful in small] communities, provided one learns of the first case promptly and is success- ful in discovering all the contacts. The method bears a very striking olnits-tall-@T tive cao atct cine Wana ae ea : ; oss of school time, and the chances are excellent that instead of preventing measles, one is simply post- poning it. All of which leads to the question, “Would it not be better DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 653 to expend the effort demanded to prevent measles in school children, to preventing it among children under three and among those who are in poor physical condition, and to seeing that when children are attacked they receive proper care? Whooping cough also is a disease peculiarly fatal during the first three years of life and causes about the same number of deaths as measles. It has a long incubation period and is difficult to recognize until after many have been exposed. It is not, however, so peculiarly a school child disease as measles, since it is most common among pre-school children. Further- more, most adults appear to be immune even though they may not have had the disease. It is quite possible that in most older children and adults the disease is so modified as to pass undiagnosed. ‘The vaccine for the pre- vention of whooping cough is lauded by some and condemned by others. At best its reliability remains to be proved. ‘There is perhaps better reason for a serious attempt to prevent whooping cough in school children than for measles since its usual course is from five to ten times longer. Mumps, German measles, and chickenpox are non-fatal illnesses whose control is seldom seriously attempted outside the school. In children they are rarely attended by any serious consequences, although mumps after puberty may be a serious matter. German measles and chickenpox are of interest because mild scarlet fever is frequently mistaken for German measles and mild smallpox for chickenpox. Many school days are lost on account of these diseases and on account of exposure to them, and this constitutes practically the sole reason for attempting their suppression. We do not know, however, and nobody seems to be trying to find out whether we decrease or increase the amount of absenteeism by efforts at prevention. Consider: German measles has a maximum incubation period of three weeks. The minimum for the sake of clearness is, we will say, one week. Exposures or contacts therefore must be excluded at least two weeks each unless they develop the disease promptly. Cases themselves may return a week after outset. All of which brings me to the point toward which I have been gradually working. We need to collect, classify, and tabulate useful statistics on the incidence of communicable disease in schools. So far as I know no comprehensive scheme of this kind is anywhere in vogue. While it is true that here and there we have reports of intensive campaigns it is manifest that reports of this kind are quite apt to be colored and that they usually substitute generalities for definite figures. In any event they merely rep- resent isolated instances and cover comparatively short periods. We must find answers for such questions as these: Are our methods effective-—is the amount of disease actually being reduced, and if so, is this reduction clearly attributable to the methods followed? Are our methods economical? Do they reduce disease incidence with the least expenditure of effort by the medical, nursing, and teaching staffs and with a minimum loss of school days ? I wish to stress this point, because for the true control of disease we must 654 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION have a statistical foundation. Unless we do have it we shall be continually guessing and we shall be continually misled by false deduction from insuf- ficient premises. Few things are so patent in this work that they do not need to be stated numerically in order to be convincing. ‘To insure progress, to insure success in this phase of public health work—which is also a phase of school administration—there must be cordial and intelligent codperation between the health and the educational authorities. ‘This cooperation should extend to the statistical field, to the field of research, as well as to the administrative activities of these two services. Working together we can tread the true path of progress and be able to distinguish it as we go. Working apart we shall but follow the beaten trails and never note that we are only following in the circle of our own footsteps. If I have seemed hypercritical in my statements, it has not been in a spirit of willful icon- oclasm, but in order to stimulate the trial of methods that seem to promise better results, to promote research, to inspire thought. THE MENTAL HYGIENE OF THE SCHOOL BEGINNER WILLIAM H. BURNHAM, PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY AND SCHOOL HYGIENE, CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS The child entering school has already had four years, more frequently six years, of pre-school training, in the home, on the street, the playground, or the like. Sometimes this has been good, sometimes bad. Usually it has been partly good and partly bad, from the point of view of mental hygiene, often seriously bad. Let us take a general survey of this period of pre- school training. To do this in detail would take a whole course of lectures. Dr. Gesell, of Yale, has prepared a book on the pre-school child which will, I hope, soon be published. ‘The most that can be done in my brief survey is to note briefly a few outstanding points. The child at birth is far more helpless than most vertebrate animals. It has little direct contact with the external world, except through the dermal senses of touch, temperature, and pain. It has duller senses than the adult. It is practically blind and deaf, the sense of taste is perhaps best developed, the sense of smell is relatively acute, but apparently has already begun to atrophy. ‘The child is still anchored to the past; it reacts only to the more primitive sensations; it is capable of only the more rudimentary reactions. If with Edinger we call the brain cortex and its appendages, that part of the brain which in evolution began to develop with the serpents and the selachians, and has reached its wonderful development in the human cortex today, if we call this the new brain or neencephalon and the rest of the brain the old brain or paleencephalon, we may then say in a word that the child at birth is a paleencephalic organism. Thus in the young child the connections between the brain cortex and the old brain have not yet been developed; and governed in its reactions by the lower levels of the brain, the child is a being less capable of co- DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 655 ordinated motor activity than the animal that has been deprived of its cerebrum. ‘This is not a matter of mere inference. Some years ago the great German neurologist Edinger had the opportunity to study a child for three years that was born without the new brain. Where the neencephalon should have been was merely a cyst-like tissue, and for three years this child lived and was observed by Edinger and the child’s mother. The report shows this little girl could not feed herself, could not learn to creep or walk, could not speak, could not even perform the most rudimentary activities, could only eat when food was placed in her mouth, and merely lay and made a monotonous sound. She was really incapable of learning as much in the way of motor codrdination as a dog whose cerebrum has been removed. Such is the condition even of the normal infant at birth. At birth, however, or before, the education of the child, or adjustment to the conditions of the external world, begins. ‘The child has an innate impulse to activity, which is the matrix from which the more concrete instinctive reactions, so called, are differentiated. “This impulse, or instinct if you please, to activity, together with the three fundamental emotions of fear, rage, and love, represent the primitive fundamental instinctive reac- tions of the child organism. Again soon after birth the connection between the new brain and the old brain gradually develops, and with the development of the cortex the wonderful ability to make associations is developed. This appears first in the association of stimuli, in the production of conditioned reflexes in con- nection with food and the like. Even by observation one can note their beginnings in the early months of life. In the motor field they appear in the response, for example, of opening the mouth at sight of a spoon or cup from which the child has been fed, and perhaps in connection with the bath or the like. Again in the field of emotion associated stimuli to the primitive emotions are soon developed. The child responds not merely to the primitive funda- mental stimuli that produce fear, but also to varied stimuli that become associated with the primitive biologically adequate stimuli—first to loud noises, for example, then to any sensation perhaps that often occurs simul- taneously with a loud noise. Correlated with this physical and neural development, the general development of the mind and character has progressed so far by the time of school entrance that it is not strange the churchmen should have said that if they had the development of a child for the first six years they cared not who trained him afterward, or that Watson says that during the first three or four years of life he could make or mar a child irrevocably without violence or drastic methods. Even with the few investigations already made, we have the following facts which are suggestive. Apparently at about the age of two years there is a great physiological epoch in the individual’s development. By what seems to be a justifiable analogy between the development in the brain of the white rat and that of man, as a result of the careful studies 656 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION of Donaldson and his students, we find that at this age the child’s nervous system should be capable of practically all the fundamental reactions the adult’s is capable of. We find too, that before this age there is growth by cell division as well as by enlargement of the individual neurones; that after this period there is no further increase in the number of neurones; that at this period the brain weight is two and one half times what it was at birth, if not more; that somewhere between the age of sixteen months and two years the chemical constituents of the child’s brain are similar to those in the adult; that at this period medullation has in a large degree been completed. When we correlate with this the psychic development observed and the fact that conditioned reflexes of great variety can be developed, we have a number of facts which indicate that this is a signifi- cant point, a nodal point perhaps we may say, in the development of the nervous system and the mental life. At this period the fundamental habits of health, or the unfortunate habits which iead to physical and mental disorder, develop, especially in regard to food, digestion, sleep, movements of the bowels, and the like; and the fundamental reactions of fear and the other emotions are developing. Even at this early period the reactions to the fundamental impulse or instinct to activity are developing, and while often neglected, these are significant. As Royce has pointed out, the child is constantly and con- tinuously active, performing all sorts of rudimentary motor responses, doing the same thing over and over again merely for the sake of expending energy, for the sake of the motor activity itself. While the subject of little study, careful observers from Rousseau to the present have pointed out the ad- vantage of leaving the child free to indulge at will in these spontaneous motor reactions in response to this fundamental instinct of activity. Another side to all this is perhaps equally important, namely, the inhi- bitions of stimuli, the inhibitions of various forms of behavior, and inhibi- tions of more general character, good and bad, which develop during the early years. ‘These come chiefly from associated stimuli, from associated emotional attitudes, and later from associated ideas which tend to inhibit ‘other stimuli and other reactions. Here, without entering into any controversy with regard to what is ‘emphasized so much today, the subconscious or the unconscious, as the great reservoir of human character and human behavior, we may at least find the beginning of those fundamental but unconscious sets of the mind and emo- tional attitudes which survive in later life—unconscious, so far as the individual is concerned, but potent in determining the mental life. Again the studies by Beik and Zigler indicate that about the age of six another nodal point in development occurs and naturally the mental develop- ment correlated with this is significant. We cannot for a moment suppose that the child comes to school with mind and character a tabula rasa. Already on entering school the child is a bundle of conditioned reflexes, habits, sets of. the mind, attitudes— appearing in whims, aversions, tendencies to certain forms of behavior— and already handicapped by a multitude of inhibitions. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 657 Somatic hygiene without mental hygiene is inadequate, sometimes even dangerous. A splendid work has been done in recent years in caring for the proper feeding and nutrition of children. Many-cases of malnutrition have been found among the well-to-do as well as among the poor, and the movement has accomplished a great work for the health of American chil- dren. ‘To make this care for the proper nutrition of children as perfect as possible, it is desirable to keep in mind the great complexity of the whole problem of growth and development. A dozen factors condition growth, as shown by a vast number of modern investigations. Among these are race, sex, individual type, the innate impulse to growth, relative primogeniture, the functioning of the endocrine glands, the environment in general as well as the food and nutrition pro- vided, climate, the season of the year, exercise, disease or absence of disease, and general hygienic conditions. Under the influence of these many factors naturally there are periods of accelerated and retarded growth, the most notable of which, after the early years of life, comes at the beginning of puberty; and many minor periodicities appear. ‘Thus it is not strange that a child may be perfectly normal and yet for a period, perhaps of several months, grow very little or not at all. ‘That, at least, is the natural inference; and observation by many parents and physicians has given evidence in many concrete instances. No standard is yet sufficiently perfected, no expert sufficiently wise to tell in case of an individual child just what the rate of growth at a given time should be. No height-weight quotient reliable by itself has yet been de- vised. A study of a group of children fed by the Quaker Commission in Europe showed no significant correlation between the findings by these quotients and those by clinical examination. Thus obviously parents and teachers should not be too much disturbed when children apparently well do not grow at certain times according to the conventional norms. They should not say too much to the children about the need of growing at a certain rate, and should not make the stimuli for competition in growth too strong, lest perchance the children them- selves acquire a morbid attitude and become worried because they do not grow as their playmates do. There is little danger of this, because children do not naturally worry about hygiene; but children of six years may develop morbid attitudes in regard to their own health or at least a com- plex of whims in regard to food and the like. Recent extended investiga- tions by Hetherington in New York show that children are interested in matters of personal health at a much earlier age than most teachers imagine. Normal digestion and nutrition are important for the mental health; but on the other hand, especially since Pavlov and others have shown that digestion waits on appetite and that an important condition of digestion is a mental attitude of serenity and cheerfulness, we see that even so admirable a form of somatic hygiene as the care for proper nutrition, may, with some children, carry its danger with it unless properly controlled by a normal mental hygiene. We have learned in recent years that even the best 658 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION balanced scientific diet does not save one from nutritional disease unless it contains those mysterious but vitally. essential elements that, for lack of a better term, we call vitamines. In like manner what shall it profit a child if it have all the necessary elements and an ample diet if his mental attitude is abnormal, whether from the pedantry of his parents or the whims of the child itself? While the general problem of hygiene is complex, the essentials of mental hygiene for the school beginner are simple. ‘They are absolutely essential conditions also of mental health at all periods. They are the essentials too of sound education. ‘Thus sound education and mental hygiene are inseparable. “The a, b, c of both are the same. “The minimal essentials are three—a task, a plan, and liberty. Worth-while activity in work or play, purposeful activity, freedom, and the stimulus of success either in accomplishment or the mere fact of doing, are the conditions of happiness and mental health everywhere. ‘The child is always devising tasks of his own. If we give opportunity, in the early years, the problem will largely solve itself. Later more special training is needed. But the child’s own activity is the very thing we are apt to neglect. We do not have time for this. Again the hygienic value of a task comes from the fact that in the doing children both develop an interest and also learn to face reality. The edu- cational value is as great as the health value. The health value is as significant as the educational value. But the health value as well as the educational value come from the child’s doing it, not from the teacher’s doing it. Lest some may think I am giving the fussy vagaries of a mental hygiene expert, let me say that the Health Committee of the International Kinder- garten Union has recognized this, and in a recent report it says of the inter- ference of teachers with the tasks of the pupils: “Nothing can be a greater nervous strain than to have some one con- tinually at one’s elbow to suggest or correct or to pick up one’s work sud- denly and set it right just as we were about to find a way ourselves. ‘This nervous strain does not occur so much in the formal, dictatorial kindergarten where the children soon come to recognize that the teacher will do all the planning and they have little personal responsibility. It occurs more often in the kindergarten of a young teacher, whose ideal is to help the children develop initiative. She arouses their enthusiasm in a problem— and then cannot patiently let them think it out or work it out alone. Time is flying! The juggernaut of the program must go on its triumphant way regardless of how many slowly forming ideas it crushes, and the busy, busy teacher interferes. She interferes with the way Mary carries her chair— and sets it right ; she interferes again when Mary’s work is almost done— and with a deft touch spoils Mary’s work by making it the teachér’s, I there not in this undue interference a nervous strain to the child which ca be lessened without destroying his respect for order and organization ?” The beginning of school life should be a period of leisure, of self-adjust- s n DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 659 ment to the new social environment, of the spontaneous doing of tasks worthwhile, for which the school furnishes the opportunity. Mental hy- giene forbids our making it a time of hurry, interference with the tasks of the children, and the development of inhibitions. Some one may naturally ask if the child does it all, what is the teacher’s business? The answer is, the teacher’s business is to suggest, and guide, and give opportunity for the choosing of tasks worthwhile. “The most important ways of giving suggestion are by example, and the force of con- crete situations. ‘This is the teaching of that master among the world’s gardeners, Luther Burbank, who suggests that the best opportunities for tasks come from a rich natural environment out-of-doors. ‘‘Every child,” he says, “should have mud pies, grasshoppers, water-bugs, tadpoles, frogs, mud-turtles, elderberries, wild strawberries, acorns, chestnuts, trees to climb, brooks to wade in, water-lilies, woodchucks, bats, bees, butterflies, various animals to pet, hay-fields, pine-cones, rocks to roll, sand, snakes, huckleberries, and hornets; and any child who has been deprived of these has been deprived of the best part of his education.” And if any note the danger in giving freedom, the problem is whether it be not more dangerous to prescribe. The importance of the mental hygiene of the school beginner can not be adequately shown without a multitude of concrete details and examples. For this there is not time. A single illustration is given by the importance of detecting the inhibitions which children bring with them as a result of pre-school training. Some of these are important for health, some are definitely injurious. “The most striking of them perhaps are those connected with a child’s food and manner of eating and those which result from fear. Dr. Campbell has given many illustrations of the whims and inhi- bitions in regard to food. Every teacher can find examples of those from fear. That the importance of mental hygiene for the school beginner has not in the past been emphasized, is due to the fact that so little of concrete fact has been available. Now, however, from the studies of repression and shock and the like in infancy made by the Freudians, and the knowledge of the lasting effects of unfortunate experience in childhood, with the con- crete data furnished by the laboratory study of children by Krasnogorski in Russia, Dr. Mateer and Watson in this country, and our resulting knowl- edge of the conditioned reflexes and inhibitions developed in pre-school life, the unfortunate causes of conduct disorders and the obstacles to teaching and discipline that result from all these peculiarities and abnormalities, and finally, with the realization of the absurdity of the prevailing notion that mental hygiene is only for those who have no minds, especially the feeble- minded, we see the tremendous significance of applying the well established principles of mental hygiene, not only in the examination of the school be- ginner, but also in the adaptation of tasks to the ability of the children and the use of sound methods in instruction and training. Only thus can we avoid the twisting and thwarting of the pupils’ characters, the development 660 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of unwholesome attitudes, inhibitions, and nervousness by the work of the school, the sad record of failure and retardation, and the shame and dis- grace of the public schools from the need of re-education of so many of their graduates in the hospital and the sanitarium, by the use of precisely the methods that the school aims to employ. Thus the first six years of a child’s life is a period of marvelous develop- ment, physical and mental. ‘The completion of the sixth year usually marks the completion of many significant changes. As several studies have shown, it is in a sense an important nodal point, and while everything points to the fact that the first business of the child is growth and healthful development, it is apparent that care for the mental health as well as the physical health is necessary. The two cannot be separated. The one aim to which every- thing else is secondary, is health, physical and mental. For the mental health four things are of primary importance, and they are important con- ditions of healthful physical development as well. (1) A rich and varied environment out-of-doors. A child’s early training is in response to stimulation and the various natural objects in an ordinary country home are, so far as they go, the things needed. When this is meager a more varied and richer environment if possible should be provided. With such surroundings out-of-doors a child is provided with the best means of training. (2) Freedom for spontaneous activity. The impulse to activity is uni- versal and furnishes the necessary impulse in normal children. While parents and teachers should protect children. from accident and the like, beyond that the special rule should be to let them alone so that they can make their own adjustments to natural situations. Parents usually are afraid to do this and feel that the least they can do is to interfere. (3) Special training to remove the inhibitions which children bring to school with them from the home, the street, and the playground. Only a specialist in genetic psychology realizes how many and how serious are these inhibitions—inhibitions in regard to activity, in regard to food, cloth- ing, in regard to play, and sometimes in regard to food, digestion, habits of secretion, in regard to sleep and many forms of behavior, perhaps in regard to a hundred things, varying according to the home and the play- ground surroundings. (4) Non-interference. So little is known about normal mental develop- ment at this period that the only safe rule, where one does not know what to do, is to let children alone. This applies in regard to food, drink, sleep, activity, and many of the defects and disorders of childhood ; and teachers as well as parents, as far as possible, may well allow children to choose their own task. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 661 A COMPENSATORY MECHANISM IN STATUS THY MICO-LYMPHATICUS WALTER TIMME, M. D., NEW YORK CITY Preliminary to the presentation of this topic, it may be expedient to present my views regarding this constitutional state, so that our discussion may be around mutually understood terms. By a status thymico-lymphati- cus, I understand a hypoplastic state, a condition in which important struc- tures are smaller proportionately than the size of the individual calls for, with the sole exception of the lymphoid tissue of the body which is usually hypertrophic. The hypoplastic organs which are of importance are the heart, the blood vessel system, and some of the glands of internal secretion, notably the adrenals, the pituitary, the genitals, and frequently the thyroid. An enlarged thymus gland, which has been assumed to be the chief factor in this condition, is probably only one of the attendant or necessary ones and indeed, occasionally, though rarely, may not be demonstrable at all. Individuals, constitutionally hypoplastic, have precarious times during their life’s course, not only on account of the blood vessels and cardiac con- ditions, but also by virtue of the small adrenals and underactive pituitary and thyroid glands, and by their altered and probably inadequate biochemical reactions. ‘The extreme variety of symptoms produced by these basic dis- turbances will not have to be detailed by me for they are undoubtedly well known to such a group as this audience represents. The point of interest, however, to me is the question: while some of these patients die at critical times, such as, when under stress or strain, under narcosis, through fear and fright, yet why do the far greater number survive and gradually pass, presumably normal, from your observation? Indeed, many cases of status probably never see a physician for this trouble. In other words, there must exist an intrinsic mechanism in the individual which is automatically brought into action, which will counteract, overcome, and perhaps even cause to disappear, many of the inadequacies of his structure and his physi- ology. ‘To get some light upon this mechanism, it is of course incumbent upon us to examine during their adolescent or even early adult years cases that give the physical signs of an early status thymico-lymphaticus. Such adult cases when seen in large numbers, fall naturally into a few groups, but they all have some general characteristics. These are still the small blood vessels and heart, probably a thymic shadow, large upper cen- tral incisors and a maxillary torus, possibly hyperextension of the joints, notably of the phalanges and of the mandible, easily leading to subluxations. But when we look for evidences of a hypoplastic state in other directions, certain changes from the child’s status are seen. In the first place, the blood chemistry has changed, the early relative lymphocytosis is not seen, the blood sugar is higher, the coagulation time is within normal limits. Evidences of better circulation are also noticed. ‘The poor reaction to cold has been overcome, the skin does not get mottled on exposure, the hands and feet do not easily get blue and cold as before. The blood pressure 662 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION is normal and the individual has become much more able to overcome his difficulties. Evidently his glandular mechanism also has taken part in the general improvement. Now, between these cases that die an early death, and those that become later apparently normal, there are the large number that only partially get out of this early difficulty, and as a result, we see them during this transition at some point at which their forces are unable to cope with the obstacles barring their way, usually in the guise of fatigue and headache, or fear or apprehension, frequently because of structural disturbances such as obesity, or overgrowth; occasionally because of lack of genital maturity, very often because of psychoneuroses. Many of the cases, because they show a common symptomatology have been grouped by investigators as follows: Neursthenia, migraine, Fréhlich’s dystrophy, giantism, infan- tilism, neuro-circulatory asthenia, and a host of others. It has always been on a basis of symptom groups and not of pathogenesis that these conditions have been named. Let it be admitted right here also that some of these symptom groups may conceivably arise from causes other than in the course of a compensatory transitional status progress. Nevertheless, all these so- called “entities” (which they are not), may come about in the course of the attempt of the individual to compensate for an original status thymico- lymphaticus. What are the main handicapping features of a status hypoplasticus from which the individual must free himself ? First, the large thymus gland, then the inadequate blood sugar content, the low blood and pulse pressures, the low body temperature, the long blood coagulation time, the low general metabolism, and the low alkaline reserve. All of these attributes tend to make him of low resistance to fatigue, to infection, to shock; to produce in him inadequacies of personality and conduct with apprehensions and fears; a lack of initiative and tenacity, and hence a dislike of obstacles with a resultant automatic treading of the path of least resistance—a weakling in person and behavior. However, practically all of these disabling qualities may be gradually overcome by an overactivity of certain glandular units. For instance, it has been shown that in lower forms of life the thymus may be made to involute rapidly by feeding thyroid gland. The coagulation time of the blood is most certainly hastened by both thyroid and suprarenal medication ; body temperature is increased by thyroid and pituitary and suprarenal effort; blood sugar content is increased by the same three organs; blood and pulse pressures are considerably modified by the action of the suprarenal and pituitary glands; the metabolic rate likewise is heightened by thyroid and suprarenal substance. In short, there is within us an adequate mechanism to overcome the supreme disabilities of a status hypoplasticus. It is when the mechanism, or one of its component parts remains inade- quate, that we see the partial effect upon the individual. This is the reason that status cases have usually been divided, by such observers as Emerson and Symmers, into two groups—namely, the one type with well-rounded DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 663 joints, fatty pads, and a general smoothness of contour, and the other type with slight and frail limbs, a sunken chest, and prominent joints. In reality, these represent only the extremes of many types varying in all degrees. The former class is that in which the pituitary is probably in- efficient in its compensation, and the latter, that in which through lack of thyroid activity the thymus still exerts some influence in retarding develop- ment. The former, in extreme cases is really Frohlich’s dystrophy, most cases of which show a persistent thymus on X-ray examination. The latter is the type that gives us our effort syndorme cases—neuro-circulatory asthenias—with its low pressures, its disordered cardiac activities, its cold, blue, and clammy extremities. So that from the perfectly compensated cases with no symptomatology’and only the physical signs of an early status, down to the lowest or feeblest compensatory cases with all the symptoms and physical signs of a persistent state, we have all intermediate grades. Of interest is the individual in whom, secondly and probably com- pensatorily, the thyroid is overactive to such a degree in its effort that a true hyperthyroidism develops with goitre and at times exophthalmos. Indeed, Crile from his own experience, and citing others, states that 80 per cent of the goitre cases show a persistent thymus gland; and Crotti and others as well find that unless the thymus is removed at operation the goitre is apt to recur. This is also my own experience. These facts go far to support the theory that such hyperthyroidism is compensatory. Oc- casionally, it happens, as theoretically it should, that X-raying or removing the thymus alone produces a cessation of the hyperthyroidism. Of interest is the series of changes that take place in the compensatory activity of the pituitary. As is usual in thymic states, the pituitary is small and the sella turcica small and largely enclosed. In such circum- stances, if there is to be any hyperactivity of the gland, certain results will follow. In the first place, there will be the effect of the pressure exerted upon the walls of the sella turcica due to the engorgement or enlargement of the pituitary. This will determine in all but the few cases in which this fossa is ample in size, headache of varying degrees of intensity, from a simple “fulness of the head” to excruciating, boring headaches, intra- temporal in situation. These headaches will come on at periodic intervals, and will be credited by the patient to any one of numerous causes—all of which may be effective in producing it in an individual of this type. Such causes are those largely that superinduce fatigue—overwork, worry, going too long without food, menstrual periods, and a host of others. After many years of such headaches, they usually spontaneously diminish or even cease. During the period of headaches, other signs in the individual be- come manifest. Thus, growth of the body in height and breadth is marked, fatigue usually becomes gradually lessened, the blood picture changes, in that the carbon dioxide tension is increased and the blood sugar increases, while the blood and pulse pressure increase. In other words, accompany- ing the headache periods, a general improvement of the individual on the vegetative level becomes manifest. With this heightened level, the mental 664 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION processes also seem to improve so that there is more initiative, more control over instinctive acts, less of flight in the presence of difficulties and obstacles, a greater power of attention, concentration, and application. When we examine the sella turcica in such individuals after a few years of this compensatory process, we see that there is evidence of pressure in the walls of the cavity for there is decalcification in various parts, chiefly at the dorsum and posterior clinoids; erosion at other places, and occasionally even a direct break through the walls into the sphenoid sinus or middle fossa of the skull. An enlargement of the cavity is thus produced which may be fully adequate for all purposes, in which case the headaches cease and the individual improves. At times the pituitary mass encroaches laterally upon the cavernous sinus and then symptoms referable to pressure upon the sinus and its contents—the motor oculi nerves, the ophthalmic division of the fifth nerve and its lachrymal branch—are added to the headaches. Then we have oculo-motor palsies, with strabismus, ptosis, lacrimation, and attendant symptoms at the time of the headache. Pressure anteriorly will produce optic nerve disturbances with scotomata and other visual field contractions and disturbances; while pressure posteriorly may produce pyramidal tract symptoms. ‘These symptoms, correctly interpreted, are now seen to be incidentals in the compensatory process as affecting the pitui- tary gland. Occasionally it becomes possible to examine the sella turcice in the same individual at yearly intervals during the process and the suc- cessive enlargements of the fossa are unmistakable. Also, occasionally, the first picture is taken after the sella has already become fairly normal in size, and then the radiographer will report a “normal sella.” As a matter of fact, even though the size of the sella is normal, irregularity in contour with decalcified areas and facetting due to pressure serve to distinguish this type from a really normal sella. The type of individual that results from the compensatory process is one of large frame, generally six feet or taller, with a past history of fatigue, with headaches, with perhaps some stigmata of an early status still present—such as invert type of genitals, feminine pubic hair, late development of mustache and beard and the teeth of com- bined thymic and pituitary individuals—large central incisors, broad and square teeth generally with spacing, and hyperextensibility of many joints. . Of any attempts of the suprarenal glands to take part in the compensatory process we know little. Occasionally a case will go to autopsy, showing still inadequate suprarenal glands. Giant Turner, mentioned and photo- graphed by Cushing, was an excellent example. At the autopsy, he still showed thymic remains, a very large, eroded sella turcica, but small blood vessels and extremely small suprarenals. One case that came under my notice was that of a girl of twenty, who died a “thymic” death under chloroform narcosis and who showed an aorta as small as a little finger and extremely small adrenal glands. It is of course possible and perhaps probable that many cases that make good recoveries and that never see a physician, improve under the influence of hypertrophic suprarenal glands. Very often, according to Cannon, the adrenals become hypertrophic, due to DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 665 overstimulation of the thyroid, and by thyroid compensation in the course of a status progress such an object may be attained. It is obvious that many cases come to us in a partially compensated state, and if we can read their symptoms aright, it is possible that we may assist them in their compensatory attempts. The main points for us to recognize are those of inadequacies on the part of the thyroid and pituitary glands combined with signs of an early status thymico-lymphaticus, and as the number of these combinations may be almost infinite, depending on the grades of inadequacy of the compensatory mechanism, so do we have an equally large number of types of partially compensated cases, varying be- tween the two commonly described. There is abundant evidence, therefore, that cases of status thymico- lymphaticus undergo a gradual change through one or two decades leading finally to a more or less adequate state which enables the individual to take his place as a competent unit among his fellows. The enabling mechanism is composed of several component glandular organs, chief among which are probably the thyroid and the pituitary glands. Anywhere in the course of the compensation, cessation of the process may take place, leaving the indi- vidual only partly efficient, giving signs and symptoms of the deficiency of the particular gland or glands involved. If this'is properly recognized, a method of assisting the compensatory progress suggests itself. It is further- more of the greatest importance to recognize the signs and symptoms of the overactivity of the compensatory mechanism so that they be not treated as pertaining to a disease process but to a defensive one. TONSILS AND ADENOIDS IN CHILDREN ‘D. CROSBY GREENE, M. D., HARVARD MEDICAL COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS ‘The subject of tonsils and adenoids is one which is familiar to everyone in these days. “The number of operations for their removal has, in recent years, reached such an enormous figure that today, a large share of the community has been operated upon before reaching adult life. It is a difficult matter to get even approximate figures of the number of operations during a single year in a city like Boston. But a rough estimate may be made by reference to the reports of the leading public clinics where this work is done. ‘The total number at seven of our largest clinics is over 12,000. ‘The number of operations at the smaller clinics and in private practise, would at a conservative estimate, bring the total figure to over 25,000 operations in one year. I believe that an inquiry into the matter would show a similar proportion of operations in other large centers of population in this country. This subject is, therefore, a vital one to those who are concerned in the upbringing of the young and it is worth while, at a meeting of this char- 666 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION acter, to consider briefly the nature of these structures, the harmful effects which they may produce and the indications of a diseased condition. In the first place, it should be borne in mind that tonsils and adenoids are composed of the same sort of lymphoid tissue which is found in the normal individual in various parts of the alimentary tract in varying amounts. ‘The exact function of this tissue has never been determined, though many theories have been advanced in explanation. ‘The fact that the wholesale removal of the tonsils and adenoids has not developed any deterioration in the individuals operated upon, but on the contrary, has been followed in the large majority of cases by improved health and vital- ity, is in itself, evidence that no vital function is reposed in these structures. ‘The harmful effects are of two classes:—first, those which result from simple enlargement, and second, those which result from infectious inflam- mation. Simple enlargement produces obstruction of the respiratory tract which, in turn, causes retardation and distortion of physical development. But simple hypertrophy which may be visible, but is not of sufficient degree to cause obstruction to breathing, is not an indication for operation. Of far greater importance, in most cases, are the effects produced by infection of the tonsil. “The conditions, represented in this group, comprise recurring, acute inflammations of the nose and throat with secondary in- flammation in the middle ear, and sometimes, the nasal sinuses; infections of the glands of the neck; and more remote, secondary inflammations in the joints and in the heart which are the result of infection, carried by the blood stream from infected tonsils. The points to be stressed in determining the question of operation in these cases are, in the first place, whether the tonsils and adenoids are large enough to obstruct respiration, and, secondly and of greater im- portance, whether the tonsils show definite evidence of infection. In making the decision as to operation, it should be borne in mind first that the operation as performed nowadays by competent operators who remove the entire tonsil, is not a trivial affair unattended with danger. There are real risks of hemorrhage, of pneumonia, sometimes even of abscess of the lung—dangers which are sometimes, though rarely, encountered by operators of experience and skill, and more often by those who lack these qualifications. “The surgeon who says that he has never had any misfortune in these operations is one who shows by his statement that he is lacking either in experience or ‘in varacity. I mention these risks, not as an argument against operation, but for the sake of emphasizing the*importance, first of careful determination of the advisability of the operation, and secondly, of adequate training and skill of the operator. In every case one should be convinced that the risk in the long run Is greater without than with operation. One should balance the risk of a crippling heart disease, or arthritis, or middle ear disease, or a stunted development from deficient breathing space, against the relatively slight risk of operation. If this were done in every case, it would diminish the number of unnecessary operations that are undoubtedly being per- formed today. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 667 As I have already intimated the size of the tonsils is not of as great significance as the kind of tonsil. “The chief indications for the operation for removal of tonsils and adenoids are first, a history of repeated attacks of acute tonsilitis; second, enlargement of the glands of the neck; third, attacks of acute arthritis, commonly called rheumatism, which can, in many cases, be associated with inflammation of the tonsils; fourth, often occuring with the above, is infectious disease of the lining membrane of the heart which we call endo-carditis; fifth, attacks of acute middle ear disease which are commonly due to extension of infections from the adenoids or tonsils, or both, by way of the Eustachian tube to the middle ear; sixth, evident facial deformity and deformity of the chest, due to obstruction of nasal respiration; seventh, lastly, the size and general appearance of the tonsil is, in some cases, indicative of gross enlargement or disease. But too much reliance should not be placed on the appearance of the tonsils. Often those which, at one inspection, are normal in appearance will, at another time, show distinct abnormality. The history of the case is often of greater importance than the examination. A word as to the results of operation, we find that, as a rule, there is a decided improvement in general health, as well as in the local condition of the throat. But this does not mean necessarily, freedom from colds or even from the diseases which I have mentioned. Children whose throats have been cleared of tonsils and adenoids may still be subject to colds or middle ear inflammations, but it may be truthfully said that the chances of serious complications are decidedly lessened as a result of the operation. Climate and exposure to infection play a very important part in the whole problem. A case which strikingly illustrated this point was that of a girl of fourteen years whom I saw a few years ago. She was the child of American parents, born and raised on the Mexican plateau. During her life there she never had trouble with her nose and throat. She came to school in Cambridge at fourteen years of age, and throughout her first winter here, was subject to repeated colds and attacks of acute tonsilitis. Examination of her throat showed large, prominent, and obviously diseased tonsils and large adenoids, and yet, up to the age of fourteen, this child had enjoyed the best of health, and was a fine specimen of physical develop- ment. It is fair to assume that, if she had continued to live in Mexico, she would-not have had to even consult a doctor about her throat. Whereas living here she became immediately subject to inflammations in her throat of which she was finally relieved by the removal of her tonsils and adenoids. In conclusion, I would like once more, to sound a note of caution in regard to the present wholesale rate of tonsil operating. Tonsils that are moderately large should not be removed without further evidence of disease from the history of the case, or the examination. ‘The decision to operate should only be made after careful weighing of the evidence for and against operation. 668 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION EARLY RECOGNITION AND PROPER CARE OF HEART DISEASE AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN ROBERT H. HALSEY, M. D., NEW YORK POST GRADUATE MEDICAL SCHOOL AND HOSPITAL, NEW YORK CITY For those responsible for the education of the children in our public schools, it is very important to know the mental and physical possibilities of the child, whether there is or is not a handicap. It is of paramount importance therefore, that each child on admission to the school should be carefully and thoroughly examined for its physical condition. By such an inventory of its assets and liabilities, the greatest return may accrue to the child from its investment of time and the State’s investment of funds. ‘The parents or guardian of each child should be requested to relate the illnesses and diseases which the child has had in order that some clue may be discovered as to the time when, and the infec- tion by which, the heart was damaged. It is important to search par- ticularly throughout the past for throat and joint difficulties and learn if there is any relation between their incidence and that of the heart defect. This should be done not only to learn the present condition but to be pre- pared to understand in the future the development of some unheralded: defect. This inquisition may be accomplished by a trained social service worker, not added to the pedagogical duties of the teacher. The examination of the physical condition of the child should be done by a well-trained physician and to be done properly requires time and the removal of the clothes of the child. It is rare indeed in these days that parents object to a dignified physical examination. ‘They have learned the value of disinterested public health advice. An examination by the physi- cian should record the visible, gross abnormalities, clubbing of the fingers, vasomotor disturbances, as cyanosis or erythrosis, the condition of the teeth, throat, tonsils, adenoids, and cervical glands, the presence of focal infections, discharging ears, dyspnoea, palpitation. Many of these condi- tions may be observed by a teacher and when seen, should suggest the need of an expert review of the condition of the child. The physician should note the condition of the lungs and the evidence of abnormal function as well as the cardiac signs, whether due to organic or accidental conditions. The activity, or disproportion in the interaction, of the endocrine system, as well as the state of nutrition and stature should be recorded. Having noted the static physical defects, the child should be examined during and after completing an amount of work given to develop its mechanical ability and defects, such as breathlessness, vertigo, fatigue, or degree of exhaustion. At the completion of the examination of each child, there should be data upon which to base a diagnosis composed of three parts: first, the probable cause of the condition and whether it is active or dormant; second, the anatomical defects; and lastly, it should be placed in the proper group of a functional classification similar to the classification adopted by the New . York Association of Cardiac Clinics. : DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 669 CLASSIFICATION OF PATIENTS ATTENDING A CARDIAC CLINIC Class I—Patients with organic heart disease who are able to carry on their habitual physical activity. Class IJ——Patients with organic heart disease who are able to carry on diminished physical activity. A. Slightly decreased. B. Greatly de- creased. Class IJJ—Patients with organic heart disease who are unable to carry on any physical activity. Class IV—Patients with possible heart disease. Patients who have abnormal physical signs in the heart, but in whom the general picture or the character of the physical signs leads us to believe that they do not originate from cardiac disease. Class V—Patients with potential heart disease. Patients who do not have any suggestion of cardiac disease, but who are suffering from an infectious condition which may be accompanied by such disease; e. g., rheumatic fever, tonsilitis, chorea, or syphilis. By this method, the child’s ability to carry on is approximately stated so that the teacher, the social service worker, and the convalescent, summer or vacation home may be apprised of the limitation or necessary restric- tions of the child’s activity. Not only does the physical examination discover and evaluate positive findings, but it excludes improperly diagnosed conditions which resemble but are not heart disease. Often groups will be found in which one half or three quarters may be free from the heart defects which are charged against them. ‘This error is not only unfair to the normal child, but it is detrimental to the child with an actually damaged heart, since such a child is often competing with normal children who are designated as heart cases and able to do, without injury, things which are too severe to require of a damaged heart and, if done, ultimately increase the degree of damage. After recognition and classification, the care of the child depends upon the cooperation of a number of individuals—doctor, nurse, teacher, parents, child—who should be fully informed as to the nature of the handicap in order that the knowledge may bring the best return to the child. The knowledge of the discovery of a cardiac defect should not be with- held, in accordance with old-time custom, from the child, as if it were a kind of mental explosive bomb too dangerous to be handled. Nor should the information be imparted in the subdued, stage-whisper tone of voice that is commonly reserved for the transmittal of news considered so serious that even its relation seems to imply a certain degree of danger. The patients and parents, satisfied that the doctor knows the exact condition, are inspired with confidence and accept eagerly the advice given. So true is this that codperation will increase rapidly from 25 per cent to a full 100 per cent as the results are observed. A hopeful outlook is justified, for the child who knows the limitation of its heart will not readily undertake, or continue physical tasks which will be, or are, overtaxing. Knowing the necessity for the reasonable 670 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION restrictions imposed, the child becomes more contented with, or adjusts itself more cheerfully to, its environment. “The acquirement of equanimity is the greatest aid to the plans of both teacher and doctor. Any scheme devised has certain fundamentals which are interwoven and require the planning of doctor, teacher, and recreation or occupation director in their supervision from day to day. For the proper execution of such a scheme a social service nurse is essential. She it is who will look after the physical welfare of the child and see that the allotted time is spent as it should be. By her tact, common sense, and attention to details the children, parents, and teachers are kept informed of the individual needs or requirements. She keeps the child moving through the program. In New York, two general plans are being followed as to supervision: the children are being followed by special clinics, one group attending the regular schools; another group, the children are segregated at some one central school. Segregation is not essential to proper care but does make possible rapid gathering of both facts and the other information possible from close association with large numbers of children handicapped with heart disease. “There are eight clinics supervising the two groups of this type. In both groups executive supervision is carried on by a social worker whose duty it is to bring all the children back for periodic examina- tion, whether ill or well; she follows up all absentees and has them examined at once if conditions warrant. Frequent re-examinations are necessary to learn the actual status of each individual: to advise and control the vocation, occupation, and re-adjustment to new conditions. Frequent examinations are valuable because they imbue in the individual and family the idea that prevention is more important than cure. Furthermore such repeated ex- aminations teach both parents and children that sound knowledge of physical conditions is all-important in order that the mode of life may be controlled accordingly. A monthly talk to the mothers and fathers in the presence of the whole group is a great help to confidence, makes for better cooperation, and improves the esprit of the children. It gives an oppor- tunity for the teachers to come in contact with the parents and convey the right point of view toward health advice. The doctor, having frequent contact with patients and social workers, comes to know the personality and is in a better position to answer queries of the nurse, who is the means of contact with the family. She can discuss with the teacher the physical and occupational requirements, when this may be necessary, to determine preparation for the future. The larger number of children with damaged hearts may continue, without detriment, to attend the regular schools, but it is necessary that they be examined from time to time as well as follow certain restrictions. There is a group, a small per cent, who require considerable restriction as to exertion. For this group (II, A and B) it is necessary to have rest periods during the day and limit the duration and vigor of the walking. The diet of all the children should be supervised to insure its general wholesome character. Excess of sugar or candy should be avoided, although they are frequently DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 671 eaten in large quantities with or without the permission of parents. Meat need not be excluded though it should not be allowed in preponderating amount. After even the simplest infections or diseases, the convalescense should be prolonged until the heart may have time in which to make a complete recovery. “Tonsilitis, occurring in nearly 70 per cent of children with heart disease, or five times more often than in children without heart disease ; rheumatism, occurring in approximately 50 per cent, and chorea, bone and joint pains should be considered as potentially serious diseases in children. When there is neither fever nor active infection, a certain amount of graduated exercises, such as calisthenics, may be given under supervision. The individual endurance varies, so that all cannot take the same amount. ‘These exercises improve the physical and mental alertness and functional activity of the heart and breathing as well as the posture of the child. Dancing, gardening, and quiet games may and should be used to develop interest. Instruction in various occupations should be given to the more seriously handicapped for its encouragement in sustaining individual en- deavor to be productive. “The digestive tract reacts to the exercise with more regularity, thus aiding the general condition of the child. The supervising nurse can administer the simple medicines which may occasionally be required and when in doubt, appeal to the physician. Her duties, too, include obtaining the permission of the parents for necessary operations or special examinations; such as tonsillectomies, chronic otitis, serological, blood, or ophthalmic tests. ‘Tonsillectomies can and should be done under ether anesthesia to insure thorough removal. The nurse should obtain and welcome all the various public health agencies—health departments, hospitals, out-patient departments of the various other hospital and convalescent or summer vacation homes where the child may be kept in the open sunshine and country life for weeks or months. To summarize: the care of the child with heart disease in the public schools requires early recognition to prevent more damage. The child, who has had diseases which may, at sometime, initiate heart disease, should have special restrictions and care to prevent such an accident. The proper care of the child with heart disease requires not only the in- dividual and persistent supervision of doctor and nurse, but also the careful coéperation of the family together with that of the Department of Educa- tion, as well as the principals and teachers. CONSERVATION OF THE EYES OF SCHOOL CHILDREN GEORGE S. DERBY, M. D., ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF OPHTHALMOLOGY, HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS I have been asked by your secretary to talk to you on the conservation cf the eyes in school children, with especial emphasis on the causes for 672 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the wearing of glasses. After being in the practice of medicine for nearly twenty years and dealing with these problems every day it is a little difficult to talk in a non-technical way. In the first place I regard the testing of vision in the schools as it is usually done at present as an extremely valuable measure. It is a good thing to have two or three charts and have them clean. ‘There are a few precautions to take in carrying it out. The chart should be hung in a good light and the pupil should not face the light. The pupils should not have a chance to see the chart before being asked to read it. If I were a teacher I would tie up one eye with a patch while the pupil is reading from the other. If one eye is poor and the pupil is not watched he will often peep out of the good eye when it is supposedly covered. ‘The pupil should not press the covered eye with his hand as the light will be blurred for a little time. Of course the test is not always carried out correctly and sometimes gives misleading results, but this is in a small percentage of cases; in my experience the information while limited is valuable and usually correct. We are only testing, however, the sight. Because a child has normal sight does not necessarily mean that he has normal eyes. I think a good rule to follow is this. If a child reads at least half the letters of the 20/20, or normal sight line, and has no symptoms which are referable to his eyes, I should pass him. If his vision falls below this he should be referred to the expert. If he is a backward child or shows symptoms which might be due to eyestrain, such as headache, red lids, pain in the eyes, etc., I should refer him to the expert. whether his vision be normal or not. If his eyes turn either in or out he should be likewise referred to the expert. Now when does a child need glasses? It is necessary to say a few words about the optical principles of the eye, but I will make them as few and as simple as possible. In order to see things distinctly the rays of light coming from objects into the eye must come to a focus on the retina. The normal eye is so constructed that the light coming from objects 20 feet away and beyond are normally focussed in this manner. ‘That is we see distinctly in the distance without making even an involuntary effort. There are three different abnormal kinds of eyeball. There js the long eye (longer from front to back), the short eye, and the irregular or astig- matic eye. The long eye is usually due to stretching of the eyeball, the condition known as myopia. The myopic eye has a short focus. The short-sighted eye sees well close to but does not see in the distance. This is a handicap and bars the myope from certain occupations, the more short-sighted the more handicap. It is well to control the development of the near-sight as well as it can be done by modern methods. In the old days when the causes of near-sight and its importance were none too well understood the Germans were a very near-sighted race. Too much use of the eyes, the book held too near the eyes, faulty posture, poor light, illegible script, and DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HycIENE 673 lack of exercise promoting health are conditions the correction of which have largely done away with myopia in Germany. In the same way the Chinese scholar is near-sighted almost to a man. You will find usually moreover that the myopic child is inordinately devoted to his books. He cannot see in the distance, and it has no charms for him. Now what are the methods of controlling the development of nearsight- edness? Good light, good posture, good print, holding the book well away from the eyes, in serious cases, curtailing the use of the eyes. ‘The wearing of glasses has a favorable influence on the progress of nearsighted- ness. In the first place it overcomes the handicap of poor distant vision, it restores the focus of the eye to the normal distance. It makes it easier for the pupil to hold the book at the proper distance from the eyes. All children with nearsightedness should wear glasses every moment that they use their eyes for near work. ‘The only permissible time to take them off is when they are looking in the distance. ‘This is extremely important during childhood and youth for that is the time when myopia is prone to increase. “The eyeball may stretch, but it never shrinks back again. ‘The myopic child is quickly shown up in the school examinations by his poor vision, The second class, astigmatism, is not easy to explain; it is an irregularity of the front of the eye. ‘The front of the eye should be a section of a sphere, in astigmation it is a slice off the side of a lemon, some rays focus at one point, some at another; thus sight is more or less defective; there is difficulty in seeing and it produces strain. Such a child will not read perfectly, but he may read a few letters of the normal sight line, but in reading down he will have missed a number of letters on the lines above. — If the astigmatism is sufficient in amount to cause symptoms he should have glasses which will make his sight normal. How much he must wear them depends on the amount of the astigmatism, the amount it is affecting his progress in school, and somewhat on the amount the sight is affected. Per- sonally I believe glasses should not be worn constantly by people with slight astigmatism. I do not hold with the men who believe the very fine degrees of astigmatism are likely to cause symptoms. The third class: of what we call refractive errors are what we call the hypermetropes, or far-sighted people. This does not mean necessarily that they can see long distances but only that they see relatively better at the distance than they do close to. “These are the people with congenitally flat or short eyes. Now in youth the focusing power of the eye is very strong and the poor vision of the short eye can be corrected by focusing. “The normal eye is focused for the distance so that it can see without making any effort. When we read we have to focus our eyes, but the muscles are so strong that we are able to focus them for long periods at.a time without strain. ‘The far- sighted child in order to see in the distance must often focus as much as we do when we read, otherwise objects around him look indistinct. Thus when he comes to read he must focus an extra amount. In individuals who 674 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION are not rugged this strain may give rise to various symptoms, such as aching eyes, headaches, early fatigue, etc., and for that reason glasses are usually necessary and often have to be worn constantly in the higher degrees of hypermetropia. No set rule can be made for the prescribing and wearing of glasses in these anomalies of sight which I have described except in the higher degrees. Each case must be judged on its own merits and that is where the optician and optometrist who have no medical training usually fail. ‘They can often measure the eyes for the right glasses, but they cannot judge in each particular case of the necessity for wearing which often takes a high order of judgment and intelligence. One other thing, the focusing muscle is very active in the child and its power gradually weakens through life. In order to arrive at a clear under- standing of the state of the eye, it is almost always desirable in children to use a drug to paralyze temporarily the focusing muscle. ‘This drug is atropin or belladonna for younger children and homatropin, a weaker drug, for the older ones and for young adults. These drugs can do no harm and are practically essential for examining the eyes of the young. One other point which I meant to emphasize. Symptoms which we know as eyestrain are seen most often in connection with hypermetropia and astigmatism. ‘They may often be relieved by glasses worn constantly or perhaps only for near work. The symptoms of eyestrain are seldom seen in myopia. Glasses are worn in this condition to improve distant vision and to control the progress of the myopia. A myopic person is much handicapped by his eyes in the normal relations of life. He cannot recog- nize his friends, he cannot see the blackboard, enjoy the movies or the theater. Now a little about cross eyes, squint or strabismus as it is technically called. Whenever an eye turns in or out expert advice should be sought and the earlier the child sees the doctor the better. I like to begin work on these squint cases not later than two years of age. I shall only talk to you about the eyes that turn in. When a mother brings a child to you with a squint, you ask which eye turns in and she usually replies both. To have both eyes turn in at the same time is an exceedingly rare condition, usually either the right or the left turns while the other remains straight or they may alternate, first one turning and then the-other. What are the causes? In order for an eye to see distinctly it must be directed straight forward so that the rays of light from the object looked at will fall on the center of the retina. If the-rays fall anywhere else sight is much reduced. Hold your fingers up to one side of the other while you hold your eye straight and see how much less distinct they are than when you hold them directly in front. Now in normal eyes there is a delicate interconnecting system of telegraph wires in the brain which so controls their movements that the image of the object looked at falls on the corresponding central point of each retina, these two pictures are superimposed and a single picture results which not only has length and breadth but the perception of depth or relief DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 675 or as we call it, stereoscopic vision. ‘This perception of relief is very im- perfect in one eye alone; with one eye alone the judgment of distance is very faulty. Now there is a great deal about the origin of squint which we do not know, but one of the commonest causes of it is a faulty develop- ment of this delicate nervous mechanism which joins the two eyes, the fusion sense we call it. ‘The fusion sense is faulty, it may even be absent. Let us suppose that an eye has at birth faulty sight, or acquires it as the result of accident or disease. Its owner has no longer sufficient incentive to use the two eyes together and one of them turns naturally either out or in for there is nothing to hold it straight. Such a squint can only be remedied by operation, and it may not stay straight even then. Next there is the eye with faulty sight through excessive far-sight, near-sight, or astigmatism. It may be possible to improve the sight greatly by glasses, and the squint that has developed may be corrected. Sometimes we tie up the good eye and make the child use the poor eye in order to develop its sight. Another common cause is excessive hypermetropia. You know what focusing is. We focus in order to read. We must converge also in order to read. If you look at my eyes when I am regarding a near object you will see that they converge as they focus, the two things go hand in hand. In a high degree of far-sightedness, as I told you before, the vision must focus excessively in order to see. He therefore converges excessively and the image of objects no longer falls on the center of the back of the eye. In order to see distinctly one eye at least must be turned straight. He cannot straighten both, for to do that he would have to relax his focusing power and he is focusing in order to see properly. So what he does is to turn one eye straight and as a result the other eye turns inward. Overcome the necessity for too excessive focusing by giving the child glasses and the eyes will often straighten without further treatment; thus it is inevitable that many cases of squint must wear glasses to correct faulty visual conditions. "The wearing of glasses, assisting the development of the fusion sense by exercises, and sometimes the developing of the sight of a poor eye by covering the other are the essentials in treating squint. If they fail, then an operation on the muscles which govern the position of the eyes is necessary, but this is usually the last resort. ‘Those measures should be taken early before the habits are too ingrained. To sum up, therefore, we may say that glasses are most often prescribed (1) to control the development of myopia, (2) to improve faulty vision, (3) to relieve eyestrain, and (4) to assist in establishing normal relation- ships between the two eyes. A point which should be emphasized here is the necessity of the teacher’s seeing that the glasses which have been ordered are worn. ‘Too often the pupil’s family goes to the expense and loss of time necessary to an examination and then the glasses are thrown aside by the child after a few days. Attention to the eyes in childhood is of great importance. ‘They should be cared for but not overcared for, as is sometimes the case. Condemning a child to glasses is a serious step and should be only taken after mature ' 676 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION consideration. Hardly a disease sign or symptom that the flesh is heir to that has not been laid at the door of defective eyes. ‘Thus it is that Amer- icans wear glasses to excess. Consider what is likely to happen if you go to the optician, a man without medical training, who tests your eyes and sells you the glasses. He makes his profit in the sale of glasses. His in- " centive to make a sale is certainly a strong one. ‘Therefore a child or adult sent to the optician to have his eyes examined is practically certain to return with a pair of glasses. If these children cannot afford to pay for the atten- tion of the medical specialist, then whenever possible send them to a reput- able hospital clinic. Now it is by no means certain that the child with symptoms apparently referable to the eyes really has anything the matter with those organs. We Americans are a nervous race, and we show many signs of nervous tension. Many children are brought to me each year that are purely nervous and have nothing the matter with their eyes. The commonest features they display is twitching, especially of the face, complaints of headache, sensitiveness to light, and a whole train of other signs. It is not infrequently that I see children who desire glasses just to imitate small friends who wear them. The child who can see perfectly well but who simulates trouble with the eyes is not uncommon in my experience. The deceitfulness of these children is often seen only after several examinations. The motive some- times becomes clear but occasionally is a mystery. The physician as well as the teacher has much use for psychology. Another thing to remember is that a weakly child or one that is run down may show symptoms in any part of the body without local cause. This must be kept in mind by teacher, parent, and physician. Now there are other children besides those we have been talking of, who need attention in school. Children whose eyes and lids are chronically red and inflamed need medical treatment and often glasses. The recognition of the early symptoms of pink eye or conjunctivitis is exceedingly important. This disease is a cold in the eye, Is very contagious, and easily and quickly curable. The pupil with this disease should be quickly excluded from the classroom, as it spreads like wildfire. I regret that my time does not allow me to talk to you about two very interesting and important diseases with unpronounceable names—phlyc- tenular keratitis, which bears a close relationship to tuberculosis, and inter- stitial keratitis, due to hereditary syphilis. Both these diseases furnish candidates for the defective eyesight classes, a subject which I should like to dwell on did my time allow. DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HycIENE 677 OHIO’S EFFORT TO BRING CHILDREN UP TO A « NORMAL HEALTH STANDARD T. HOWARD WINTERS, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, COLUMBUS, OHIO I fear that those who have noticed the title of this paper have antici- pated the statement of a definite program for bringing Ohio children up to a normal health standard—a program not only defined, but in practical operation throughout the State. Such, I regret to say, is not the present stage of our progress. As in many other things, and like many other States in this field, there are scattered, miscellaneous beginnings; the establish- ment of some such work in some places on.a good basis, and a measure of State-wide interest with some phases of the work centrally promoted or provided for by legislation. The work has lagged a good deal behind what we hoped for three years ago; first, because the bill providing for county health districts was seri- ously weakened before it was really in effect, and secondly, because the physical education bill failed to pass. The latter provided for physical education in all schools, it being required already in city districts, for the proper training of physical education teachers, and some training in that work for all teachers, for a State syllabus and State supervision. It con- nected physical education and health supervision only to the extent of pro- viding that in the conduct of the former due notice should be taken of the health supervision, and in making it a duty of the State supervisor to promote codperation with the State department of health and with local health authorities. If this bill had passed we feel that a great deal more could have been done. We especially feel the need of an expert in these lines on the staff of the State department of education. The following is the draft of a bill prepared for introduction to the next legislature. This was prepared by a committee interested in physical education. “The endorsements of persons and organizations concerned with. school and child welfare are desired and also any criticisms or suggestions relating to the matter are invited. A BILL To amend section 7721 and to add supplemental sections 7721-1 to 7721-7 in- clusive of the General Code, relating to physical education in the schools. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Ohio: Secrion 1. ‘That section 7721 of the General Code be amended and that sup- plementary sections 7721-1 to 7721-7 inclusive be added to read as follows: Src, 7721. All pupils in the elementary and secondary schools of the State shall receive as part of their instruction such physical education as may be pre- scribed or approved by the director of education, and the physical education pro- vided shall occupy not less than one hundred minutes per school week. This time shall be in addition to that devoted to regular intermissions and to instruction in physiology and hygiene. Modified courses of instruction may be provided or approved by the director of education for pupils unable to take the courses pro- vided for normal children. Credits and penalties shall be applied for success or failure in physical education courses as in other school subjects. 678 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Sec. 7721-1. The superintendents of schools of all city, exempted village and county school districts, shall submit before the fifteenth day of September an- nually, to the director of education, for his approval, the courses in physical edu- cation to be pursued by the schools under their supervision or shall indicate that the courses outlined by the director of education will be followed by the schools under their supervision. At the close of each school month a report of the amount of time devoted to physical education shall be included in the report of every school. Sec. 7721-2. Boards of education shall, in the institution and conduct of physical education, take due knowledge of the health supervision of school children main- tained by boards of health or -by boards of education and shall provide for the proper codrdination of such work with the work in physical education. Sec. 7721-3. All institutions for the training of teachers in the State of Ohio shall include courses of study designed to prepare teachers to give instruction in physical education. No state-wide certificate shall be granted after June 1, 1924, to persons who have not had such work in physical education, in college or normal school as may be required by the director of education. Sec. 7721-4. After September 1, 1926, no person shall be granted a certificate or employed to teach or supervise physical education as a special subject, who does not present satisfactory evidence of having creditably completed a special course in physical education of not less than two years, or its satisfactory equiv- alent, unless such person has served as a full-time teacher or supervisor of physical education prior to January 1, 1925. The holder of a physical education certificate may be employed to teach hygiene, which shall be included in the term physical education, used in other sections of law relating thereto. Sec. 7721-5. The director of education shall publish a program and a syllabus covering the several subjects and activities required in physical education and these publications shall be distributed for the use of the teachers of the State. SEc. 7721-6. The director of education shall appoint a supervisor of physical education to administer, supervise, and direct the varied program and activities of physical education and to promote the training of teachers of physical educa- tion, to promote codperation with the State department of health, and with dis- trict boards of health, to advise with boards of education and to assist the director of education in the performance of the various duties devolving upon him in the execution of laws relating to physical education. _ SEC. 7721-7. It shall be the duty of the boards of education or other officials in charge of all schools in the State to make provision for the establishment and maintenance in their schools of the courses in physical education prescribed by section 7721 of the General Code. _ SEcTION 2. That original section 7721 of the General Code be, and the same is hereby repealed. The county health district bill, as first passed, provided a minimum staff in each county of a full-time physician, a nurse, and an office assistant. It abolished all local boards of health outside of cities of 25,000 or more. It provided that the staff in each county must be chosen on civil service rules. The budget made by the county health board became effective on approval of the county health advisory council. The State might aid up to $2000 per year. In the law now in effect, State aid and the large district are retained, but the extent of the staff is made permissory and the budget is subject to the county budget commission. It js not even necessary that the physician be employed full time. The safeguard of civil service js not retained. The statement of many duties is changed from shall to may. Under such a law the efficiency of the county health office and the amount of service it gives in the county vary from almost nothing to very extensive and almost adequate health supervision. Our laws provide that a board of education may appoint school physicians and trained nurses, or may delegate the duties of such to the board of DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE 679 health. Now, we do not have county unit school districts (except for general school supervision) ; our counties are cut up into rural districts of six by six miles or smaller. ‘These districts have seldom appointed school physicians or nurses. Besides, this law was enacted when there were the small village and township health boards, which hardly functioned except when there was a serious epidemic. “The most of the health work, done in rural Ohio schools prior to 1919, was under a clause which enabled two or more districts to unite to employ a school physician or nurse. Several pro- gressive county superintendents of schools prompted all boards in their respective counties or the boards of large sections of the counties to employ a physician, or physician and nurses. Sometimes the nurses did practically all of the work in the field, the physician (under whom alone they have the right to inspect school children) being nominally in employ, or remain- ing at the county seat and having doubtful or serious cases brought in to him for further examination. “This system of inspection, when diligently pro- moted by the county superintendent of schools, having follow-up work and clinics, and securing general interest, proved very effective. Unfortunately it was not tried in many counties and not in all of those with the effort necessary to wide effectiveness. Besides work so organized there was medical inspection in a good many districts by representatives of the county medical societies, often without pay. For eight years the State Medical Society has urged inspection of all children, and has urged upon its subsidiary county organizations, steps to secure it, and, if necessary, voluntary service to demonstrate its value. Such service has been given mostly in villages. “There seemed not to be the organizing power to make it systematic in the country. But under the new health bill practically all rural health supervision centers around the county health office. ‘This office is financed in one county with only $1600 ($600 of local money). Usually there is a budget of $4000 or more (including State funds), paying for a physician part-time, for a nurse, and for some clerical service. Oftentimes there is an additional nurse or two supplied by private or semi-public organizations. However, it must not be understood that these nurses give all of their time to the schools or to children. In some they give no time to the schools; in others their chief service is in the schools. As the law says the board of health may “provide for the medical and dental supervision of school children” and for the inspection of schools, such variations were to be expected. A goodly number of counties have recognized to some extent the need, and made or secured provision for it, so that the schools are visited fairly often, even if remote, and the children are examined, contagion is watched, unsanitary conditions are ordered abated. One of the big services has been the examination of the water supply. Many orders were placed on this in the State, so that few children are now drinking water of uncertain purity. The distribution of water has also been regulated by the county health service where the common drinking cup had not already been 680 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION abandoned. Many school toilets were examined and condemned, although many still remain the most obvious disgrace of our schools. I have spoken above solely of rural work. Much the same could be said of the larger villages and smaller cities. Many of these have nurses employed by their boards of education or furnished by organizations. Their functions often include home visitation. Such school nurses are employed in almost all of the cities of 20,000 inhabitants or above. The bureau of child hygiene of our State department of health has been very active for several years for the betterment of school children. It has secured the codperation of a number of physicians in addition to those of the department and has held many clinics for the examination of eyes, throats, lungs, and glands. It has searched out and has endeavored to stamp out trachoma, much of which is brought to us from southern States. We are in a goitre belt, and the help of the best specialists has been ren- dered the department for examination of those with such symptoms. Much effort has been put on tuberculosis. One of the large developments has been work for crippled children. In 1914 a law was passed providing that special classes for the crippled might be provided with State aid. Excellent classes were established in several of the larger cities; the one at Cleveland had existed for several years previous. ‘The interest taken in the Toledo class by the Rotarians and the establishment of a class in the Children’s Hospital at Elyria were forerunners of a much larger movement, promoted by the Rotarians of the State and the Ohio Society for Crippled Children, which is endeavoring to hunt out, treat, and educate every crippled child in the State. In 1921 a bill was passed increasing the per capita aid for the classes (up to $300) and providing through the State Division of Charities a considerable sum ($15,000) for the maintenance and care of the children who need oper- ations. A supervisor of special classes, including also those for the blind and deaf, has been provided in the State Department of Education and many new classes have been established. This law aims in some way to provide proper schooling for every crippled child, no matter how situated. Our supervisor is working in close cooperation with the rehabilitation division, which can take care of the vocational training of those past sixteen. While the Council is doubtless more interested in what js being done for normal or nearly normal children, I think I should speak of the Bureau of Juvenile Research. The name would perhaps indicate functions beyond what it has performed, for it has worked, since it was founded in 1914, almost entirely on mental diagnosis. Dr. H. H. Goddard was brought from the Vineland, New Jersey, school to head the Bureau, and is still in charge, although he has resigned to join the staff of the State University and to provide clinical work there in September this year. The Bureau invites superintendents of schools to refer to it cases of seeming mental defects, speech defects, and nervous disorders. It is usual for an agent of the Bureau to examine the children while he is at work in that neighborhood, although many are brought into the Juvenile Research building in Colum- DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HycIENE 681 bus. Some are treated by the Bureau, even for long periods, as the case of double personality of which you have perhaps seen notice in the newspapers. Cases arising in the juvenile courts are also frequently investigated by the Bureau. Unfortunately the State is not well prepared to take care of those who should become its wards, as our Boys’ Industrial School has long been inadequate and proper training or even good physical care of delinquent boys is not possible there, while our Girls’ Industrial School is also overcrowded and notoriously unadapted to child rehabilitation. Ohio has, I believe, the unhappy distinction of having the largest boys’ and girls’ reformatories in the world. I wish we could write “best” instead. Again the capacity of our Institution for Feeble-Minded is much too small, and many committed by the courts cannot be received. This has led courts to commit only those that parents desire to have committed, and has led the Institution to receive mostly those whose parents will pay for their maintenance. However plans are under way to increase the facilities for the custodial care of the feeble-minded, and it is hoped we may soon be able to benefit more largely from the scientific advice of the Bureau of Juvenile Research. But we must hasten to return to the care of children who are not abnormal. Some of the most helpful work is that of the Modern Health Crusade and similar practical hygiene teaching. This work was largely introduced into our schools during the World War. It has been greatly promoted by a bulletin entitled “Course of Study in Hygiene,” which was prepared by Miss Virginia Lewis, of the Ohio Public Health Association, and was published by the State Department of Education last fall. The 262 pages are entirely devoted to practical health teaching in grades one to eight. It is confined mostly to health stories and drills. It aims at strong motivation of the work. This Booklet was put into the hands of every elementary teacher of the State last winter. It has brought great results in care of the teeth and other items of personal hygiene. Miss Lewis will herself teach the course through in the model schools of one of our State normals this coming year, and all of the practical work will be filmed—a step which seems to have great possibilities. The Richland County health demonstration will be fairly under way by fall. A careful experiment in intensive health service is to be made there for five years on a fund of $200,000 appropriated by the National Red Cross. Naturally, much of the work will be done in the schools of the county and of Mansfield, a city of 28,000. At the same time the State Department of Health is conducting a demonstration in Portage County and its two small cities, Ravenna and Kent, the latter the seat of onc of the State normal schools. These demonstrations should not only prove the value of adequate health staffs, but should furnish selected models for procedure in all lines. Our new Ohio compulsory education law will help in several ways the health of children. In the first place, the provision of a county attendance officer has brought into school many who were escaping attendance entirely, 682 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION and it has made more regular those who had been careless. ‘This alone will mean much for their care. Next, the age for leaving school to work is raised to sixteen. Finally, careful physical examination is required for work certificates, and such must be held by all workers to the age of eighteen. ‘This places responsibility for the health of children largely on the schools from the time they enter at six or seven until they are established in industry or college at eighteen years of age. Child labor in agricultural districts, especially the onion flats, which has been so bad in Ohio as to get National notice, is being broken up under this law, which after a year of operation has gained many friends and lost many enemies. A big factor in all matters of child betterment in Ohio, has been the Ohio Council of Child Welfare, now merged as a department of the Ohio Institute for Public Efficiency. ‘This Council was publicly supported dur- ing the war. After that it was supported privately and is now a part of the Institute, which is also privately supported. Miss Lucia B. Johnson has been secretary of this agency from the beginning and her broad vision and sensitivity to child needs, together with the wisdom of Fred C. Croxton, former director of the Institute, and R. E. Miles, present Director, have given us an understanding of our problems which we would not have other- wise had. ‘The method is to bring together all agencies with a State-wide program, to study specific problems or specific territory. Reports of field workers of Red Cross, State department of education, health, industrial relations, and charities are brought in together, and sometimes the field workers go out together, accompanied by Miss Johnson or one of her assistants, to get facts or to urge local action. “Thoughtless public officials of all sorts are helped to realize their problems and responsibilities. If necessary, some attention is given ‘to legislation or unsatisfactory executive action or delays of the courts. For two years this agency has loaned the State Department of Education the services of Miss Hannah Protzman as investigator of non-attendance at school. Much effort is being made in this State to have no child go neglected because of ignorance or poverty. Ohio is a State of many and varied conditions, of foreigners, negroes, illiterate whites of the mountaineer type, mill workers, miners, and almost every variety of condition hard to reach, because of remoteness or masses. Poor soil, impassable roads, crowded populations, and bad housing, rural as well as city, present added problems. Against these are abundant re- sources and intelligence if they can be properly applied. At no point can they be made to yield as largely as in the proper care and guidance of children. We believe we are on our way to the standards that should be- come effective, but we cannot yet take much pride in our achievements. Department of Classroom Teachers OFFICERS President—EtHEL M. Garpner, President of the Milwaukee Teachers’ Association...... PEARL Bg AN? PLL GSEs MESA, Ba7 UES IONE SNEED, 2 Milwaulkk is. Vice-President—Sara H. Faury, Manual Training High School.............. Brooke NY Secretary=— Mary Ps" DwvER,” Gradem)eachersGaste? ose). wns atabins Mae: Chicago, Il. ProGRAM OF MEETINGS FIRST SESSION—Tuespay AFTERNOON, JULY 4, 1922 Mechanics Hall The following addresses were given: THOMAS JEFFERSON—Nina C. Buchanan, president National League of Teachers’ Association, Seattle, Wash. New Ipeats 1n EpucatTion—William H. Kilpatrick, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. IMPROVING THE SERVICE—THROUGH TENURE—Charl O. Williams, president of the National Education Association, Memphis, Tenn. THroucH PENsIONS— Margaret Haley, Chicago, Ill. SECOND SESSION—Tuurspay AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1922 Symphony .Hall The following addresses were given: THE CLASSROOM TEACHER AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATIONAL Procress—Sara H. Fahey, Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. COOPERATION BETWEEN CLASSROOM TEACHERS OF LARGE AND SMALL COMMUNNITIES— R. C. Moore, secretary of the Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Carlin- ville, Ill. Discussion Led by Mildred Miller, Teachers College, Columbia University, New Mork ING Yc ORGANIZATION OF THE TEACHERS IN ENGLAND AND WALES—W. G. Cove, president of the National Union of Teachers of England and Wales. Reports from Organizations. NEW IDEALS IN EDUCATION * WILLIAM H. KILPATRICK, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The ideals here chosen, arbitrarily chosen among many, are those having to do with the aims and spirit of education. “They are not new to the world—ideals seldom are—but only in emphasis. First and most inclusively, education now aims as never before to know itself, to learn its strengths and its weaknesses, to become conscious of its hitherto blind traditions. It seeks to clarify and adequately found its deeper aims. It is trying to clean its house, to found itself on reason, on criticised experience. In one inclusive word it sets before itself the task of finding 1A condensed statement of what was said. [683 | 684 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION its proper aims and of ascertaining as exactly as it can the best ways by which these may be attained. Among specific ideals is the social aim, to relate education properly, in- herently, to our social life: on the one hand, to improve as we can and when we can the American conception of a proper social life; on the other hand, to embody in the rising generation the highest social ideals we can attain. And a remarkable and far-reaching conclusion results; democracy and education each mutually demands and supports the other. Each brings the other into being. Democracy seeks so to conduct society as to develop and express each member of society. Education cannot be education in any full unselfish sense except in such a democratic society. Democracy cannot be itself except its members grow as only full education can make them. Our social ideal then is the enthronement of democracy and edu- cation, a purified and enlightened democracy, an efficient and democratic education. To us who teach are given the task and privilege of working out in all their ramifying details the ideal relationships of democracy and education. It is fitting that in this city and on this day we should clarify our ideals of democracy and education and rededicate ourselves to this cause of humanity. The ideal of the good life which must guide education has been well stated by our foremost student in this field of endeavor. Professor Dewey’s criterion gives us both the ideal relationships with others and the content of the good life considered individually. With others: Does our conduct increase and continue to increase the number and variety of interests shared with others? If yes, our conduct is good; if no, bad. With one’s self: Does my conduct make me grow in such fashion that each act leads on to further continued growth both in myself and others. If yes, my life is full and rich and others through me. Growing then is the test of the good and happy life. But such growing is continued education. So life (the good rich life) and education are one, all one and the same. Our ideal is thus to increase the growing of all through the growing of each, and of each through the growing of all. That all may so grow we must have an educational system aptly suited, in social relationships within the system, in properly conceived subject- matter and curriculum, and in suitable method. Within the system do we find all so working together, each in his proper place and function, as best to develop and express each mutually the other? Are conclusions of common concern reached only after mutual consultations? Does each contribute his best to the common store? The legal machinery to effect this is not always easy to contrive, the spirit only is here set forth. Whether we think of officer and teacher, or of teacher and pupil, such mutual respect for personality must be our goal and guide. In like manner there must be a democratic conception of subject-matter. This is not, as often conceived, an affair of imposition from without and above by the old and strong upon the young and helpless. Subject-matter DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 685 Js best conceived as ways of behaving. It looks in two directions. Look- ing backward it is the race-experience, saved and stored, available for the future. Looking to the future it will enrich the life and character of the individual. Learning is the process by which the individual raises himself to continually higher levels by embodying in himself this wealth from the past. Our criterion should be: Does what we last week taught reappear in these our pupils in higher and richer living here and now? If yes, good. Our ideal then is, no deferred values. We seek continually grow- ing richer living. This if any is a new ideal, but one that must come as fast as we can work out the feasible details. Correlative with a democratic administration and a democratic subject- matter is a democratic method. Our treatment of the young must be such as to build for democratic self-direction, unselfish and unspoiled, not for peasant-like subservience nor for selfish domineering. Such a method recognizes that the child is of necessity learning many things simultaneously, customary subject-matter focally, but marginally a multitude of ideals and attitudes. Shall these ideals and attitudes be good or bad? Our method is the largest factor in determining. This democratic method rejoices to use our most scientific psychology. In readiness and satisfaction it sees on the one hand personality respected, on the other learning best taking place. It adopts the whole-hearted purposeful act as the proper unit of instruction, believing that this best builds the kind of character we need, that only thus by practicing life itself can the child really learn to live. Our new ideals are then new emphases in education. Education seeks to know itself and to fashion itself rationally. Thus seeking it finds itself needed for democracy, and democracy needed for it. It finds that life, the rich growing life, and democracy and education are all one. On this plat- form it seeks to found itself in the large and in detail. From such and in such the teacher lives as never before, the child lives both now and later as never before. THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION THROUGH TENURE LEGISLATION CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SHELBY COUNTY SCHOOLS, MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE That effective and definite tenure legislation will tend to improve the teaching profession is admitted without question. Studies have been car- ried on, and legislation of this type has been in effect for over thirty years. No one can question the desirability for such legislation or the need for the same. ‘This seems, however, to have been and still is a lack of concerted action on the part of the teachers of the country both in the community and in the State, which has caused our legislators to neglect positive action along this line. vie When the National Education Association’s Committee on Tenure re- ported at Des Moines a year ago that the “teaching profession today has 686 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION no problem to face that is more important than that of tenure,” it stated a truism which is more apparent as the time goes on. It is not my purpose to dwell upon the reasons for tenure, the necessity for it, or the advantages that accrue. I am taking it for granted that this subject has been treated at sufficient length both through National investigations and reports as well as through the activities of the State and local teachers’ associations. I believe however that it is of interest to you to have a few remarks directed toward the essential requirements of a model tenure bill. The great onward sweep of educational and public opinion has carried this matter to a point where now it requires careful and serious consideration of the essentials of such tenure legislation as will afford equal protection to the teacher and to the community alike. Teachers in some places have been maligned and charged with being too radical in demanding legislation for their own protection. We believe that this is a false assertion. We believe that the best protection of any teacher is. the competency of her services and the satisfaction she is render- ing in her school and community. We desire no class legislation that will set us apart from professional lines of activity. We feel that we are only entitled to that reasonable sense of security which will make us free to plan for the future. We desire only that certainty of location which will make it possible for us to feel that we can purchase property and establish homes in the communities in which we live and work. We feel that this permanency of employment is due, not to us alone, but to the community as well. In order to assure stability in our profession, in order to protect our- selves from the dangers of political favoritism and at the same time ade- quately secure for the community efficient and conscientious teachers, what are the essential elements in the formulation of tenure legislation that will guarantee these mutual advantages? A model tenure bill for the State and community should first provide for an adequate probationary period. This period should not be less than three years in order that it may bring out the adequacy of professional preparation and the skill of the teacher in classroom management as well as her initiative, enthusiasm, industry, and ability to cooperate with the entire teaching personnel. During the probationary period the school executive should have full authority to discharge a teacher at the end of the school year by giving at least sixty days’ notice. A model tenure bill should provide in that State that when any teacher shall have been placed upon indefinite tenure in a district and shall after- wards accept employment in any other district of the State this teacher shall be upon indefinite tenure in said other district after one year’s probationary period in the new district. It should also provide that if a teacher after an interim is reémployed, having already served on indefinite tenure, she shall be reémployed on indefinite tenure. A model tenure bill should state the causes and grounds for dismissal for teachers on indefinite tenure and the method of procedure in so dis- DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 687 missing a teacher. It should be required that proof of neglect of duty, insubordination, conduct unbecoming a teacher, immoral or criminal con- duct be submitted in writing to the board of education and to the teacher. These charges should be signed by the superintendent of schools or by a majority of the board of education and the teacher should be given a reason- able opportunity for refuting such charges at a hearing before the board or in some other manner agreed upon by the board of education and the teacher. Pending this hearing the teacher should be suspended and such sus- pension shall be with loss of pay only when the charges are sustained. A two- thirds majority vote of the board of education shall be sufficient to impeach or remove a teacher upon indefinite tenure. As a further protection to the community and as a stimulus for higher professional training on the part of teachers this bill should provide that the benefits of indefinite tenure shall not accrue unless such teacher has had an education and training equivalent to a graduation from a first grade school and two years’ work in a normal school or college approved by the superintendent of public instruction. ‘This condition should not apply, however, to teachers who have had six years or more experience in a district or community. ‘The privilege of viewing the action of a lower judicial body, in this case the board of education, is a fundamental principle of democratic justice and a reasonable protection that should be provided. Since the majority of dis- missals are on technical grounds, the final board of appeals should be one éngaged in educational work and yet a disinterested body. ‘The ideal practice would provide for an appeal to the State superintendent of public instruction. Provisions should be made that no superintendent of schools or assistant superintendent, county or district superintendent, supervisors, or principals should be placed upon indefinite tenure unless they are graduates of ac- credited high schools and of four year courses of colleges approved by the superintendent of public instruction. Exception should be made to those persons who have had six years’ experience previous to the enactment of this legislation. Boards of education should be granted the privilege of releasing a teacher at any time upon application of the teacher. A teacher may resign at any time by giving sixty days’ notice. It should be provided that it be illegal for any superintendent of schools to appoint or have any board of education employ a teacher already under contract and employment of another board of education, except as stated above, with the further exception that during the months of May, June, July and up to the 15th of August of each year a board of education may, without penalty, employ, to begin with the following year, a teacher then under engagement with another board of education in the State, for the coming school year. After August 15 of any year any teacher already employed shall file with the superintendent of schools of any other district, desiring to employ said teacher, a statement from the superintendent of schools from the district in which said teacher is already employed, express- 688 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION ing his willingness that said teacher may be employed by the other district. In order to protect an individual teacher a provision should be made that no teacher employed to serve upon indefinite tenure shall suffer a decrease in salary without consent except by a general proportionate salary revision affecting all teachers of the district. If this legislation is State legislation provision can well be made that no State money shall be paid to any district which is not properly carrying out the provisions of this act and also that the attorney-general can bring suit against the board of education to recover all money paid to any teacher employed in violation of the provisions of this act. I have not time in the ten minutes allotted me to enlarge upon the specific recommendations for tenure legislation which are outlined above. Permit me to say, however, that these recommendations have only been made after carefully deliberating and investigating into the best practices in vogue in other States and communities. I believe that they constitute the ground for uniform and strong tenure legislation and that they constitute the basic essentials that should be put in practice in all the States and communities as soon as possible. The time for deliberation and discussion has passed. Despite the fact that tenure laws for teachers were first proposed as far back as 1886, at the present time there are only seven States and a score of communities that have made provisions for placing teachers on the same basis of security as our other individuals in professional and business life. Let us today resolve that we shall return to our communities determined to secure during the coming year such local and. State legislation as will protect us in the dis- charge of our duties and relieve us from the constant fear and apprehension, the anxiety and uncertainty which robs the conscientious teacher of her power and efficiency. Let us all unite to place upon our statute books ef- fective tenure legislation that will serve to stabilize and dignify our pro- fession and gain for it the recognition it merits because of the service it renders. COOPERATION BETWEEN CLASSROOM TEACHERS OF LARGE AND SMALL COMMUNITIES 1 ROBERT C. MOORE, SECRETARY OF THE ILLINOIS STATE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, CARLINVILLE, ILLINOIS Introduction: Origin and development of organizations. A. Our civilization is evolving from individualism to socialization. 1. Our American forefathers were pioneers in a new country, and their struggle to conquer nature developed a sturdy individualism. ‘Their neighbors were few and far away, and social relations were almost negligible. “4 Outline of address. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 689 2. As the population increased, as the free public lands were taken up and occupied, as numerous large cities grew up, and as the wonderful modern inventions brought people close together, their social, industrial, and economic relations increased and became more complex. Individualism had to be curbed, social relations considered, and the public welfare pro- moted. ‘There has been a slow and reluctant evolution from the chaos of individual effort to a system of organized activities. B. The present era is one of organizations and organized effort by classes and groups with common interests; for instance, Big Business with its gigantic trusts and corporations, labor unions, religious denominations, professional associations, and a complicated multiplicity of lodges, leagues, federations, etc. 1. This is a step forward in socialization, but it is still “group indi- vidualism,” or organized effort to promote the interests and ideas of certain classes and groups, sometimes at the expense of other classes or groups. 2. But these group associations and organized activities suggest the idea and inspire the hope that some day we shall discover the great common interests of all humanity, and that all the human race will codperate harmoniously to promote these common interests. Teachers’ Organizations: A. The organization of the teaching class has taken place slowly. It began with local organizations of teachers for professional study and growth, for study of educational problems, and only recently for protecting the rights and welfare of teachers and children. But it is now generally conceded that the organization of the teaching class is necessary to promote the ideals and ideas of that intelligent class and important factor in our intellectual and civic life. B. The organization of teachers by States is now considered necessary, because education is a State function, is financed by the State, and is gov- erned by State laws. C. A national organization of teachers is now considered necessary for . professional study, comparison of problems, methods, legislation and results, and for establishing national ideals. “The idea of a national system of edu- cation supported by federal taxation is growing. D. The differences between organizations in large and small com- munities are: 1. Group organization and codperative action naturally begin and de- velop most rapidly in the large communities where social relations are clear and definite, and are characteristic of these large communities. Hence, the large communities take the lead in these things. 2. Small cities and rural communities are more individualistic and imagine themselves more independent. ‘Therefore, organizations form slowly and organized effort is weak. 3. In large communities, teachers’ organizations are usually strong, active, and aggressive. 690 NATIONAL EpuCcATION ASSOCIATION 4. In small communities, teachers’ organizations are more easily imposed upon by other interests. Small communities are often deceived by the wild stories of the anarchistic, socialistic, autocratic, or otherwise dangerous tendencies of teachers’ organizations in large communities. 5. In large communities, teachers’ organizations and their activities are accepted as a reality. “They may be opposed, but few now question their right to exist and to act. 6. In small communities, teachers’ organizations are small and weak and are considered by many as improper, unnecessary, and in error if they take an active part in advocating or promoting anything but professional work, General Principles: A. Community interests, social relations, industrial codperation, and economic unity now reach beyond the small, local community and bind together all the people of the State, of the Nation,—yes, even of the world. The recent world war certainly impressed us with the idea of world rela- tions and of the world as a community. ‘Therefore, education and teach- ers’ interests are at least State-wide, and possibly Nation-wide. And now an international conference on education is being considered and may be definitely planned at this meeting. B. Therefore, teachers of large and small communities must codperate through State and National organizations. This implies mutual discussion, toleration, and understanding, to be followed by unified effort. 1. Method of co6peration in Illinois: a. Division association meetings,—14 in State. b. Discussion of problems and principles, local, and State-wide. c. Formulation of resolutions. d. State association meeting, and its discussions. e. Adoption of State-wide resolutions. f. Plan of unified procedure. g. Unified effort to obtain legislation, and to promote helpful educa- tional movements throughout the State. All this is codperation between the teachers in large and small com- munities. C. A fundamental principle of such cooperation is that teachers in large and small communities throughout the State, or possibly throughout the Nation or even the world, must consider and adopt certain definite prin- ciples upon which to stand and for which to work. ‘These should be stated in terms broad enough to fit both large and small communities, for instance: 1. Equality of educational opportunity for all children. 2. State and National support for schools. 3. A good, well-trained teacher and a pleasant, well-equipped school- room for every child. 4. A secure tenure for teachers, based upon character and efficiency and not subject to the whims of partisan boards. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS 691 5. Schools and school funds must be kept clear of partisan politics and political manipulation. 6. A fair chance for every child to develop his latent powers to maturity and efficiency. D. Large and small communities must coéperate and support each other in promoting the principles agreed upon by educating the general public to support them and by obtaining helpful legislation. “Teachers must be so altruistic and unselfish in doing this that they can act enthusiastically even if the principles adopted cost some communities more than others in money or effort. E. Classroom teachers are the most numerous group of teachers—prob- ably more numerous than all other educational groups combined. ‘There- fore, when classroom teachers learn thoroughly the methods of codperation and become able through their numbers, their high intelligence, and their organized activities to apply a tremendous influence on our social, eco- nomic, political, and educational life and institutions, they must not follow the example of some of the present powerful organizations and promote their own interests alone, but must use their great power to right wrongs, prevent exploitation, suppress selfish greed, and cultivate altruism. ‘They must set a high example of service to humanity, of teaching and practicing the principles of real and universal democracy. . na oe ies ses : iz Tt mre Hd Sr inet cy na ie ‘ ot UO tg iia ey) deals alge h ‘ 4 eal qi he HIS Hoag id! ludcted ennai adh bh sets LIE . yy ié 2 fy a ae “9 1G Hes" aint eins pel be SIR " 7 os hs ob ‘ag ee a5 ? ‘ . = * ate it ti So Monl tS : ‘ehowt a e 4 r ue 7, > ei Pe pe “s ts jest Aree N Poort oft 97K cy fet Ree ths rele tla he srr >en : igs reut bal ex otvuad a et Soars tall Wait peat eeadry 2 yin eet ; mT af Z 4 it ias airs a t Dae he ems Tis) TTD Sura 4 y ¥ - i + 4 » 3 AM iy AU? Aes 4 70 wi gony Ratiiis ih sits i pe at shes ? . neu > Bey i 1 i Or tie 4 lads, Sag, 7 162 3a Pacts Y OEP ATS Bein ae ie Witte Aas ‘(item 7 ished ay aagae aid tS m we a vitae Ungar roy Tie oy Rika = = Seiler aoa aan in Department of Deans of Women OFFICERS President—Mina Kerr, Dean, Wheaton College.........ccccscccccccccesseces Norton, Mass. Vice-President—Gerorcia Ll, Wuitt, Dean of Women, Cornell University........ Ithaca, N. Y. Secretary—KaTHARINE §S. ALtvorp, Dean of Women, DePauw University..... Greencastle, Ind. Treasurer—FLorencE Lorinc RicHarps, Dean of Women, Winona State Teachers OMe re Merrett ete here ele ere ie sic cuciche tel eearete, egmcvahcteta o ceMette ler Salers acetMeuerers Mate Winona, Minn. PRoGRAM OF MEETINGS FIRST SESSION—Thursday Merning, February 23, 1922 Joint Conference with the National Committee of Bureaus of Occupations and representatives of college vocational activities Cora HrLen Coonipce, Chairman of the National Committees of Bureau of Occupations. Vocational Activities in Colleges VOCATION AND THE COLLEGE OF LIBERAL Arts—Richard W. Husband, Associate Dean, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. Tue PsycHoLocicaL AsPECT OF VOCATIONAL Work IN CoLLeGEs—Agnes L. Rogers, Professor of Education, Goucher College, Baltimore, Md. DIscusSsION. SECOND SESSION—Thursday Afternoon, February 23, 1922 SERVICES WHICH THE BUREAUS OF OCCUPATIONS ARE PREPARED TO OFFER TO COLLEGES— Directors of the Bureaus of Occupations in the United States. DISCUSSION. THIRD SESSION—Thursday Evening, February 23, 1922 Our Relations to Women in Industry Tue Work OF THE WoMEN’s BurEAU—Mary Anderson, Director of the Women’s Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. Tue TRADE UNION WoMEN AND A BETTER Day IN INDUsTRY—Agnes Nestor, Presi- dent, Women’s Trade Union League, Chicago, Ill. ‘ THE SUMMER SCHOOL FOR WoMEN WorKERS IN INDUSTRY AT BRYN Mawr CoLLecE— Hilda W. Smith, Dean, Byrn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa. INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF WorkKING WoMEN—Mrs. Raymond Robins, Presi- dent, National Women’s Trade Union League of America, Washington, D. C. FOURTH SESSION—Friday Morning, February 24, 1922 BUSINESS MEETING Construction and Management of Dormitories Ture PLANNING OF DoRMITORIES AND SOCIAL Buitpincs—Elmo C. Lowe, architect, Chicago, Ill. CONSIDERATIONS GOVERNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEAL FLOOR PLAN FOR Dormirories—Blanche Geary, Director of the Architectural and Economic Bureau, National Board of the Young Women’s Christian Association, New York, Nevye ; j Tur SERVICE DEPARTMENT OF THE DormiTorY—Mabel C. Little, Director of Halls and Commons, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. [693] 694 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION A Dormitory THAT Is A Home—Agnes E. Wells, Dean of Women, Indiana Uni- versity, Bloomington, Ind. : ORGANIZATION OF THE WorK OF THE Heap oF Hatts—Edith S. Tufts, Dean of Resi- dence, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. REPORT FROM THE NATIONAL HousING COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN. FIFTH SESSION—Friday Afternoon, February 24, 1922 SECTIONAL CONFERENCES DEANS OF WOMEN OF STATE UNIVERSITIES Chairman—AGNEs E. WELLS, Dean of Women, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Three University Problems Hovusinc— How To Ostratin Money For DormMiroRIEs— (a) From LecisLatures—Anne D. Blitz, Dean of Women, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. (>) By Private Girrs—Grace Greenwood, Social Director of Martha Cook Dormitory, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. FUTURE OF SORORITIES— FrRoM THE PAN HELLENIC STANDPOINT—Lillian Thompson, Pan Hellenic Delegate from Gamma Phi Beta. FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE DEAN OF WoMEN—Mary Ross Potter, Dean of Women, Northwestern University, Evanston, III. DELINQUENT STUDENTs—Ruby E. Mason, Dean of Women, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. RECREATION—Jessie L. Lapp, Dean of Women, University of Minnesota, Minne- apolis, Minn. Discussion—Led by Myra. B. Jordan, Dean of Women, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., F. Louise Nardin, Dean of Women, University of Wis- consin, Madison, Wis. DEANS AND DEANS OF WOMEN IN COLLEGES Chairman—F.oreNce K. Root, Dean, Pennsylvania College for Women, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Ideals of Scholarship Dors THE CURRICULUM STIMULATE SCHOLARSHIP ?>—Lucy M. Salmon, Professor of History, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. METHODS OF PROMOTING IDEALS OF SCHOLARSHIP AMONG THE AVERAGE STUDENTs— Pearl R. Wasson, Dean of Women, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. Tue Honors PLAN aT SmitH CoLLEGE—Helen Wright, Director of Appointment Bureau, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. DIscussIon, DEANS OF WOMEN IN NORMAL SCHOOLS Chairman—Anna V. Day, Dean of Women, Milwaukee State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. METHOpS OF TEACHING ‘THRIFT—Jessamine Hoagland, National City Bank, Chicago, Ill. REGULATION OF EXTRA-CURRICULA AcTiviTiEs—Caroline Grote, Dean of Women, Western Illinois State Teachers College, Macomb, III. THE Woman’s ForumM—Natalie Thornton, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Discussion. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 695 DEANS OF GIRLS IN HIGH SCHOOLS Chairman—Mary C. Rosinson, Dean of Bangor High School, Bangor, Maine Tue Work oF DEANS IN HicH ScHooL—Romiett Stevens, Teachers College, Co- lumbia University, New York, N. Y. ji CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT IN HicH ScHooL—Josephine Mack, Dean, McKinley, High School, Chicago, Ill. DIscussIoON. SIXTH SESSION—Friday Evening, February 24, 1922 CONFERENCE DINNER Toastmistress—Grorcia L. WuitTe, Dean of Women, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York Relations to Other Organizations NationaL Epucation Assoctation—Charl O. Williams, President, Memphis, Tenn. GENERAL FEDERATION OF WoMEN’s CLuss—Mrs. George W. Plummer, Secretary, Washington, D. C. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNiversiry Women—Mrs. Aurelia H. Reinhardt, Vice- president, and President of Mills College, Oakland, Calif. FEDERATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN IN CANADA—Mtcs. R. F. McWilliams, President. NATIONAL LEAGUE OF WoMEN Vorers—Mrs. Maud W. Park, President, Wash- ington, D. C. SEVENTH SESSION—Saturday Morning, February 25, 1922 BUSINESS MEETING Stimulation of Graduate Work Among University Women CONSIDERATIONS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT IN GRADUATE WorK FOR WOMEN— Louise Pound, Professor of the English Language, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. SoME RESULTS OF GRADUATE WORK BY Women—Marion Talbot, Dean of Women, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. THe Work BEING DonE BY WOMEN IN GRADUATE ScHoots—Albion W. Small, Dean of the Graduate School of Arts and Literature, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. EIGHTH SESSION—Saturday Afternoon, February 25, 1922 SECTIONAL CONFERENCES DEANS OF WOMEN IN STATE UNIVERSITIES Business Meeting Standardization of the Position of the Dean of Women of State Universities Up To THE PRESENT TimE—Mrs. Lois K. Mathews Rosenberry, Former Dean of Women, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. i : In THE FuTURE—Georgia L. White, Dean of Women, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. DEANS AND DEANS OF WOMEN IN COLLEGES RETIREMENT SYSTEM FOR WOMEN MEMBERS OF COLLEGE FACULTIES—Grace A. Stayt, Dean of Women, Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. 696 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION How May THE Dean Best Apportion HER TIME BETWEEN THE ACADEMIC, Ap- VISORY, AND SociAL SIDE oF CoLLEGE—Anna L. Tannahill, Dean of Women, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. ; EXTRA-cuRRICULA : Friendliness (unofficial) {recs fairness Recognized Personal satisfaction Advantages Esteem of others Membership in student organizations ces n ~) =} =o i) ie ° =) Leading to a career Ee acceptability DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 707 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF VOCATIONAL WORK IN COLLEGES AGNES L. ROGERS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, GOUCHER COLLEGE, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Psychology has recently made advances that will hasten the solution of the problem of vocational guidance in colleges. By the construction of tests of general ability or intelligence, it has furnished a means of elimi- nating from colleges those unable to profit by academic study, thus pre- venting persons embarking on training for certain careers for which they are unfit. Such guidance is negative and though valuable is of less worth than positive prescription. Intelligence tests very shortly will furnish the latter also, for in time we shall know the intelligence level of most of the professions as study is now being made of their selective influence. Soon we shall be able to advise a college graduate in the light of his own general ability and the mental level of those in the occupation he desires to enter, with whom he will necessarily be compared and with whom he must compete. Indirectly such intelligence tests likewise assist us in discovering students of high capacity, who have failed to identify themselves heartily with academic work owing to lack of industry, codperativeness, interest, or sound health. Such facts are obviously crucial in vocational guidance. The second contribution of psychology is the construction of rating scales. It is true that today we have satisfactory scales for only one pro- fession, that of teaching, but it is only a matter of time before we shall have excellent adaptations of existing instruments for vocational guidance purposes to many other callings. Signal advance has also been made in the technique of construction of vocational tests proper and we may look for the appearance of measuring instruments which will be of service to the vocational adviser. So far Freyd’s test for journalistic aptitude is available, but it will shortly be followed by others of like kind for other occupations. WOMEN IN INDUSTRY MARY ANDERSON, DIRECTOR OF THE WOMEN’S BUREAU, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR, WASHINGTON, D. Cc. The words “women in industry” are becoming more and more a familiar phrase as the number of women in industrial pursuits is growing larger year by year and becoming a more important factor in the development, the very life itself, of the American people. The Census figures of 1920 tell us that one of every four workers is a woman. Going back nearly half a century to the Census figures of 1880 we find that at that time more than 14,000,000 men and more than two and a half million women over ten years of age were in gainful occupa- 708 NATIONAL EpucatTIon ASSOCIATION tions, and in 1910, our latest figures, more than 30,000,000 men and 8,000,- 000 women over ten years of age were so classified. It is apparent that in the thirty years the increase was very much greater among the women than among the men, the per cent increase being 104.1 for men and 205.1 for women.’ That the per cent increase among the women in this period— 1880 to 1910—was almost double that of the men is significant as proving that the encroachment of women in industry was not caused by the World War, but was well under way for several decades before that and may be considered a natural evolution. During the ten years immediately pre- ceding the war—that is, from 1904 to 1914-women wage earners in- creased in numbers at a higher rate than did men in several of the most important industrial States—for example, in New York the per cent in- crease of male wage earners was 22.8 and that of the women wage earners 25.7; in New Jersey the corresponding figures were 38.7 and hao r Pennsylvania 20.3 and 35.8; in Illinois 33.2 and 37.2; and the list might be very much extended—a total of twenty-five States and the United States as a whole showing this condition of a higher percentage for women than for men.? The past few years have seen a remarkable development of industries. When the spinning, the weaving, the making of clothes and shoes, and all the other industrial pursuits once followed in the home, were taken away and developed into factory industries, women were called upon still to conduct many of the operations, and thereby became part of the army of gainfully employed. Naturally they have not been restricted to these trans- planted industries but have entered other avenues of employment as occasion offered. A Federal investigation in 1908 which covered more than 167,000 woman and child wage earners disclosed the fact that women and gitls formed approximately one fourth of the wage earners in the making of tin-cans and boxes, hardware, nuts, bolts, and screws, pottery, and stamped and enameled ware; approximately one third of the wage earners in the making of clocks and watches, rubber and elastic goods, jewelry, and needles and pins; and one half or more of those engaged in making cigars and tobacco, cigar boxes, and paper boxes—all of these being outside of the food and clothing industries essentially woman-employing.? ‘The public is inclined to forget this gradual development, and to think that women entered industry in large numbers only during and since the war. It is because women wage earners became so numerous and are being relied upon more and more to supply the working force of the factories, that we have come to realize the importance of women in industry. The large number of women in industrial pursuits therefore present a special problem of their own. When I began to work as a piece worker in a boot and shoe factory in Illinois, there was very little said about the ; ee Census of the U. S. Population Vol. IV, Occupation Statistics, pp. 6 and 37. * Abstract of the Census of Manufacturers, 1914, Pp. 463-465. U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Woman and Child Wage Earners in the U. S., summary of report, pp. 15 and 398, DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 709 importance of the eight-hour day. We were then working ten hours and little thought was given to the health of the working woman and what it meant to the Nation as a whole. In the second year of my factory work the State Legislature passed an eight-hour day for women. ‘That was more than twenty years ago, but I remember clearly that we worked one day of eight hours and the next day went back to the ten-hour day because the Supreme Court of the State, in a surprisingly short time, had rendered a decision that this law was unconstitutional. After this there was a long period during which the women in my trade became more and more united in organization, and finally we were able, through agreements with the manufacturer, to institute the nine-hour day. The eight-hour day by legislation was our goal. From that time on we were active in furthering legislation for working women, but it was fifteen years from the time that the Illinois Legislature passed the short-lived eight-hour law that it again took up the question of hour legislation for working women and passed the ten-hour law which is the present statute, the Supreme Court reversing its earlier decision and declaring the law constitutional. While the first attempts at legislation had been made entirely by women who were in sympathy with working women, the later attempts were a joint effort between these women and the organized workers themselves, with the latter speaking for the workers, organized and unorganized, in the legislative hearings. What happened in Illinois is happening in every State in the Union. As the women are becoming stronger both politically and industrially, to that degree progress for women is being made. Everywhere we find the voice of the organized working women speaking in behalf of the workers. The second International Congress of Working Women, held in Geneva last October, is an expression of this development the world over. It is not surprising then that the movement in behalf of the working women should have received recognition by the Federal Government ‘tself. [Che Women’s Trade Union League of Illinois and its President, Mrs. Raymond Robins, realizing that the Federal Government had taken no special cognizance of this great question, sent Miss Jane Addams, of Hull House, and Miss Mary McDowell, of the University Settlement, Chicago, to Washington in 1907 to appear before the Appropriation Committee of Congress to ask for money with which to make a special investigation of women in industry. Congress granted such an appropriation, and an in- vestigation extending over three years—1907 to 1909—and covering many of the industries in which women were employed was made by the U. 5. Department of Commerce and Labor.- The report was published in nine- teen volumes and was the cause of the increasingly insistent demand for a bureau in the Government to be concerned with women in industry. In 1909, at the convention of the National Women’s Trade Union League, a resolution was introduced asking for a women’s bureau in the Government. In 1916 Representative Casey, of Pennsylvania, introduced in Congress a bill 710 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION to create a women’s division in the Department of Labor. ‘This bill did not pass, however, and upon the entrance of the United States into the World War the Secretary of Labor called a conference of representative men and women to work out the best possible way of recruiting labor for war services. “Che Woman in Industry Service was among the several organi- zations created in the Department of Labor, and in 1920, when it was found from the work during the war and the demand made for the kind of service rendered that it would be expedient to make this war service a permanent bureau, Congress passed a bill making the bureau permanent. As the Department of Labor is the youngest Department in the Govern- ment, so the Women’s Bureau is the youngest Bureau in the Government. As the increasing strength of industrial workers made more insistent the demand for a Department of Labor, until finally such a department was created, so it was with the Women’s Bureau—as the women workers entered industry more and more the demand became insistent that there should be created in the Government a bureau concerned solely with the problems peculiar to working women. It is very important that the Federal Government should more and more interest itself in the human problems of the Nation. ‘The Department of Agriculture is of tremendous value in conserving animal and plant life, but what is even more important is the conserving of human life, and in this we come down, in the final analysis, to the importance of the woman. The woman as an individual has a right to health and happiness, but this individual right has a much larger significance when we think of the work- ing woman as a mother or a prospective mother of the race. It is the duty of the Federal Government, as I see it, to make sure that in our rush for expansion of industries and the ever-growing demand for more production, so that the world shall be adequately housed and fed, we do not exploit these women to the detriment of their individual selves and to the detriment of the country as a whole. The Federal Government has no mandatory powers to enforce any laws for the regulation of women’s work, We are a government by the will of the people with State autonomy. ‘Therefore the enunciation of standards and policies by the Women’s Bureau is a guide rather than a law, and serves to make uniform the actions of the several States. Because we legislate in forty-eight States we are prone also to legislate in many different ways. ‘Though we have the eight-hour day in eight States, this does not always include all the women workers in these States. Some laws cover the mercantile establish- ments only, others manufacturing, while others include hotels and restaurants. Scarcely in any two States is there uniformity in legislation, and therefore the pointing out of inadequacy and the more or less haphazard way in which the States are legislating can best be done by a Federal agency, such as the Women’s Bureau. ‘The State agencies have no adequate way of getting this all-round information. Constantly the Women’s Bureau is asked for data concerning the employment of women. Some of the questions most repeatedly asked are: How many married women DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN nit are there in industry and in what industries are they employed in the greatest numbers? Do the married women prefer night work because they can devote their day-time hours to the house-work and the children? To what extent do women support families? and many similar questions having to do with the family unit. There is a growing demand by the American public for the facts, and it is the duty of a Federal agency to supply these facts. “The Women’s Bureau makes special investigations in the industries where women are working, upon which to base conclusions and from which to give informa- tion in order that fair standards can be formulated upon actual figures. Such studies are of great importance. A careful study of a large number of cases of lead poisoning among men and women, over a considerable period of time, produced the evidence which later established that lead poisoning is more injurious to women than it is to men. Because of this knowledge, in some States laws have been passed prohibiting women’s em- ployment in occupations where the danger of contracting lead poisoning is very great. Women are working in many other occupations where they are exposed to poisonous fumes and dust, but we have no evidence to show whether these elements are more or less dangerous to women than to men, and without such evidence there can be no just and wise legislation for the employment of women in such places. One of the subjects which causes a great deal of discussion and comment is the adequate remuneration for work performed by women in industry There is first the question of whether employees shall receive equal pay for equal work regardless of sex—that the wages should be based upon the job, whether performed by men or by women. Again there is the question of minimum wage laws for women. Studies of these questions are important, even essential. From investigations made by the Women’s Bureau we have found that women are, to a very large degree, either wholly or in part supporting families; that young girls in large numbers bring their pay envelopes home unopened, and thereby turn in every dollar received to the family budget. One is accustomed to think of the man as the head of the family and, for that reason, that the wages received should be adequate for the family budget. But when we think of women we think of them as individuals, with little or no economic con- nection with the family, and we have in a large measure failed to realize that women do support families. “Therefore we must no longer disassociate women from the family life and treat them as individuals. We must take cognizance of the fact that the woman as well as the man is responsible for the family budget and that the wage she receives is money necessary to the support of the family unit. Sufficient testimony by both employers and workers shows that women do just as good work and as much work as men, and are as faithful on the job. ‘Therefore there is no excuse for a double standard of pay. The women are now, as they always have been, working to earn a living. Low wages for women mean an inadequate standard of living in families in 7A2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION which they are the chief support. Low wages for women mean a lower wage scale in those industries which they are entering in such large num- bers. ‘The theory of wages that establishes a lower scale for approximately one fourth of the workers of the country—that is, the women—is a menace to the standard of living for the individual and the family, and therefore hurtful to the citizenship of the whole country. There are certain minimum working standards which are essential to the health and the efficiency of the workers. The lighting of factories, both natural and artificial, plays a prominent part in the efficiency of the workers, particularly where there is close stitching or inspection on shiny particles. It is especially aggravating when the rays of light fall so that they are injurious to the eye. Again, there is nothing so fatiguing to the workers as being confined long hours in poorly ventilated quarters. It goes without saying that there should be thorough cleanliness in the work- rooms and safety devices on dangerous machinery, and that every possible attention should be given to safety measures so that we may approach the condition of the least possible amount of injury in industrial occupations. We have been told over and over again through investigations that the industries of the country are taking far too heavy a toll in human life, and through accidents are incapacitating workers, wholly or in part, for the rest of their lives. The standards spoken of in this article cover con- ditions in a general way, but they are the fundamentals and should apply to all occupations in all industries. More searching evidence and more detailed information will have to be applied to meet special cases and peculiar conditions, but compliance with the fundamental standards neces- sary to insure health and efficiency should be made compulsory. Since the time when the Illinois Legislature passed the first eight-hour day for women, more than twenty years ago, there has been a marked change in the industrial conditions relating to women, owing largely to the increasing number of women in industry and to the evolution of the times, but in no small measure to the demands of the women themselves. Many elements enter into progress, such as constant agitation for better standards and a better understanding of industrial problems, and the fact that in- dustry is becoming more and more the dominant factor in the life of the Nation. Willingly or unwillingly, people will have to take their stand on the industrial question; no one in the Nation can escape. ‘There is not an hour of the day that we are not confronted by it—the clothes we wear, the food we eat, the implements used in the household, all are a part of the industrial question. It is not surprising then that the Government itself, in order to deal in- telligently and effectively with this all-important subject, has set up a department, and bureaus within that department, to deal particularly with special phases of the problem and be of help to the woman wage earner, DEPARTMENT OF DEANS oF WOMEN 713 eee ee SS BRYN MAWR SUMMER SCHOOL FOR WOMEN WORKERS IN INDUSTRY HILDA W. SMITH, DEAN OF BRYN MAWR COLLEGE, BRYN MAWR, PENNSYLVANIA A two months’ course for women workers in industry was started at Bryn Mawr College last summer. The idea originated with President. Thomas, who thought such a course would be the most constructive con- tribution a woman’s college could make in the solution of modern in- dustrial problems. The more extended use of the college buildings was also a consideration. Plans for the school were drawn up by a Joint Administrative Com- mittee, consisting of representatives of the Directors of the College, the Faculty, and Alumnz, together with a group of women workers in in- dustry, selected by Miss Mary Anderson, chief of the Woman’s Bureau of the Federal Department of Labor. On the financial side, the plan was to offer scholarships of $200, cover- ing a student’s expenses for two months at the school. These scholar- ships were raised throughout the country by local committees made up of college alumnz and women workers in industry. Trade unions, women’s clubs, or interested individuals contributed to these scholarships. Stu- dents were selected according to the following qualifications: Ability to read and write English; a common school education or its equivalent, and good health, a preliminary medical examination being required. For the purposes of the school the term woman worker in industry was defined as meaning “women who are working with the tools of their trade and not in a supervisory capacity” and for the first summer at least this was not to include teachers, office workers, saleswomen, household workers, or waitresses. Students were finally selected by the local committees—eighty students from a group of 212 who applied for scholarships. A special group of ten leaders in industry were admitted for more advanced work. Among the students all groups of industry and of the labor movement were represented, including nineteen trades, organized and unorganized, forty-eight students belonging to the organized and thirty-four to the unorganized ; thirteen nationalities, and many religious beliefs. Many students had made sacrifices to come. Some had given up jobs; most of them had to meet family obligations while they were at the school. They appeared to have a feeling of responsibility that they had been chosen for this opportunity. They were an unusual group, eager, keen of in- tellect, with mature minds and an ambition to go on with education. Many of them had left school at twelve or thirteen to go into the factory. The educational problem was a serious one. For this reason, classes in small sections were followed by hours of tutoring, or individual work. Many difficulties of studying, such as grasping lectures, writing papers, and 714 NaTIONAL EpucaTion AssocraATION reading, were evident, but great improvement was seen in all students within two months. It was difficult to find books simple enough for textbooks. The courses offered were: English literature and composition, labor economics, social and political history, hygiene, music, and special lectures on science, industrial organization, women in the labor movement and community life. Instructors were chosen who had had experience in adult education. There was the organization of the health department, a feature of the school so much appreciated by students that doctor’s recommendations were followed by the students after their return home. This department gave medical examinations, treatment, corrective gymnastics, and hygiene lec- tures. Athletics including baseball, swimming, tennis, and folk-dancing, were popular. Great progress was made by students who had never had an opportunity for these sports. The music course was also much appreciated. Informal singing and school songs, as well as more formal concerts, were well liked. Excursions were held during the summer to Washington, Philadelphia, Atlantic City, Valley Forge, and other nearby places. Students elected representatives to all committees of management, as the Directing Committee, House Committee, Health Committee. The Student Committee met with the faculty for conferences on matters of courses and instruction. Debates and open forums were arranged by students for discussion. of such subjects as Shop Committees vs. the Trade Union, the Irish Question, and Legislation for Women. Freedom of speech was the keynote of these debates. A decided growth of tolerance and open-mindedness was felt. Freedom of teaching and no propaganda were decided on by the Joint Administrative Committee as two policies of the school. There was a discussion of the possible attitude of organized labor toward the school, and a conference of representatives of labor organizations was called at Bryn Mawr to discuss this question. A certificate stating that student had attended this two-months’ course was given to each student at end of term. Reports are coming in from all over the country that students are going on with studies, and demanding courses for themselves and other industrial workers through Y. W. C. A. and other groups. ‘These students have formed an Alumnae Association and elected officers; they plan to keep in touch with each other and the school. Next year we hope to admit one hundred students, including a group of second-year students. New courses for next year will be science, psy- chology, and history of the labor movement. A representative of labor is to be the Assistant Director of the school. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN ALS THE PLANNING OF DORMITORIES AND SOCIAL BUILDINGS ELMO CAMERON LOWE, ARCHITECT, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Within recent years there have been erected at many of our colleges beautiful buildings for the housing of men and women and for their rec- reational and social life. The freshman dormitories at Harvard, for example, are much admired, also the new dormitories at Cornell and at Princeton. ‘The architects of the latter, Messrs. Day & Klauder, have succeeded in combining in these buildings many interesting variations and details which add freshness and charm to the whole. At Princeton also is the beautiful quadrangle for the Graduate School with its lovely Cleveland Memorial Tower, designed by Cram & Ferguson, of Boston. ‘This is one of the best groups from an architectural standpoint built in America. The new dormitories at Smith, designed by Ames, Putnam & Dodge, combine dignity with a feeling of domesticity. More extensive than any of these is the fine memorial quandrangle at Yale, designed by James Gamble Rogers. One pleasant afternoon, a few months ago, I spent several hours strolling about these buildings inspecting to my heart’s desire the hundreds of features which taken together make them the most charming student dormitories in America. As I ambled slowly from one court to another I was overtaken and passed by many students. (The rooms were occupied for the first time last autumn.) It was most interesting to hear their expressions of affections and delight and to know that what had been done for them was really appreciated. I overheard two boys talking who evidently were not living in the quad- rangle. One said to the other, “I come this way every chance I get.” This seemed to me to be a most sincere and unconscious tribute to the designer and builder. Surely every boy living there must absorb some of the beauty of his surroundings. The good proportions and the charm- ing color must make upon him an impression never to be forgotten. Buildings for girls may differ from those for boys in many details of plan arrangement, but certain characteristics must always be present if they are to be successful. These are good taste, common sense, simplicity, and the economic use of constructive materials. We who have a hand in the planning or designing of buildings which are to be the homes of boys or girls for four important years of their lives have a serious task. We must make our architecture contribute some- thing to the growing appreciation of the beautiful things of life. Individual units—Reference was just made to the Yale Memorial Quadrangle. It is interesting to know that when Mr. Rogers, the archi- tect, appeared before the Committee on Building Plans to submit his design for the quadrangle, he laid before it only the type plan of a study with two single bedrooms. This is the primary unit of a single suite of rooms forming the basis of the full development. This arrangement of two suites on a floor with a stairway between it, as you know, is much liked for men’s dormitories. I know of no instance where it is used for girls. 716 NATIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION —_—_— ee We find at Pembroke and Rockefeller Hall, Bryn Mawr, a grouping of rooms into suites with a study-room and one or more bed rooms adjoining and connected directly therewith. At Michigan, in the fine new Martha Cook Hall, two single rooms adjoining are separated from the main corridor by a small vestibule. One door leads from this vestibule to the corridor, and one door opens from it into each of the rooms. ‘Two students occupy- ing the suite may have some freedom in devising their manner of living. Each may occupy a single room for study and sleeping or a common study may be made of one room and a common sleeping-room of the other. In the vestibule is placed a wash basin with hot and cold water. In the dormi- tories now under construction at Smith College the architect’s plans show that all rooms are to be single rooms, opening directly from a 7-foot 6-inch wide corridor. ‘There seems to be, therefore, some difference of opinion as to the ideal arrangement. The general feeling, as I gathered from my talks with many deans, is that sixty girls living together under one roof and under one control form the ideal group. At the University of Chicago the number varies from forty-two in Mary Beecher Hall and in Kelly Hall to sixty-seven in Green Hall and sixty-eight in Foster Hall. The Martha Cook Building is large enough to take care of one hundred eighteen girls. I have visited the building and have talked with a representative of the management. She does not feel that this building is too large for convenient control nor for the best interest of the students who live there. My own inclinations, however, is to favor a smaller unit, say of sixty or sixty-five. This is the plan at Smith. Since I am sure Miss Geary will explain to us the most desirable ar- rangement of social rooms, dining-room, and so forth, I shall omit all reference to this important subject, and proceed to the question of grouping. Grouping—Having determined the best size of individual units, the next question for consideration would naturally be the relation of these units one to another. ‘Too often limitation of site. lack of definite plan, or other reasons cause the erection of a unit as a single building without reference to any thing which has been done before or which may be done later. You all know instances of this. The Martha Cook Building at Michigan, for example, is very attractive in itself, but it seems to me it would have been more attractive if it had been conceived as a part of a group. Chicago University has built its dormitories in quadrangles. The more recent buildings at Bryn Mawr are joined as you see. Miss Wells will tell you that the proposed buildings for Indiana University will be joined in some similar fashion. At Smith the present construction consists of three units about a U-shaped court. In the future another group of three units will be erected forming a large square. A number of tentative plans for Northwestern have been made which show the dormi- tories placed about various shaped courts. It is the intention here to do for the women what was done so successfully a few years ago for the men, namely: Build the fraternity houses and dormitories about the same quad- rangle. Most of the fraternities gladly accepted an invitation to build DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN WAZ upon the campus. None of them, I think, found the restrictions imposed by the university to be other than advantageous. These restrictions were that the buildings must be placed upon a designated site and must be designed to harmonize in every way with the dormitories to be built by the university for non-fraternity men on adjoining sites. Here we have fraternity and non-fraternity men living in equally comfortable quarters in close proximity on the same campus. Why should not the problem of housing women students be handled in the same way? Note the Yale Quadrangle. On a single city block provision has been made for 650 students in 1100 rooms. Here is, to my mind, the finest grouping so far produced in America. Architectural treatment—While admitting that the plan arrangement is the first and most important consideration, I hope you will all agree with me that the appearance of the building or group of buildings is worthy of the most serious thought. I shall not point out examples of the poorly designed buildings. Many of you have them to endure. The very first thought in connection with the design it seems to me should be to get away frankly and openly from the appalling monotony so often found in institutional buildings. As we look at some of the pictures which will be shown on the screen I shall call attention to certain features which seem to me to make them worthy of your consideration. I hope you will all accept the invitation of Dean Marion Talbot to visit Ida Noyes Hall at the University of Chicago. No pictures I have seen begin to do it justice. May I venture to offer a wish in closing? The wish is that you may see this year the beginning of the realization in brick and stone of your dreams for the housing and the social life of your girls. CONSIDERATIONS GOVERNING THE PREPARATION OF FLOOR PLANS FOR WOMEN'S DORMITORIES BLANCHE GEARY, DIRECTOR OF THE ARCHITECTURAL AND ECONOMIC BUREAU, NATIONAL BOARD OF THE YOUNG WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS The responsibility of the educational authorities for the suitable housing of students—men or women, is gaining wider and wider recognition. The present shortage of small houses in which rentable rooms oftentimes can be found, coupled with the ever-increasing demand by the American girl for a college education, has forced home the demand for special building. Closely linked with this is the imperative necessity that the deans shall have a suitable setting for the promotion and control of social life and standards. Granted the real need for the special provision of living quarters for women students, the first question to answer concerns the character of the accommodation we shall offer. Shall it be of the cottage variety or not? 718 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION My studies lead me to conclude that the smaller the unit the better, be- cause of its closer resemblance to family life, and because of its character- building environment. But, as a matter of practical politics, the costly duplication required by the cottage plan generally restricts the develop- ment of such a scheme and the need is consequently not met. So many basements to excavate, so many steam heating and hot water plants to install and care for, so many roofs, so many entrances to build, so many house mothers to find and to pay—spell defeat. If enough suitable accommodation is to be provided, whether for the student or for the city employee, to the extent demanded by modern con- ditions, a floor plan and a specification must be chosen, I venture to think, which will house relatively large numbers under one roof. Per capita costs for management and for upkeep argue loudly for this conviction. (It is far more economical to run one large heating plant than fifty small ones ; one cook’s wages can serve many more than a cottage family.) If we agree that the only practical type with which to meet a huge modern need is the large residence housing 100 to 200 under one roof, what are some of the ideals which should control the inspiration of a good floor plan in that type of building? ‘The time has gone by when a man, because he is president of a college or chairman of a board of trustees, is thereby qualified to make decisions on the floor plan for a woman’s build- ing. Equally true is it that there are many architects whose performances with State houses, schools, and post offices do not of necessity argue their preéminent qualification to design residential quarters for these large groups of women! Still another consideration is economy in construction. Away with waste space—it costs possibly sixty cents a cubic foot to build, and no man knows how much to maintain. Over-wide halls and corridors, unused or unusable spaces, whether upstairs or downstairs—let us with determination insist upon the (a) minimum cubic contents which will meet the need. (4) Away with unnecessary expense in materials, having in mind, of course, the need of safeguarding against wear and tear and depreciation. (If limestone will serve, why buy granite? If a Keene’s cement finish js satisfactory, why supply tile? If a simple, uniform design for trim can be found which is suitable, why pay for special designs for the special treat- ment of special rooms costing special prices demanded by special service at the special mill?) If scrupulously thorough study, seeking reduction of cost, will result in saving enough to add measurably to the housing capacity of the scheme, it behooves us all to give the time and attention required to effect the saving. (c) Away with extravagance in upkeep. As the years roll by and the bills roll in, it is comforting to know that the clever architect, allying himself with the proper specialists in such housing schemes, has given you a building in whith the natural draught of the properly designed boiler does not call for an expensive fan system without which there is not draught enough to burn the coal to make the steam to heat the house that Jack built! It means dollars and cents in wear and DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 719 tear, in time and temper, when the housekeeping units are so separated that constant elevator service, or endless stair trips, or long walks are re- quired to perform properly the daily duties. The closest possible study is required of the relation of space to space. The influence of the floor plan and the specification on the financial results of operation are enormous and demand thorough and understanding attention. Next in importance to economy, which seeks to make the available dollars meet an apparently endless need, I place comfort. There must be enough heat for all winters, and that heat must be available, by the way, for long enough hours. Our floor plan must encourage refreshing breezes, or at least provide shaded spaces for all summers; there must be such a thoroughgoing study of lighting as _ will eliminate all dark, artificially lighted spaces during the daytime, and ensure enough cheerful, effective lighting at night. American eyesight, we have been told recently, is below par—let us be sure that there is plenty of light for the reading that must be done and for the stitch that saves nine. Bedrooms, libraries, social rooms all need the comfort of enough light by day and by night. Closely related to comfort is the question of plumbing. Far be it from me to suggest that there are centers at which women assemble, where there is no noticeable punch in their demand for enough plumbing; we can _draw deductions, perhaps, from the gracious way in which they continue to stand in line, first on one foot, then on the other, waiting for a vacant tub or a shower, or a chance for a hurried turn at a wash basin much in demand. ‘There is a recognized minimum in the provision of wash basins, toilets, tub and shower baths (also of slop sinks), below which it is not wise to plan. Can one, under the general head of comfort, put in a plea for enough hot water for all at any hour when needed? My final desire for a minimum of comfort is privacy. ‘The specialist on floor plans for halls of residence for women, whether students or wage earners in the business and professional world, having in mind their need for conditions making for perfect health, cannot afford to overlook the con- nection between crowd-nerves and the prevalent absence of privacy. Lack- ing teachers, classrooms are crowded ; lacking houses, home life is crowded ; having the crowd habit and the ground plowed ready for sowing the crowd- nerve seed, the girl reaches college usually to find a crowd in her bedroom, a crowd at her dinner table, and, inevitably crowds at every other moment in her day. This explains possibly the present apparent inability of thou- sands of women “down from college” to promote family life of their own without the ever-present crowd surrounding, whether “home” is in the small town or the larger city life. The ideal floor plan recognizes the character-building value and the health-giving value of privacy at the wash basin, and of privacy in the retiring rooms. Some here may accuse me of early Victorian prudishness, but I think these niceties in early life have a real relation to culture and morals. A fourth governing consideration is that of beauty. The ideal quarters 720 NATIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION cannot be developed today without unqualified recognition of the educa- tional value of true beauty of environment. ‘These values are as obvious and as definite in their influence on life as are the results on health, of too little plumbing, or too much crowd. Beauty can hardly be attained with- out due regard to suitability, and since suitability by common consent is mother to simplicity, beauty will depend in the final anaylsis on perfection of design and color. It is not impossible that, having lived for six years surrounded by the utter absence of gingerbread ornament, rococo treat- ment, and florid escapades in woodwork, plaster, or wall paper, the charm- ing college-bred bride of tomorrow will turn instinctively from such modern “beauty” in apartment house or villa and will insist upon an exquisite simplicity and beauty which architects and builders will be bound to provide. My argument is not for barracks nor for palaces, but for the friendly, well-equipped, well-run, harmoniously developed home which lies between the two extremes. - The ideal floor plan, it will perhaps be agreed, should contain the follow- ing items in measure large or small as the scheme demands: Social rooms varying in sizes on the ground floor, predicating by reason of their friendly, informal character and equipment, easy and pleasant conference with one’s men friends and arguing boldly the possibility of occasions pleasant to the socially minded, when folding doors are thrown wide open, rugs vanish, _ and joyous music preludes good times of many kinds. On the ground floor other spaces, such as sitting-room for the house mother, cloak rooms, lavatories, storage, and last but not least, as inconspicuously placed as possible, whatever business office may be required. Access from this floor of course should be had to the dining room and its kitchen dependencies if conditions demand the provision of table board for the family. The ideal plan cries aloud for windows on two or even three sides of the dining- room, which -thereby, and because of its charming furniture and color scheme, becomes the prettiest spot in the countryside in which to eat. Much thought is given by all concerned to the elimination of waste footsteps tramping hither and yon, whether on kitchen duty or waitress duty or whatever other duty bound. Adequate provision for the com- fort and well-being of all the help while on duty and when off duty is of prime consequence in the perfect building. Upstairs a very large majority will probably sleep in single bedrooms. Where circumstances demand adding one or perhaps two individuals to the room or planning dormitory sleeping accommodation, certain it is that each girl should be given her own bureau, her own hanging closet, and opportunity for private care of her person, whether by means of properly installed screening or curtaining or partitions. Adequate trunk-room facilities, a laundry with a generous allowance of tubs, ironing boards, drying arrangements for the use of the family, and possibly, where prices and conditions favor it, a laundry for the housework adequately equipped and staffed, should be provided. A certain small domain will probably be set aside for use as an infirmary DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 721 eee a EEE EE SS for the segregation of suspicious possibilities prior to disposal or treatment. This infirmary would, of course, be suitably equipped. On one or other of the bedroom floors or in some other suitable space one would hope to find a neatly fitted up sewing room having in it a cutting table, a sewing machine, a wall mirror, and a pressing iron and board. And in some suitable and accessible spot, would it not seem desirable to install a fudge kitchen of doll’s house dimensions but containing the neces- saries in the way of a small sink, water supply, gas range, and china closet ? Many more paragraphs could be added describing ideal closet accom- modation of all kinds, whether for linen or brooms and brushes, or cook’s closets, or office closets; and still more paragraphs to be written on bath- room and lavatory spaces, basement spaces, kitchen domain—all of them of first importance when the question of cost of operation is acute, but much too detailed for a paper of this kind. Nothing that I have said, it is to be hoped, will be taken by anyone as reflecting upon the many delightful house mothers brought through - room registry efforts to the point of being willing to open their pleasant homes to the reception of students. I cannot speak emphatically enough of my appreciation of the invaluable service which the registries offer as long as they actually function and really secure adherence to their stand- ards. One would not, I am sure, dream of arguing the registries out of business and all the girls automatically herded into huge and specially- built residences. Many there are, I think, who will join heartily with me in hoping to see the day, however, when the students who cannot be housed in efficiently supervised small homes shall be safely provided for in specially-built buildings as much like home as they can be made by a clever and experienced architect, an artistic interior decorator, and a skillful house manager. Physical safety, moral safety, as well as intellectual _ progress, and the character of future American family life are closely tied up with this whole question of housing. A DORMITORY THAT IS 4 HOME AGNES E. WELLS, DEAN OF WOMEN, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON, INDIANA No doubt every woman has asked ‘What makes a home?” ‘The answers are as varied as the questioners; yet underlying all replies, a feeling exists that the fundamental principle is harmony; a rhythmic atmosphere which soothes and relaxes and in which ideals materialize and flourish; a co- operation that leads to friendships and to a desire to do for others. Many factors enter into its structure; the type of building, the furnishings, the members of the household both family and helpers, and most important of all the directors. The type of building for a college home is determined first by the ma- terial available at most reasonable cost. ‘This then, for the most part, 722 NATIONAL EpucatTion ASSOCIATION determines the style of architecture. An English architect recently said that the Tudor type, for stone buildings, as found at Bryn Mawr, is the best, in his judgment, for American college buildings. The size is first determined by a paying unit, because no college can afford to run into debt for the housing of her students. It is the opinion of the majority of people planning new buildings, that to have a dormitory a home the unit buildings should not be large. Smith College has completed excellent plans for a new group, each unit to house between forty and seventy-five. While not the most economical number this seems to be, taking everything into consideration, the most satisfying unit. An arrangement of rooms as worked out after considering many build- ings in coeducational institutions might be as follows: on the first floor, an entrance hall, office, elevator, reception room, men’s cloak room, drawing room, library, living room, guest suite, and social director’s suite; in the basement, receiving room for all deliveries, recreation room, trunk room, janitor’s suite, laundry, and lockers for help, storeroom and kitchen; on the second floor, in the center above a tower entrance; a dining room and ~ serving room, the rest of the floor to be given over to students’ rooms, both single and double; on the third and fourth floors, rooms for students; an infirmary in the tower on the fourth floor; kitchenette and club rooms at the end of each floor, and an enclosed fire-proof staircase. Beautiful architecture and well planned interiors have no real meaning unless the furnishings are harmonious. Rooms furnished to be exhibition rooms have no home atmosphere. Many perfectly appointed buildings are not homes; they are, rather, beautiful palaces or elaborate hotels. A home must be adapted to the individuals who live in it. It must contain what is expressive of and necessary for the daily needs of the occupants. ‘The furnishings must reflect the physical, mental, and spiritual activities of the people in the house. The aim in the furnishing of all college dormitories should be to carry out this idea in such a way that the girls will take with them into their own homes the unconscious training they have received by living in perfectly appointed, though simply furnished rooms. The first thing to consider is the color and finish of the floors, the walls, and the ceilings. The rule to follow is taken, as is everything worth while in furnishings, from nature; the ground dark, the trees and foliage lighter, and the sky lighter still. There must be a feeling of stability in each room obtained by this treatment of the background. If the back- ground is badly planned, the whole picture is spoiled. ‘The furniture must be chosen for each room, not bought in wholesale lots, in order to save expense, without regard to the place in which it is to be used. ‘The rooms must be well balanced. ‘This is obtained in two ways, by symmetric and by occult balancing. In dining rooms and reception rooms, bisym- metric balance is used. Occult balancing is more subtle and should reflect the artistic taste of the home maker. ‘The large college living room should be the center of the social life of the dormitory. Desirable proportions as worked out, for a group of seventy-five, by experienced architects are DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 723 length, forty-three feet, width twenty-five feet, and height, nine and one half feet. Such a room may be perfectly balanced by attractive grouping. Betsy Barber House in Ann Arbor is a good example of perfect balancing, both bisymmetric and occult. For larger rooms, good examples of occult balancing are the living room at the Martha Cook Building, Ann Arbor, and the large reception room in Alumnz Hall, Mt. Holyoke. Very often donors of buildings present pieces of bric-a-brac which are absolutely inappropriate and have no meaning in a dormitory, but which must be used. A cabinet harmonizing with the fuinishings might be used for such gifts. The colors used for rugs, furniture, and hangings might be chosen to harmonize with nature in the locality. Lippincott publishes a book “Color Schemes for Homes” by Frohne, Jackson and Jackson of interest to anyone planning home furnishings. For color schemes for living rooms, they sug- gest brown and green, blue and old gold,-mulberry and faun, green and gray. They also suggest the kinds of rugs and the style of furniture to go with these color schemes. A study of color is essential because many people are made unhappy and disagreeable by inharmonious colors. A study of primary, secondary, and complementary colors and of greying and keying is important. In choosing the styles of furniture, the governing idea is weight. When heavy furniture is wanted there are many types from which to choose: Elizabethan, much of Jacobean, Spanish, early French and Italian, French Empire, American Colonial and Mission. Lighter types for elaborate drawing rooms or reception rooms may be chosen from Louis XV and Louis XVI styles. For living rooms and parlors when lighter types are wanted, the choice may be made from the styles of William and Mary, Queen Anne, Georgian, Jacobean, Chippendale, Hepplewhite, Adam, and Sheraton. Cheap reproductions of good models are better than expensive but inartistic makes. The library should be furnished with sets of reference books needed by the students but most of all it should have books of art and history, biography and literature, and good fiction, that girls may learn to read and love to read, not to “make a grade,” but to have a broader view of life. Vassar has a fine library in Main Hall which girls are not allowed to enter with note book or pencil. There they read for the love of reading. Pic- ture shows, sugar-coated high-school education, and the “hurry up” life brought about by the automobile have largely destroyed the home-reading circles. Hence many students must acquire in college a love for good books. There is an extra reward awaiting a dean of women who has for years had frequent hours of reading with her girls. Many Minnesota women have learned to love to read through these “golden hours.” However important the furnishings of the living room and library may be, the rooms in which the girls spend most of their time must be given careful attention. Each room should have a good rug, probably of two neutral tones; the walls preferably painted, a warm color for a north 724 NaTIONAL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION room and a cool color for a south room. ‘There should be a comfortable single bed with mattress and pillow and a good dresser or chiffonier. The separate mirror as in the Wellesley dormitories is practical and much less expensive. Necessary also, are a desk, not too heavy to be moved easily (students often decide to rearrange their furniture at 1:00 a. M.) ; a desk chair, comfortable and durable; book shelves; an easy chair; a wooden suitcase stand, useful as support for a tea tray; a floor lamp; and a ward- robe or closet. ‘The closet may be balanced by an enclosed lavatory with - door panels perforated for ventilation, as in some of the rooms at Bryn Mawr. The play room in the basement should be furnished with a good floor for dancing—as at Rector Hall, DePauw—and with a fireplace, a player piano, and a victrola. In this room all “jazz sprees” should be worked off and only good music be played on the living room piano. The advantages of a building of this description are many. Least among them are the physical comforts such as sanitation, proper light and heat, cleanliness, with the possibility of a daily bath instead of the two (often luke-warm) baths a week permitted in many rooming houses. On a campus especially in universities where from 50 to 60 per cent of the women live scattered over the town, the standards are set by the girls in a dormi- tory. ‘The companionship of many girls instead of the loneliness of too many of our girls in small scattered rooming houses is another advantage. Tea prepared daily at four by the house social committee serves not only to bring the girls together after classes for sociability, but often to interest the listless girl in real college work through the lively social, philosophical, and political discussion of the upper classmen. The development of a scholastic atmosphere is very important. Well-chosen pictures, books, and magazines help to accomplish this. A scholarship committee is most valu- able and should function constantly. Pride in house standing helps to keep a high standard of scholarship. ‘The girls learn to be a hostesses by enter- taining formally and informally the faculty and honored college guests. In order to bring about all of these desired results the university should choose as director a refined, cultured, well-bred, college woman who has the power to make an architectural pile a home; a woman of social graces so that talks on etiquette are not necessary ; a woman who presides always with grace and friendliness and who commands the respect and admiration of all who know her. The business director should be a college woman ‘ of the same social standing as the social director, and their positions should be recognized on the campus as on a par with women of the faculty. The salary of each should be such as to attract to the positions the right kind of women and to keep them there. The business director adds to the home life by observing birthdays, special feasts, giving dinner dances and by helping to direct the work for physical comfort so that no one is conscious of the machinery. ‘The social director may love music, science, art, lit- erature, but above all, she must love humanity. She must be able to direct the taste of the girls in dress, etiquette, and speech without the girls being DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 725 conscious of it. She must be able to bring order out of chaos, to bring harmony to dissenting groups—in short, she must be a superior woman. It is her friendliness which will create the atmosphere which makes the college dormitory a home. ORGANIZATION OF THE WORK OF HEADS OF HALLS EDITH SOUTHER TUFTS, DEAN OF RESIDENCE, WELLESLEY COLLEGE, WELLESLEY, MASSACHUSETTS In taking up the topic assigned me, I must necessarily limit it to the college which I know best, the only one of which I have sufficient knowl- edge to speak with authority. My subject therefore becomes The Organi- zation of the Heads of Halls at Wellesley College. Doubtless all colleges, at least the larger women’s colleges, have had a similar history of gradual development. No one of them has sprung Athena-like into life, fully armed from the brain of a founder Zeus. My own college, after the fashion of Mt. Holyoke and Vassar, began with a single great building, assembling under its roof all the college activities. To this was added after six years, a second hall housing ap- proximately one hundred students and the department of botany. A year later was built a smaller house intended for those students who found them- selves unequal to the strain of the large groups. Norumbega followed in 1885, for fifteen years our house of distinction because it contained the President’s suite, in addition to rooms for thirty odd students. Up to this time to the best of my knowledge, no especial need for organization was felt. Each house presented its own problems, which its head met as best she might, being responsible directly to the president of the college. Two more cottages, so-called, were built within the next five years upon Norumbega Hill and this group of four was completed by the erection of Wilder Hall in 1900. Meantime the first of the village houses was Eliot, bought by Mrs. Durant and equipped by generous friends to house thirty students upon the codperative plan. The college had also in the nineties equipped a second codperative house for forty students at one of the entrances to the college grounds. ‘These two houses carried on the tradition of “domestic work” abandoned for the remainder of the student body in 1894. The first need of organization to secure consistent action was felt in the early nineties and by the end of the decade the meetings of the heads of houses had become comparatively regular and were presided over by the president of the college, or her representative. The Registrar of the college acted as secretary. In 1904 the President announced that she had appointed Miss Olive Davis, at that time head of Wilder Hall, permanent chairman of the Heads of Houses with the title of Director of Halls of Residence. Miss Davis held this post for thirteen years and under her leadership the present organization was developed. Ill health compelled her to resign in 726 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION 1917. The years since have brought some further developments but the general scheme is practically as she left it. Wellesley has now twenty-six houses varying in size from little Home- stead with its ten students to Tower Court with its 200. ‘Thirteen of them are within the limits of the college grounds, thirteen in the village of Wellesley as near as possible to the college boundaries. ‘he thirteen college houses in the village of Wellesley differ in size and character quite as much as those upon the campus. Four of them have dining rooms seat- ing from fifty to 135, each sufficiently large to accommodate more than the students living in the house. A fifth dining room with no student rooms attached has seats for eighty. Nine lodging houses, either owned or rented by the college, help fill the extra dining room places, leaving still some space for the lodgers in the few supplementary private houses. I may state in this connection that Wellesley has been able since September 1919 to feed all its undergraduates at its own tables. The summary of dormitories at Wellesley is then as follows: Thirteen houses on the campus—One for 200, six for 100 (approximately), four for 50 (approximately), one for 40 (codperative), and one for 10 (lodging house only) ; fourteen houses in the village—four with dining rooms seat- ing from 50 to 135, one additional dining room for 80, and nine lodging houses, housing from 13 to 24. ‘The detached dining room is under the charge of the head of the nearest lodging house. ‘Two other lodging houses are under the charge of one head, assisted by one of the instructors as resident chaperon. With so varied an equipment Wellesley might be expected to have data for deciding upon the ideal size for a college dormitory. We consider a house of from ninety to one hundred the most desirable unit from the point of economy in administration, though in our present opinion a house of sixty is perhaps more nearly ideal, so far as social life and standards are concerned, if one need not consider the matter of expense. We have tentative plans for our next dormitory group on the basis of a common kitchen, serving three connected dormitory units of sixty, each with its own dining room. Upon the resignation of Miss Davis, the Registrar of the college suc- ceeded to the chairmanship of the Heads of Houses. It seemed advisable to the President in 1919 to make a clear and consistent division between certain of the offices. She therefore changed the title of Registrar to Dean of Residence as more accurately describing the duties of the position and by certain readjustments assigned to this office the superintendence of that part of the college life connected with the housing and social intercourse of the students. ‘The Dean of Residence is the third administrative officer of the college, a member of the Academic Council of the college, a member of the Senate of the College Government Association and a member ex officio of the Committee on Discipline. It has been the policy of Wellesley to gather the duties of house superin- tendence into the hand of a single officer. ‘The Head of House is therefore DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 727 not only social head of her household and house mother of her students, but head also of the domestic department, engaging her own staff, organizing the work of her dining room and kitchen, making out her menus and order- ing her supplies through the college buyer. While this creates a position of unquestioned difficulty, we believe that it also creates one of great interest and that the work is more unified and the home life a more com- plete and satisfactory whole than when the authority is divided. This centralization would not be possible, if Wellesley were not most fortunate in her purveyor. Since 1896 the College has employed a single buyer for all its houses. Mrs. Charlotte S$. Whiton, who for more than twenty years has bought the food supplies for the Wellesley dormitories, is the second person to hold this office. Mrs. Whiton is not by any means a mere buyer of food, receiving mechanically once a week the orders of the Heads of Houses. She is a counsellor of greatest value, understanding not only the market, but also the needs of the houses and the preference of the students, and is ready at all times to advise and suggest. “To a new Head of House her help is beyond price. Mrs. Whiton has her home in Boston but spends a certain amount of her time in Wellesley, having her office in the Administration Building. It is her custom to meet weekly with the Heads of Houses in groups,—with the village heads of dining rooms at one time, with the Quadrangle heads at another, with the hill houses and with the remaining four at still other times. Another officer closely connected with the heads of houses is the Purchas- ing Agent who buys supplies other than food for the houses—furnishings, linen, china, and the like. Miss Bertha L. Caswell has served the college excellently in this capacity for twenty-five years. To secure greater efficiency in work the Heads of Houses are subdivided into committees—the Food Committee, whose gallant service during the trying years of the war will not soon be forgotten; the House Committee, whose province is the various details of house equipment ; the Social Service Committee, which is in charge of the interests of the maids, their wages, social life, and so forth; the Committee on Student Interests, which is concerned with the house and social life of the student body, connecting closely with the College Government Association. ‘These committees hold meetings at irregular intervals as occasion arises. The policy of Wellesley is to secure uniformity in house management, not identity. For instance, we do not have and do not wish to have the same menus for the same meal in every house. We have a keen appreci- ation of the importance and scope of the position of Head of House. We intend to use the greatest care in selecting candidates for our staff, but having found the right person to give her freedom within certain broad lines to stamp her own individuality upon her house. } The meetings of the Heads of Houses occur upon the first and third Tuesdays of each month, lasting from 10:30 to 12. I give a typica? docket—(1) Minutes; (2) Letters of appreciation from conferences: (3) Committee Reports: Food—Announcement of meeting under auspices 728 NATIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION of Educational and Industrial Union of Boston to discuss proper food for students; House—Letter from Purchasing Agent; Social Service—Report on Maids’ Classes; and Student Interests—(a) Approved restaurants in Boston; (b) sales and agencies; and (c) chaperon regulations; (4) Report on unsatisfactory students; and (5) Financial statements from cashier. We make no claim to having achieved perfection at Wellesley, but we believe we are on the right road. We are eager to learn from fellow- workers in the same field. We see infinite possibilities for development in many directions. We hope each year to make some advance toward our ideals of house management in order that our college may attain higher standards in academic and social life. We are above all things interested in our job. METHOD OF OBTAINING LEGISLATIVE APPROPRIATION FOR WOMEN’S DORMITORIES AT KANSAS INSTITUTIONS * ALBERTA CORBIN, FORMERLY ADVISER OF WOMEN, KANSAS UNIVERSITY Read by Anne Dudley Blitz, Dean of Women, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas Ten years ago, there was little sentiment for dormitories in Kansas. The older and more influential alumni had not yet realized the change that had come about in the living conditions of students. ‘They thought of their own almost ideal college life where students were taken into the homes of citizens and faculty and made members of the family during their college course. A movement undertaken about 1910 to collect private funds for a “building for girls” at the University of Kansas did not reach the goal but did succeed, at least, in informing the alumni of the unfavorable conditions in which the young women in State schools live and in making the alumni sense the need for college homes. The attempt to collect money having failed, thought was then turned toward a legislative appropriation. Several times after 1910 the uni- versity included a dormitory for women in its budget, but without avail. It now became a question of education, not of the alumni alone, but of the people of the State. Very soon after the movement had been undertaken for a “building for girls” at the university, there was formed the Kansas Council of Women, an organization made up of president and past-presidents of State-wide women’s organizations such as the State Federation of Women’s Clubs, the American Association of University Women, the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, the Daughters of the American Revolution, the Women’s Relief Corps, and the League of Women Voters. Deans of Women are also ex-officio members. The object of this organization is service to the State. Fortunately for the cause of dormitories, one of the women who had been closely associated with the movement for the DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 729 “building for girls’ was an active member of the Kansas Council, and it was through her influence that the council voted to undertake the securing of an appropriation for dormitories as one of its principal achievements. For several legislatures the council merely supported the bills introduced by the schools, but finally a plan was made for independent action. The plan was, in reality, developed at the State meeting of Deans of Women and Deans of Girls that was held in January, 1920, at Pittsburg, Kansas. There a motion was introduced and passed to request the presidents of the State schools to form a State-wide committee on student housing, to con- sist of four members from each school to be appointed by the president of the school and to be made up of the Dean of Women and one representa- tive each from the faculty, the alumni, and the student body. The presidents received the suggestion favorably, the State-wide com- mittee was constituted, and had an early meeting in Topeka to discuss plans. Cost of building was at that time almost prohibitive but the committee, after consulting with the presidents of the schools, the Board of Admin- istration, and the Governor, recommended a plan that had the favor of all these persons: namely, that a bill providing for a bond issue of $1,000,000 be introduced into the next legislature, in order to initiate a building program for dormitories at the five State schools. Eventually this plan was taken over by the Kansas Council. Indeed, it was originated by the deans who are members of the council. Thus a State-wide organization was effected which had the favor not only of five schools, which had usually appeared as rivals before the legislature, with their faculty, alumni, and student bodies, the Board of Administration, and the Governor, but which also had the solid support of a vast body of women, more than 80,000 altogether. “The cause, too, was an asset, since no personal inter- ests were involved. The council entered with great vigor upon the prosecution of the plan. A committee of five was created to provide necessary publicity, to draft the bill, and push it in the legislature. While the council bill had the favor of the schools, it was of course entirely separate from the appropriation bills for the schools and had no adverse influence so far as could be noticed upon those bills. Incidentally the committee had also to provide funds. No worker was paid for her time, but all actual expense for railway fare, hotel bills, printing, stamps, stationery, and telegrams were met by friends of the movement. At two of the schools, a large per cent of the expense incurred was raised by small contributions of the women students. It may be of interest that while the estimated budgets made by men of experi- ence in legislative lobbies, ranged from 1500 to 2500 dollars, the actual total of the campaign in question was slightly over $700. It was no small task to conduct the campaign. The formal support of the various constituent organizations of the council had to be made real and active by personal appeal. For this purpose the cause was laid by the Deans and others vitally interested before the State, district, county, and 730 NatIonaL EpucatTion ASSOCIATION city meetings of many organizations. The publicity woman was very active. Bulletins from all the schools were sent out to the Alumni, stories were run in all the leading newspapers—all this throughout the fall months. After the legislature assembled in January, petitions, letters, and telegrams were called for from local constituents to overcome opposi- tion or stir the active interest of legislative members. _ The council members themselves, sixty to seventy-five in number, did admirable work, in fact the chief work of the committee in charge was to direct and organize. At the annual meeting of the council, which oc- curred soon after the legislature convened, it was voted to register en masse to lobby for the bill. At this meeting, too, the names of the members of the legislature were divided among the women, in order that each member might receive full information about the needs of the schools. The chief characteristic of the lobby was its educative policy, the idea being that the knowledge of the actual facts and conditions would secure votes. Frequent conferences of the council were held in Topeka during the session of the legislature. ‘These conferences were more or less open ; wives of members of the legislature were invited to be present; so were also as many women as possible who were leaders in the local community. Some of these women rendered valuable assistance. It was an interesting and valuable experience to watch the bill on its progress through both houses—an identical bill was introduced into each house at the same time.. It was introduced into the House of Representa- tives by a woman, had the support of all the women members, and was intended to be treated as a woman’s measure. In the Senate it was intro- duced by the Chairman of the Committee on State Affairs. The choice of persons to introduce the bill and the selection of the chief supporters was carefully thought over in advance by the committee in charge, great care was given to the drafting of the bill in the first place. The possible committees to which the bill might be referred were care- fully considered with the probability of their favorable report in mind. The members of the committees to whom the bills were referred were interviewed preparatory to the hearings and the presentation of the cause at the hearings was planned with the greatest care. After the bills were reported favorably and before they came up for discussion, every member of both houses was interviewed. When a member was found to be doubt- ful or opposed, every endeavor was made to win him over, especially by giving him information and by securing the interest of his constituency “back home.” At least two members of the committee in charge stayed almost continually at the Capitol, and for days together they had the assistance now of one woman, now of another, whose interest was keen and whose support was felt to be needed at various junctures. The actual obstacles to the passage of the bill itself were considerable. Building prices were still high and farmers were complaining of high taxes. “There was strong opposition to any bond issue, because Kansas had burned her bonds some years before and was proud and boastful about DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 731 being out of debt. The bill called, besides, for the limit of indebtedness under the State law. The bill passed the Senate as originally introduced, however, by a majority of one. In the House a lively fight was made against it, and it was not passed until it had been amended by substituting a direct appropriation for the bond issue and by cutting the amount from one million to half a million dollars. At the urgent request of the friends of the bill, the Senate voted favorably on the House amendment. It did not seem safe to try for an increase. While there was a very real need for all the money for which the bill originally called, the women felt that the effort put forth had nevertheless been rewarded. A great American architect has recently said that success is due to three elements, untiring work, interest (rather than inspiration), and codpera- tion. ‘These three elements the council certainly had in rich measure. The success of the undertaking was due to the codperation of many inter- ested, untiring workers. Here and there a leader stands out, to be sure, but in fairnéss to the many, perhaps, no names should be mentioned. HOW TO OBTAIN MONEY FOR DORMITORIES BY PRIVATE GIFTS GRACE GREENWOOD, SOCIAL DIRECTOR OF MARTHA COOK DORMITORY, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN In view of what has been said by the previous speaker, it is obvious that whatsoever the legislature may do to meet adequately the present growing demands of housing the women of State universities, it is highly improbable that these needs can be fully met. The sums required for a complete system of dormitories for housing women, together with the other most pressing needs of the universities, are so great that at the present time it is unthinkable that the legislatures will find it possible to grant sums needed ’ for such purpose. It would therefore appear that we must appeal to other sources to secure, as soon as possible, needed dormitories. The first thing to do, then, is to make the communities of the various State universities realize sufficiently, and to the fullest measure, the facts of the situation as they obtain in their respective university. For this purpose, it is necessary that in every State university a representative com- mittee be appointed by the governing bodies to gather all information bear- ing upon the housing question and formulate it in the most emphatic and impressive way, and then see to it that these facts are urgently presented on every opportune occasion. Indeed, I think it would be wise, from time to time, to have these facts published in the leading newspapers of the respective States. In other words, a sound sentiment on this all-im- portant question should be aroused in every community. In general, in all these respects, it seems to me the idea should be stressed that it is important that the life of the students in their houses should be in full accord with the ideals of the university. 732 NATIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION After public sentiment has been aroused, it is reasonable to suppose and to assume that some wealthy and public-spirited men and women will be made to feel that a great service to society may be done in this field. It is my feeling that the manner in which these public-spirited citizens should be approached or appealed to has not been at all times sufficiently con- sidered. Every benefactor has certain distinct views as to the way in which the needs and ideals of his particular university may be furthered. It would be, it seems to me, the part of wisdom for the person or persons entrusted with the task of interesting such prospective benefactor to find out in the first instance just how and what he feels in respect to the phase of university life which requires his interest and assistance. Whether we agree with him or not as to the prime needs of the university, it is but just and fair to determine as closely as possible his point of view, whether it be broadly philanthropic or more restrictedly religious or generally social. The representative of the university coming to this point of view would then naturally make it his task to try as far as possible to adjust this point of view to the ideals of the university. This, to my mind, is the ideal of the true university diplomat. RECREATION AND THE UNIVERSITY MIXER JESSIE S. LADD, DEAN OF WOMEN, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA Dean Wells of Indiana, in her request for a paper on the subject of Recreation and the University Mixer, says that she understands that we have “practically solved this problem at Minnesota.” Knowing well how far we are from this blessed consummation, I am rather loath to speak on the subject. However, I am glad to tell you of what we have done, if you, on your part, will remember that we do not consider the problem solved. . What opportunities are there for social contacts at the University of Minnesota? In the first place, as the center and heart of the recreational activities of the women, we have our Woman’s Building, Alice Shevlin Hall. Shevlin Hall was given to the women of the University of Minne- sota about fifteen years ago, by a wealthy Minneapolis man, the late Mr. Thomas Shevlin. We were very fortunate in that a man of large and generous ideas was able to see the need. It was due to the efforts of the Woman’s League and the Young Women’s Christian Association that this need was made clear to him. First, then, there was the need; second, the need was made clear, and, third, the need supplied. From the spacious hall there is a generous view of the living room, a lofty, panelled room suggestive of old-English comforts. There are in- viting chairs—pleasantly uninstitutional—davenports, and_ tables on which are the latest papers and magazines. On cold, wintry days a fire blazes in the great fireplace. Thirty to fifty girls may be seen here at DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 733 all hours of the day, visiting or studying. On Wednesday afternoons, for the last fifteen years, I have read aloud in this room to groups of girls. The Fireside Reading Hour has come to be quite a feature at Minnesota. I read short stories and the girls come and go as they please. It has proved a very restful and pleasant hour. We serve cocoa and cakes, and I have an opportunity to chat with the girls in a most informal fashion. During the week of examinations, I serve refreshments. ‘This gives an opportunity for lessening the strain of this trying period. ‘The girls flock in and seem so grateful for the hot tea, the informality, and the atmosphere of “nothing is expected of you now.” Then for those students who wish a smaller and more intimate meet- ing place, we have a room, cozy with fireplace and candles, where groups of twenty or more may gather. This may be reserved in advance, and there is seldom an afternoon when this room is not in use for small teas, for committee meetings, for various women’s organizations on the campus. There is no charge for this privilege. Opposite the living room is the assembly room, white enameled, sunny, with a good floor and graced by the portraits of ex-President Vincent and our beloved Maria Sanford. Here, at the noon hour, the girls dance. They are mostly non-sorority girls. This has always seemed a happy, care- free time, when they can chat and play and cast off the strain of the class- room. ‘The room is provided with a piano, victrola, and stage curtain. Evening lectures, plays, dances, and musicals are also given here. I will mention some of the clubs which entertain at teas and evening parties at Shevlin Hall. There are the State clubs, the women’s class organizations: Bib and Tucker, Pinafore, Tam O’Shanter, and Cap and Gown—Pharmacy, Dental, and Chemistry Clubs, Girl Scout Clubs, the Menorah Society, made up of Jewish men and women ; the Women’s Glee Club, Scroll and Key, the Architectural Club, Torch and Distaff, a new Home Economics Honorary Society, and the Mortar Board. Then too, there are the literary societies, dramatic clubs, and so on almost without end. In this connection, I might say a word about the chaperonage of parties on the campus, which is under our immediate jurisdiction. Practically all evening parties are dancing parties, and are given on Friday or Sat- urday evenings. We ask for two faculty chaperones for each party. Printed slips are sent out asking each chaperone to report to the dean’s office as to the style of dancing and the courtesy which they receive. We feel that some gain is made in this way, as chaperones tend to take their duties more seriously if they think an accounting is requested. The Young Women’s Christian Association rooms are just beyond the assembly room of Shevlin Hall. Religious meetings are held here once a week. Many general teas are given to the university girls by the asso- ciation. The Christian Association parlor affords another opportunity for girls to meet and visit with their friends. Early in the year the Young Men’s and Young Women’s Christian Association give one or more receptions to the new students. 734 NatIionAL Epucation ASSOCIATION The lower floor of the building is occupied mainly by the constantly expanding cafeteria. Fifteen years ago we could only seat 200 in the dining room. Now, owing to a generous appropriation from the legis- lature we are able to seat 600. About 700 girls lunch here daily. This lunching together helps the girls to become acquainted and to form friend- ships. ‘There are both large and small private dining rooms for the use of any group signing up in advance with the cafeteria director. For the non-sorority girl this is a most desirable feature. A successful innovation of this year is the small kitchen which has been furnished for the use of the girls who want to prepare their own spreads and teas. The third floor is given up to the Women’s Self-Government Associa- tion office, the study room, rest room, the Women’s University Club room, a small sewing room, and the office of the Housing Bureau. Our Housing Bureau, under the supervision of a most competent woman, Mrs. Mary Staples, is taking an increasingly important part in bettering the living conditions for the students. In connection with this, you might be inter- ested to know of the success which we have had with our Householders’ Council. This was started four years ago by Dean Gertrude Beggs. Semi-monthly meetings are held at the different rooming houses. Meet- ings of the same sort are held by the sorority chaperones. Matters of interest concerning the health and well-being of the girls are discussed. In this way the Dean of Women has had the confidence and codperation of the heads of the houses. To return to Shevlin Hall, my own office is on the first floor, a most desirable feature as it is easy for the “new” student to find and convenient for the older students. The soul of Alice Shevlin Hall, if you will allow that a building may have a soul, entered with the class of 1907. This class was most appre- ciative of the wonders of Shevlin in that they had known what it was to go without it. ‘The delight in the building, with its opportunities for com- fort and the forming of friendships, has somewhat cooled as the years have passed. ‘The students are less conscious of its joys but their use of’ the building and its steady influence in their lives plays as important a part as formerly. The second most important factor in providing a satisfactory recrea- tional and social life for the women students is our splendid Women’s Self-Government Association with its council room in Shevlin Hall. It is an organization to which all the women students belong. Two of its express purposes are: (1) To create a sense of unity and fellowship among the women; and (2) to promote and to maintain the highest standards of university life. I cannot speak in terms of too great praise of the place the Women’s Self-Government Association holds in uni- versity life. “There are eighteen members on the board. The Dean of Women, at the invitation of the board, attends all meetings. I am always highly pleased at the serious and enthusiastic manner in which business is conducted. The Women’s Self-Government Association is a tower of strength to the Dean of Women. I will mention some of their activities. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN G35 Every two weeks, on Saturday afternoon, they give sunlight dances. These were started in 1914 to help the girls who have few opportunities of making acquaintances among the men. The men are asked to pay twenty-five cents, the girls pay nothing. Two or more faculty women act as chaperones. Introduction committees of both men and women are appointed. ‘These parties are given during the fall and winter quarters and are attended by from two to three hundred couples. In the spring, the students seem to prefer the out-of-doors. The students have attempted to have good music, not jazz, and I think that it has made some difference in the manner of dancing. If a couple are noticed to be dancing objec- tionably, a card bearing this inscription is handed to the man: UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA School Year 1921-22 We do not dance cheek to cheek, shimmy, or dance other extreme dances. You must not. A second notice will cause your public removal from the hall. “Help keep up the Minnesota Standard.” Signed, Women’s SELF-GOVERNMENT ASSOCIATION, and ASSOCIATION OF MINNESOTA UPPERCLASSMEN The threatened public removal from the hall has occasionally been exer- cised by a strong armed force of men. ‘The most favorable and hopeful outlook on the style of dancing is that our strong women’s organizations, such as the Women’s Self-Government Association, the Young Women’s Christian Association, and the Women’s Athletic Association, do not favor extreme dancing. Lord Northcliff says, in a recent publication, that “what interests a person one year may not interest him the next. We are always outgrow- ing ourselves. Old people cannot set their mental clock back and see things with the eyes of youth. I am fifty-six and for the life, I cannot under- stand young folks’ interest in dancing.” Now, although I am older than Lord Northcliff, I can perfectly comprehend this great interest, even pas- sion for dancing, for I have loved to dance from youth to age. To cite other activities of the Women’s Self-Government Association. Early in the year, they have open house on Sunday afternoons, at Shevlin. A general invitation is-given out and many lonely students, both men and women, come and enjoy the open fire and the opportunities of meeting other students. Occasionally the Young Women’s Christian Association acts as hostess at these meetings. Every Friday afternoon, a social hour is held at Shevlin. Some little entertainment is given, and light refreshments are served. A general in- vitation is given to all university women, and seventy-five to one hundred girls attend. The Pan-Hellenic Association is also giving teas at Shevlin once in two weeks. All university women are invited. Sorority and non-sorority girls attend. I am sure that this mixer makes for a better feeling and is a move in the right direction. A genuine attempt is being made on the part of the sorority girls for more democracy in the sororities. 736 ; NatTIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION It is an interesting fact that if these Pan-Hellenic teas were given in sorority houses, very few non-sorority girls would attend. The House Council is one arm of the Women’s Self-Government As- sociation. “They attempt to improve living conditions at the university, and also to regulate matters of conduct in connection with the houses. Just now, they are trying to reach the lonely girls in boarding houses. A big party, the first of its kind, has recently been given, to which all such girls were especially invited. About one hundred and_ twenty-five attended, and it was a great success. An organization of these girls has just been formed for mutual enjoyment and benefit. The girls at the head of this movement are so fine and democratic that I am hoping for great results. The House Council has recently passed a ruling whereby the dormitory and all the sorority and rooming houses may hold open house on Saturday evenings. The valuable work of the Big Sisters is also under the direction of the Women’s Self-Government Association. “These Big Sisters are appointed in the spring term from the ranks of the junior and senior classes. For some years the attempt was made to have a Big Sister for each incoming freshman, but it proved to be unsuccessful in that the Big Sisters had too many freshmen to be able to look out for them in a satisfactory manner. Last year the board decided to appoint Big Sisters to look after all out- of-town freshmen. ‘This has proved much more satisfactory. Big Sisters do not have more than three or four Freshmen to look after. The Freshmen are written to during the summer, and are often met at the train and as- sisted to find a rooming-place and helped in registration. Later, a tutor is found for them if they have difficulties with their studies. Parties are given for them, and they are escorted by their Big Sisters. In this way a sisterly eye is kept upon the freshmen until they become accustomed to the uni- versity and learn its ways and traditions. The Women’s Self-Government Association have a dancing class every Thursday from seven to eight p. m. in Shevlin Hall. A fee of ten cents is charged. The class is taught by university girls and is well attended, especially by freshmen who have not had many social opportunities. To work together or to play together seems the best way to form real friend- _ships. The Women’s Self-Government Association also gives a Thanksgiving dinner, each year, to out-of-town girls, and they make great efforts to see that the lonely ones really come and that they have a good time. The second organization which offers recreational opportunities is the Women’s Athletic Association. ‘The purpose of this organization is to promote an effort for physical efficiency, to stimulate an interest in ath- letics, and to create a spirit of good sportsmanship.” About fifty girls belong to this association. The membership basis of the Women’s Athletic Association has recently been changed from the open to the closed type. A certain number of honor points are an eligibility requirement, the points to be won by class DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN ol team membership and other ways. The number out for the various sports is an indication of the variety of interest shown: During the fall, 75 to 80 for field hockey ; in the winter, 25 to 30 for ice hockey, 90 to 100 for basket- ball, and 40 to 50 for skiing; in the spring, 90 to 100 for baseball and 25 to 30 for archery. ‘These are all contestants for class teams. In addition, there are about one hundred more girls playing in the House Baseball and Basketball teams. The House teams were begun in an effort to stimulate interest in sports among the sorority girls. "The teams playing in the House Contest are from all the sororities, East and West Sanford Hall (our one dormitory) and the three codperative cottages. The Aquatic League is also a branch of the Women’s Athletic Associa- tion. ‘This has a membership of about twenty-eight. They meet once a week, and an exhibition of fancy swimming is given about once a month. Another group which offers recreational opportunities to all women is the Trailers Club. There are forty active members and a large and en- thusiastic group of Alumne. Every Saturday afternoon, the Trailers, with some outside girls, get together for some sort of fun—skating, hiking, swimming, snow-shoeing, and skiing. Also, during the spring vacation every year, we girls—this includes myself—have a “spring running.” We start out with knapsack on back, for a two or three days’ tramp. We cook our lunches out of doors and stay over night wherever night over- takes us. A rest of ten minutes out of every hour, helps one to tramp all day without excessive fatigue. This hike is a joy to anticipate through the winter. months. To awaken the love of tramping, or as Stevenson puts it “the delight of the tightening of the muscles of the thigh,” to know the joy of the open road this is a most worthwhile endeavor. In conclusion, let me say that we at Minnesota recognize the importance of recreation. Our task is to make the student’s recreation serve her best interest. When I think of the way in which some students dance, of the excessive gayety of the few, of the loneliness of the many, I feel almost discouraged. But some of this we may lay to the war and justly so. ‘The method of dancing is much better than a year or two ago, and more hands are being held out to the lonely girl. So there is hope. With patience and the active codperation of the fine student leaders at the University, we may accomplish the impossible. DOES THE COLLEGE CURRICULUM PROMOTE SCHOLARSHIP? LUCY M. SALMON, PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, VASSAR COLLEGE, POUGHKEEPSIE, NEW YORK An able woman whose education was being acquired outside of college walls recently asked a young sophomore what a college does for its students. Her guest reflected a moment and then replied with conviction, “Well, first they teach you poise, and then they make you optimists.” Is it possible 738 NatIoNAL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION that the college student unconsciously expressed the judgment we have all at times secretly formed as to the negligible character of every curriculum in the process called education? Our present curriculum retains little in spirit or in content of the old Greek curriculum whose sole object was education, whose content was planned to promote education, and whose only instrument in achieving it was the teacher. Our present curriculum derives rather from the medieval period when education was controlled by the Church, when information of a very definite character was essential to the promotion of the interests of the Church, and when the teacher was the friar. Our educational system has retained many of these characteristics, but it has added others growing out of the real or fancied needs of the State, political parties, industry, business, the professions, and also of conventional social life. If then the question is asked, “Does the college curriculum promote scholarship?” the categorical, dogmatic reply must be made, ‘“‘No, that is not its object.” But it is far easier to define its object in terms of negation than it is to state its object positively. “The universal criticism of the curriculum is directed towards its shortcomings and its failures. It pleases no one,—all vie in pointing out its inconsistencies and its imperfections, in showing its utter inadequacy to prepare for the particular conditions each person deems it imperative the curriculum should meet, and all protest that it must be changed in the particular direction each desires. Accepting this collective opinion that “something must be done,” the question naturally follows: What are the obstacles in the way of working out an ideal or even a satisfactory curriculum? The college, like the individual, is not a free agent and back of it is the State represented in its legislature. When one State legislature proposes a bill that prohibits any institution that receives State funds from teaching the theory of evolution; when another proscribes the teaching of the theory of a protective tariff; when a third virtually compels the teaching of the gold standard; and when the most populous State in the Union compels subscription to a specific form of patriotism, the privately endowed college, . as well as the State institution, may well shrink from working out a curriculum that will conform to the demands of the body politic. Church organizations also make their demands on the curriculum, and while they have not shown the superiority of the Presbyterian method of teaching the classics, of the Baptist way of teaching science, or the Methodist manner of regarding mathematics, or the Roman Catholic at- titude towards modern languages, all denominations prefer their own special colleges with the usual curriculum, but with the addition of religion as they severally understand it. To satisfy the demands of one sect, the curriculum must include the study of the Bible; to satisfy another the Bible must be excluded. Another obstacle is the effort to make the curriculum the vehicle for conveying information of a definite character. Vocational and pre-voca- DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 739 tional training, professional and pre-professional preparation are urged as objective points in shaping a curriculum, but such objects are far removed from scholarship. ‘The college student as an individual is forgotten in the effort to train him for a special occupation. “The young woman in particular is often the object of special solicitude and a curriculum is urged, not to promote her scholarship, but to prepare her for a life of domesticity. But this is aiming an arrow into the air, for it often seems as if the young women who have been trained for domesticity go into business or the professions while those who have been trained for business or the profes- sions marry and bring up children. Incidentally, could not a solution be found in arranging for engaged young women to attend special schools where they could be trained for homemaking and the rearing of children? Boards of college trustees may act as a brake on changes proposed. Since they have the ultimate responsibility for the expenditure of funds, they may complain that they have provided an elaborate and costly equipment for work in certain fields of knowledge; that courses in these fields are no longer largely elected; that this equipment must be utilized; and that therefore the study of these subjects must be required. These are but suggestions of certain conditions that block the path of the curriculum. The promotion of scholarship has not been the goal of the present curriculum, nor do any of the changes proposed to-day ap- parently consider scholarship an aim to be considered in and of itself. The ulterior object may be one far removed from scholastic pursuits. But however much these plans may vary among themselves, they all have at least this in common,—they record the belief that it is the primary function of the college to pass on to college students a body of ready-made, ready- to-wear information. This confusion of information with education that characterizes so much of our thinking, explains in part our distrust of the present curriculum. We distrust any arrangement of college courses that is definitely proclaimed to be a preparation for citizenship, or for service, or for life. Any cur- riculum thus arranged not only fails to promote scholarship but it must fail to educate... And if the college fails to educate in the true meaning of the word, if it fails to draw out from college students the best that is in them, and to train them along these lines, is it strange that college graduates often feel that the best they received from their college course was not in any way related to the subjects studied, but came from extra-curriculum activities, from friendship formed, from social relationships established, from the contacts made with persons worth knowing, from the opportunities given of visiting famous art collections, of hearing eminent musicians, of seeing and of meeting distinguished personages? If it is the primary object of the college to educate its students; and if it is the responsibility of the students to apply that education to whatever end is essential, under what- ever conditions may arise, it is not strange that students in their short- sightedness apply it to the object nearest at hand. But ‘the failure of the college to promote scholarship must not be at- 740 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION tributed wholly to the curriculum. Have we not fixed our attention’ exclusively on the content of the curriculum to the exclusion of all dis- cussion of the ways and means of carrying it out, and to the exclusion of all consideration of the soil and the atmosphere necessary for its growth? The ideal curriculum will not and can not promote scholarship unless it is placed in congenial surroundings. The colleges for women are particularly susceptible to a certain form of maternalistic language that is diametrically opposed to scholarship. When a boy goes to college, he becomes a man, but when a girl goes to college, she is always called a girl, is addressed by her given name, and is often referred to as a child; the college students collectively are often called “children,” and the college as a whole is referred to as “the college family.” This aversion to putting away childish things and to becoming. women seems incompatible with high ideals of scholarship, yet as long as young women profess to like it, and as long as we are unwilling to abandon cod- dling our students, there will be obstacles in the path of scholarship. The academic world has brought over from politics customs that un- erringly record the existence of a system based on suspicion and fear and that results in series of checks and balances, prohibitions, preventive measures, and obstructions that are fatal to genuine progress. When the routes to progress have been carefully barricaded, when every advantage has been balanced with disadvantage, and when we have carefully made it impossible to do very much, we congratulate ourselves that we have at least forestalled disaster. If then, whatever may be the printed curriculum, the assumption is that it is not intended to promote scholarship; that neither faculty nor students are primarily interested in scholarshp; if students assume that the cur- riculum is a necessary evil in floating the more essential part of college life; if it is not strange that “a college man is cocksure of knowing, as has been said, ‘that mediocre C is a gentleman’s mark;’”1 if the effect of putting into the hands of college officers a system of marks and grades is to encourage among students, not a love of scholarship, but a desire to “please teacher,” by finding out what “teacher wants,” can we wonder that the result is not scholarship, but “the golden age of successful mediocrity,” as Buckle has characterized the age of George III. But granting that it is possible to arrange a curriculum satisfactory to all and that it Is possible to wipe from our academic code every statute that has its origin in competition, fear, suspicion, or distrust, scholarship will still not be attained without the cooperation of the teacher. Any cur- riculum, no matter how perfect it may be in itself, is but a lifeless mech- anism without the inspiring teacher to give it vitality. No curriculum will promote scholarship if it is carried out by teachers who are indifferent to their classes, who are unsympathetic with the problems of the individual members of their classes, and who regard discipline as the chief corner- stone of the educational system. Scholarship does not thrive where teach- *C. Britten, “School and College Life,” Civilization in the United States, p. 114. = DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WoMEN 741 ers are self-centered; where their eyes are fixed on securing an admin- istrative position because the salaries attached to such posts are higher than are accorded those in the professorial ranks; where research absorbs time and energy because success here means “‘recognition” while teaching does not; whose constant reference to “my department” carries an implied warning to all trespassers to “keep off” the claim staked out in the field of knowledge. The function of the teacher in the educational system does indeed seem negligible when the attitude of the public towards teaching is recalled. - Teaching may do well enough for women, but it is not the thing for virile young men. Every discouragement is put in the way of able young men who are considering teaching as an occupation, especially if they belong to well-to-do, prosperous families without absorbing intellectual interests. The ideal teacher, as he has been described by George Herbert Palmer, must have, among other characteristics, “‘an aptitude for vicariousness” and “a readiness to be forgotten.’ More recently, Henry Noble Mac Cracken has stated the prerequisites of a teacher to be a belief in his subject, a belief in his pupil, and a belief in himself.2 Must it not be said that, in spite of a semi-contemptuous opinion of the teacher held by at least a part of the public and of his own frequent misgivings, the curriculum without the true teacher is but a grinning skeleton? But our difficulties do not end here. Granted that all the conditions are favorable for the formation of a new curriculum, we are at once con- - fronted by two hostile camps between whom no peace, no compromise is possible since they view the curriculum from antagonistic standpoints. ‘To one group the sole function of the curriculum is to furnish information,— a view supported by the much-advertised five-foot shelf. “To another group, the development of a method of work is a prerequisite in the attain- ment of information. ‘This view also has the support of distinguished educators. ‘The ideal college education,” said President Hadley, “‘seems to me to be the one where a student learns things he is not going to use in after life by methods that he is going to use. The former element gives the breadth, the latter element gives the training,”—an opinion cited with approval by President Lowell in his inaugural address. As long as many persons connected with educational institutions state that they do not believe in the process called education and deny the pos- sibility of educating any one, and as long as many others fly at the mast- head a belief in the importance of acquiring a method of work, just so long will it be impossible to reconcile irreconcilable differences and form a curriculum satisfactory to both of these opposing groups. Frankly stating the belief that the first essential in education is to ac- quire a method of work that may be serviceable everywhere, what are the subjects best adapted for securing it? ‘There has long been a tendency for all subjects to approach each other in method. Every subject in the 1G, H. Palmer, ‘The Ideal Teacher,” Atlantic Monthly, April, 1907, 99: 433-442. 2H. N. MacCracken, “Religio Magistri,” Atlantic Monthly, January, 1921, 127: 76-84. 742 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION curriculum is a means through which may be developed accuracy, observa- tion, imagination, experimentation, interpretation, the value of evidence, and correct reasoning. ‘This training constitutes education in’ the truest sense and there are no subjects in the curriculum in which any of these characteristics of education can be dispensed with. Is it not possible to secure training—education—through any group of facts that seem of para- mount interest to the student? Technique is method applied to a particular subject. Conversely each subject developes its own technique and this technique is necessarily de- termined by the nature of the subject. The study of tone, color, form, facts of nature, facts of human relationship, abstract theory, each and all develop a different technique, but the method employed by music, art, science, history, economics, mathematics, philosophy, by all subjects in the curriculum is fundamentally the same. The superstition prevails that virtue is inherent in certain subjects and that therefore they must be retained at all cost. This is especially true of mathematics that still holds its own as a required subject in a curriculum that has greatly increased its elective courses. It is retained on the theory that only through it can logic and the processes of reasoning be taught. Is not our thinking illogical, are not our judgments hasty and ill-founded, do not our own personal experiences suffice for far-reaching decisions in regard to the subjects to be included or rejected in planning a college cur- riculum, in spite of the courses we have all taken in logic and higher mathematics? Moreover since all subjects tend to approach each other in method of work, and have indeed become identical in method, is it necessary to retain as a required subject any study not required in a sequential course? It has recently been suggested? that educational psychology has shown that training in one field does not “carry over” into another, and that the study of solid geometry for example prepares students to solve problems in solid geometry, it does not “strengthen the mind,” make students logical, or in any way help the processes of reasoning applied to other subjects. The study of mathematics is of use in the further study of mathematics and in subjects based on a knowledge of the principles of mathematics, but it is not necessarily of use in other fields. Somewhat the same feeling prevails in regard to the classics. They have long held and still hold an honored place in the curriculum. But when we find that students who have nominally been studying Latin and Greek for five or six years are still unable to read Latin and Greek with- out thumbing a dictionary, we draw the conclusion that it is useless to study Latin and Greek. Would a more reasonable conclusion be that such students have never studied these languages as languages, and that they have never acquired a method of work that has enabled them to master either language or literature? ‘James Henle, “Unhonored Educational Honors,” North American Review, February, 1922, 215: 249-254. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 743 Is there not moreover great confusion between language and literature? Every student should be familiar with at least one great literature, as every student of literature should become a student of comparative lit- erature. But is it necessary that this familiarity be acquired through the language in which it is written? This does not necessarily follow. The New Testament is presumably read by few in the original Greek and there are still fewer who read the Old Testament in the original Hebrew, yet the Bible is probably the most widely read book in existence. Ignorance of the Scandinavian language does not prevent the literature of these countries from being enjoyed by thousands to whom Danish and Swedish are neither native nor acquired tongues. Nor does ignorance of the Rus- sian language prevent any one from reconstructing the thought of repre- sentative Russians through the translations of Tourgeneff and Tolstot. We find college students and college graduates ignorant of all questions of science and of the history of scientific theory and we find a remedy in requiring a laboratory science of every undergraduate. Is it possible that we confuse information of the development of science which may be ac- quired outside of a laboratory, with a scientific method of work which may be gained through other means than through a study of nature in a laboratory? What may it be said should be some of the essential principles in any curriculum that is formulated to promote scholarship? First, it must develop the curiosity inherent in every normal person,—a curiosity that under favoring conditions develops into investigation and later into re- search. Our curriculum largely represses curiosity, as does our social training; it is not polite to show curiosity or be interested in what is about us. In a similar way the imagination is repressed, although imagination lies at the bottom of all constructive work. In hundreds of advertisements noted for men desired in important positions, the qualification most fre- quently specified is that the man desired for the place must have “vision.” In the educational world, it is through curiosity maturing into research that the confines of knowledge are extended, and it is through the imagina- tion developing into vision that the results of research are vivified. A second principle is that if a method of work is to be developed from the germs of curiosity and imagination, it is best done by taking advantage of the natural interests of students. Roughly these may be classed into the two groups that concern man or nature. If the interests of students are primarily with human life in the past and the present, a method of work may be developed through the subjects that concern the life of man- kind. Similarly if the interests of students are chiefly concerned with nature, it is through the study of nature that a method of work must be developed. But is it not possible to give students of both groups certain ‘nformational courses that will introduce them to great fields of knowledge at the same time that they are mastering a method of work and gaining the technique of a special subject? It is often the best students in college who are looking for one or two “snap courses” that will fill up the quota 744 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION of hours and thus allow them more time for their own special interests. Why not recognize this fully and frankly and provide informational courses that will meet these needs? Is it necessary to deprive a student of science of all knowledge of classical literature if he has no knowledge of the classical language? Is it necessary for a student of the humanities to be deprived of all knowledge of science and of scientific theory unless he gains it by personal experience in the laboratory? A third principle must be suggested that raises a somewhat different question. Education as thus far considered has been concerned only with that part of training connected with research and information, each in- separable from the other. Assuming that the college curriculum has pro- vided a method of work applicable to any subject and the technique of a special subject, that it has brought to maturity curiosity and imagination, and that from the standpoint of the educator these complete the circle of the educational process. ‘The plan, as looked at by the student, still does not provide for the pearl of great price. He seems to himself to be in the position of the man who married a dumb wife, as described by Anatole France. The curriculum has provided no outlet for his “sup- pressed desires,” no medium for conscious expression of the new ideas surging within him. Some outlet must be found, and the college cur- riculum practically offers none. ‘The student is thus driven to find his own means of self-expression. The college student, finding in the cur- riculum comparatively little opportunity. for self-expression, resorts to college and intercollegiate athletics, dramatics, or dancing of every form; jazz music and the moving pictures; “writing,” “selling copy,” and scores of unregulated heterogeneous methods of attempts at self-expression. Col- lege faculties strive to regulate these efforts through suppression, through prohibitions, through penalizing students who take part in them at the expense of their laboratory and library activities, but these efforts are practically vain. Is it not possible for the curriculum to recognize the obvious necessity for providing such training and for giving it a legitimate place in college education? In so doing is the curriculum not taking advantage of the spirit of the times and turning it to better advantage? While the spirit of compe- tition in business is being supplanted by the larger, more generous, and more effective principle of codperation, it must be remembered that the principle of vicariousness in our recreations, amusements, diversions, and all means of self-expression is still in the saddle. Must not the curriculum recognize the changing conditions of home and social life, must we not as college officers realize how large a part of the education that once was found in the home has now been made impossible through changed conditions of home life? Where once the home afforded opportunity for self-expression and an outlet for the emotions, it no longer does so. The desire for self-expres- sion, finding no outlet in the home and repressed in the college, forks out- side the home into vicarious recreation, and within the college into extra-curriculum activities. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 745 eee i ee Education outside of the college has already met this demand. Every newspaper advertises by the score schools of expression, schools for dramatic expression, instruction in how to become a writer, in how to write short stories, how to write plays, how to write scenarios,—what is this but the opportunity provided through commercial interests for an outlet for the emotions suppressed by home conditions and ignored in the curriculum. If the college has with some measure of success provided means by which natural curiosity matures with research and the imagination is able to reconstruct conditions of other times and places, may not the college not only justifiably provide courses that train, control, and direct this universal desire for self-expression, but is it not under obligation to do so? Are not art, athletics, dancing, dramatics, music, writing, as they are found in their worst forms in life today, one result of the failure of education to provide a legitimate place for them in the college curriculum? If these subjects make up the non-academic activities of student life, is it not be- cause they have been banished from the curriculum on the plea that they are not intellectual subjects or that they have never been admitted into it, because it is said they do not promote scholarship? Curiosity and imagination are provided for in the curriculum, self-expression, or the reasonable training of the emotions, yet waits without the pale. But this does not complete the opportunities knocking at the door of the curriculum. The desire of the college student is for the integration of what he has acquired. At the beginning of his course, he seeks some knowledge of what the aim of the college is, and at the end he seeks some course that shall unify his work, yet the college fails to give him the unifying principle. From time to time new courses, like that on contemporary civilization at Columbia, are introduced into the curriculum and they prove of absorb- ing interest to instructors and to students alike. This remarkable interest has been explained by some as due to the modern character of the content of the courses, and by others to the interest inhering in a new experiment. Does not the real explanation, however, lie in the unification these courses give of several fields of knowledge previously unrelated ? The separation of knowledge into water-tight compartments has for college students be- come so much a matter of course that the possibility of breaking down the divisions between them comes almost as a revelation from above. Is it not possible for the college to put the capstone on the curriculum in the form of a course that looks towards the integration of the different fields of knowledge? METHODS FOR PROMOTING IDEALS OF SCHOLARSHIP AMONG AVERAGE STUDENTS MRS. PEARL RANDALL WASSON, DEAN OF WOMEN, UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT, BURLINGTON, VERMONT “T realize that I am just one of the second-rate chaps, chaps who make up this big land of ours,—just a second-best fellow,—but—and this is a 746 NATIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION big ‘but’—I know that Columbus discovered America in a second-best boat—that the British whipped the Spanish Armada with a second-rate fleet; that the Revolutionary War was won by a second-best army; that history fairly shouts the deeds of second-rate folks and that I’m going to be at eighty the best second-rater in my line or bust.” Crudely but vividly, with these words, a modern plumber voices the constantly advancing ideal which leads ever onward an individual who frankly recognizes the fact that he belongs to the great class known as “average” and who visions clearly the tremendous possibilities which lie before the average man or woman. The last sixteen or seventeen years have brought a startling change in the personnel of our colleges and universities. In 1905-6 (according to statistics published by the U. S. Bureau of Education) the total attendance at institutions of higher learning in the United States was 258,603. In 1915-16 this number had increased to 387,106, or an increase of 49.7 per cent. Mr. George F. Zook, of the Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., tells us that, notwithstanding the powerful influence of the war, there was little falling off in the total student attendance during that period. In 1919-20, 221 out of 250 colleges report increased enrolments and nine report an increase of 100 per cent or over. Since 1890 the total high-school enrolment has likewise grown greatly. Certainly, as one of the by-products of the world war, we find the great mass of our American people impressed, perhaps unconsciously, with the ideal which was voiced years ago by James Madison, “A popular govern- ment without popular information or the means of acquiring it, is but the prologue to a farce or a tragedy, or probably both. A people who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves with the power that knowl- edge gives.” It has seemed almost necessary to make this long digression in order that we may see clearly the problem which faces the universities and colleges of today. The college may limit its student body, the college world may be divided into those colleges which admit by comprehensive examinations and those which admit by certificate, into those which limit the Freshman class by one means or another and those which admit all who satisfy the college entrance requirements. One college may consist of students who have been carefully selected, may proudly point to the fact that no student with an entrance condition is a part of that college body, that every mem- ber of the Freshman class has been chosen by the process of elimination of the “lesser fit” and that the maximum number of students has been de- termined by the maximum college capacity to house and train its student body. Another college may point with equal pride to the fact that its student body is unlimited but that every student represents a human being who has met the standards which have been determined by the coéperative spirit of college and high-school administrators. Each one of these two types has its problem of the average student. The first college has by its process of elimination raised its standard of the “average” student, and at DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 747 the same time increased the measurement of the small percentage known as honor or superior students. With the careful elimination and selection, such a college has also eliminated a cross section of “average humanity.” The “average student” of such a student body is, by the very process of elimination, imbued with certain definite high ideals of scholarship and in the majority of cases, doubtless, should achieve superior attainment. In other words, is it not fair to conclude that such colleges have a definite function in the educational world and that direct contributions of scholar- ship not the average may be expected from them. ‘Their problem contains the joy of building when the material has been carefully selected, polished in preparation for use, and ready for the finishing touches which may bring out hidden beauty, unexpected possibilities, and creative art. What then is the problem for those colleges in which many students represent the average ability of the average preparatory school? Statistics show that the scholarship rank of a student in high school corresponds with the grades of that same student in Freshman year in college. Granted that the Freshman class in college represents students whose high-school records are at least average, how are the colleges to give to such students ideals of scholarship which will develop dormant qualities and lead to the maximum extension of individual capacity? Professor. Lester F. Ward, in his “Applied Sociology” contends that “Genius is latent in all classes and is dependent upon economic, social, and educational opportunity.” In other words he insists that the spark of genius, engendered by heredity, will not spontaneously force itself to ex- pression but may remain dormant because economic conditions make its development impossible. ‘This theory lends an added interest to the prob- lem of the average student. One psychiatrist has defined heredity as ‘‘the sum total of the adjustments which our ancestors have affected to their various environments” and adds that “Efficiency depends on capacity, and capacity is chiefly a matter of training,—mentality is for that matter largely a product of training.” The unfortunate thing is that habits of study are determined in child- hood and the colleges are faced with the problem of overcoming in many cases the “slant of prejudice, of half-learning or crudity that the young man or woman inherits and in some measure retains as a heritage from the home and school of childhood.” There is one encouraging thought how- ever: The average Freshman is faced with a new world in college. He is at the age when he must have ideals; he is ready to have heroes and to worship them. The character of this hero worship at the beginning of his Freshman year is the reflection largely of the composite opinion of the student body in which he finds himself. At the close of his Freshman year his ideals reflect not alone student opinion but also intellectual horizons together with ethical and zsthetic standards which have been presented to him by the faculty. A recent article asks ‘‘Do colleges stress sufficiently the inspirational side of education? If education is really to educate, it must generate motive power ‘n the student and leave with him its most 748 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION valuable bequest when he goes forth into the world of action, those moral and spiritual ideals and incentives which will arouse, stimulate, kindle, and inspire throughout life.” Winthrop Dudley Sheldon says that “Motive power in human life is not produced by spontaneous generation any more than is a steam engine” and suggests that the first duty of the college is “to inspire the student to know himself,” and the next is “to weave into his character the great principle of moral obligation as the supreme source of motive power.” I should add to these requisites a sense of values, of the interdependence of the great sources of knowledge and power in the world, a bird’s-eye view, as it were, which would show to the student the unity of all knowledge. In the Freshman mind there is complete ignorance of relationship between history and economics, for example,—between English and history or mathe- matics and science. In the psychological tests we have a means of inspiring in the student knowledge of himself, but like all instruments of knowledge, the tests must be used with discretion. Semi-selfknowledge is sometimes a deadly weapon. I have in mind a student thirty-three years of age, a Freshman, who has entered college for the second time. Fifteen years ago he was sent away from college by the President who frankly told him “You should not stay here, you have not the mental ability to do college work.” During the fifteen years he has sent his sister to college, assisted his brother, and now enters college only to fail in mathematics and to find himself rated a ‘“‘near- genius” in English. During the fifteen years, like a perpetual extinguisher of initiative has sounded the thought—“I am sub-normal mentally. I am bound to fail.” In interviews with Freshmen who have fallen below or who have barely averaged in our recent intelligence tests, I find a decided tendency on their part to accept this classification of themselves as sub- normal. Ambition, courage, and vision are blocked at least temporarily. Youth needs, must have an ideal which is constantly advancing but which seems possible of attainment. ‘Che intelligence test, a measure of experi- ence, environment and, in a limited sense, of natural ability may reveal the student to himself but with the knowledge of his limitations there also should be given to him in some way a glimpse of his potentialities. This is not an easy thing to do. The potentialities of the individual are de- termined by the long chain of ancestral reactions to environment. Un- expected opportunities often arouse unsuspected abilities. However, it is possible to point out to every individual dominant faculties which will achieve worthily if once aroused by the proper stimuli. How this may be done is one problem of the college. I believe there is a renewed ideal in the mind of the average college student today. There seems to be an increasing feeling that the colleges are to exist only for those who are worth college training, and that the average student as well as the honor student must find his ultimate goal and develop his possible power. ‘Thus, is he not beginning to have sense of his obligation to society? DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WoMEN 749 How are we to present to the average student a glimpse of world-wide learning, a vision of wisdom? ‘This is the most difficult problem of all, but it is the one whose solution is most essential. Without this perspective, the student masters a number of disconnected facts, of whose inter-relation- ship he has no conception. He must in some way be brought to see the value and the joy of learning,—but how? The personality of the teacher must ever remain the great vital force in the development of any student’s intellectual life. Today, as of old “Mark Hopkins on one end of a log and a receptive student on the other would constitute a university.” The really great teacher is the link that connects his students with the scholastic tradition of the world. It is not enough that the teacher should be master of his subject. Through the magnetism of his personality, the compelling force of his humanity, he leads his stu- dents to direct, personal contact with culture in its universal aspect. Although the teacher must always be the direct moulding force in stu- dent life, yet other less direct and more subtle influences contribute to the development of the undergraduate point-of-view. The college years are the ones in which the eager, expanding mind absorbs involuntarily, from whatever surrounds it, foundations for its future tastes and ideals. ‘The college must see that the suggestions made to the developing consciousness by environment should contribute a receptivity for the higher kinds of scholarship. To live day after day for four years in buildings whose harmony of line and coloring stamp themselves upon the subconscious mind will create a permanent longing for beauty which is after all a synonym for truth. The masterpieces of painting, of sculpture, and of music with which the college should surround its students will produce in them an ever-increasing love and need for the finer expressions of culture. Blest indeed is the college which gives to its students, in addition to the artistic achievements of man, influences in which Nature plays her part. When our average student has gained an understanding of his own limitations and possibilities, has accepted his moral responsibility, has learned from experience the satisfaction which comes from the conquest of a difficult obstacle which stands between him and his goal, has learned “by doing to do,” is no longer afraid of the unknown and the untried, has sensed in a measure the scope and power of wisdom and beauty, as it exists in the world and through the ages, then the average student is ready to follow with understanding the leadership of the honor student and intelli- gently to put into circulation the truths unearthed by the research of the scholar. ‘Then, and only then, is the average student equipped to develop every possibility of his inherent capacity; in the development of the inherent capacity of the average lies the hope for the future of democracy. 750 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION THE SPECIAL HONORS.PLAN AT SMITH COLLEGE HELEN WRIGHT, DIRECTOR OF APPOINTMENT BUREAU, SMITH COLLEGE, NORTHAMPTON, MASSACHUSETTS Almost everyone engaged in educational work is, I suppose, frequently impressed with the amount of time and thought which must be expended upon the unpromising student, the backslider, the student who for lack of will or of mental capacity, raises doubts as to whether she is quite able to absorb the benefits of a college education. Every teacher faces the problems raised by the presence of such students and every teacher must sometimes, I think, regret having to turn away from offering the opportunities which better students could use so well, in order to put the class through tedious drill that might well be dispensed with, were it not for the laggards. There is no new discovery here, no novel idea that has suddenly thrown a new light upon educational systems; but there is, perhaps, a tendency re- cently to discuss this phase of our work, to recognize the conditions and abuses that now exist, and to make a concerted effort to devise ways and means of giving the brilliant student more nearly her share of the ad- vantages the college has to offer. Such students suffer not more from the negative effect of having their own best powers lie dormant, than they do from the positive disadvantage of being frequently in an atmosphere of intellectual standards lower than their own, and of having their thoughts directed into commonplace and stultifying channels. It is conceivable that such students might better not be in college at all; and if one admits that, one must next ask whether the colleges should not, in justice to society, either eliminate the students capable of only the lowest passing grade, or else make plans to give the ablest an opportunity for far more advanced mental development. It is, I think, out of some such considerations as these that certain col- leges are working out plans for specialized work largely “without benefit of classroom” which may be elected by high-grade students for the later years of the course. At Smith College, we call our plan that of “Special Honors.” Colloquially it is known among the undergraduates as the “Oxford System,” but no one knows just why they hit upon that title. They have shown a great deal of interest in the plan and indeed two or three juniors, as soon as the plan was announced last fall to the freshmen and sophomores, asked to be considered as candidates although it had not been our plan to begin with their class. Their request was considered favorably however, and certain adaptations will have to be made because it is not possible now to give them two full years of this type of training. Nine or ten juniors have already begun to work under the new regulations, as candidates for Special Honors. The plan is too new to be thoroughly worked out as yet. Many details will have to be acted upon in the light of practical experience. Candidates are expected to apply in April of the Sophomore year; they must have at- DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 751 tained an average of at least B in the work of the first three semesters and their applications must be approved not only by the Committee on Special Honors, but also by the department or departments in which they seek to do their work. If a student’s average is not quite B, she has still a chance of being accepted if highly recommended, and she has further, the right to be considered if she brings her average up to B by means of the fourth semester’s work. So much for admission into this select group. ~The work during the junior and senior years will be designed to throw upon the student herself a much larger share than we now do, of the responsibility for her own education. She will be excused from all regular class work, except when her instructors deem it wise for her to attend certain lectures relating to her own special studies—and in such cases, she will be excused from class exer- cises and examinations in such courses. Her work will fall into eight divisions, which we have called “units.” A unit is half a student’s working time for a semester. There will be a general director for her course, and he will assign her to two special instructors. It is generally expected that she will, in alternate weeks, report on the progress of her work to these instructors so that there will be some kind of statement coming in for her about once a week. Our required hours for the Junior and Senior years have been fourteen, with the assumption that two hours of preparation would normally be necessary for each hour of recitation. “This presupposes work for about forty-two hours a week, so that a fair estimate of a unit would be twenty-one hours of work weekly. Of course, the outlining of this work will depend largely upon the gen- eral director of each student’s course. He will decide, after consultation with other faculty members and with her, upon the divisions of her task and upon the combinations of her studies and the interlocking of depart- ments. The preparation of a single paper or thesis will be expected to occupy one full unit and will usually be done in the last semester of the Senior year. ‘The other unit for that semester will be devoted to general review for the final examinations held at the close of the course and cover- ing all parts of the field included in the studies of the Junior and Senior years. No other examinations are required and no regulations are laid down as to absence or other technical matters. Experience may show the need for change or extension of the present stipulations, but it will doubtless always seem wise to allow considerable leeway in the administration of the system and let the student work out for herself her own rule of life. Honors will be awarded in. two grades—Highest Honors and Honors. If a candidate for honors fails to be awarded either, she may yet be granted a pass degree if her work is of sufficient merit. It is clear that all this requires effort and time to administer. We hope to be able to carry it on, however, without great additional outlay of money and without appreciable increase in the regular staff. Whether we shall succeed remains, I suppose, an open question. So far, it looks as if those who have most te do with it, will always find the instruction of these 752 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION Honor students a stimulating and rewarding part of their work. It doth not yet appear that there are any insuperable obstacles to the plan, and we all entertain high hopes that it does contain some helpful suggestions for meeting the challenge that our abler students certainly present. REGULATION OF EXTRA-CURRICULA ACTIVITIES CAROLINE GROTE, DEAN OF WOMEN, WESTERN ILLINOIS STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MACOMB, ILLINOIS We are coming more and more to believe that education should de- termine its main objectives before determining its curricula. Many vital elements of education have not found their way into the classroom. ‘The schools and youth of today are seeking to supplement standard curricula by providing and engaging in extra-curricula activities. What are these and how should they be regulated? Fortunately the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Edu- cation, appointed by the National Education Association some years ago, has summed up for us, in the able bulletin, entitled The Cardinal Prin- ciples of Secondary Education, as the main objectives in education, (1) health, (2) command of fundamental processes, (3) worthy home-mem- bership, (4) vocation, (5) citizenship, (6) worthy use of leisure, and (7) ethical character. To what extent do our classroom activities take care of these objectives? Is it desirable that they should take care of all of them? When we are wise enough and have experience enough to use the socialized recitation to the best advantage for all concerned, it may become unnecessary for us to have extra-curricula activities. Then and not till them, we may be able to trust ourselves to take care of all educational activities in the classroom, that is, make it a clearing-house for the information, experiences, and activities we have gained, and even then, the clearing-house may not be the better way. We Deans of Women coming from and representing the normal schools and teachers’ colleges where teachers are trained, we teachers -of teachers, should, above all others, understand the problems involved and be able to regulate the extras in such a way as to have them render the greatest service to education. Taking the objectives in the order determined by the Commission, health comes first. In Western Illinois State Teachers’ College we have a great variety of courses in biology and physical education which offer a specific program in health studies and yet we largely depend upon our extra- curricula activities along these lines to do for the students the things they have long known how to do for themselves. They have needed the spur of some voluntary organization to make themselves take care of their physical well-being. Girls who knew perfectly well that they. should observe regular sleeping hours for health’s sake would transgress frequently under pressure of work or social duties, but since joining the Woman’s DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 753 Athletic Association, which prescribed specific hours of sleep, they have taken care of this matter for themselves. “They refrain from eating be- tween meals, from doing without meals, from eating sweets, because they are in training. In the upper grades of our training school, we have the Boy Scouts and the Camp Fire Girls. These are regulated in accordance with the rules and regulations of the National organizations but are sponsored by some member of the faculty who is vitally interested in them. When we have lacked the right leadership for either of these organizations, we have failed to accomplish what we have desired. In our academy and college groups.we have tennis, hockey, basketball, football, baseball, and track events. Some of these are class activities. A few of them are managed by clubs. Others come under the general direction of the various athletic associations, of which there are three, the Athletic Association, which takes in the entire school, the Woman’s Ath- letic Association, and the Academy Athletic Association. ‘The last two are for girls and take care of many of their extra-curricula physical activities. The Athletic Association is controlled by a joint committee of faculty and students, known as the Athletic Board of Control. ‘The student members of the board are nominated by the students and the faculty members by the faculty, but both are elected by students and faculty. The board makes the rules and regulations, but these are subject to faculty approval. The association manages the boys’ and men’s events. Membership in these activities is based on scholarship and character. No student is per- mitted to take an unlimited number of curricula or extra-curricula activi- ties. We have a definite weighting system and the Dean of Women is chairman of the weighting committee for both men and women. For each of the athletic associations there is a faculty adviser, director, or sponsor, the title varying with the organization. ‘The physical director for men and the physical director for women are usually the moving spirits, but they are assisted and strengthened by other enthusiastic faculty mem- bers. Che students are learning to take care of themselves. Student control, under faculty supervision, is proving a satisfactory way of regulat- ing such activities in our school. The contribution that the physical makes to health is emphasized by giving over one day each spring to field events in which neighboring schools are invited to participate. Another day is given to interclass con- tests. "Iwo days are given to a basket-ball tournament. For years the problem of permitting dancing proved very vexatious. Now it is regularly permitted in the gymnasium on stated occasions and is regulated by a joint student and faculty committee. Rules and regula- tions were adopted by this committee, and these are enforced by the com- mittee and chaperons. ‘The dances are contributing to the poise, grace, and health of the students, and are teaching self-control. The second objective given by the Commission is command of funda- mental processes. Our regular classroom activities take care of this ob- 754 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION jective, but plays and games and supervised play are used to aid in acquir- ing this command. Perhaps the Safety First and the Audubon and other clubs among the children help here also, and if they do not, they at least initiate the children into the mysteries of group life which stands them in good stead a few years later. The third objective given by the Commission is worthy home-member- ship. It applies to both boys and girls and is not confined to adult life. Here we have a Home Economics Club which works for better homes and improvements of all kinds in food, shelter, and clothing. ‘This is regulated from within. ‘The girls take care of themselves almost entirely, making their own rules and electing their own officers, but they are under the guid- ance and direction of the head of the Household Arts Department, a woman of rare grace and power, and by her assistant, who possesses bound- less energy and loves the girls. It would doubtless be correct to add that our musical organizations contribute to worthy home-membership. “They will be considered in another place, however. The fourth objective is vocation. Naturally, a normal school or teach- ers’ college exists—as it does—for the purpose of preparing people to teach, and is a highly specialized vocational institution. Everything that we do is in some way linked with this vocational purpose. Our young people look forward to leadership in our extra-curricula activities when they enter their vocation and most of them realize the importance of doing other things than simply taking care of classroom work. The fifth objective is citizenship. Our literary societies contribute largely to this objective. We have wonderful courses in history, govern- ment, and sociology, but the literary societies aid in giving the ability to perform the services necessary to society in general in music, art, literature, expression, debate, and parliamentary usage. Our literary societies are student activities fostered and encouraged by faculty members. The basis of membership is school membership and scholarship. There are three societies, one for first-year academy students, one for second-year academy, and the other for senior academy and college students. Membership in and attendance upon the first two are compulsory. Two faculty mem- bers are appointed as their advisers. They hold themselves responsible for these societies and assist them in every way they see possible. Meet- ings are held bi-monthly. Officers are selected by the members from their own number. Programs are prepared by committees assisted by the adviser. School and group spirit is fostered and encouraged and has done much to inculcate in the youthful members the qualities that make for citizenship. The older society is different and is more largely regulated by the stu- dents themselves. Membership is not compulsory and so attracts only those who want civic and cultural opportunities, and not all of these find it possible to belong. In it you will find the leaders of tomorrow, those who have high academic standards and who aspire to a high intellectual plane. This society calls itself the Forum. It has the usual faculty DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 755 encouragement and conforms to the general regulations for all such activi- ties. It meets bi-monthly during a regular assembly period, at a time open to all entitled to belong. Other activities in which the students have a controlling interest are the Courier Board, the Oratorical Board, the Sequel Board, the Student- Activity-Fee Board, and the Student Council. The Courier is the weekly school paper and is managed by the Courier Board, which consists of editor, assistant editors, exchange editor, athletic editor, business manager, circulation manager, advertising manager, car- toonist and assistants, and reporters. Quite a magnificant array for a small college paper! All of these people are students. It has been said that man is the head of the family but that woman is the neck that turns the head. The Courier has a big head, and the neck that turns it is a fine little woman from the English department, who succeeds in effacing her- self so well that the students really think they run the paper. They are getting the experience and training and she is big enough to let them think they could do it alone, and perhaps they could. The Oratorical Board arranges for oratorical, declamatory, and ex- temporaneous speaking contests. The head of the public-speaking depart- ment is a member of this board, but it is largely student controlled. She is its godmother, however, and looks well after the ways of her child. The Sequel is the year book of the school, put out by the Sophomores. The Sequel Board is made up of members of the class and is advised by three faculty members, representing different departments in the school or college. Aside from certain regulations the year book is decidedly a student activity. In order to finance the various student activities it was voted by the students some years ago to assess all students a dollar a term student- activity fee, which should entitle to membership without additional fee to all organizations then existing in the school, provided other require- ments of membership were met. The fund thus secured practically sup- ports all the activities of the school. Organizations are permitted to supplement funds thus obtained by giving shows, movies, musicals, and plays, and by having stands on great occasions, but permission for such endeavors must be granted by the president, so that they may not come too frequently or encroach upon each other. ‘The student activity fund is managed by a board which apportions the money or makes appropria- tions to the various applicants according to their relative membership and importance in the school. There are also class organizations with a full complement of officers. These are not managed by faculty members, but entering classes each year are advised to organize at once and to name their candidates for the various boards and committees in which they are entitled to representation. Some of the classes elect a faculty adviser or sponsor, but they manage their own affairs, subject always to some faculty regulation as to time and place of meeting and to the kind of extras they may undertake. 756 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION The faculty annually gives three parties made to include all of the students. ‘These are for the pleasure of the students and are intended also to give some insight into management of social functions to those who have been deprived of that experience. There are two annual receptions, for students in the fall and for summer students. Last in the group that make for civic value is the Student Council, a small body of students, selected by the classes, that meets bi-monthly, at times with the president of the college, frequently without him. Ques- tions of student policy and conduct are discussed. Suggestions and recom- mendations are made and requests preferred to the faculty. We are find- ing this council an aid in the affairs of the college in things pertaining to conduct and discipline. The sixth objective in education is worthy use of leisure. Here, too, we have extra-curricula activities to supplement the regular classroom ones. Literary societies contribute to both citizenship and worthy use of leisure. The same may be said of physical activities. Our library, through the aid of the efficient librarian and her assistants, helps to locate the materials on any topic in which the students are interested. The literary societies give ability to present to an audience with reasonable clearness and effect- iveness any body of thought organized for that purpose. Presumably, the faculty have had such training. The physical and literary activities are not the only ones that contribute to the worthy use of leisure. There are the musical, dramatic, and foreign-language clubs that make extensive contributions along that line. A chorus, a glee club, a band, and an orchestra, all sponsored by the music department, give abundant opportunity to develop and cultivate any line of musical ability. Membership in the musical organizations is based on ability and scholarship and willingness to serve, and willingness to meet regularly for systematic and thorough practice. They are regulated more directly by faculty members than are the other voluntary organizations of the school. They assist in such programs as are occasionally offered for the pleasure of the school. They are financed in part out of student- activity funds, but on the theory that the members get quite as much as they give, that music training is largely a personal advantage, they are allowed partly to finance themselves. A strong dramatic club helps in the production and appreciation of high class plays. The head of the public speaking department guides and directs this club in the selection and rehearsal of: plays. The most sur- prising feature of the club is that it can take care of so many different people in so many different ways and bring out the talent of each. Mem- bership is open only to those who have been tried out, but people who want an opportunity are usually found to have enough ability to be admitted. Every member is held responsible for some part of the play being learned, whether it is presented publicly or not. There are prompters, stage man- agers, property men, electricians, mistresses of wardrobes, and all of the cast. No part is too humble to be mastered thoroughly. They meet once DEPARTMENT OF DEANS oF WoMEN 757 a week for an hour, but they may have to remain longer. This club gives an opportunity for self-expression to those who, consciously or uncon- sciously, are hungering for it. It has something to do with making them understand themselves and preparing them to live their own lives. Another of our extra-curricula activities is the moving picture. We have the necessary equipment. At more or less regular intervals, a “movie” is given for the pleasure and profit of the student body. This enterprise is managed by a faculty committee, who select and present the picture. ‘This is one of the things we do “just for fun.” +* Organizations are allowed to put on a movie once in a great while to improve their financial condition. The sophomore class gives an annual play. This is a tradition of the days when we were a normal school. ‘This play is guided and directed by the same leader who guides the dramatic club. From the standpoint of an educational objective, the class play contributes largely to the appre- ciation of high-class plays. Shakespearian plays have been rendered in a highly creditable manner; occasionally a strong modern play is given. The difference in production and effort under different leaders, shows how large and important a factor good leadership is. Still other extra-curricula activities that lead to worthy use of leisure are our lecture course and summer plays. “These are managed by faculty committees and are partly financed out of the student-activity-fee fund. By means of the former, prominent speakers and leading musical talent are brought to us about three times a year. ‘These lectures and musical en- tertainments are offered to students at reduced rates and financed from this source and the higher rate charged outsiders. We have a fine outdoor theater in a natural ravine on the campus. Pageants are put on annually under the combined direction of the physical education, the art, and the music departments. Much of the work is done by the students, who thus get the training, but the efforts are guided and regulated by the faculty. A faculty club is managed by a faculty committee. It meets once a month from 4:00 to 5:00 or 5:30 and its programs vary from serious dis- cussion of some of the leading questions of the day to faculty teas. It makes for better acquaintance and fellowship. During the past year the Dean of Women has held regular conferences with all of the girls, grouped according to classes, in various sections. These are scheduled in the regular program. ‘The girls are expected to be present, and they seem to be entirely willing to come. hese informal conferences have been on the questions of the social life and conduct of the day. The seventh and last objective in education as worked out by the Com- mission is ethical character. 1 believe that character is developed in meet- ing the daily problems of life, that classroom activities are powerful factors in such development, that history, literature, science, mathematics, music, and art, all contribute their quota to character building, but that there is still room for extra-curricula effort for this purpose. In our school the 758 NatTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION Y. M. C. A. and the Y. W. C. A. contribute to this end. They are managed in the regular way of cabinet and advisory board. Each of the associations has one faculty adviser, who may be counted upon to attend the weekly meetings, and to whom they feel free to go for help and sug- gestions. The money comes from the student-activity fund, but both associations are permitted to supplement their finances in other ways, sub- ject to the general restrictions placed upon all organizations. For ten or more years the Y. W. C. A. has maintained a little store, where necessary school supplies are sold. “This yields a small but regular income. In a normal school, or teachers’ college, it sometimes seems almost im- possible to find a regular time of meeting for Christian associations. We solved this problem a few years ago by giving one assembly hour a week to the associations. Attendance is not required, but no one has the right to demand the time of any student for that one hour. ‘Therefore, every student who wants to come is free to do so. . The only exception to this is that those who are teaching in the training school at that time cannot be excused. Not all attend. The study hall and library are full then, but there is always a goodly number in attendance. When programs are worthwhile, they get a good attendance; when programs are allowed to slump, the attendance slumps also. All in all, the associations are doing much for the school in giving a vivid sense of membership within a world group, a group consciousness in relation to this world-group, the idea of world-brotherhood, of community of right, duties, and needs, and a disposi- tion to follow the leadership of the world’s great moral leaders. “The red triangle and the blue speak for service and render it, not always unselfishly, but, nevertheless, with a feucie ae and habit dictated by an enlightened religious sense. The curricula and extra-curricula activities form the college life of the student. Their connection is ofttimes quite close, but their distinction is still fundamental. It may not always be. We musi so regulate both that there may be no over-emphasis and no neglect. The problem con- fronting all of us is how best to establish proper relations between the two. They should complement each other. They need to be so regulated that faculty control is maintained and given full prestige, and that student responsibility in their management will develop high qualities of leader- ship and make for the attainment of all the objectives in educational ac- tivities. THE RELATION OF THE COLLEGE WOMAN TO THE GENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN’S CLUBS MRS. GEORGE W. PLUMMER, CORRESPONDING SECRETARY OF THE GENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN’S CLUBS First let us Speak of Woman then upon that division of the sex called “college women,” for after all, like the Colonel’s Lady and Judy O’Grady they are sisters under their skins. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 759 You will agree that it is not easy to organize women. ‘They have been taught that they are Queens of the Home, and do not take kindly to being in the ranks and taught the goosestep. All prefer to be the queen-bee abroad as well as in the hive, and this has its difficulties. I suppose the first organizer among women was she who organized a home and induced primitive man to sleep in one cave more than two con- secutive nights and bear at least a part of the burden of the support of their children. I fear no contradiction when I declare in the language of the street that she was “some” organizer. It is true that there have been lapses—in fishing time for instance—but on the whole the home as an organization has withstood many serious strikes. Since then women have banded themselves together in the interests of the church and industry, but the woman’s club movement has done more than any other one factor to teach teamwork, self-reliance, group-consciousness, discipline, tolerance, de- mocracy, and loyalty. The institutions of learning have lifted and widened the horizon of a favored and gifted minority, but the woman’s club has been the door of opportunity to thousands who might never hope to enter the scholastic gates. But my task is to show the relation of the College Woman to the General Federation of Women’s Clubs. It is true that the college woman before marriage or before the cares of life press upon her, has little regard for the woman’s club of the usual type. Their College Clubs rarely join the Federations—District, State, or General, and these College Clubs are de- voted mainly to entertaining notables, hearing clever papers, and to social gatherings. Those of us who had not the advantages we have secured for our daugh- ters, looked forward eagerly to the time when these gifted and trained minds would come into our membership and push to a successful and glorious termination the tasks over which we had long labored. Alas! mother’s club does not often attract them. They use it to whet their witty tongues, and are more attracted to the newer cults, the more radical and exciting causés. They dub mother’s club “slow.” Nor is this complaint without cause. The General Federation of Women’s Clubs has always debarred from its membership clubs or organiza- tions having sectarian or political qualifications for membership, as well as secret orders. In the days of its inception it was considered that politics and religion were fraught with too much feeling to be safe topics for an organization whose very life depended upon, harmony, and so we drew the cordon including the most conservative sister and leaving the con- troversial questions outside. 7 As a great army moves no faster than its rear ranks, so the Federation, although seeing the vision, pressed forward no faster than all were ready to follow. ‘This has been our weakness and our strength. It has enabled other organizations to snatch the banner of a new cause and push to the lead, but on the other hand when the solid phalanx of the General Federa- tion came to the support of our ardent and sometimes well-nigh exhausted 760 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION sisters, the cause was won. While the Woman’s Club may not attract the young college woman in the first flush of her intellectual strength, there comes a time later when she is glad of its motherly comfort and support. May I tell you briefly the story that was told me the other day by a little middle-aged woman of the faded-calico type, with eyes that tears and anxious watching had dimmed; whose once bright hair looked now like sun-bleached hay, her hands bruised and knotted by domestic work and whose shoulders still kept the gracious bend of baby-tending. “T was married almost immediately after I left college,” she said, “and my first baby came within a year. My husband was not successful in busi- ness and we had a hard time to make strap and buckle meet. We had six babies in ten years, and I did my own work. JI had specialized in English Literature in college, and I hoped to write for the magazines. I carried the plot of a novel in my brain as I carried my babies under my heart, but I worked so hard I could not create; my brain seemed asleep; I thought through the cotton-wool of fatigue. My idea of perfect bliss was a good night’s uninterrupted sleep. I grew dull, did not care even to read the papers, dreaded company, and grew careless of my personal appearance. There came a day when one of my neighbors insisted on my being her guest to her woman’s club because the president of my college was to speak. I went and I was like a lost child who hears for the first time the call of the searchers. ‘That was a “white night” for me. Like a drowning per- son I seemed to see my past life like a panorama, and before stretched the future like the Desert of Sahara. I took my courage in both hands and joined that club. I could not enter into all of its activities, but I attended some of its classes and lectures and kept my soul alive. Now that my last baby is in my old Alma Mater, I am taking my share of the work, and every night I thank God for that club. It has meant fellowship, the keep- ing alive of my ideals and it has taught me to love women.” A composite picture of many blended into one reveals only the lines of unity, leaving shadowy and vague those diverging from the common type. Even so the General Federation is the composite of two million women— women who come from all walks of life, having all degrees of culture (or none) ; women who have had every advantage that wealth and position could give; women from the little towns, from the great cities, from the farms; women who are in industry, who have the care of great fortunes; women who work for their board and clothes from ten to eighteen hours a day, business and professional women,—all, all blended and united into the composite club woman. As our president, Mrs. Winter, puts it, the club woman sees life whole and not in terms of causes or conditions or creeds. The departments of work illustrate this; they are Fine Arts, Applied Edu- cation, American Citizenship, Public Welfare, Legislation and Press, and Publicity. The women who head these departments, their divisions, and committees are experts; you have some of them at this table. The General Federation has through its sane outlook and its conservative and thoughtful manage- DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 761 ment of its policies, grown into the respect and confidence of city, State and National governments. It is appealed to on every hand; it is the support of every noble cause. It is not spectacular; it does not always lead the van in new causes, but it has the strength of a trained army, with an unshaken morale, under great leadership. It needs the young college woman. ‘That it does not always get her in the first flush of her young womanhood is a poignant regret. But when life teaches her that she was never born to set it right alone, the Mother of Clubs welcomes her to share in her tasks and partake of her bounty. Success speaks not only in the beat of the drum, the waving of the ban- ners, the tumult and the shouting. There must be the steady, unfaltering, loyal rank and file, who will keep step, obey orders, and carry on as faith- fully in the least as well as in the grandest service. The woman’s clubs offers then to the college woman a laboratory in which to test her theories. It offers her an opportunity for discipline—teaching her to subordinate her play to that of the team. It offers—although this may be harder to be- lieve—a post-graduate course in many lines not to be despised, and most of all it offers her an opportunity of service to her less favored sister. ‘““No man is greater than the service he renders to the world.” The Woman’s Club invites her service; it needs and can reward that service. NATIONAL ASPECTS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN AURELIA HENRY REINHARDT, VICE-PRESIDENT, AND PRESIDENT OF MILLS COLLEGE, OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA Organization for group purpose is as old as mankind. Organization for altruistic group purpose is a late development of civilization. Organi- zation of women solely, for the public welfare belongs to the last two generations, and has had most varied expressions in English-speaking lands. Here tonight the hostesses are a national organization of women whose profession is the administration of an educational system as it touches, may I say, the morale of American girlhood. ‘The guests are representa~ tives of other national organizations concerned with education in some respect, its professional standards, its direct relation to legislation and its indirect effect on the Nation’s life in a variety of ways. The President of the National Education Association, whose _per- sonal contribution to the transforming of rural education in the South has won her country-wide recognition, represents a professional group of which ex-President Eliot of Harvard is continually quoted as estimating that 93 per cent of the workers are women. This National Education Association concerns itself with public education in all its aspects—standards of teacher- training and administration, curriculum, schedule, finance, and legislation. The potential force of such an Association of specialists in education, where nearly seven hundred thousand people are engaged in teaching, needs no proof. 762 NATIONAL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION The General Federation of Women’s Clubs, that largest and most in- clusive of Women’s Associations in purpose and in membership, has done more than it knows to create in the average woman of America a respect for accurate knowledge and a belief in broader and more firmly founded education for all women. It has proved to literally millions of non- professional women that like Portia, they were not yet so old but they could learn. Through more than a score of special departments they have encouraged volunteer leaders to gather about them students of art or public health, literature or civics, drama, parliamentary law, inscription, rural housing, or city plannings, and the results have been many. “he members became mentally more alert and broader-minded; they grew to see the . relation between home, community, and State; they learned some of the values of group activity; and their national conferences brought women of the South, West, East and North into sisterly understanding, which makes for National intelligence. The efficiency’ shown during the War by “the second line of defense’? was due in part to the study and group government of women’s clubs. : The National League for Women’s Votes, that Athena which sprang into life full-panoplied among women’s organizations after the passing of the Susan B. Anthony Amendment, sees American women as American citizens—its purpose is frankly and concretely to educate all women to think and to legislate nationally. What is there left for us to do educationally, we, of the American As- sociation of University Women? It is a generation since the Association of Collegiate Alumnz was formed, by certain college and universitv women who were aware in the eighties of a number of educational facts: few women were entering college; fewer were entering research fields; they were not always welcome; women students at college were given little care, academic, ethical or social; few scholarships and fellowships had been founded to encourage brilliant women to continue research; few positions in colleges and universities were open to graduate women, how- ever brilliant; and so on and so on. ‘These early college women said, “The future will need more trained women, let us work to increase op- portunities for study, let us standardize life for the college woman, and let. us create an interest in giving juster rewards for individual achieve- ment.” Thus, simply and altruistically, was begun a movement which within forty years has put Deans of Women into Universities and into practically all other coeducational institutions. It has opened the doors for women into all subjects of study and into professional schools. It has encouraged vocational advising, made research into occupation for women, opened placement Bureaus, and studied standards of remuneration, rank, and authority in different lines of business and in professions. It has founded opportunities for research in memory of women or institutions working for the cause of higher education. Fellowships known by the names of Alice Freeman Palmer, Sarah Berliner, Anna C. Brackett, and Julia C. G. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 763 a ee Platt, as well as the Fellowships of the Association of the Collegiate Alumne, Boston Alumne, Gamma Phi Beta, and others bear witness to this work. Indirectly and more generally the organization has given much service to the cause of American education. Our system of public instruction is a local matter in all the States. ‘There exists no machinery to stimulate a locality to better standards and ideas unless the stimulus is from within. The Association of Collegiate Alumnz brought together women who were united by an inner bond. They had enjoyed like training, a like inheritance of mental treasure, and had grown to possess a like faith in ideals and sdeas. As individual members and as branches of the national body, they have been sensitive to educational conditions in their environment, have known how to better these conditions and have codperated for such better- ment. They have carried the idea of higher training to girls who have no information, and by virtue of their training have become leaders in community movement for social betterment of all kinds. This is as it should be. ‘The activities of a group of university women cannot be con- fined to a few formally stated purposes however excellent. The power and desire to enrich life in all its phases claims expression. At the national meeting of the association in 1920, the Collegiate Alumnz realized that the first purpose of its existence had been accom- plished. Opportunities for women had become legion and the time was ripe to restate a purpose fitting the new generation and to go forward with educational improvement as this decade requires it. The total of women students in colleges and universities outnumbers the men. Opportunities for training, for research, for professional achieve- ment are found on all sides. The success of the individual woman in her chosen field of work will in the future depend on her personal ability and stability. The newer problem which presses upon the university woman of today is that of widening and deepening the educational process for all. Particularly must elementary teaching in this country be vastly improved, and to bring this about the elementary teacher must be given better financial remuneration and professional recognition. Further, the time has come when the national as well as local problem of the public-school system must be understood by all citizens. “These are some of the reasons which led the National Conference in 1920 to restate the purpose of the organization and to urge certain activities upon its members. It begged the 12,000 faithful to double and treble their working membership from the quarter of a million university women in this country. It pledges the members’ codperation in impending legislation. It arranged for the selection of an educational secretary in order that a field worker might take from branch to branch of the Collegiate Alumnz intelligence of the progress made in this important field of instruction and stimulate action in its behalf. It arranged for a National Club House and Headquarters in Washington in order that there might be an outward and visible sign of the unity of the university women of our land, and in order that they 764. NaTIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION might act as perpetual hostesses to the university women journeying through our country from other parts of the world. And finally, as proof of the desire to work for international understanding, the name of the Collegiate Alumne was altered to one more like the University organizations across the Atlantic. It became the American Association of University Women. Plans were then perfected to codperate with the International Federation of University Women, a codperation which included financial help, ex- change of information regarding colleges and universities, and arrange- ments for interchange of students and instructors. How purposes grow in significance with the passing of time! Where scholarships and fellowships were local they are now being founded to send American women to England, France, Germany, and Italy and to bring women of these countries to America. International hospitality for students and instructors will mean patient effort, but it will also mean understanding and friendship. ‘Those who seek truth with sincerity can- not be mortal enemies however different are the tongues in which they speak. ‘Those who study to ameliorate the sorrows of the poor, the ignorant, and the diseased cannot but respect each other in whatever part of the world they may have been born. Because the work of university women is high-minded and altruistic, its power for good cannot be limited to one locality or one time. The purpose of the association should appeal to all women here present. All women teaching in colleges and universities, officers of administration and others should be aware of this National and international movement in which women who have enjoyed the opportunities of training are en- deavoring to make possible better training for all women and therefore to add to life a finer beauty and higher dignity. Let the undergraduate student know of this movement, what it has done, what it is doing, and what it may do in the future. And let her graduate into active working membership. Alumnz organizations are of imperative service with their bonds of youthful friendship and their institutional loyalties. ‘This organization of women from all colleges and universities is wider in scope and more varied in usefulness. It supports not one institution, but all institutions of higher learning. It emphasizes not the differences, but the likenesses of higher . training. It carries the benefits of such training into all localities and to all people, whether or not they have enjoyed like opportunities. It is a call to student girlhood to fit for the finest type of womanhood. It says there are no national limitations to goodness, to truth, and to brotherly love, but in so far as we search for and possess these three we are all kindred. To you deans of women in colleges and universities, you, whose alluring task has to do with the morale of the woman student of America, may I put a last question—Are we making clear to our students the purpose and function of education? Do they see it as a means or an end? As a privilege, a luxury, or a responsibility? Do they associate it with accurate knowledge, moral character, commanding personality, and creative imagina- DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 765 tion? Do they believe it a preparation for making a living or is it a part of life? Do they realize that it is through education that human beings may veritably become co-creators of this modern world? How can women students of today make the university more truly the center of learning and how can they make it for tomorrow the most important factor in a civilization of individual beneficence? RELATIONS TO OTHER ORGANIZATIONS MRS. R. F. MC WILLIAMS, PRESIDENT OF THE FEDERATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN IN CANADA A distinguished citizen of our commonwealth, dwelling near the heart of things in London, has recently set forth in the preface of her book, “A Political Pilgrim in Europe,” her belief that it is needful in the cause of peace that all should become pilgrims, if possible, and if not pilgrims then prophets and priests of peace and good-will. No patriot, she says, can afford to wait for peace to come right. He must begin to make it come right. I have no claim to distinction and I do not, as does Mrs. Philip Snowden whose book I commend to you, dwell at the center but rather at one of the outposts of that British Commonwealth of which we are both citizens. Yet it is in the spirit to which she has given expression that I come to you tonight willing, yes, eager, to make my pilgrimage of a thou- sand miles, if by so doing I can offer the smallest contribution to the forg- ing of the links which bind our two countries in a common love of peace— in a common wish to see that peace which we have realized for over a century spread through the world so rent with vain strivings. Other speakers this evening have made their contribution to the general topic of the relation of your association to other organizations from the viewpoint of those who dwell within your own country. Will you for a moment turn now your eyes outside your own country and think upon your relation—your service—to the world at large. For if there be a relation— and I think there is a vital one—between the Federation of University Women in Canada and the National Association of Deans of Women in the United States of America, it arises from and becomes vital only through that world relationship, that impetus towards world service, which is the sign of life and growth in this new day into which we have entered. There are many aspects under which we may view this new day. Only one I ask you to hold in your minds at this moment, and that is that now we see clearly and definitely what before we grasped as a theory only, that build we never so well in matters of education which is your first care, or matters of philanthropy, or matters of haute politique, or even matters of business we shall never build so well that all our buildings may not be swept away in a catastrophe of war. Formerly we knew this because we read it in histories. Now we know because we have seen it happen under our own eyes. ‘That it did not happen in all its naked horror to those of 766 NatTIONAL EpucaTIoN ASSOCIATION us who live on this continent is due to a happy fortune and the valor of our men. That it may not yet happen to us, no man can say. Seeing this clearly we have a new conception of the value of the search after peace— of the need of determining greatly that with all our building we shall build for world peace. It is in that necessity to work for the peace of the world that we shall, I hope, find the basis for instituting and maintaining a real relationship between your association and the federation which I have the honor to represent. : From the fundamentals of human nature it follows, I believe, that a smaller nation thinks more about its relation to a larger nation than does the larger one about the smaller. I have lived my adult life in that period of the history of my country which has seen the rise of a national conscious- ness—a consciousness much intensified by the war. It has been for us a matter of happiness and for you, I think, a matter of some pride that that national sense has been developed not as a protection from racial enmity and aggression from the outside but rather from a desire to play worthily our role in the British Commonwealth of which we are a part, as well as to emulate happily a successful and friendly neighbor. And something in addition. For any careful student of the growth of Canadian conscious- ness has seen interwoven with it—slightly before the war, predominantly since—the compelling sense of a special and a high destiny. Perhaps like the man of small physique we overestimate ourselves, but it is not to be denied that in the minds and hearts of thoughtful Canadians lies ever the hope that it is their mission to aid in drawing together the two great branches of the English-speaking race who through the madness of a King and the vanity of his Minister were needlessly estranged. That our Feder- ation might have some real part in that was one of the motives actuating those who hastened on its formation, so that it might be ready to share with the American Associations and the British Federation in the work of creat- ing the International. We are, as our name will indicate, a federation of existing organizations: some of them alumnz of our universities, others clubs of the graduates of any university living in the same city. We started in the autumn of 1919 with seven of these organizations. We now have twelve with a thir- teenth—we hope a lucky thirteenth—just ready to come in. We have not, as I understand your organization has any individual members, but we have through the federated bodies nearly 1,100 women in membership and they live in a territory which extends from Montreal to Victoria, from tide water on the east to the Pacific Ocean on the west. We hope through the thirteenth organization of which I spoke to be able to describe our territory in the words of the well-known hymn “From ocean to ocean.” With your large membership that 1,100 must sound very small. Perhaps you will permit me to remind you that, having regard to our respective populations, this is equivalent to a membership for your association of 14,000. The purposes of| our organization as set forth in our constitution are threefold; first to stimulate the interest of university women in public DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 767 affairs and provide an opportunity for the expression of united opinion; second to promote the higher education of women and especially to en- courage research work; and lastly to promote social intercourse and co- dperation between the women of different universities. And may I say here that we seek this codperation not only among the graduates of our own universities but among the university women living in Canada, admitting freely to our membership the graduates of any university who are eligible to membership in their own national body? As has been said, we were able to help in the formation of the Inter- national Federation in the summer of 1920—that International which be- ginning with three nations less than two years ago now includes fourteen. That organization cannot we feel but contribute greatly towards our first object. Less than two years after our organization meeting.we had our first scholarship winner over in France preparing to take up her work in historical research at the Sorbonne, where she is now. We have already in the treasury the money for a second scholarship, the matter of selecting the winner being now in hand. ‘Thus we serve our second purpose of being. With the third object in mind, we have carried out through the medium of our educational committee a survey of the primary schools with intent to display the variation in accomplishment of the different provinces and to reveal points at which our federation might be of assistance. We are now carrying on a similar enquiry into the library system, a most important matter in a country so sparsely settled as ours. We feel sure that out of it we shall find a work for our organization to do in the matter of winning public support for making good books easily available to the people of the smaller communities. We have made a beginning in the matter of a vo- cational bureau proceeding by way of codperation with our Government employment service. Some day we hope to be as successful in this matter as you are in the very fine bureau maintained by the university women of this country. More interesting to you, as offering a basis of comparison between the fate of the university graduates in our two countries will, no doubt, be some figures from the comprehensive analysis of our membership recently completed by our membership secretary. Within ranks are the graduates of some sixty universities of which only fifteen are Canadian and no fewer than thirty-three are American. ‘This should help to give us the cosmo- politan outlook, which it is a commonplace smaller countries frequently lack. But it is when we come to the analysis of the vocations followed by our members that we get most light on what the Canadian University woman is contributing to her country. Speaking in round numbers one third of our membership belongs in the category of the married woman not pursuing any remunerative occupation; another third are in the teaching profession including the universities and schools; while the last third pur- sue a variety of those newer occupations which have been gradually opened to women. ‘hese vocations are classified under thirty heads including 768 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION social service workers, librarians, journalists, doctors, lawyers, dentists, nurses, motion-picture censors, psychiatrists, women in administrative posi- tions in colleges, hospitals, the large departmental stores and government services, while one of the largest sections of this third group includes those university women who have found their way into the work of commerce and who are industrial chemists, seed and textile analysts, economic ex- perts, insurance and advertising agents, commercial artists and private sec- retaries and clerks of various kinds. Between the first and third of these groups and the deans of women there would seem to be little relation. Yet I am not sure that it is not there. In the third group are those more adventurous spirits who are doing the pioneering of these days and so making easier the ways of those who come after. In another way, too, the married woman among us is preparing the way. You will find her in all the woman’s clubs, in all the movements fo: progress; not always the vocal leader, but generally the backbone of the working committee, giving of her heart and strength and leisure to the im- provement of the social fabric. j I have said that it is a truism that in the hard and fast union—I mean of course, a union of the spirit and not in political form—of the English- speaking peoples rests the world’s greatest bulwark of safety. Perhaps I should say that it is a truism with us, since it is not simple for one outside your country to sense your opinion however carefully your journals be read. To us for instance the great outcome of the Washington Conference was not the limitation of the building of great ships, not the four-power treaty, not the Shantung settlement, not any one of the formal agreements though we hail them all as achievements of great worth. The greatness of the conference to our eyes lay rather in ‘the fact that for the first time in generations your people as represented by Mr. Hughes, and our people as represented by Mr. Balfour worked side by side with high courage, in- comparable skill, and a firm belief in each other’s sincerity of purpose and that out of that working together they wrought, to quote Lloyd George, “one of the most notable contributions statesmanship has ever made for the sum of human peace and human happiness.” Shall we not together build on this foundation? Shall we not make the most of the happy circumstance that between our countries lies almost nothing of suspicion of motive and no shred at all of ancient wrong and build as we may for this world union of the English-speaking races? Right at our hand lies so much material for building that it would almost seem, our eyes being opened, we can miss the way only through wilfulness. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 769 CONSIDERATIONS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT IN THE STIMULATION OF GRADUATE WORK FOR WOMEN * LOUISE POUND, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA,.§' LINCOLN, NEBRASKA The question, once warmly debated, “Are women able to do graduate work?” is now omitted from programs. New questions are being consid- ered today. Accepting the woman graduate student and her ability as demonstrated facts, how shall she be attracted to educational institutions in greater numbers and higher quality? Is it wise to try to attract her? What shall be done with her when her study is completed? May not a time be looked forward to when it will be neither profitable nor necessary to speak separately of graduate study for men and for women? Some present views concerning graduate work for women. Current expressions of disappointment at the supply of academic positions available for women with higher degrees, and the inferiority of most of these posi- tions. Are opportunities for the holding of academic positions by women lessening? ‘Their present status on the faculties of educational institu- tions. Does anything turn for them on advanced study, outside activities, or published work? Or is it wiser for them to stay by the routine of pedagogical details? Percentage of men appointed on the faculties of women’s institutions. Suggestion of the committee, headed by Dr. A. Caswell Ellis, of the American Association of University Professors on the status of women, that the reasons given for the appointment of men on the faculties of women’s institutions hold also for the appointment of women on the faculties of men’s institutions. At present, work in grad- uate humanistic subjects must be followed for the work itself, rather than with a view to direct returns. Superior opportunities in lines like house- hold arts, home economics, dietetics, textiles, clothing, physical training, headships of halls, etc., for which men do not compete. Advisability of the taking into account by professors of the capacity of individual students who are encouraged to continue work, as well as of the opportunities opening up. The often-heard affirmation that few strong women are available for academic positions not valid. Evidence regarding feminine ability of Phi Beta Kappa statistics, when the method of selection is based on grades only. Some institutions, as Brown University, discriminate in their treat- ment of the sexes, to the disadvantage of women students. Well-equipped women easily had or developed for academic positions, if they are wanted. Strong material now to be found on the faculties of secondary schools. The more optimistic view. Great progress already made. A stage of experiment and adjustment inevitable. Growing recognition of the prin- ciple that women instructors are needed in fair proportion to the number of women students, just as men teachers are needed in. fair proportion to ——<—<— ‘This paper was printed in full in School and Society, Vol. XV, No. 387, May 27, 1922. 770 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION the number of boys in attendance at high schools. Some of the large institutions slowest to see the fairness of employing an adequate percentage of women teachers are California and Michigan. Improbability that the percentage of women on the faculties of coeducational institutions will remain so small. Willingness of the larger-minded men, when they un- derstand and get around to it, to lend a helping hand. Meantime, much turns on the scholarship of women in the graduate school. Helpful agencies like the Association of University Women now encouraging higher education for women. Leadership of far-seeing women like Miss ‘Thomas, of Bryn Mawr, and Miss Gildersleeve, of Barnard. Larger part to be played by intelligence tests to be welcomed. Role played by organizations like that meeting today. Promise of the outlook. SOME RESULTS OF GRADUATE WORK BY WOMEN MARION TALBOT, DEAN OF WOMEN, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS The question is frequently raised as to the status of women in graduate work and their future in academic positions. In the belief that the ex- perience of the University of Chicago has been long enough and the number of students in the Graduate Schools has been large enough to make some study profitable or at least suggestive, a few facts have been gleaned from the university records, covering in general the years 1910-15 inclusive. ‘The period is long enough to indicate some general tendencies as well as a few definite facts. These may be summarized as follows: (1) A larger proportion of women than of men admitted to candidacy for the master’s degree com- plete the course and a smaller proportion for the doctor’s degree; (2) the proportion of women taking the doctor’s degree with the lowest grade is smaller than of men, with the highest grade larger and approximately the same for the intermediate grades; (3) a smaller proportion of women than of men hold college and university appointments, a larger proportion hold normal and high-school appointments, and the same proportions are in miscellaneous occupations; (4) nine per cent of the men holding the doctor’s degree from the university occupy faculty positions and 5 per cent of the women; (5) eighty-seven per cent of men Doctors of Phil- osophy holding faculty positions in the University of Chicago are of pro- fessional rank of different grades and 66 per cent of women. From certain points of view these results are very discouraging, but it must be remembered that graduate schools have been open to women for a comparatively short period of time and considering all the circumstances, women have made satisfactory progress and have ground to believe that in time recognition will come to them in proportion to the thoroughness and scholarly quality of their attainments. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 771 RETIREMENT SYSTEMS FOR WOMEN MEMBERS OF COLLEGE FACULTIES GRACE A. STAYT, DEAN OF WOMEN, KNOX COLLEGE, GALESBURG, ILLINOIS The college woman of today is committed to the principle of economic independence. She is no longer satisfied to know that she is able to pro- vide food and shelter for herself during the years when she is actively con- tributing to the world’s work; she wants the assurance that, when this period of productivity is over, she can look forward with good cheer to the years which Browning, in a fine spirit of optimism, has characterized as “the best ——, The last of life for which the first was made.” But this “last of life’ can never be the best if, overshadowing it, is the constant fear that increasing years may bring deprivation of the things that make life dear. I am not speaking of material things but of qualities of the spirit, serenity, self-reliance, courage. “These qualities cannot long withstand the insistent siege of dependence and fear of want. It is from the deadly foes of anxiety and apprehension that a wisely conceived retire- ment system is able to release the teacher, leaving him free to bring to bear upon the every-day duties of life the quickening impulses of an unfettered spirit. What constitutes a well-conceived retirement system? Briefly expressed, the answer would probably run about as follows: A system, which, through some form of pension or annuity, or combination of both, assures to the worker adequate protection against dependence due to old age or disability. I should like to establish at the outset that, while it is true that most teachers’ retirement systems owe their existence to a newly awakened sense of social responsibility, they are in no sense a form of charity. The pro- vision for the continuance of a teacher’s salary beyond the years of actual service is simply a form of deferred pay which no teacher, however scrupulous his feeling in regard to maintaining his independence, need hesi- tate to accept. To what extent have the colleges of the country been able to assure members of their faculties continuance of income after their teaching days are over? A few of the larger colleges have established retirement sys- tems of their own, in some of which the entire burden of support has fallen upon the institution; in some, upon the, teacher alone, through a plan of compulsory monthly contributions toward the purchase of deferred an- nuity, and, in other cases (probably the largest number), upon both institu- tion and teacher, each making an equal contribution during a series of years for the purchase, generally at the age of 65, of a deferred annuity—the income of which is available either to the teacher alone or to the teacher and his heirs. Within the past three or four years several institutions, which had previously maintained independent retirement systems, have abandoned these, accepting in their place participation in the contributory plan of old- 2 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION age annuities offered by the Teachers’ Insurance and Annuity Association of America and other insurance companies. ‘The total number of colleges and universities which have voted to adopt such a plan at the present time is sixty-three. Included in this last number are Bryn Mawr, Mount Hol- yoke, Smith, and Wells. The formulation of such a plan usually includes provision for the pay- ment by the institution of an amount equal to 5 per cent of the teacher’s salary toward the purchase of a deferred annuity or endowment insurance on the condition that the teacher contribute a like amount for the same purpose; that participation in the system be optional, the institution not to contribute for the teacher unless he contributes for himself and that the contribution of the institution cease when the teacher reaches the age of sixty-five. Seventy-four colleges and universities, known as the “Associated Institu- tions of the Carnegie Foundation,’ enjoy the benefits of the system of retiring allowances established by the Carnegie Foundation. This operates under two distinct plans, the first of which applies to members of college and university faculties whose connection with an Associated Institution began prior to November, 1915, and includes, briefly stated, (1) Provision for an old-age retiring allowance computed as follows: (a) For an active pay of twelve hundred dollars or less, an allowance of one thousand dollars, provided no allowance shall exceed ninety per cent of the active pay. ; (6) For an active pay greater than twelve hundred dollars, the retiring allowance shall equal one thousand dollars, increased by fifty dollars for each one hundred dollars in excess of twelve hundred dollars. (2) Provision for a disability allowance computed as follows: (a) For an active pay of twelve hundred dollars or less, a retiring allow- ance of eight hundred dollars, provided that no allowance shall exceed eighty per cent of the active pay. (b) For an active pay greater than twelve hundred dollars, the retiring allowance shall equal eight hundred dollars, increased by forty dollars for each one hundred dollars in excess of twelve hundred dollars. The second plan applies to members of faculties who entered Associ- ated Institutions after November, 1915, and who are participants in the contributory plan of annuities maintained by the ‘Teachers’ Insurance and Annuity Association of America. ‘It offers the following benefits: (1) The privilege of setting one’s own date of retirement, ‘“‘the amount of the retiring allowance to be based upon the joint contributions of the teacher and his college and their accumulations,” (2) In total permanent disability a disability allowance of “two thirds the amount the teacher would have obtained if he had continued to age sixty-five average contributions equal to the average of the five years pre- ceding his disability.” But there are many colleges and universities which do not enjoy the privileges of the Associated Institutions of the Carnegie Foundation; which DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 773 have not committed themselves to the support of any system of retiring allowances and which do not codperate with existing agencies in making any provision for retiring allowances. ‘To teachers in such institutions there is still the opportunity of making individual provision for protection either through a deferred annuity contract or endowment insurance in any responsible insurance company. As to younger teachers, if they are re- ceiving fair compensation for their services, this can be taken care of without undue hardship, perhaps, but to older teachers, whose expectation of con- tinuance in the profession is limited to a brief period of years, it is likely to prove a great burden. The payment, for instance, of a monthly premium of ten dollars begin- ning at the age of twenty-five will give a woman an annuity beginning at the age of sixty-five and payable in monthly installments of ninety-six dol- lars and twenty-seven cents. But if she waits until she is forty-five before she begins to make her payments, the same premium, ten dollars per month, will yield her at the age of sixty-five a monthly income of thirty dollars and seventeen cents (less than one third of the first amount), which is reduced to twenty dollars and twenty-nine cents if payment of premiums is not begun until the age of fifty. The whole value in any such system ob- viously lies in making an early start. It is the accumulated earnings ex- tended over a long period of years that count. The importance of this principle can not be too strongly recommended to the attention of young teachers. To those who are just entering upon the profession of teaching, the day of retirement seems far removed but today and tomorrow become yesterday before we know it and the rainy day, for which provision must be made, still has a place in the teacher’s calendar. It seems altogether probable that a better understanding of the economic effect of retiring allowances will eventually convince Boards of Trustees of their interests in the matter, for the day will inevitably come when the teacher in deciding between two institutions, one which offers protection against the loss of income earning power, either through disability or age, and the other which says “These are matters of no concern to us” will know which one to choose. In the meantime, I fancy that many a college teacher for whose protec- tion no provision has been made, is looking somewhat enviously upon the more favored situation in this respect of the teacher in the public schools. To be sure, the pension of the public school teacher is usually small. Four hundred dollars represents a fair average, but four hundred dollars is the income at four per cent on an investment of ten thousand dollars, and how many college teachers, at the end of twenty-five years of service can point to an accumulation, from their earnings, of ten thousand dollars? With few exceptions, retirement systems are framed with reference to the needs of men teachers rather than of women. When one considers that out of the six thousand five hundred ninety-three teachers actively engaged in service in the seventy-four Associated Institutions of the Car- 774 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION negie Foundation in 1917, only seven hundred, fifteen were women, one could hardly expect it to be otherwise. In reality, these needs differ in certain important respects. For instance, the assumption in the case of the man is that he is married and has a family dependent upon him. His interests, therefore, would seem to be best met by an arrangement that will most satisfactorily provide for the joint protection of himself and family; in the case of the woman, while it is true that in a large number of cases she has dependents, the general assumption is that she has only herself to provide for. Her needs would, therefore, apparently best be met by what- ever arrangement would give her as large an income as possible for her own use during her own lifetime. This might best be accomplished by the purchase of a straight annuity without provision for return of money either in case of death during active service or after retirement. The cost of such an annuity should, I understand, be about one fourth less than that which guarantees the return with interest of all money paid in the form of premiums. As to the woman with dependents, the situation still differs from that of the man in that, in his case, the time of greatest responsibility for de- pendents is usually during the earlier years of his active service while his children are still young. As they grow older they become an increasing source of protection to their parents; the dependents of the woman teacher, on the other hand, are usually older than herself, a father or mother, older sister or brother, and are apt to become an increasing responsibility as time goes on, the greatest need for care coming presumably during the later years of her service. There would often seem to be small need for an annuity that would continue for a long period of time after the death of the teacher—an option of cash value at death, such as is found in the super- annuation scheme of the English universities, or an option between a five, ten, fifteen, or twenty-year period for the continuance of the annuity, such as is permitted in many of our commercial insurance companies. The amount of the annuity being, of course, proportionately larger for the shorter periods, would seem to be of value in such cases. Only a limited number of institutions afford adequate protection to the teacher who has reached the years of middle life, before having an oppor- tunity to contribute toward a retiring allowance. Her contributions be- gin at too late a period to admit of the purchase, at the age of retirement, of an adequate annuity. Many colleges make no retiring allowances to teachers who were in service prior to November, 1915, for the reason that, as members of an Associated Institution of the Carnegie Foundation, they are eligible to the retiring allowances made by that organization to teachers whose connection with their institution began before that date. This suggests another matter for consideration,—namely, that while new contributory systems practically all permit of retirement at whatever age the college and teacher may jointly agree upon, the teacher who retires upon a pension from the Carnegie Foundation must have reached a mini. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 775 mum age of sixty-five. While we all know many instances of women rendering conspicuous service to their institution up to and beyond the age of sixty-five, nevertheless, I believe it is true, in the main, that few women have the physical endurance to meet the strenuous demands of a teacher’s life beyond the age of sixty. Moreover, public sentiment is, in some places, so opposed to their continuance in service after this age as to make it undesirable. ‘Chis means that a large proportion of the women who have done the greater part of their teaching during the years when salaries were at a low ebb are in danger of being cut off (either from inability to continue their labors longer or from pressure of public opinion) from any share in the protection offered by existing systems—other than such as is afforded by the disability clause. Lastly comes the question of disability allowance. Probably there is no one thing that the average women dreads more than dependence due to disability, and so she would like to make very sure in purchasing protection against dependence that the loss of income through physical disability shall be taken into consideration. Most insurance companies permit a waiver of premiums in disability; a few guarantee a disability allowance but usually under conditions that are more applicable to the lives of railroad engineers than of college teachers. The provision for a disability allow- ance to members of the Associated Institutions of the Carnegie Foundation has already been touched upon. In addition, I believe the trustees of the Teachers’ Insurance and Annuity Association of America have under con- sideration at the present time the question of the desirability of making provision for a disability income in connection with its life insurance policies. There are certain commercial insurance companies which are offering individual and group insurance whose greater range of freedom in options over those offered by the Teachers’ Insurance and Annuity Associations, thus permitting greater adaptation to individual needs, compensates in part, at least, for their somewhat higher cost. HOW MAY THE DEAN BEST APPORTION HER TIME AMONG THE ACADEMIC, ADVISORY, AND SOCIAL SIDE OF COLLEGE? ANNA L. TANNAHILL, DEAN OF WOMEN, BELOIT COLLEGE, BELOIT, WISCONSIN To apportion the time of the dean of women \among the various im- portant phases of her work, which, plan as she may, seem to demand every atom of her strength and every moment of her time, is no easy matter. It practically amounts to an attempt at standardization. Without question those aspects of the work which may be termed ad- ministrative and advisory are of paramount importance and should receive 776 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION by far the greatest allotment of time. It is highly desirable, if compatible with the organization of the college, that the dean of women should act for the women students as dean of the college. This entails the super- vision of scholarship, with the attendant sending out of notices to students whose work is below the standard required by the college or reported by instructors as below the grade of which they are capable; the holding of conferences with individual students to ascertain the causes of such de- ficiencies, and with the scholarship chairman of the various groups to keep them informed as to the scholastic status of the members and to help them develop within the groups right attitudes toward scholarship and practical and effective means of upholding it. It entails also the consideration of the cases of students who wish to carry more or fewer than the required hours and the granting of such permission when the requests are justifiable. It requires the placing upon probation of such students as do not obtain in any given quarter or semester the number of hours and credits required of their class and the recommending to the faculty committee concerned the dismissal of such students as are hopelessly deficient in scholarship. It requires also the assignment of each incoming freshman to a faculty ad- viser who should remain her college adviser until she selects her major, and the codperation with this adviser in matters affecting the interests of the student. Other administrative matters demanding the time and attention of the dean of women are the general oversight of the halls of residence, with the appointment of properly qualified directors; the selection and supervision of rooming houses, if the college has not adequate accommodations for all of its women students; the finding of employment for young women who need entirely or in part to earn their way in college and the special over- sight of those who are working in private homes for room and board; the keeping of careful records of attendance together with the granting of excuses for non-attendance when such are warranted, and the keeping of records of the health and of the activities of the individual students. No small portion of the time which the dean of women devotes to adminis- trative duties needs to be given over to work on various important faculty committees, such as those on administration and student work, course of study, regulation of student activities, religious and social life, and physical education. Her administrative duties shade off into the advisory. Of the latter those requiring the most time have to do with the personal or scholastic problems of the individual students, with the women’s self-government association, with the big-sister movement so important in inducting new students into the life of the college and helping them make their adjust- ments, and with helping the young women to develop their various organi- zations. From my point of view these important administrative and ad- visory responsibilities demand at least seventy per cent of the dean’s time. The remaining thirty per cent, I believe, should be divided about equally between academic work and social relationships. That the dean of women DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN Ti in the coeducational college should be a recognized member of the faculty and that it is desirable that she be accorded at least the rank of assistant professor needs no emphasis. ‘The importance of her having a definite place upon the instructional staff is fourfold—in its effect upon the regard of the student body of the college; in its effect upon her relations with the faculty, in that academic accomplishment will engender respect and that similar experiences in the classroom will create a bond of sympathetic understanding; in its effect upon her wise discharging of her administrative duties; and finally in its effect subjectively, in that it will broaden her horizon and prove a saving relief from the routine of administrative duties. Important as teaching is, it is, however, imperative that it should not be allowed to consume too great a portion of the dean’s time. Although a dynamic part, it is, after all, in matter of importance, a relatively small part of her work. I feel strongly that the dean of women should not teach more than one course during any given quarter or semester, and that if possible this should be not more than a three-hour course. One excep- tion I would make. If the faculty can be brought to sanction for the first quarter or semester of the college year, a one-hour course in college life and adjustment to be given by the dean to freshmen women, she will gain more in the way of results and in actual economy of time than through the expenditure of an equal number of hours in any other way. To say that the remaining fifteen per cent of the dean’s time will care for her manifold social duties will of course bring a smile to the face of every one familiar with these demands. I have merely assigned to them the portion of a normal eight-hour day which I feel their relative import- ance justifies. They will always crowd over into those hours which the dean would like to call her own, but never does. ‘They are many and varied—entertaining students at teas and in informal groups; holding fireside story hours; attending student functions; dining frequently at the several halls of residence, at fraternity houses, and at the homes of town students; entertaining for guests of the college; meeting parents and rela- tives of the students, when they visit the college, and likewise meeting the parents of prospective students ; meeting many important social demands in the town community ; endeavoring to bring into normal social relation- ships the young women who are working for room and board in town homes; drawing out the shy girl; and, most important of all perhaps, developing and guiding a distinctive social life among the women students which is not dependent upon the men of the college—demands which, if we meet them as our hearts prompt, could easily leave little time for the larger responsibilities of the office. Important as are the social relation- ships and the academic contacts, the administrative and advisory duties of the dean are her larger responsibilities and should receive by far the greater portion of her time. 778 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION EXTRA-CURRICULA ACTIVITIES—WHAT ONES DO YOU CONSIDER OF SUFFICIENT IMPORTANCE TO JUS- TIFY THEIR EXISTENCE AND HOW MAY WE KEEP THEM IN A SUBORDINATE POSITION? MRS. GERTRUDE S. KINGSLAND, DEAN OF WOMEN, RIPON COLLEGE, RIPON, WISCONSIN An _ educational problem confronts us in extra-curricula activities. The problem is too salient to be unseen, too wide-spread to be unrecognized, too consequential to be ignored. It is conspicuous on every campus; it is discussed in every assemblage of educators. According to differing opinions it either threatens to push aside all scholarship, or promises to correlate with the curricula in building character and developing ability. Professor Robert Corwin, of Yale, has said that the scholastic work accomplished by the students does not compare, either as to amount or quality, with that on the playing fields and in all extra-curriculum competitions. Are these activities of value in accomplishing what education desires? Do they invite academic codperation? Do they need academic control ? The varying answers denote unsettled opinions and indicate the transitional period through which we are passing. Although periods of transition are always dangerous, yet advance cannot be made without pass- ing over from an old order to a new. ‘Time was when education was preparation for life, which began theoretically at Commencement; time is when education is guidance in living, and the independent, self-reliant ex- istence directly follows college matriculation. Time was when knowledge was acquired to educate the human being into a gentleman of society ; time is when men and women with whetted curiosity seize upon facts and ex: periences in order that they may form their own philosophies, live to the full their own lives, and give richness of health, support, inspiration, and joy to an ever-widening circle. Time was when the college provided the living conditions for the students, dictated their sports, and appointed and arranged their social functions; time is when fraternities and clubs manage their own luxurious homes, athletic associations control the inter- collegiate sports, and social functions monopolizing week-ends and holidays, clamour for intervening dates. Through two generations the extra-curricula activities have been trans- forming college conditions. They appeared on the horizon fifty years ago like a small evanescent cloud; today they overhang the academic sky, threatening, as some educators believe, a devastation, or promising, as others think, revivification and growth. College faculties waver before this thing grown so suddenly great and ominous. But out of much discussion and out of many varied experiences, they will come to some concerted opinion and, discriminating the activities of value, will place them in a recognized position where the student in freedom will be guided by the wisdom of DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 779 counsel and will receive the benefit of training as well as accomplishment, which many of these activities offer. What are these activities which are prized by serious minded educators and contribute to the right formation of character? ‘They are the activi- ties which beget dynamic enthusiasm, calm justice, intelligent sympathy, loyalty to friend and college, and honesty in sports as well as in work. Furthermore, activities which develop initiative, poise, courage, judgment, perseverance, are worthwhile for the college life that now is and for the freer life which is to follow. There are activities athletic, ethical, musical, dramatic, controversial, oratorical, literary, governmental, scholastic, and social. These activities afford fields for both individual and group achieve- ment. The students to gain individual distinction are spurred on by am- bitious parents; to win honors for the college they are incited by active alumni. Athletic contests, glee clubs, debating teams, and college publications offer not only opportunities for both personal distinction and group achieve- ment, but, being recognized advertising media, are given faculty attention and supervision. Under right control these activities contribute to the development of character and the experience of living. The ethical field, though the most neglected and neglected usually in direct ratio to the in- creasing number of the students, has its Christian associations, missionary interests, and welfare service clubs. While large universities hire secre- taries to encourage the work of the Christian associations, the colleges with equal appreciation of the work appoint faculty advisers who give time and thought to the fostering of these organizations whose ethical influence reaches beyond the campus. ‘The departmental clubs, superseding the old literary societies, bring the theories, formulas, and formalities of the class- | room to the free discussion and practical demonstration in the intimacy of the club. The governing forces of the classes, clubs, legislative and executive councils place a responsibility which develops control and diplo- matic management. Bursars, treasurers, auditors, receiving and paying out moneys, making budgets, auditing accounts, are growing financiers and economists. Even the social life develops such valuable traits as friendliness, sympathy, courtesy, esthetics, and, perhaps as great as any, the spirit of joy. Encouragement, therefore, is given to the extra-curricula activities de- sired. In some offices records of students in these activities are kept on file and these records are often sought by future employers of the students. Liberal space is given in the college papers for the publicity of activities. Prizes are awarded for general excellence, as letters and trophies are given for definite participations. Social distinctions reward social service ; honorary positions repay expressed talent. In many colleges advisors are appointed to augment the interest in the worthwhile activities and to sncrease their excellence. Recognizing the benefits which through these activities accrue to the student, who thereby learns modesty as well as fortitude, leadership as well as loyalty, ethics as well as esthetics, business 780 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION management as well as social grace, the educator wisely determines to hold fast to that which is good. But knowing that often these same activities when left without guidance or restriction tend to extremes, extremes which waste health, intellect, time, money, and morals, he firmly sets himself to compute and control, to devise, and to deny. “The proper restriction of activities is the unknown solvent to the solution, the hidden twist in the knot. ‘The evils entailed by unrestricted activities are self-evident. “They need not be enumerated. ‘They are not additional activities of a baser sort but are the excesses of the good. The faults of the college activities, however, are the faults of similar activities in the world, the greater discretion and control preponderating in the college. ‘The age is restless, pleasure-seeking, irreverent. Wealth and popularity are at a premium; duty is below par. Bizarre fashions, barbaric music, hysterical actions, and extravagant display are prevalent in all circles of society. “The college is the place, however, where responsi- bility should fall most heavily, where concerted action can control, and where exemplary conduct is expected. ‘This responsibility college faculties accept. They are by various methods trying to allay the social frenzy, disentangle the intricacies of overlapping interests, and secure from each activity the greatest good for the greatest number of students concerned. Experiments are going on in every university, college, normal, and high school. Point systems are devised, amended, discarded, and restored. Scholarship requirements check in the heady activities. Councils, con- gresses, and conferences of students, organization presidents, and inter- collegiate representatives meet, legislate, and act. Faculties advise, dictate, and dominate. But as yet no established policy workable in all schools has been constructed. No plan approximately adequate for correct limita- tion has been discovered. The pioneer work in the control of activities has been done by the boards and associations which govern athletics. Some uniform basis being neces- sary for intercollegiate sports, the different athletic associations of the States and districts have established rulings which not only give uniformity of control to athletics but suggest methods for the limitation of other activities. “These associations require full college standing and definite hours of passing work; they forbid professionalism and a fifth year of par- ticipation. The regulations are not perfected. Constantly cases arise where financial offers, direct or indirect, thwart the ideals of the associa- tion; even professors at times pervert their gradings to give the athlete the required passing hours. On the whole, however, the rulings of the athletic associations do set metes and bounds to athletic activities. In the comity of colleges should not the professionalism cried down in athletics be forbidden in other activities? The athlete may not commercialize his muscle, but the glee-club man may commercialize his music. Is not the professional musician on the glee-club program as gross a misrepresentation of student ability as the imported professional baseball pitcher who falsified the diamond twenty-five years ago? DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 781 The scholarship qualifications are without doubt the most effective and reasonable means of limiting other activities than athletics. Most colleges insist that a man not passing in the hours required for good standing must not be allowed to make a public appearance representing the college. This affects especially public games and entertainments. When the require- ment includes grade points as well as hours this basis of scholarship may have its disadvantages. A mediocre student may need the training the activity offers, but the scholarship requirement being beyond his reach may exclude him entirely, or may entice him into a struggle of such intensity that to meet the requirement he brings upon himself mental or physical injury. Chicago University presents definite rulings on eligibility for public appearance, including under public appearance not only contests, entertain- ments, and exhibitions for which an entrance fee is charged or prizes given, but also management of social affairs for which an entrance fee is paid, and official service on any publications for which a subscription price is asked. To be eligible for such public appearance a student must have full-admission ‘credit, at least six majors of credit for resident classroom work of college grade with not less than nine grade points, must sustain his current work at an approved grade, must have a satisfactory health record, and be qualified, in the judgment of his Dean, to assume additional duties. Point systems are used as means of control in many schools, especially in the large universities. ‘These systems bear some variation but work on the same general plan. In the University of Wisconsin the Census Bureau maintains “‘a card catalogue, in which is recorded the name of every girl in the University, the office she holds, and the committees on which she is working.” ‘There is a rating of point values and a checking of point excesses. Upper classwomen are allowed sixteen points; lower class- women, twelve. Major points in most colleges using the point system are the captains of the athletic and debating teams, the two editors and the business managers of the college publications, the presidents of the large associations, the chairmen of the committees in charge of the Junior Hop, the college circus, or affairs of equal importance. Minor points include the officers of classes, clubs, and lesser organizations. ‘The University of Minnesota after many years of experimenting with a point system, has divided all activities into three classes, and allows a student only one position in the major activities designated first class, two in those of the second class, and any number in the third class. In the best established point system, however, there is little or no con- trol provided for those willing satellites who revolve about popular leaders, do their bidding, consume time and energy, and yet whose names do not appear to reveal the overwork which is being done. ‘Thus all the iniquities of neglected classwork and broken health may result under the shadow of the best formulated point system, which does protect the leaders but cannot control the good-natured, willing, but unnamed assistants. 782 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Many colleges rely with greater confidence upon special faculty ad- visers, one of whom is appointed for each activity. If an adviser is in close enough contact with the students to be regarded with confidence, he may not only mould general opinions but often influence the choice of group leaders, and, recognizing latent ability in the untried student, be able to bring him to a better opportunity. Certain conditions and requirements in the colleges indirectly but force- fully control the extra-curricula activities. Business methods demanded by the college authorities have a salutary effect not only in training the managers of activities but in limiting the procedures. Among these methods required are a budget system for every organization, requisitions made out in duplicate or in triplicate for all purchases, moneys collected through authorized channels, and all financial accounts passed by an ap- pointed auditor. “The number of activities is limited also by the necessity of submitting constitutions for approval and sanction to the governing con- trol, whether that control be the president, the faculty, or the student government association. Councils and congresses composed of the presi- dents of each activity form a controlling force which not only unifies the work of the activities but tacitly withholds unmeritorious organizations from forming. ‘The “try outs” afford the natural selection of ability for plays, debates, oratorical contests, glee clubs, and other public entertain- ments. The social activities, though difficult of adjustment, are when rightly guided of great value to the student body. These encroach most easily upon other college interests, monopolize the time and thought of certain students, and often overshadow worthy organizations. To keep the social activities within bounds and to guide them into the best channels require the constant vigilance and broad understanding of some director or supervising committee. This supervision and management is usually entrusted to the dean of women. A social committee may assist, college traditions may have established precedents to follow, but the advisory relation and the restricting force come from her office. The formal social events tend yearly to greater financial expense and to more frequent recurrence. New social functions creep in, trivial social affairs multiply, later hours are requested, greater freedom is demanded. In the bewilderment of requests that come the dean finds a work con- stantly awaiting her attention. The importance to the welfare of students that these social affairs be freely but properly conducted, elegantly but in- expensively appointed, frequently but restrictively held, presents bewilder- ing contradictions to confuse the wisest. In an age of hectic gaiety when half the world stands aghast at the daring social escapades of the other half, when the college is divided against itself in social observances, when cliques, fraternities, and clubs threaten to hold forever at variance college unity, it is supremely important that a faculty member who is in close sympathy with the student body as well as with the college policy be the authority on social concerns. Whether in the Management of the social activities DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 783 the dean of women is chairman of a joint committee of faculty members and students, or whether she merely holds an advisory relation with a student committee, the control of the situation is in her hands. The restriction, license, or modification rests with her judgment, succeeds with her strength. In most schools she registers all social events in advance, the character of the event, time, place, chaperons, and estimated expense. She restricts these events to Friday and Saturday nights, or those preceding holidays. In some schools she submits her reports for approval to a board on organizations, or to the faculty itself. By such methods the details of the social activities are made to conform with the general policy of the college. The extra-curricula activities are keeping pace with the Nationwide tendency for organization. While the brunt of the burden of control falls on the deans, and the social control almost universally on the dean of women, the importance of these activities in the lives of the students re- wards the advisor for the time exacted. Different methods of limitation apply to different institutions, but certain principles apply to all. Scholar- ship requirements, try-outs, point systems, student boards of control, faculty commissions, and faculty advisers, all have been found useful. A combina- tion of these methods, with emphasis on the personal interest, sympathy, and wisdom of the faculty adviser, is the most promising solution to the complex problem of the extra-curricula activities. These activities have come to stay. Though now in a transitional stage, they will settle back to a subordinate but acknowledged place, where, regulated by college authority and conducted by student enthusiasm, they will yield educational values in character formation and in applied wisdom. STUDENT LEADERSHIP LULU E. WIRT, DEAN OF WOMEN, NEBRASKA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KEARNEY, NEBRASKA The trend of all lines of organization since the World War has been democratic. In the business, the political, and the religious life, every one has been thinking of the group, but the group cannot be developed unless someone leads the individuals in the group. Over-stressed leadership tends to autocracy; over-developed individualism leads to Bolshevism. ‘The seeming balance is a democracy subject to control. In the governmental life of America, a directed democracy seems to be the ideal. If such method of organization is needed in the religious and political life, why is it not more vital in the educational? All educational papers and journals are filled with suggestions that teachers organize in order to secure proper professional recognition. Why does this seem to be such a hard problem? Probably because we have been without any true leader- ship, since we have no representation in the Federal Government. We as 784 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION teachers have not sufficiently advertised education to make the public feel this great need. What are the aims of an education? In the findings of a recent ques- tionnaire it was learned that a liberal education ranked first, civic and social education second, character third, and leadership fourth. But we cannot develop civic and social education apart from leadership. The colleges have been giving most of the time to teaching instead of train- ing; they have been giving time to the “what” instead of the “why” and “how.” In teaching citizenship, we must emphasize leadership, since the true purpose of leadership is to develop the individuals in a democracy. One cannot be educated unless “led out,” and in order to be “led out” some one must do the directing. It is said that the university is the school of leadership, but when we investigate statistics and find that one per cent of the American people are college graduates, we recognize what a problem is before us. If the uni- versities which have a four-year course have difficulty in producing a suf- ficient number of real leaders, how vital it is that normal schools and teachers’ colleges pause for introspection and study carefully the principles of training leaders. Although the need of developing our students as leaders is recognized, yet very little attention has been given the idea by educational writers. Student leadership means leaders in training—training for the solving of problems in the practical world. The characteristics of a student leader therefore should be those of the leader of any great organization. "The characteristics of the great leaders of our past can be best classified in the terms personality, knowledge, and initiative. Often some phase of these qualities is inherited, but in many people these qualities would lie dormant if not drawn out by training. Personality, the first characteristic of a leader, is the intangible something within which exerts an unspeakable power through a faithfulness and sympathy for others which is bound by no thought of self; it is the under- standing which knocks at the doors of the most timid, enters with the keys of insight, tact, and helpfulness, and wins the good-will of all who follow. Knowledge, the second characteristic, is the power to inspire confidence, to understand situations, or to meet any occasion be it intellectual or social. Members of any group will not follow one who does not show some superior quality. Absolute honesty in knowledge must be evident; a leader must stand on a rock foundation, not on bags of bluff. Initiative is the third quality of a leader, for how is one to guide and direct even if he has knowledge and personality if he is not able to make these qualities effective. A leader must have a vision and then have the pep and “ginger” in power of organization to put across the ideas which he has conceived. There are many intellectual dreamers, who are not leaders, because they have no method of crossing the stream. A project cannot be put across or a group cannot be led unless the leader knows how to guide by being able to organize so well that he can subordinate his own ‘ DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 785 personality to the personality of others. The true leader’s place is not above and in front, but behind and beneath. Men of influential position have failed in leadership, because they were always in front, while others in an unostentatious way have succeeded by developing their subordinates. It is said that a leader must be a scene shifter and not a star. “True lead- ership means service. It is not a gift of fate, but a gift of “pay the price.” Agreeing that a trained leader should have personality, knowledge, and initiative, the problem is how are we to develop these characteristics. From a questionnaire we discover that few schools are making conscious efforts along the line as yet, although some schools believe that attention should be given in colleges to the advancing of superior ability. This has been a recognized part of the elementary and secondary education in the semi-annual promotions. If some attention is given in the earlier part of the course, there should be greater aid given in college life. What are the conscious or unconscious means of developing leadership? How can our colleges adjust their ideals, their curricula, and their methods to pro- duce leaders. I think one of the greatest difficulties is that the faculty, either individually or as a unit, does not work to this goal. In the normal schools the students are usually so young, so inexperienced, so changing in personnel that opportunity is not given to accomplish results. Pupils in the grades and high school are so carefully directed that when they come to the college they are not ready to think or act for themselves. The faculty is usually so absorbed in their departments that they do not peer into the future and see the broad field of leading out the individuals in the group. For this reason some movement should be taken by the faculty toward advancing superior ability and finding hidden talent. It is just as important to know how to use knowledge as it is to gain it. Although normal schools stand for training, they seem to have overlooked the larger application of education in knowing how to develop true humanistic qualities of the individuals. Another method of developing leaders is student self-government. Many normal schools report no form of self-government; others have student advisory councils, student executive committees, Men’s Union, or a Women’s League. Some report that they have had student government for two years with marked success. Others have a modified form, pref- erably called representative government. The principal advantages of student self-government as we find it in many able arguments, are to create a sense of responsibility and to apply the principle of learning by doing. It seems as every school progresses, there is some tendency toward student government, and whenever this movement comes through the call of the student body, it should be carefully fostered by the faculty. The schools are for the students, and they should look after all interests, sub- ject to the control of the faculty. Student codperation in school govern- ment develops high sense of responsibility for community affairs. Besides the self-government associations for the development of leaders. we have the extra-curricula activities. Each one of these should have as. 786 NATIONAL EpuCcATION ASSOCIATION its goal to develop the individual for the sake of the group. Among these clubs we have the departmental clubs, each of which attracts in interest different types of students. ‘The various organizations train, of course, along the line of their major interest. The debating society appeals to the logical, the science to one adapted to research, the language clubs to those of literary turn, the dramatic to those, of artistic nature. Each in its turn tends to develop leaders whose ability would be otherwise unsuspected. To these may be added the athletic clubs, the religious organizations, honor associations, the Women’s League—all of which afford opportunity for talent hitherto undeveloped. The main function of the extra-curricula life of the school is to train for future service. Officers of class organizations, chairmen of commit- tees, and even membership on committees help to give confidence, and create an interest which will bring marked results. In making an estimate of the number of organizations in the schools, we find that the average is twenty. With four officers and the chairman of three committees we would be giving opportunity to about one hundred fifty persons for some leadership during a term. If the regulation for extra-curricula activities is well organized, either by the point or group system, so that there will be a rotation in office each term, a large number of the students will have some means of assuming responsibility. The tendency is to load down the student of proved ability rather than to try out new talent. Sponsors permit regulations to be overstepped and allow the natural leader to remain in charge either on account of following the line of least resistance or on account of aiding the progress of the club which will advance much better in the hands of the experienced leader. Teachers depend too much upon the seniors and give them all the honors. They undoubtedly do manage well, but when they are gone there is no one trained to start the new year. Responsibility should be best placed upon the juniors and the best under- classmen, in.order that there may be good material for the succeeding year. There are many other ways besides the self-government councils and extra-curricula activities which furnish training in leadership. The organization of the daily class on the principles of the elementary socialized recitation will accomplish much. Often there are class officers and leaders of special groups which have a definite problem to work out. Any ot these methods of giving responsibility will add much to the regular work. The special attention and direction which a faculty member as adviser gives to a group of students assists much in helping a student to find him- self and to know in what line he should develop. In some schools we have an excellent illustration of a conscious effort of developing leadership through an Open Forum, where a number of selected students conduct pro- grams, these students being specially prepared to answer any questions which are asked by a student body. This is especially fine in taking up world problems. Leadership is gained principally through practice, and in every way impression precedes expression. It is undoubtedly the experience of every DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 787 teacher that students do not usually assume responsibility, but depend too much upon their advisers to carry on their work. If the sponsor does not lead, nothing is done. For this reason, a member of the faculty should acquaint herself with the principles of true guidance. The chairman of a committee should be held responsible for a certain task in a group, but before she can be held responsible for this task, such as taking charge of a devotional committee of a Y. W. C. A., she must know what is the policy and the aim of the committee. Here as in teaching we must have direction or illustrative teaching. Sponsors should take part in making plans but not in carrying them out. Directions too often are vague and students fail to measure up. Faculty must give counsel but not take work out of students’ hands. Before a girl can be held responsible for a task she must know exactly what it is. After a sponsor knows that a student under- stands the general plan of work, then all opportunity should be given her to develop her own ideas. If students are given free reign to accomplish a certain end, this desired end will be accomplished. Make the student responsible for fact and form, but give privileges and power only as fast as they can be assimilated. Contributions will increase in amount and ability. as the student gains in age and experience. Trained leadership requires direction and sympathetic coéperation. College teachers should enter upon their careers because of the opportunity to develop leadership in young people, and thus render to society a great service. ‘There is no more gratifying news to a faculty member than the report of the success of a graduate in any social or intellectual leadership. Since there is such a growing tendency to measure all educational work by standard tests, one pauses to reflect upon a standard of measurement for student leadership. It should be judged by the people interested in the group, but one knows that it is hard to measure either the process or the ultimate products since in the mental and spiritual life there can be no ultimation. Life is a growth, and growth is a continual process. A leader must grow with the world’s progress. A most gratifying reward of a teacher is to watch a student grow physically, mentally, socially, and spiritually, and to know that she has had a part in that growth. With the great change in world conditions, educators should realize that we are to develop the humanistic as well as the intellectual—which means a development in personality, culture, and leadership. Let us understand the characteristics of a great leader, then apply the many concrete ways of training these leaders. Then shall we see through our well-trained stu- dent leaders many changes in the social world. 788 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION RELATION OF THE DEAN OF WOMEN TO THE PRO- FESSIONAL LIFE OF THE STUDENT MRS. BESSIE LEACH PRIDDY, DEAN OF WOMEN, MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICHIGAN It may be well to state in advance that inasmuch as this paper is written for a Normal School section of the Dean’s Conference we are putting aside all thought that young women in our respective institutions may be preparing for other professions than teaching, excepting in so far as when we are compelled to seek the elimination of any students from our normal school. We may at those times necessarily look over the palings of our most sacred precincts and try to point our rejected ones to other vocations and professions. In devoting our attention, then, exclusively to the topic of how deans of women may aid normal students in their professional life the question that naturally arises is, is teaching a profession? If we answer affirma- tively for either the present or the future it will be necessary for us to define for ourselves just what we mean by a profession. “In a true pro- fession the pursuit of gain is subordinated to the aim of service.”? There can be no nobler thing to demand of man than that he have a constant, a sincere, and a dominating desire to serve society. If this is to be the first significant trait that entitles teaching to be classed as a profession we shall rest assured that we shall be scarcely able to find any other distinguishing characteristics so important as this thing of demanding that a man or woman be possessed of a consuming desire to have this world better for either having lived in it. But there are other very essential earmarks of a profession and probably to the ordinary mind the really distinguishing mark of a profession is the fact that in order to practice one it is necessary to acquire somewhat difficult technical knowledge not possessed by ordinary people and not at all necessary for them to acquire in order to be successful in unprofessional walks in life, knowledge, the benefits of which they are to receive through the agency of these same professional people. It goes without saying that this certain knowledge is presupposed to be actually and honestly and thoroughly acquired. Sometimes it is taken for granted that those acquiring it are especially talented. There is a corollary to this matter of the professional classes possessing a body of technical knowledge; the layman is necessarily entirely dependent upon the classes that possess it, he must put himself trustingly in their hands. Then it follows as the night the day that there is the necessity of ex- cluding the unfit from the ranks of the professional callings as well as the desirability of attracting to these ranks the highly suitable and superior. There is also the social recognition of the value and importance of the service rendered, this recognition coming formally through certain privi- leges and protections accorded by law to the various so-called professions "Ross, Edward Alsworth, Principles of Sociology, p. 474. Parts of the discussion of a profession also follow Ross. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 789 and informally in certain intangible social attitudes unmistakably present when professional services are rendered. ‘The truly professional in spirit are devoted to the welfare of their clients, placing the client’s good before their own when once they have undertaken to serve him. Yet the highest professional attitude lies in considering the good of all society even before the good of the client. . People in truly professional attitude will often serve without pay or according to the ability of the client to pay, and they will neither laud themselves nor seek to sell their wares to the highest bidder, laboring always for love of the work and interest in the problem rather than for fame or wealth. Their service, too, will be none impaired because reward fails, nothing less than the best that is in them can they bring themselves to give. We think of the one in a profession as having not only a certain loyalty to the client, to society, and to his own ideal of service, but we also expect him to have a certain fidelity to his co-workers, a certain pride in them, zeal for them, and even an enthusiasm not only for achieving with them but a capacity for suffering through their sufferings. And lastly we con- ceive of a profession as an institution that has, from within, established a code of ethics which although compatible with the best interests of society is none the less enforced from within its own group. Just what services may be classed as professional perhaps none will agree. “That many times people are able to maintain a professional atti- tude only in part is doubtless true. Society has long conceded the dignity of professions to law, medicine, and theology. When the art of politics has produced a statesman, we have the professional attitude in service to the State; when we study the mere politician, we perceive that he escapes being great by that margin which measures his failure to let the spirit of service dominate his activities. “The architect, the public accountant, the artist, the editor, the poet, the dramatist, the novelist, even the banker, the merchant, or the maid may achieve the professional spirit but where gain becomes the objective, no matter what the nature of the work, the pro- fessional life is not created. With this prelude in mind we can perhaps better answer the question propounded to us this afternoon—‘“How may we as deans of women in normal schools aid the students in their professional lives?” Let us con- sider first the characteristic of possessing a certain amount of technical knowledge, acquired through expenditure of money and time and effort and also perhaps by virtue of that indefinable something we call ability. The deans of women are certainly as yet somewhat limited in their power to influence this condition. Certainly their influence in the shaping of curricula is not large at present. Usually to them is given the occasional opportunity to advise with some student upon her selection of a course of study or upon her choice of subjects within the course. At the best these opportunities are haphazard and almost accidental. A surer but not altogether to-be-desired opportunity comes in periodic consultations with 790 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION failing students. Opportunity for suggestion at these times is not particu- larly promising, because here they are always dealing with the handicapped, the limited, the misfits, and yet right here if they can but get the time to prepare individual schedules and study each case as carefully as a social worker would her cases of dependency, delinquency, and the like, they may in time both systematize the methods of determining and treating certain types of problems and also be ready to aid students in attempting to obtain the particular kind of technical knowledge and develop the par- ticular kind of skill for which their abilities and environment have fitted them. That administrators in education have much of power to attract young people of superior ability into certain lines of work is of course recognized by all. Probably the nearer their own characters square to the ideals of personal worth, the greater will be their contribution in bringing others into the teaching profession. On the point of the power of the dean of women to raise the standards of our professional life by the elimination of the unfit doubtless many’ of us have most decided opinions. It is my personal feeling that so far as the women students of an institution are concerned a dean of women should have it within her power to eliminate objectionable young women from the campus, checked only by a review of the cases by a faculty committee, this committee acting only in an advisory capacity. If a woman is big enough to take the responsibility of the wel- fare of the women on her shoulders she certainly should be trusted enough to be allowed to eliminate the dangerous from the group for which she is responsible. The statistics of the institution with which I am most familiar ‘go to show that fully 90 per cent of the social problems on the campus come from the group of girls whose mentality by the army test measures below 110 points. Low mentality and faulty early home environment practically cover cases of grave social errors, and we would be furthering both the interests of the teaching profession and simplifying campus problems enormously if we could expeditiously subtract these people from the student body. It is always an open question if people of low-grade mentality can do college work well enough to warrant expenditure of State money upon their education. Their fitness to enter the teaching profession is most doubtful, the economic waste of the process of trial and error is terrific, and the social menace accompanying the experiment is often unfair to the people with whom they are thrown in contact. Inasmuch as scholastic achievement quite markedly parallels the findings of the army test it would seem reasonable after applying said test to all freshmen to allow all those accepted under a certain grade to be placed on probation for one term only, to be dropped either for inability to do the work or for doubtful social standards. The establishing among the women of an institution of the ideal of painstaking, accurate high-grade scholarship is no mean task for a dean DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN 791 of women to set for herself. The trend of modern education has been utterly away from the emphasis on scholarship for scholarship’s sake. The utilitarian value of subjects taught, the market value of skill attained, and results rather than methods have engrossed the thoughts of twentieth- century schoolmen. The pace of modern life has caught the whiz in transportation and the tum-tum of the jazz, and youth seems reeling in a hectic swirl, where joy is found in a high exhilaration of the senses, of which the sense of motion seems to be the most courted. ‘Those quiet satis- factions that once came from appreciation of esthetic values, from acquisi- tion of intellectual comprehension and power, from speculation upon and interpretation of the everlasting meanings of human living seem no longer to be the objectives of education. To an administrative woman would come the precious opportunity of finding and gathering about her souls still open to this sort of appeal if ever her work were standardized enough to leave her time and strength for such vitally constructive efforts. As the position of dean goes today, however, the time of the office is absorbed with the bad: actors and the poor thinkers, with the problems that should be off the campus instead of on it, and the people of promise achieve, if achieve they must, with little of aid or attention, with even much of obstacle that should have been re- moved from their paths. Ability to eliminate would save muck-raking and increase building power. Something of this spur to scholarship, however, the office of the Dean may apply to student group life by leading women’s organizations to make formal recognition of scholarship achievements and by inspiring compet- itive spirit in regard to scholarship attainments. Scholarly attainment may be further promoted by the creation of a scholarly atmosphere through recommended lectures, available reading material, and type of social activ- ity fostered. Devotion to truthful scholarship would certainly be a most valuable asset to furnish these young people as a preparation for profes- sional life. The helping a student to find the proper sphere in the teachng life is a task that sometimes comes to advisers of women. Girls find it absolutely necessary to change courses attempted. Self-supporting girls, girls out of peculiar environments and the children of immigrants all need our especial attention that they may find with as little waste as possible their places of greatest service. Today Finns, Poles, Russian Jews, and Italians are filtering into our normal schools, tomorrow it will be Czechs and Serbs and what not. Quite often one finds them filled with an earnest desire to so prepare as to be best able to go back home and teach their own people. What an opportunity is this to do real Americanization work, an op- portunity sitting as it were on our own doorsteps and waiting to be em- braced. In all these cases as with the special problems heretofore mentioned the special individual studies arranged in a card file with a regular social worker’s schedule of the case under consideration will be found to be of great value. Such schedules should have blanks for in- 792 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION formation on home address, high-school record, church, parentage, age, nativity, data on pre-college experiences, college address, course, scholar- ship record in college, financial situation, social record, health, notes as to talents, ambitions, present plans, possibilities, and mentality. On the reverse of this card could be kept any post-college activities known so that as the years go by one will be able to measure, somewhat, precision of judgment in advising and efficacy of one or the other method of treatment of peculiar cases. As to this biggest thing of all in the professional life of the teacher, the spirit of service, perhaps here is a golden opportunity for our ilk. Ethical and moral principles seem to be best taught when they are presented casually, occasionally, and unexpectedly. Advisers of women may by their own examples, by their formal talks to women’s organizations, by com- munications to house groups and by individual work get over to the student body this very necessary ideal for the teaching profession and they may aid in many ways the development into the kind of woman that can really serve. 2 A teacher’s service has two big general subdivisions, the service she renders to individuals and the service she gives to the community. A part of her service to individuals lies in her fitness to be an example to others of fit living, seemly looking, gentle acting, and high thinking. To learn the art of sane, well-balanced living while a college student is no mean or easy accomplishment in these modern days of ours, to lead the twentieth-century girl to dignified and demure adornment would indeed surprise the gods themselves, to obtain the well-modulated voice, the patient, loving kindness, the neighborly hand from one to another is of worth beyond computation, and she who can alter the standards of valua- tion for the next generation, who can lead the young to prize the things of the mind and the spirit, has indeed created treasure beyond compare. The simplest matters of health and sanitation, of propriety in dress and manner, of seemly conduct in both business and leisure hours, of attitude of mind to companions, to youth, to age, to inferior and superior, all of these things enter into the preparation of our students for the teaching profession. Much of this must be obtained if obtained at all, from extra- curricula activities. If once the prospective teacher fully absorbs the point of view that she is seeking the privilege of leading a life of personal example which many of the next generation will elect to follow, surely her spirit will be chas- tened and her manner tempered. The revelation to the young people of a true teacher’s place in community living is the crowning opportunity for all who now teach or administer. On the finding of this place rests the hope of future progress. One by one restraints and sanctions of authority seem to melt away and be disregarded. In this new freedom that seems recently to have been almost precipitated on us, in this utter absence of so many of the old restraining influences, DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN pas chaos and anarchy, destruction without reconstruction will surely come unless in the absence of other control, self-control be learned. The art of teaching self-control may perhaps be placed as the real ulti- mate goal of the educator. On the basis of a desire for self-control rests our faith in all student self-government organizations. On account of our faith in being able to develop self-control we are keeping ourselves heartened for the future. From the ones who have learned the art of self-control the community life of this country must draw its leadership. Every community has a right to expect such leadership from its teaching body. We were once a highly individualistic people. Pioneer condition, homo- geneity of culture, ideal, race, and religion, the agricultural basis of our economic life all tended to emphasize the self-sufficiency of individual worth. Complex social life has come, heterogeneity of race, religion, cul- ture, and ideal is upon us. Only as we succeed in developing self-conscious and ably lead community living here shall we be able to make survive those ideals we as a people prize. It has been said that a Nation is a way of thinking upon fundamental social institutions. If there is an Americanism it is the sum total of American ideals of home, of church, of school, of business life, of State. Upon this profession of teaching rests the responsibility of perpetuating such ideals. If the preparation for this professional life is well guided, then the true mission of this professional life will be achieved. To be a guide in such preparation is indeed a sacred trust. Pctha ai oa aor a aie 4 oe estas ° ; Ap 09%. < pARARUARIAER IO, WATANABE pb Ha toes eee anny TH Oe, | gr rpaloe: goes ene tht " $41 gapaang) .o va 9 hea “ao aps Moqh, be iaaat 3 nae “een Saunt qT OS Hae 10 stil uAEBOD arta) : rag Aplerkee', yas " ene oF At ak ie Oy irs Tp Bextor ey. cently rie bet ates eee Hea ci oan fi | saealacen, oipgui gy ya a3 .< A a ey: ty, eo, leur has ihe gilt Oath, Avied a ¥- y Se +} 5 “i Abe 2 ean’. iegiaiy?,. ot poh 7 ‘9 > ius Lgiet bi, aet, a ee: ett pila BY anu tise 3a Os ae tf a RAN Bru ra Foti qi pide. aN ¥ Lspertge bt dceayy. mnid cists io ee ; ¢ Pa , ; ie tt, i “CaM oti : piel to un es ie io ip, 7 th me ME cige i wey ditions. 9 ‘ehest Seat Sesbius oe f a if te dori : dy gol Je si iG L = 9 bl Oh, ri iTiyy ear, ve + +7 he fi d ‘ Ft a , iS t J ‘Ey ' Al ? raphe ) a ge, . ) ° 7 ‘ Per aR ode pleas te “obbtiy the: Asay vest al ted ve Ree Aaa the ndigtiborly yond fran Qria I ana er aT ER GWA Whe CHIE ct Fee aod ote why cin abteie the itondytilg: nf * : , “ft: nik poonratt nite lal as . leo alt SO ivy <0 prise rae iinet xd “s faet®s arct ake . Ase> €¢ aPCLiy, | fas widest ct hates! trend res tanh ear } a : re eM EFS Fa Re Pog - Poh aoe, Peete ba nated t,o : > » Oreeiatct eee tee 49 {ihesti wa Si) Baiaa ol” Paes uty ‘dts in 2? acorn ees -y, } La frencts rts piy 2 Gis Te Cupar cake, ae Wentvy yee! tae Bye Ae iy Ges fee frig 4? yo x7 ae os cd i rv patent 714 oes ms t., 7 4 a | . rats! et all> Jee eaee 2 see riien i ) ‘ ’ ; i * ; : “. * ra a P 7 te ‘ Z ; ct} bey ’ f ar j ik *) ily Marts ol Fl PVN GL WitwW- eea hr i. Rie Pere ° rec-4 ; we Wit @ Se GF Petecets Re Seb ctrunke areal t 4 = : - ; t: (me r Tivkhas tty ir Sar a ™ ee Ba frites Sect h oboe fry evenaenits vr 5 : : “] (are - os IGM ioe, * Det + ies by ofiteg Te -~ =» astey pa rfieds- Department of Educational Publications SECRETARY’S MINUTES OFFICERS President, Grorcr 1, Towne, President of the University Publishing Company, Lincoln, Nebr, Secretary, C. W. Taser, Western Manager of Lippincott & (Otyangine Se oot ad aoe Chicago, Ill. The meeting of the department was called to order promptly at 2 o'clock by J. W. Searson, professor of English of the University of Nebraska, who was asked by President Towne to express to the department his sincere regret at being prevented by the doctor’s orders from attending the Boston meeting. Mr. Searson also expressed the regrets of Secretary Taber, who was prevented from attending meeting on account of important business. On motion, J. W. Searson was unanimously requested to preside at the meeting and take the minutes of the proceedings. The following pro- gram was then carried out: Arrer-War RECOVERY IN THE TEXTBOOK PUBLISHING BUSINESS— Charles H. Seaver, Manager of Educational Department, The Mac- millan Company, New York, N. Y. Kerrpinc Pace witH NATION-WIDE DEMAND FOR REORGANIZATION or ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL Course oF Stupy—Howard R. Driggs, Au- thor and Lecturer, New York, N. Y. Discussion—Led by Charles Swain Thomas, Editor of Educational Department, The Atlantic Monthly Press, Boston, Mass. Sart Economics In Trexrsook Maxitnc—George W. Ohler, Chi- cago Manager, The University Publishing Company, Chicago, Il. GENERAL DISCUSSIONS At the business meeting following the program, the following officers were elected unanimously for the coming year: For president, George L. Towne, president of the University Publishing Company, Lincoln, Nebr. ; for secretary, C. W. Taber, Western manager of Lippincott & Co., Chi- cago, Ill. AFTER-WAR RECOVERY IN THE TEXTBOOK PUBLISHING BUSINESS CHARLES H. SEAVER, MANAGER OF EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT, THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, NEW YORK CITY The effects of the war on the school-book business were not fully realized until after the war. During the first three years of the war, before Ameri- can participation, the costs involved in the school-book business gradually rose. This was recognized here and there in certain small adjustments of prices, though publishers were slow in their appreciation of any change and [795] 796 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION generally adhered to established prices of books already published. In 1917 and 1918 the rise in costs became more marked. Prices had to be adjusted all along the line, but the fetish of the pre-war as the normal was still cherished and adjustments sufficient to meet the realities of- the situation were not ventured. The two years after the war was a precarious period for publishers of school books, already injured by their slowness to appreci- ate the tendencies of the times and not fortified against a day of trouble by anticipatory measures. All of us expected a speedy return to normalcy and thought we had weathered the worst storms. ‘Then came the real effects of the war for us. It is painful to open old wounds, to recite in detail the ills we suffered in those days. We tried to make bricks without straw—books without paper. Much wisdom was left unexpressed for lack of paper, and in those days paper was certainly more precious than wisdom. Compositors, electro- typers, printers, binders took vacations with exasperating indifference or worked with exasperating inefficiency. “A binder, a binder, my kingdom for a binder!’’ was the cry of many a publisher, and some nearly sacrificed their kingdoms. ‘The labor turnover in offices also increased the publishers’ distress. Stories are told of weird and wonderful bookkeeping and ship- ping. Authors whose manuscripts had been put in cold storage during the war now thought them well cured and wanted them published and mar- keted in spite of almost*prohibitive conditions. High on a throne of royal state, dominating the school-book business, it seemed that Satan exalted sat. Amid such difficulties and with costs 200 per cent greater than had pre- vailed before the war, we were expected to furnish for the schools, with usual promptness, books of unimpaired quality, at prices in many States and other communities fixed by contract or listing when another level of costs prevailed. We tried to obtain mercy or at least justice. We got some concessions. Many school men were sympathetic, but in general the laws as interpreted allowed no relief. Codperation on the part of the pub- lishers might have mitigated their common distress, but for various reasons general and whole-hearted codperation seemed impossible. In one way or another, however, we all struggled through. The years 1921 and 1922 have been years of recovery. The present situation offers several contrasts with the situation that has just been briefly described ; five features of the situation may, perhaps, be worthy of men- tion. (1) Costs have been reduced to some extent and seem to be fairly well stabilized, at least in comparison with the day-by-day shifting costs of the few previous years. Manufacturing costs are probably about three fourths higher than in 1914 or 1915, but substantially lower than in 1919 and 1920. In manufacturing costs the element of labor has shown little change, but the efficiency of labor has improved ; the element of materials, such as paper and cloth, has shown considerable change. Operating cost, working expense, overhead—whatever this necessary part of the cost of school books may be called—has not fallen to any large extent and seems unlikely to fall, though the enforced introspection and economy of the war DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS 197 experience may have sometime brought about more efficient methods and abolished some wasteful practices. The principal elements, salaries and wages, cannot be reduced under present conditions. All who are sincerely and intelligently interested in education believe, I am sure, that the super- intendent, the principal, and the teacher, the author and the publisher of textbooks, and the bookman, the missionary of new educational ideas, are all worthy of their hire. Our Salvation Army of the Gospel of Educa- tional Progress, constituted by the organizations of school-book publishers, must be maintained to bring light into dark places, to make wise the simple, and to equalize educational opportunity. (2) Although in every other industry increased costs were quickly re- flected in increased prices, publishers of school books were slow to respond to the demands of new conditions, as has been noted, on account of the keen competition of the business, the variety and complexity of school-book legislation, and the general optimism that long prevailed. ‘They made advances in prices only when ruin stared them in the face. When relief came, publishers generally charged off losses on stock manufactured at high costs and gave the public the benefit of prices fixed according to the new level of costs. Some publishers had survived the severe ordeal by such a narrow margin that they were unable to respond to new conditions so quickly as others; and others have so-called overhead expenses of a question- able character that require high prices; but in general there have been such reductions as the present level of costs justifies, showing that profiteering is not justly chargeable to this business. In every subject textbooks of the highest quality in content and manufacture can now be obtained at un- questionably reasonable prices, which are not likely to be substantially lowered in the near future. (3) The market for school books, varying somewhat from year to year according to general business conditions though not in any direct relation, seems reasonably steady and not at all discouraging. A serious problem confronting boards of education is to meet increasing educational needs with limited taxing possibilities. But there must be provided, in one way or another, adequate school buildings, competent, well-trained teachers, and a sufficient supply of suitable textbooks. The cost of textbooks is such a trivial item in the total educational expenditure—probably about 2 per cent —that the publisher is not likely to be asked to abandon his efforts to keep American textbooks the best in the world or to be discouraged in his mission to incorporate in this form the steady advance in educational thought and practice for the increasing millions of children who pass through our schools. (4) The term propaganda came into general use during the war. There was pro-German propaganda, pro-Ally propaganda, Government propaganda, peace propaganda, Democratic propaganda, Republican propa- ganda, Socialist propaganda, prohibition propaganda, Bolshevist propa- ganda, and so on in profusion. There was much silly talk along with use- ful agitation. For instance, I attended a schoolmasters’ meeting in 1917 798 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION where a New York lawyer pointed out the terrible menace of a reader used in American schools. It contained a story in which Frederick the Great of Prussia appeared in a favorable light. If Greece and Italy had joined the enemy, what should we have done in those days to Homer’s Iliad and to Caesar’s Commentaries? School books were examined with high-power microscopes for words or phrases which, with or without their setting, might be construed as pro-German or anti-Allies, or pro-Socialist, « or pro- or anti- something else. The habit of looking for propaganda in school books, or conversely of insisting that propaganda be placed in school books, has not yet reached pre-war proportions but is certainly waning. If any authors and publishers yielded to the pro-British propaganda of the war period to the extent of emphasizing the British side of the controversy that led to the American Revolution and depreciating the cause of the Revo- lutionists, they now confront an anti-British propaganda at least equally vigorous and most embarrassing. ‘This is but one example of propaganda and counter-propaganda. With Vierecks, Stevensons, Forrests, and other professional propagandists busy earning their living in this interesting pro- fession, what are the publishers to do? “The temptation to aid and abet the agitators whenever our interest happens to lie that way is almost irresistible, but a vicious practice is thus encouraged and experience has already shown that those who applaud one inquisition may be the victims of the next. ‘The temptation also to sacrifice truth and justice in weakly yielding to propaganda has been alluring to some authors and publishers. One is reminded of the candidate for a teaching position in a rural com- munity who was asked by the examining trustee whether he taught that the earth was round or flat. He replied, “I am prepared to teach either, according to local sentiment.” In regard to propaganda of the sorts I have mentioned, if authors and publishers steered a straight course, fairly considering all criticisms but trimming their sails to none of the current breezes that would blow them outside such a course, they would find their own interests and the interest of the school-book business and the interest of education, in the long run, best served. (5) Schoolmen and bookmen whose experience gives them a good perspective, who can compare present conditions with those of fifteen or twenty or twenty-five years ago, have noted a real change in the relations of school-book business to the school world, in the Ways and means of choosing textbooks and of securing the choice of them. The ideal of the choice of textbooks according to merit and the submission of them on the basis of their merit would exclude from competition the greater part of our textbooks and perhaps some publishers altogether, but yet it would allow some range to school authorities and publishers on account of disagreement among experts as to educational methods and the demand for progress through experimentation. While no such ideal, of course, is fully realiz- able, schoolmen and school-book publishers ought to join in keeping it be- fore themselves and in prizing it as an ideal; ought to resent and to combat the scorning of it. School books are submitted and adopted by human DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS 799 beings, it is true, rather than by disembodied intelligences. We might com- pare our minds even in this highly intelligent age to the old-fashioned houses that many of us knew in our youth. ‘There is the parlor of reason, in which we take great pride but which we seldom enter, except on extraor- dinary occasions. ‘There is the sitting-room, a sociable place where we spend much time in adjusting ourselves to our environments and entertain- ing our friends and acquaintances. ‘There is the dining-room where we take in mental food and drink, nutritious and unnutritious, furnished by publishers, or by the N. E. A., or other sources. There is the bedroom where we rest, which some of us occupy almost continuously. There is the attic, where the outworn furniture, old clothes, and rubbish of our minds are stored. School books are sometimes offered and adopted in the parlor by a thoroughly rational process—a procedure found to be fairly possible under proper administration and, of course, highly desirable. More often these things are done. in the sitting-room or dining-room in human and not altogether deplorable ways, with perhaps brief excursions to the parlor. Then, too, schoolmen may be mentally bed-ridden or som- nolent and cannot be waked up, especially when publishers and bookmen are likewise disposed. Some also live so much in their mental attics that old prejudices rule them. But let us try earnestly at least to keep textbook adoptions from being made in the cellar. There may have been some reaction after the war—a little more license for the continuance or revival of practices that were gradually becoming outlawed in the school-book business; but in the long run, superintendents of schools, textbook commis- sions, and other school authorities still show increasing unwillingness to par- ticipate in or to countenance the prostitution of their positions and of their schools in this way. Moreover the standards of publishers in general have certainly risen within the past twenty-five years and most of them are more regardful than ever of the good repute of the school-book business. In summary, we have put behind us our troubles and liquidated our losses of several disturbed and disturbing years. We face new conditions. different from what prevailed before the war, in some respects worse, in most respects better. Significant features of our present situation, as I have mentioned, are the stabilizing of costs on a level below that of the war period but above that of the pre-war period ; the adjustment of prices on a corresponding level; the steadiness of the school-book market; the gradual subsidence of propaganda affecting school books; and the persistence, even ‘na time of reaction and in spite of many exceptions, of high standards. among schoolmen and bookmen as to the conduct of the school-book busi- ness. We all recognize and are studying the realities of today and should be fully conscious that the so-called war period has left permanent effects. which we must take into our reckoning. The war was not a mere paren- thesis, and pre-war conditions will, of course, never return. The old is. not the normal. What is normal is change and development. 800 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION KEEPING PACE WITH THE NATION-WIDE DEMAND FOR REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY ° HOWARD R. DRIGGS, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH A few winters ago a blizzard swept over New York, burying the city under several feet of snow, paralyzing surface traffic and keeping most folk at home for a few hours. When the storm finally subsided, the speaker, in company with a number of other dwellers in the “human filing cases,’ in trying to make his way to the nearest grocery store to replenish his larder, saw a rather interesting sight. Along the car track along Broad- way were more than a thousand men all working with the same central purpose: They were digging out the life line. Beneath the snow and beneath the frozen ground was the electric wire. Until that was un- covered not a street car on that line could move a wheel. What has this incident to do with textbook production? Nothing, except to serve as a kind of parable with which to illuminate the main point in this talk. In the frantic effort of publishers to keep pace with ‘the times, within recent years our schools have been subjected to a blizzard of books. From the days of the old blue-backed speller we have rather suddenly leaped into a time when texts are being broadcasted over the country by the billions. It is a very grave question whether this storm of printed pages will not eventually stop the wheels of educational progress—if, in some measure, it has not already done so. How, you ask. Principally in three ways: first, by substituting reading for thinking; second, by smothering the curriculum with hurriedly written, time-wasting texts; third, by piling up burdens on the school budget till it breaks, Regarding the first point, there certainly would seem to be more dissipa- tion than education in the ordinary reading of today. It consists for the large part of glancing at the headlines, fingering nervously through the magazines to see the pictures; or chasing through some popular novel to discover whether the Sheik, or some other hero, finally landed the prize. As to school work, there is much of the same superficiality. From the old pioneer diet of the ‘““Three R’s,” our course of study has developed into a Thanksgiving feast. The result is that pupils are nibbling of this and tasting of that and getting in most cases not a sound building up but mental dyspepsia. There is too much reading and too little thinking in our schools. Children are being flooded with printed matter. And worse still, familiarity is breeding contempt for books. ' As ; All of which brings us to the second. vital point. Much of this dis- respect for books comes from the books themselves. In the mad race to keep up with recent kaleidoscopic changes in education, publishers have been pouring out a multiplicity of “half-baked” books. These thoughtlessly DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS 801 prepared, unteachable texts have been thrust upon the schools to the distress of teachers and pupils alike. ‘The result has been a deplorable waste not only of teaching and study effort, but of school funds. And this brings us to the third point. In face of the serious financial stringency through which our schools are now passing this question must be faced fearlessly. “Io what extent is this stringency caused by wasteful methods in textbook making and book buying? Publishers, as well as teachers, are most vitally concerned in the answer to this question. “They are even-more deeply interested in the solution of another question which naturally springs out of the one just propounded: What practical measures can be taken to prevent the production of ill- prepared, unteachable texts? The temptation is strong right here to propose a ten-year-textbook holi- day to dig out the life lines. Such a daring suggestion might seriously shock the hopes of a few million textbook bees that have been started buzzing ’round various heads by bookmen, over anxious to win adoptions, but there are certain folk who would give it a hearty welcome.’ The holi- day would offer to a host of buried editors an opportunity to dig out; it would give authors a chance to think before they write; and it would en- able some big men to read through the book with a little more care before they allow their names to go on the cover thereof as co-authors of the product. But setting aside the suggestion of a textbook recess as impracticable, if not undesirable, let us face a few suggestions that may offer a practical way to protect both the publisher and the public from poorly prepared texts and at the same time keep our schools moving along the life lines of real progress. Textbooks we must have. Only the very best are good enough. It may be to get these we must still continue to go through the wasteful process of fiercely competitive selection, which results too often not in “the survival of the fittest” but rather in the selection of those with the best political pull. But our hope is that real merit will come eventually to its own. And to further such merit we propose for consideration the follow- ing protective preliminary requirements: 1. “Camouflaged texts” are hereby taboo—the real author’s name must hereafter appear on the cover. 2. “Tangent texts” are likewise to be given little or no consideration. The book must fit sensibly into the course of study. 3. Duplication of subject matter under new headings is not to be allowed. Each new line of work must stand on its own ground. 4, Authors are to be asked to submit with all texts for children answers to their own questions, and to work out the exercises they propose. And further to stand ready to demonstrate the practicability of the lessons. 5. Texts must be written in clear, correct, concise, and stimulating English. If some such requirements as these were made, the result would be a 802 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION “scrapping” of thousands of useless texts that now burden our schools and a protection of defenseless teachers and pupils against the blizzard of poorly prepared books that are robbing us not only of money but time and the truest educational training. In a word, it is my feeling that the best way to keep pace with the present mad chase is to set a new, more sensible pace by demanding greater care in the publications prepared for our schools. DISCUSSION .OF MR. DRIGGS’ TALK ON KEEPING PACE WITH THE REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION CHARLES SWAIN THOMAS, EDITOR OF THE EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT, THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY PRESS, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS In contemplating the changes that have taken place in the making of American textbooks during the past years, it is interesting to note the emphasis that has been placed upon what I shall call four different notes: (1) The individual note; (2) the inspirational and interpretative note; (3) the human note; and (4) the esthetic note. The individual note—Perhaps if there has been one consideration that has dominated all others in American education during the last twenty years, it is the consideration that has been given to the individual pupil. We have seen the errors that result when we have tried to educate children in large unwieldly groups. “There was a tendency in the past to think of these in a collective way, and to ignore the peculiarities of the especially bright or the especially dull child. A teacher was satisfied if there was secured at the end of the term a reasonable level of efficiency. In the best of our schools that tendency is no longer observable. We give consideration to the students of exceptional ability, and to those whose mental growth has been unfortunately retarded. We have even in many schools abandoned our emphasis upon class instruction, and have made it center upon individual instruction. We have adopted both here in America and England what has come to be known as the Dalton Plan. By this plan a comparatively few number of recitations are held. Pupils are given the individual assignment of work for an entire week, or an entire month, in all the branches studied. The time in which this work may be done arid the way in which it may be done is left to the individual pupils. If he wishes he may complete all his arithmetic work in a single day, and allow the work in language to lapse until the end of the week or the end of the month. He is held to the strict accomplishment of the total task, but left large freedom for the execution: of the particular task. Always he is en- couraged to seek the personal aid which their instructor in conference may give, Emphasis upon this type of instruction guides the textbook editor in his method of procedure. He sees the work being done, not in class groups =) DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS 803 but by the individual pupil. The editor is naturally a little more careful to see that his instruction is so clear that the dullest may understand, and at the same time, so comprehensive in scope that the brightest may be properly incited to higher attainment. ‘The editor, as well as the teacher, is looking to the fullest possible development of the individual. The inspirational and interpretative note—Another tendency in textbook making and in school instruction is seen in the emphasis that has been placed upon what I have called the inspirational and interpretative note. We have come to recognize the fact that education does not consist so much in the accumulation of a mass of data as it does in the arousal of the spirit. We shall always recognize the value of information, and we shall place proper stress upon the mastery of technical details and care in such important essentials as spelling, punctuation, and grammatical form; but in all our instruction, particularly in our language work and particularly in literature, we shall be concerned in the interpretation of the spirit of the selection. We shall try to make the student feel that he should, so far as possible, come into co-incident thinking and co-incident feeling with the author. To do this with poets of high merit is difficult, but it should, nevertheless, be the constant aim of the reader. Only by such an endeavor can we really come to understand the deeper thought and the higher spiritual note of any given author. In particular ways, moreover, the teacher and the editor can be of con- stant help. Mere abstractions can be explained by the means of many concrete illustrations. The character of an individual in fiction can be interpreted by his likeness to or his difference with certain individuals in our own acquaintance or within the acquaintance of the group to which we make our appeal. A description of some particular landscape in England may, by a teacher and editor, be made clearer by bringing to the attention of the readers similar well-known scenes in the United States. Political events and movements of one country may be explained by reference to political events and movements in another country. “The method of con- trast and comparison will constantly be used, and the message be made clearer by such practice. An endeavor to make the thought clear and at the same time to fire the enthusiasm and inspire the spirit of the pupil, will be the constant aim. The human note—We have made, particularly in our geographical texts, tremendous progress in the human appeal. We are no longer satisfied with such bare and sterile demands as “Bound Kentucky.” We wish to inspire our pupils to acquire acquaintanceship with the boys and girls and the men and women of Kentucky. We lead them through various States and see conditions in various parts of the country, in the cities, in the rural districts, at home and abroad—everywhere we strive to make ourselves, in imagina- tion at least, cosmopolites. We throw emphasis upon the men at work and try to understand something of their feelings in the shop, or on the farm, or in the home. We try to get away from mere figures, and maps, and plans, and allow full scope for the imagination as it manifests itself in human, intimate ways. 804 NationaL EpucaAtTIoNn ASSOCIATION The esthetic note—A contrast of the study of the textbooks of many of our foreign countries reveals the emphasis that we are placing upon the format of the book, the type that we use, the illustrations that we insert, the binding selected—all these are recognized elements in present-day American education. It has recently been my privilege to spend three or four months in visit- ing English schools. While I have recognized in certain directions superior qualities in British instruction, I have been pleased to note the superiority of American texts, particularly in this manner of esthetic appeal. While we are striving to make our books attractive to the child, we are not unmindful of a permanent esthetic base in our schoolroom instruction. We try to introduce more comfortable and warmer effects. We are not satisfied that our esthetic temperature should be low and frigid in textbook-making as it is low and frigid in English schoolrooms. Much remains to be accomplished in this line in America. Competition is keen, and school boards are crying out for economies. Some publishers have yielded to this cry and have used a poor quality of paper, poor style of type, and cheap and unattractive bindings, but these are becoming rare, and reputable publishers refuse to compete for business that must be secured at such a sacrifice. As we review all these tendencies in American textbook-making, we believe we are justified in the assertion that those engaged in the editorial and in the manufacturing departments are dominated by an ideal that is already high. As the results in these four directions that I have enumerated become more apparently perceived by American parents and teachers we believe that provision will be made for a constantly increasing elevation of standards. ‘There will be the recognition that the child in his formative periods shall not be sacrificed; that he shall, on the other hand, in these earlier years, receive sound training along all those lines that make for firmer and firmer intellectual and spiritual integration. We shall, as teachers and publishers ourselves strive for greater success along these lines and perhaps some day— The tasks in hours of insight willed Can be through hours of gloom fulfilled. SAFE ECONOMIES CONSISTENT WITH IMPROVED STANDARDS OF TEXTBOOK MAKING GEORGE W. OHLER, CHICAGO MANAGER, THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS When our president sent me a copy of his program for this meeting and requested that I discuss the question assigned me, I was tempted to decline the honor, but on second thought remembered that I had always urged closer codperation among publishers and because of this stand could hardly DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS 805 refuse to help, if by my help better trade conditions might be brought about in our industry. I have attended a number of these programs and I know the tendency of hard-boiled publishers to find holes in suggestions made and to criticize the papers read, but since I have criticized your papers as well as enjoyed them it is only fair that I take my part of the load. No paper gets far these days without discussing present economic condi- tions and in order to keep in step I shall briefly mention some things which are of common knowledge and concern to us as publishers. General busi- ness conditions are slowly growing better. Compared with other indus- tries, I am inclined to think that during the last few years we, as a whole, have enjoyed far better than average prosperity. Business has held up re- markably well if reports of our sales are correct, and no doubt they are. The past year has shown beyond all question of doubt the stability and soundness of the textbook business, since in time of great general business depression it has increased in volume of sales and today shows fine pros- pects for a continuance of good business. During this period of stress we have had no financial failures so far as I am informed. Surely, we must recognize the honesty, good business sense, and strength of an industry which holds so fine a record. Today we find war-time manufacturing costs a thing of the past. Paper costs, labor costs, because of increased production, practically everything that enters into the manufacturing end of our business is considerably re- duced from the peak prices of 1920. Unfortunately, selling and overhead costs have not immediately reflected the same decreases and I doubt if ever these items will be greatly reduced. School officials are not likely to ex- pect sharp reductions at once in our selling prices. While we cannot ask them to make up the losses we have suffered by reason of pernicious text- book legislation and by our failures to use good ordinary business judgment in adjusting our prices soon enough to meet changed conditions, we must insist upon the right to adjust ourselves to meet the present situation and price our product in accordance with present manufacturing, selling, over- head, and other legitimate expenses. In our endeavor to meet our cus- tomers’ fair demands we must base our prices on known costs without pay- ing undue attention to our competitors’ price lists. “The selling and over- head expenses vary considerably between houses, and it seems to me only good business far each house to face its problem individually and price its publications to make a reasonable business profit regardless of what the other fellow may see fit to do with his prices. To make the most of our present opportunity, we must recognize cer- tain clearly defined fundamentals which have to do with textbook making. We might group these under the heads of service and sound business poli- cies, which certainly embrace safe economies. Service, as I view it, spells forward-looking textbooks, superior authorship, and selling prices high enough to insure these. The book which is not better than others in its field and which has no special reason for its existence other than to create sales, certainly does not fit into a policy of safe economies. Such publica- tions demand heavy selling campaigns and at best cannot command big sales. 806 NATIONAL EpuCcATION ASSOCIATION Their lives are limited to a few years and seldom do they bring satisfactory returns. Most of them were brought out to enable publishers to add to their lists so that they might go after business in more subjects, rather than because the books were of outstanding worth and fitted to serve better than others the places for which they were intended. We all can remember the experiences of many concerns which almost over night sprang into the field with long lists of books and with a determination apparently to make these lists complete in the shortest time possible. We all know the period of adjustment through which these concerns had to go before they found themselves with shorter lists, most of which represented new material quite foreign to the books with which they had started and with a cavity in their resources almost equal in size to that of Mammoth Cave. Books should be built right for long life and long sales if big returns are expected. Not many books for a period of ten years live vigorous lives that bring increasing sales as the years go on. You can count them with- out employing an adding machine to help you. Most of us owe our be- ginnings and such success as we enjoy to this type of book, ‘Their sales won us friends, because they were so made that sales and services were one and the same. Certainly improved standards in textbook-making mean that we must hold closely to the policy of selecting books for publication that are outstanding, books that fit into their proper places better than any other yet produced, books that are sure to have long and steady sales, and books that make friends through service. Certain economies in harmony with the above standards can be prac- ticed. First in importance is the selection of authorship which offers the finest type of constructive new material and long-time codperation. A large per cent of the long-time costs of textbook-making is due to poor guesses as to the authors and their willingness and ability to codperate. Rapid change of authors has the virtue of bringing in new life and new material occasionally, but the right choice of outstanding authors with bigger vision would accomplish the same results with far less cost. Every author has to be developed and it costs a great deal less editorially and commercially to develop him to a satisfactory degree. The overhead of editing and developing authors is reported to be as high as 40 per cent in instances where the best editorial safeguards are placed about the new text. It would be better to spend a bit more money in discovering what books not to publish than to spend so much on books having a temporary life and questionable educational influence. The day of wild-cat publish- ing is over. “Temporary profits and the speculation in texts, which have but temporary or local appeal, should be passed at once. Again, we must keep the right book growing to meet changing needs instead of wild-catting in new books of questionable merit. To do this we must keep alive the author’s interest in this production. It is seldom advisable to purchase outright his right to share in royalties. To keep the book alive to changing conditions the publisher must make revisions from time to time. No one can coéperate so well in this as the creator of the book. If his rights to participate in the earnings have been disposed of, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS 807 his real interest in his book and his desire to perpetuate its influence are greatly lessened and any work he may perform in its revision is likely to be half-heartedly done. If the right type of author is selected, his financia: rights in the book secured, and the right encouragement from the publisher is given, he will be anxious to codperate with the publisher to help make the book grow up to fullness of stature and usefulness. To continue our program of economy we must make books right mechan- ically. ‘The very best illustrations which add to the content should be used. Color used should be selected and applied with artistic care. Gaudy, grotesque, or inharmoniously colored illustrations may temporarily attract buyers but in the end will displease the teacher and the child. ‘The wise publisher will use color only when by so doing he adds distinctly to - the interpretative power of the illustration as well as to its artistic value. Color without purpose other than to make pretty pictures temporarily to attract buyers should be avoided. It costs too much and fails to fulfill its real mission. The most legible print, right line lengths, right spacing, right care in securing durable bindings, and the like are in the end most economical, because they give satisfaction to the user and in turn become the best advertisers for the product. Satisfied customers are always our best advertisers. Furthermore we must consider ourselves as exponents of the highest type of bookmaking and as such wé certainly cannot find room in our publica- tions for the advertising of food products, soap, perfume, and stock feed. These products may be of superior merit in their respective places but it takes a far flight of fancy to imagine that they have any slight connection with textbook making. If we as publishers expect to have the school people of the country show us the respect and honor we crave and have a right to receive from them, then we in turn must keep ourselves on a plane that warrants such regard. If we cannot finance, manufacture, and market our publications without calling upon foreign industries to help through ad- vertising in our product, then we are not necessary to the school. ‘Text- book publishers should leave to the newspapers and magazines the field of advertising which they have covered better than other agencies. If we serve the school well and offer a necessary service without which education would be crippled, then we have a right to ask a price for such service suf- ficient to maintain our business with dignity and profit without help from outside sources. Since my discussion has to do with the making of textbooks only, I shall not attempt to deal lengthily with the selling end. We all know the troubles that beset us there. The exchange problem, the abuse of the sample copy privilege, and the “onrush of the book grafters” represent only a few of them. Until we get the business foresight necessary to cooperate in a trade organization for the mutual benefit of publishers and customers we can scarcely hope to get the relief we need. Until we determine to codéperate, even just a few of us, along such lines as we can agree upon, letting others come into our organization or stay out as they may elect, 808 NATIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION just so long will we fail to carry over into the selling and distributing end of our business a few sales economies which certainly are in harmony and consistent with approved standards in the textbook selling. To sum up, I have endeavored to show that wise economies are possible in textbook-making only through expert business and professional care. The books must be built right for long sales, life, and service. The authors’ interests must be kept one with the publishers’ interests. Then, right books made right mechanically may be kept growing through effective cooperation. Advertising should be excluded from textbooks and left to newspapers, magazines, and other legitimate mediums. The publishers themselves should codperate in a friendly way to reduce unnecessary com- petition. With all these economies practised the customer may be assured that his children may have the highest class textbook available at the lowest cost. Department of Elementary Education SECRETARY’S MINUTES OFFICERS President—Mary E. Lawurr, Principal of School No. 12....+..+-+++0++ Paterson, New Jersey Secretary—BrEsstz Bacon Goopricu, Director of Elementary Education....Des Moines, Iowa First Srsston—_Wednesday Afternoon, July 5, 1922 This was a joint session of the departments of Classroom Teachers, Ele- mentary Education, Elementary School Principals, Kindergarten Educa- tion, and the National Conference on Educational Method. ‘The meeting was called to order by Miss Mary E. Lawler, president of the Depart- ‘ment of Elementary Education. ‘The following program was presented : The Mental Health of Young Children—J. Mace Andress, Head of Department of Psychology and Child Study, Boston Normal School, Bos- ton, Mass. Present-day Tendencies in Education and their Relation to the Kinder- garten and Primary Departments—Eugene R. Smith, Headmaster of Park School, Baltimore, Md. The Adjustment of Elementary Education to the Project Method— James F. Hosic, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. The Needs of Young Children in Rural Schools—Mrs. Katherine R. Cook, Specialist in Rural Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, Wash- ington, D. C. ; The Value of the National Education Association to the Classroom Teacher—Agnes S. Winn, Assistant Secretary, National Education Asso- ciation, Washington, D. C. Sreconp SEssion—Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1922 At the second session of the Department of Elementary Education, held Friday afternoon, July 7, Dr. A. E. Winship, editor of the Journal of Education, gave a splendid talk on “New Elementary Hopes and Fears” wherein he showed the progress of elementary education and expressed his hopes for its future. He especially stressed the fact that good teachers should not be too anxious to enter the special field in educational work. Dean Henry W. Holmes, of the Graduate School of Education at How- ard University, spoke on “The General Philosophy of Grading and Pro- motion in Relation to Intelligence Testing,” making a number of valuable suggestions with regard to the use of tests. Dr. M. B. Hillegas, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, spoke on the “Intelligence and Standard Tests as a Supplement to the Teacher’s Judgment,” emphasizing the fact that intelligence tests should be a means to the end. [809 ] 810 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The topic ‘Measuring the Capacity of Pupils and the Efficiency of Schools” was ably discussed by Mr. Lincoln Owen, principal of the Rice School, Boston, Mass. Miss Harriet M. Barthelmess, Department of Elementary Education, Teachers College, New York City, talked on “The Contributions of Measurement to Education.” Ira A. Flinner, Headmaster, Huntington School, Boston, Massachusetts, illustrated his talk on ‘“‘Rating Students on the Basis of Native Capacity and Accomplishment” with a number of well-arranged charts. Miss Florence Holbrook, Forestville School, Chicago, Illinois, had as her topic “The Value of Tests” but in her talk she stated that, until teachers were given classes with fewer pupils, tests should not be used as a criteria of judgment. Miss Myra L. Snow, ex-president of the Seattle Grade Teachers’ Club, Seattle, Washington, spoke on “Codperation Between Civic Organizations and School Authorities.” Miss Snow was well qualified to speak on this subject since the Seattle Chamber of Commerce had paid the expenses of two delegates from Seattle to the N. E. A. convention, because of assistance rendered by the teachers in advancing the Chamber’s project, an exhibit of the Northwest products. At the close of the professional part of the program, Miss Marjorie Moody sang a group of songs, from Miss Jean M. Loughbridge’s “Fifty Rote Songs for Little Singers.” THE MENTAL HEALTH OF YOUNG CHILDREN J. MACE ANDRESS, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY, BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS One of the most significant educational movements of our time is the increasing attention to the health of children. It is a natural sequel to the long chain of brilliant discoveries beginning with Pasteur and Lister and the remarkable achievements in sanitary engineering. We once had the belief that the great battle for health could be brought to a successful con- clusion through the improvement of environment and the prevention of disease infections. This belief has not been justified. The recent revela- tions in connection with malnutrition, for example, show the need of ad- ditional methods to promote the vigorous health of our children. We have now entered a new epoch in health education and control. Jt is a period of realization that the training of the individual is of tremendous worth. Sanitary science may provide pure water and milk, but one of the great needs of the present is to teach both children and adults to drink the pure water and milk provided. A campaign for the inculcation of health habits has now been inaugurated. The U. S. Bureau of Education, the Child Health Organization of America, the National Tuberculosis Associa- tion, and many other National organizations have so popularized training DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 8il in health habits that it is no exaggeration to say that no problem has been attacked with more originality and vigor in the last few years. Teaching health habits has now become a vital part of the curriculum of many of our public schools. The health habits now taught, however, relate almost exclusively to the physical welfare of the child. There is an obvious neglect of training ‘n those habits that insure mental health. Here is a virgin field for parents and teachers comparable in its importance to the one which is now making its dramatic appeal to teachers and children. Such training is now known to be necessary to prevent insanity and nervous disorder. The recent war shed much light on this whole problem. Statistics show that 72,000 men were rejected from our draft army because of mental disease. In the British army one soldier in five was discharged because of functional nervous disorder. In our own country today one in every three of our disabled service men in hospitals is a neuro-psychiatric patient. The draft and world war not only showed the shocking prevalence of mental disturbance but also the effectiveness of measures of prevention and cure. In peace we notice that the number of patients in our mental hospitals is about equal to those in all other hospitals. About 200,000 new patients enter every year. They represent a tremendous expense to the State. However, all authorities agree that our hospital facilities for mental patients are quite inadequate. Besides the more serious disorders requiring insti- tutional treatment there are minor ones called nervousness and nervous breakdown which entail great economic loss and suffering. In addition we have nervous and behavior disorders leading to juvenile delinquency and twists of character. The thoughtful student of mental disorder must be appalled by the situation today. The thousands of individuals who will find their way this year into mental hospitals or develop nervousness and mental breakdown have with very few exceptions passed through our public and private schools without any recognition of the signs of mental disorder or without any steps being taken to prevent a personal tragedy. Both parents and teachers need to recognize the signs of mental disturbance, but it is even more necessary that they should know how to deal with children so as to prevent the appearance of any such symptoms. Fortunately prevention is both possible and practical. Dr. Riggs in a recent article says that “Simply through applying a little of the knowledge formulated by mental hygiene, a great many, probably all, cases of nervous breakdown could be prevented.” Authorities differ as to the amount of The present situation is a challenge to our schools, particularly to our kindergartens and elementary schools; it is in early childhood that many pernicious mental habits are formed which later on in adult life result in nervous disorder. How important it is then that children in the very beginning of school life should be trained to meet life in the right way. While heredity is very important normal children with a good inheritance may become mentally unbalanced through bad training. It is only by 812 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION inculcating good mental habits that children will develop strong and whole- some personalities capable of adjustment to an increasingly complex civiliza- tion. Many of the mental habits which mental hygiene would have established seem commonplace, but those who have come in contact with the mentally | unbalanced and have had a hand in their reéducation back to sanity ap- preciate their significance. Before considering those habits which are primarily mental let us notice the importance for mental health of the cultivation of those habits which relate more specifically to the physical health. It is an obvious principle of psychology and physiology, although frequently disregarded, that con- ditions of mind affect the body and conditions of body affect the mind. Every teacher should keep this principle in mind: A healthy mind makes for a healthy body. The literature of mental hygiene is filled with proofs of mental disorder carrying in its train abnormal physical conditions, In- dividuals who shrink from meeting the real facts of life in their failure take refuge in a neurosis with symptoms of physical illness. We all know that even a cold or some other minor disability clouds our mental horizon. It is evident that the health habits that are now being stressed in our schools—habits such as playing in the open air, cleanliness, drinking plenty of milk but avoiding tea and coffee, eating fruit and green vegetables, long hours of sleep, and daily elimination—help to make the body strong and vigorous and thus promote healthful states of mind. One of the habits which is now being stressed in nutrition classes, but should be emphasized with all children, is that of taking a few hours every day for thorough relaxa- tion and rest. ‘This habit if established in childhood and carried on into adult life will tend to prevent fatigue psychoses and help in the cultivation of a sense of leisure so badly needed to withstand the strain of modern life. What is not generally recognized by parents and teachers today is that the persistent resistance of certain children in forming food and sleep habits may be a sign of nervous disorder and should be treated as such. In a discussion of some of the distinctive mental habits which little children should form it should be borne in mind that these habits are essential at every age. Great effort should be made to have them formed in early childhood, however, because this period is characterized by great plasticity. At no time can they be learned with such ease. This early period is also a danger period when vicious mental habits may fasten them- selves on children unless good mental habits are fostered. A brief review of some of the more important mental habits for normal children now follows: Meeting reality squarely—This is a statement of a very general attitude which is involved in every mental habit to be discussed. Reality in the sense in which it is used here refers to everything in the world to which the individual is called upon to make adjustments. In a broad way it includes one’s environment of people and things. The most pernicious of DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 813 mental habits is that of dodging reality. The little child soon realizes that crying will often lead to satisfying the sensations of hunger. Later he may discover quite unconsciously that an attack of tantrums will also help him to avoid something disagreeable. He dominates the household and imposes his will not merely in situations relating to food but in all other situations which he wishes to avoid. An indirect rather than a direct way is found to gain his ends. A vicious habit of mind is formed. He becomes a fussy and nervous child. All this happens because the parents are likely to have mistaken ideas of sympathy; they lack insight and courage to train the child to meet reality directly and successfully. The nervous child answering this description needs to cultivate better habits of adapta- tion to life. With such a child the teacher can do very little without the cooperation of the home. It is in just such situations that we need psy- chopathic nurses or psychiatric social workers to visit homes and help to reéducate the parents so that a child’s home program may be revised. Every school system needs also among its regular school physicians one or more physicians who are skilled mental hygienists. Every teacher may do something to encourage children to attack a prob- lem squarely and carry it through to a successful conclusion. ‘The child that attempts to do something and finds it much more difficult than he expected, who tries to avoid it by shallow excuses, needs to be inspired to carry on until he succeeds. He can be shown in this way that the reasons he gave for not continuing his efforts were unsound. Children when they are beaten at a game or a contest are likely to develop grudges and grouchi- ness. Instead of trying to discover just why they failed they are likely to give irrelevant excuses, such as being tired, sick, or perhaps younger than their competitors. The spirit of good sportsmanship needs to be encouraged. Admiration for the good player and the play should be stimulated. The loser should be inspired to profit from his mistakes and the victory of others. To teach children to lose gracefully without ill- will should be the aim of every good teacher. Expecting and achieving success—Success is one of the necessities of healthful living. It takes the sting out of worry and makes life happy and efficient. Habitual failure leads to depression and a morbid state of mind with accompanying nervous disorder. One of the most caustic criticisms to be made of our schools is their inculcation of habits of failure. ‘This is the result in part of a discredited pedagogy which emphasizes the teaching of subjects rather than children, but it is probably due largely to the teacher’s ignorance of the varying abilities of children. If the teacher really knew that certain pupils were unable to do certain kinds of work she would not attempt the impossible ; she would teach those children what they could learn and that would mean some measure of success. The development of educational measurement offers alluring possibilities in helping us to teach children what they can learn. A thorough physical and mental examination of children at school 814 NaTIONAL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION entrance should be encouraged. It will enable teachers to know much more about the material with which they must work. In the more perfect school system of the future we may hope that failures will be so uncommon that they will be reduced to a vanishing point. This does not mean that every boy and girl will be successful in graduating from grammar school, high school, or college. It means that we may know so much about children’s abilities that they be directed into those fields where they will be successful. One of the first essentials of mental health is this: An individual must retain respect for himself. He has a most insistent craving for the approba- tion and respect of others and for a certain amount of superiority over them. His own life must seem to him to be worth while. It requires but little reflection to realize this. Recall how sensitive you are to slights and how depressing often a slight failure is to all of us. But witness also the intoxication of success. Many of us can trace the larger successes of life back to the minor ones of childhood. While a certain amount of failure is desirable, particularly if used-as a stepping-stone to achievement, habitual failure is a crime. ‘The child meeting with habitual failure is bound to retain his self-respect through the bypaths of physical disability or possibly by becoming a delinquent. Those of us who lived through the experiences of the World War know how important morale’ was considered. We strove to undermine it among our enemies and by the most skillful methods we endeavored to get our soldiers and civilians to expect and achieve success. If morale is so im- portant for armies how important it is for the great army of boys and girls in fighting the battles of life. Effective action in the face of difficulties—When a disagreeable situation presents itself the natural tendency is to run away from it, to deny that it exists, to worry about it and finally perhaps to build up defense mechanisms of delinquency, nervousness, and physical disability. None of these re- actions make for effective living. The difficult situation still remains and the method of response only makes the situation worse. Instead of fleeing instinctively from danger it is better from the point of view of mental hygiene to face and attack the danger. In dealing with little children we should try to realize that their little problems are often as acute, if not more so, than our own and that it is very important that they should be taught to solve them in a satisfactory way. Training children to make clear cut decisions and act in difficult situations eliminates the feeling of helplessness, reduces fear, and repels worry. Encouraging children to do their best and to abide cheerfully by the consequences is of tremendous worth in furthering a happy childhood and in the prevention of nervous breakdown in later life. Self-expression—The nervous breakdowns of adolescence and later life are never due to hard work. It is the conflict between doing what one feels that he must do and doing the thing that he would like to do that saps one’s vitality and disturbs mental balance. No better example of DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 815 healthful mental activity can probably be found than in the life of ‘Thomas Edison, whose indefatigable and fruitful application is a marvel to the world. He has found an adequate expression of himself in his work. Fortunately. the kindergarten was a pioneer in the field of self-expression and now both kindergarten and elementary schools are fairly well launched on this new adventure of projects and free work which promises much for mental health and education. Self-control—Giving children a chance to express their instinctive life through wholesome, habitual activities leads also to self-control without which the individual is helpless in the mastery of self or the world. Lack of self-control means that there is a break between one’s ideals and his deeds. ‘This means failure and dissociation, both allies of mental disorder. Parents and teachers need to remember that self-control does not develop from prohibitions and inhibitions but through the growth of worthwhile ‘nterests and activities. If children form the habit of reacting from higher motives lower impulses will lose their attractiveness. Concentration of attention—In the child’s world of play there is com- plete absorption. “The attention is focused intently on the problem at hand. ‘There is no opportunity for vicious dissociation. But in the schoolroom the child is too often concerned with tasks that are humdrum and meaningless. Under such conditions daydreams, ex- pressions of his instinctive life, become a substitute for reality. His world of dreams becomes so much more attractive than school tasks that it projects itself frequently into the stream of consciousness interfering with orderly association and promoting a disorderly and inefficient mind. To develop habits of concentration of attention and orderly association the teacher should plan her work in such a way that the children will have a clear notion of what is expected of them; it should be adjusted to their capacities and interests. In the lower grades the class periods should be short and vigorous followed by change and relaxation. No dawdling should be tolerated. Such a procedure would not only advance the regular work of the school but also the mental health of the children. Objective interests—Mental health depends on making adjustments to the world in which we live. Many children finding difficulty in adjust- ment and experiencing keen disappointment substitute wistful thinking for reality. Facts are replaced by symbols. ‘This drives the mind inward to escape reality and develops ‘morbid self-consciousness and a divorce from the real world. Morbid introspection is a bad mental habit, and one way to prevent it or cure it is to develop interests in the objective world. Much of our academic work in schools unfortunately leads to a lack of contact with a real world of things. Playing with blocks, cutting and pasting, learning to use tools, gardening and the various constructive activities foster interests that are desirable for little children. The rapid and successful development of occupational therapy in our mental hospitals is an eloquent testimony of the worth of objective interests, 816 NATIONAL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION Normal social relationships—The escape from reality often means an escape from human beings. Practically every case among the thousands that flow through our psychopathic hospitals bears evidence of social mal- adjustment. Treatment invariably means making such a change in social relationships that the individual can get along. The flight to an ideal world is normal to a certain extent. It is found in early childhood. Little children build up a play world peopled by com- panions of their own choosing. Ordinarily this is a pleasant diversion, makes the commonplace interesting and offers an opportunity for originality and creative imagination. It is only when this world becomes habitually more attractive than the real social world and takes on the tang of reality that there is grave danger. Such a child finds the real world of people hard to get along with, shrinks from contact with it and develops antisocial tendencies. In attempting to get along with people such a child may be so keenly disappointed that he retires more and more into a shut-in per- sonality. Then in his dreams all desires are satisfied; his ambitions become realized; but he finds it more and more difficult to get along with real companions. In dealing with such children we are often likely to make fun of them or to be over-sympathetic in our attitude. Both methods will tend to confirm them in their bad habits. The best way is to let the child know that you understand his sensitiveness. "Then try to inspire him to take the spirit of the sportsman and mingle with his fellows in spite of his feeling. To provide opportunities for social codperation, to teach children how to get along with others is of the very greatest significance for mental health. Self-reliance—This is one of the virtues associated ordinarily with moral and successful living. We now know that it plays a powerful part in mental health. One of the hardest things in life is to learn to depend on one’s self. Each step forward in normal growth means pulling up anchor in a safety cove and embarking on an untried sea. Children are likely to shrink from such undertakings unless they are carefully trained. Failure in this often leads to much mental disorder and invalidism. Failure in self-reliance is common in our homes. Parents prefer to do things themselves rather than to be “bothered” to train their children. Frequently the excuse is that it is so much easier to do it themselves. ‘This is doubtless true but they are neglecting opportunities for character develop- ment. One cause of failure is the mother’s desire to keep her children young as long as she can. She bathes, dresses, and fondles a child, and gives him his own way to such an extent that his emancipation from parental control is greatly handicapped. Often a father wishes his children to have all the things he missed. Since he had to work in childhood he decides that his children shall have all their time for play. The development of healthy work interests, which every child should have, are forbidden. The father forgets that in handing his children such gifts with no effort on their part he is giving his children a poor training for life. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 817 As teachers we have been obsessed with the value of the formal studies to such an extent that it is only recently that we have emphasized the need of giving children responsibility so that they might learn to do things them- selves and so gain confidence. “This newer tendency is one of the most hopeful signs of our times. W holesome interests and attitudes—We have been so interested in teach- ing children facts that we have sadly neglected the education of the child’s feelings. Power to recall facts is desirable, but modern psychology teaches us that the process of forgetting is exceedingly rapid after learning. Most of us would pass a sorry examination on the facts of ancient history that we studied five or ten years ago. If this is true of other studies we might seriously ask ourselves: ‘“What is education?” If the fact jamming process is largely a failure what does count? Is it not attitudes and interests? Does the study of history leave our students with a craving for more knowledge, with an admiration for the great personalities of the past or is there a feeling of exultation that one part of the disagreeable road toward promotion and graduation is over? No matter who studies history he will forget most of the facts learned but attitudes will remain. He will hate it or abhor it, he will be indifferent or he will be fired by brave deeds and perhaps realize more fully his obligation to the past, his opportunities and responsibilities in everyday citizenship. Mental hygiene emphasizes the importance of children cultivating whole- some interests and attitudes. If these are not established school and home training is a failure. Children should be taught to love the things they ought to love and hate the things they ought to hate. Do not be deceived. These attitudes, interests and sets of mind are essentials. Are you teach- ing children to love truth, to accept defeat graciously, to develop a love of fair play, courage, self-control, cheerful contentment, determination to do the best they can and be content no matter what the result? Are you teaching your pupils to feel that they count in the world, that they are worth while? If you are, you are doing something worthwhile for the cause of mental health. In this very cursory review of a few of the mental habits which young children should form it will be observed that the problem is one of adjust- ment to environment. ‘The way the little child learns to meet his world is of the greatest significance in after life. To learn to face life aggres- sively, to meet every situation fairly and squarely, to learn to feel satisfied with one’s best, to get along well with one’s fellows, to preserve optimism, self-respect, and good-will, to develop such habits means steady growth in sanity and mental poise. To retreat from reality, from the actual world, ‘5 to seek satisfaction in dreamland, in extreme sensitivity, in twists of char- acter, in perversions, in nervous breakdown, in what the layman is pleased to call insanity. May I pause here to pay my respects to the kindergarten whose crowning glory lies in its revolutionary conception of the need and value of a school 818 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION without books. From its very beginning it has recognized, as no other part of our school system has, the worth of the individual child. It has recog- nized the child as a human being with human instincts and human prob- lems. Satisfying the legitimate human needs of childhood has always stood above the thraldrom of methods, dogmatic theory, and subject matter. The social note, too, has always been conspicuous in the kindergarten. It was among the first to realize keenly the need of socializing the child. Children must be made fit to get along with others. ‘The sensitive, the stubborn, the peculiar child—now the particular problems of mental hy- giene—have always absorbed the attention of the kindergarten. In other words you have been teaching mental hygiene unconsciously for many years. It is now possible for you to see your old problems in a different perspective, to realize more clearly their origin and meaning and to grapple with them more effectively. There is so much caustic criticism of our schools that it is a pleasure to refer to the humanizing tendencies in elementary education beyond the kindergarten. In giving children more self-expression, in developing a curriculum related to their interests, in encouraging self-reliance, originality, fine morale, and in its growth in appreciation of childhood, the elementary school has done much for the mental health of children. As teachers if we are to play your part more consciously and skillfully in training for mental health we must realize that in this field as in all others example is better than precept, that children, particularly little children, are sensitive to our moods, ideals, and habits. It would be dif- ficult, if not impossible, for any teacher to convince children that cleaning the teeth was very important if she neglected cleaning her own teeth. Like- wise we shall be greatly handicapped if we have not made our own lives sweet, sane, and wholesome. As long as you remain human and teach children rather than formal subject matter, you will be powerful aids in promoting mental health. The study of mental hygiene by the kindergarten and elementary teacher presents one of the most fertile and fascinating fields today for practical child study. Learn to practice with your pupils the habits of mental health. Take the world as you find it. Do not kick against the pricks, Assume that you are a pretty good sort of person and that this is a fairly good sort of world. Then train yourselves in sports- manship qualities in the mastery of yourself and your world. The program for mental hygiene is ideal, but we shall be richly rewarded in proportion to the efforts we make in practicing the principles of healthy living. In closing I should like to quote a paragraph from Dr. Austen Fox Riggs which is suggestive for us as adults and teachers: “Do not criticise your part in the play; study it, understand it, and then play it, sick or well, rich or poor, with faith, with courage, and with proper grace.” DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 819 PRESENT-DAY TENDENCIES IN EDUCATION AND THEIR RELATION TO THE KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY DEPARTMENTS EUGENE R. SMITH, HEADMASTER OF THE PARK SCHOOL, BALTIMORE, AND THE BEAVER COUNTRY DAY SCHOOL, BOSTON Since the title for my talk was decided upon, this meeting has been changed to include a much wider range of educational interests. 1 am very glad of that because it seems to me education must be treated more or less as a whole. I therefore am not going to confine myself this afternoon to the kindergarten and primary but rather shall treat the tendencies as a whole, emphasizing their applications to the different departments. Whenever one speaks of modern tendencies or present-day education, there is a feeling of antagonism on the part of some, a feeling that there must be something very radical in such changes. On the contrary, such changes are natural and to be expected. They are brought about primarily by two causes: First, the influence of the changes coming about in all our living habits; second, the natural progress that must go on in any con- structive activity. The question of living conditions presents two sides; the first is that people are crowding more and more into close communities, taking away from the children the natural opportunties they had in the past for getting for themselves a part of their education, that part for which the home formerly gave facilities. It included skill in the use of the hands—in doing things that were not at that time considered as school work—the opportunity for physical preparation for life, and the moral and social training of the child. As our cities absorb the population from the country, as we more and more largely crowd into apartments instead of living in small communities with the family as the center, just to that extent do the children lose those opportunities. But that is only one side of the question. The second is that the school must teach a much greater amount of information than has ever been given before. If you think of the complexities of modern life as during the last two decades they have increased the amount that all children must learn about, you realize how much more efficient even fact teaching must become to keep pace with such advances. The most fundamental change is in child study. This has always existed to some extent, but at present it is receiving emphasis beyond anything previously dreamed of. We are trying to find out not only about children as a whole, but about each child. As no two people look exactly alike, so no two children think, or act, or are alike. Each child has to be studied as an individual and has to be treated as an individual. Even the physical study of children has made greater progress the last few years than in all previous time. Until we know his physical condition we cannot know what possibilities a child has, what handicaps he has, what he is capable of doing. The wonderful work done by Binet in paving the way for scientific 4 820 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION mental testing has opened up a new field and has given educators a tool whose value is beyond estimating. Although the study of mental ability and characteristics is still in its infancy its success has already been startling, and the promise for its future is still more significant. It seems certain, among other things, to reach a stage where, by its use, we shall be able to wisely decide upon courses for those of varying types of thinking ability, and even to help them select fields of occupation in which they can be useful and contented. But physical and mental studies cannot alone determine the possibilities and the weaknesses of a child. Work habits, social and moral responses, in fact all the personal characteristics, inherited and acquired, are also of vital importance. The more or less objective study of such factors is one of the later developments in the movement for better understanding of childhood. Dr. Patty Hill, of Teachers College, was one of the first to find a practical way by which teachers could make such studies of kinder- garten children, and her work has been expended and carried on by others. There are now in process various experiments along this line, varying in use from kindergarten children to those in high school or college. One that seems to serve the double purpose of focusing the minds of the teachers on child study, and of giving a background for constructive work with the children, separates its pupils into five classes in each of a number of char- acteristics. For example, the classes under Industry are: Class I—Those who try to get as much as possible from the course, showing enough interest and initiative to investigate beyond the teachers’ requirements. Class 2—Those who conscientiously meet all requirements, both in giv- ing attention and in doing assigned tasks. Class 3—Those who have the general intention of conscientiously apply- ing themselves to their studies, but fail often enough in carrying out this intention to force the teacher to take too much responsibility for work the pupil should do. Class 4—Those who are decidedly irregular in their attention and appli- cation, so that the teacher must continually apply pressure. Class 5—Those who will not, or cannot, hold their attention to their work. ‘This may be shown in class, in project work or study, or in all, Such work habits and social and moral characteristics are of equal impor- tance with physical and mental qualities and must equally be studied by the school. Education must, then, take each child as an individual problem and must consider that problem from all sides, Discovering that children are as different as they are has had a tre- mendous effect on curriculum and methods. The elementary school in particular was, in the past, a place where teachers taught only certain fun- damentals of learning: reading, writing, and arithmetic. The kinder- garten was too often a place where the children were simply kept out of mischief, in other words a nursery rather than an educational institution. The kindergarten has become a place where habits are formed, where - DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION $21 strong characteristics are made use of, where weaknesses are overcome, where every move—whether under the name of play or not—is planned and has a purpose. ‘The elementary school has broadened its scope until nothing that affects the child’s life is left out. It is not only a place to teach subjects, it is one to give opportunity to meet and prepare for the things coming in after life. In industry, and especially in manufacturing, those in authority study the material available on the one hand, and the market for their products on the other. The mill or factory then takes the material and tries to change it into a finished product that is in demand. If it is a good factory it tries to turn out an honest product, one to give service and to do it eco- nomically and efficiently. So, when the school has studied the material that comes to it, it is also its business to know the world’s needs for its human products. Its work then lies in economically and efficiently preparing the child material to become a product fitted to these world needs. Everything that comes between the raw material stage of the uneducated child and the state of preparedness for after school life is its business. It is on this account that the scope of the school for all ages of children has so greatly broadened. This has not come without opposition. There are those who object to the time spent on the playground, in the workshop or kitchen. We often hear parents say, “That was not done when I was young. I went to school to work. I was not taken to shops, to the playground, or on a trip to a museum. I was drilled all the time, and that is what taught me. School today must not only make people prepared in subject matter, but must make them prepared in citizenship. It must make children accus- tomed to succeed, but it must also prepare for enjoyment of leisure. The lack of capacity of many of our citizens to get anything at all out of their free time is a menace. Lack of resources for enjoyment means dissatis- faction and often a destructive attitude toward the pleasures and progress of others. We do not know how to enjoy the things of worth—nature, art, music; taste for them must be cultivated just as much as anything else. The school also gives and takes more and more from the non-academic world. From the country, factory, and store it brings the men who have found something worth while in life and asks them to pass it on to the children. We no longer stay inside of the four school walls; we go out into the world to learn, and we bring the world in to our children. What- ever lessons life has, wherever they are taught, they become part of our schools. If the purpose and the scope of schools are broadened to this extent, it necessarily makes a tremendous difference in methods of teaching. There are two particularly significant sides to the changes in teaching; advance in scientific methods and a change from textbook instruction to a freer and more coéperative handling of classes. The advances in scientific methods start from the kindergarten. One of the greatest changes here is the use of larger material. ‘This change is founded on the understanding 822 NatTIoNaL EpucaTtion ASSOCIATION that the larger muscles can better be used in young children. ‘There is greater pleasure and interest to the children also if they make things that seem real to them. I remember the tremendous pleasure it was to me as a boy to get hold of pieces of lumber large enough to make a shanty into which I could get—it marked distinctly the difference between a plaything and something that seemed real. When kindergarten children make some- thing large enough to be real, they have obtained a genuine satisfaction, as well as the muscular, social, and mental gains that go with the project. As you go into the elementary section, changes in methods of teaching subjects are very important. One of the most interesting experiments on methods ever tried seems to me to be the one carried on at the University of Chicago in regard to reading. A moving-picture camera was used to get a record of the movements of the eye while reading. Poor and good readers, young and old, silent and oral, were photographed, with results that should influence the teaching of reading everywhere. Many teachers have taken it for granted that the eye in reading moved smoothly across a line of print. ‘The pictures showed that what some previous experimenters had claimed was true, namely that the eye could move only in jerks or steps, stopping at the end of each step to see a word or group of words if one read rapidly, or a few letters if one read poorly. Among the lessons that came from this proof were, that a child should learn to read, not by building words from letters, but by learning to recognize words or phrases as a whole, that oral reading should not be persisted in to an extent that would prevent the more rapid eye moves needed for good silent reading, and that a child should read much for himself instead of being read to by adults. The teaching of reading, while better than ever before, can still profit by the study of such experiments for there is still much poor teaching, and many are still handicapped by it; school children who have supposedly learned to read well, may show ranges of reading speed as wide as from ninety words a minute to five or six hundred. Even in high school, pupils sometimes prove unable to do the work simply be- cause they read so slowly. The cause is many times an oral reading habit drilled into them by unwise teachers until they are tied down by the speed— or rather the slowness—of their tongues. Recently I had a sixteen-year-old boy come to me with a record of failure after failure in school. He had an intelligent quotient of 110 and every qualification, apparently, for suc- cess. But he could read only about 100 words a minute. His eye habits, fixed by poor teaching, were so bad that he could not finish the study he must do each day. Such cases, unfortunately, are not rare. In other subjects also experiments are being made in scientific methods. Writing seems to depend so largely upon rhythm that experiments in teach- ing it with the aid of music are going on. The question of writing is, however, still an unsettled one. The increasing use of the typewriter as well as other conditions make it difficult to arouse enthusiasm for its im- provement. One of the surprising things about the teaching of arithmetic is that so DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 823 few schools follow the reports of various committees on the teaching of mathematics. I have gone over every report I can find issued since 1900 on teaching arithmetic and I cannot find anything in this country or abroad that does not stress the Austrian or shop method of subtraction and does not recommend that schools use it. Yet I often find teachers who never heard of it and who resent a suggestion that they try it. Many other such method changes have entered the schoolroom, but I have no time to discuss or even list them. The most interesting advance in classroom methods is the freedom that is coming more and more into the work—the classroom becoming a work- shop where children are self-active. It seems to be conclusively proved that by self-activity, with interest behind it, children gain more than they can in any other way. We hear a great deal about the project method. Whatever one calls it, the present tendency is to have the child actually inside of what 1s going on, feeling himself a part of it. The thing must be real to him. If a child is living his work in some way there is behind it a tremendous force of interest, all the incentive and impulses inherent in mankind pulling with the school and the teacher instead of against them. Just as soon as you put the child down as a passive thing to be acted upon, you lose all this, and it is simply a question of how much the teacher can force in. If one uses free methods and changes schoolrooms into workshops, one is not safe without testing to see if the pupils are getting their fundamentals well, for it is possible to have interest without complete clearing up of difficulties. Standardized subject-matter tests serve this purpose, provide minimum and maximum standards of achievement, and to an increasing extent, serve as a means of analysis in finding individual weaknesses. “Their use is already widespread, and it is growing by leaps and bounds. An excellent example of diagnostic work is that being done in arithmetic by Dr. Colin Scott in the Springfield schools. He reports remarkable progress in speed and accuracy after the eradication of weaknesses dis- covered by complete surveys of the fundamental processes. A girl in a sixth grade began to drop back in arithmetic and to have more and more difficulty in it. Such an analysis was tried with her and it turned out that her mistakes practically always came in multiplication, in the 7, 8, and 9 tables. Of course an attempt was made at once to correct this weakness. The child’s career was also traced back to the year when those tables were learned and it was found that she had been sick and out of school at that time. ‘The work had been made up, but it was not sufficiently well done, so the child was left with that weakness buried under the accumulation of new things studied. We often go on burying weaknesses until they are carried for years. “Their results show, but it is very dificult to find from where they come. Such diagnostic discovery is one of the most valuable things that have come to us as a result of the testing movement. Perhaps the greatest tendency in modern education is one that in the ut- most degree possible, from kindergarten through college, uses the children’s 824 Nationa Epucation AssociATION cooperation and the ability to serve that is in them. We have thought of children as good or bad, instead of as ignorant of all social and moral laws when they were born, and only so far informed afterward as the teach- ing of parents and teachers has made them. We must teach them laws as standards to respect and understand, giving them experience in forming standards themselves and in putting them into effect both for themselves and for their school communities. Just so far as we do these things we will build up citizenship fit for democracy. We now turn men and women into full citizenship, allow them to vote, ignorant when they are twenty, no better prepared when they are 21, and expect to have good government. We do not get it, and will not get it until you and I, and every teacher, are working for citizenship from the first day the child is confided to us. If in place of our deciding everything we let the children have a chance, ask from each as much as possible, give them increasing opportunities, lead them on day by day to greater develop- ment, then, just as surely as we do that, the time will come when they can shoulder the responsibilities we are carrying today far better than we are doing it. In building up this social and moral responsibility, precept has some part, but example and participation, and being given responsibility, have the greatest influence. The most important tendency in our schools today is this one of building character through codperative service. No matter how handicapped you each may be by size of classes and other conditions, no matter what you have been working against, you can nevertheless instil] into the children, by your belief in them, the power to think social and moral problems out for themselves. You can make them strong in service, and proud to serve. This is the greatest of all that you can do for them, for it is only through unselfish service that the world will be saved. THE ADJUSTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION TO THE PROJECT METHOD JAMES F. HOSIC, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION IN CHARGE OF EXTRAMURAL COURSES, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The improvement of elementary education demands formative ideals. The most fruitful of these at the present time is embodied in that conception which may be conveniently suggested by the term project method. The term has been used by several in a narrow sense. | wish, however, to em- ploy it as a fundamental educational viewpoint. What is meant by the project method may be conveniently suggested by calling attention to the ordinary use of the word project. When we speak of a project, we generally mean an enterprise of some sort which is entered into with zest because it is thought worth while, which is pursued with a more or less clear view of the goal to be attained, and which is guided by DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 825 a conception of the appropriate means. ‘The pursuit of enterprises is common enough in life and should be in education. Unfortunately, our educative processes become, from time to time, unduly formal and must be revised. It is such a redirection which is now taking place. We may ask, properly, what will be the influence of the project concept on the making of courses of study? It is clear that in the first place the courses will be restated in such a way as to suggest project activities. A course in geography, for example, will be no longer a mere outline of topics logically arranged, but a series of problems so presented as to suggest self- directed activity on the part of the pupils. This type of activity will be described and illustrated and the means by which it may be made effective will be set down. In a word, the course of study itself will be a guide to the enterprises which the pupils should engage in. “The outcomes, more- over, will be stated not merely in terms of facts to be rememberd but of skills to be developed and particularly of attitudes to be induced. Such courses of study are already in existence. Notable examples are those recently prepared by teachers and supervisors in Berkeley, California, under the general direction of Superintendent H. B. Wilson. As a back- ground for these courses, the volume prepared a year or so ago by Professor Bonser, entitled, ““The Elementary School Curriculum,” will be invaluable. We are clearly at the point where courses of study will be conceived as in fact a series of experiences to be realized by the children in the pursuit of certain social values. The second field in which fresh application of the project idea should be made is in the field of teaching. The course of study represents the point of view of the supervisor and his helpers as to what ought to happen. ‘The teacher in the classroom, however, is the final arbiter. What she does determines finally, in large measure, the actual course which the pupils pursue. Fortunately, large numbers of teachers are interested today in the study of the principles of teaching. Never before in. the history of the country has so large a number of teachers in service been enrolled in classes for the study of education. Courses in the project method are most popular of all. “Teachers seem to feel, and not without reason, that here is a new key to the technique of the classroom. In spite of many vagaries, which are to be expected, there is marked improvement in the kind of appeal which teachers are making to their pupils. Fewer and fewer are content merely to give out formal assignments. At the least they seek to orient the pupils as to the purposes to be carried out and the plans of work. At the best they encourage the pupils themselves to define their purposes and organize their plans. That there should be some waste of energy in the trying out of a new idea is not to be wondered at. It seems certain, however, that better results are obtained by project methods than otherwise. Probably the experience of a teacher of geography is typical. She employed the project method in that subject contrary to the wishes of her superior officer, who feared a lack of thoroughness. At the close of the term she gave to the 826 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION class an examination more rigid than usual. The results surpassed her expectations. She handed her papers to the superior who, at last accounts, had nothing to say in protest. In adjusting our teaching technique to the project idea, the most im- portant consideration is that we should recognize that it is, in fact, not a single idea but rather a synthesis, or union, of ideas of method. Few, if any, of the concepts which have been shaping our practice since the days of Rousseau are without a place in this new principle. Self-activity, learn- ing to do by doing, interest, motivation, concreteness, individual differences, cooperation, permanent retention, transfer, judgment of values, training in leadership—all these and many more are obviously included. At least this is so if we are disposed to interpret the concept liberally and not in the narrow sense of planning tangible activities or carrying out concrete constructions, as some would have it. We should beware of the attempt to bring about wholesale change. ‘The principal who announced that on November 14 the project method would be introduced into his schools had, of course, a rather superficial view. Much better is the more conservative step of discussing with a body of teachers the question as to how far the pupils have clear-cut purposes in what they do. This may easily be made to lead on to experimenting, and, ultimately, to a fresh appreciation of the place of purposes in activity. With this entering wedge, other aspects of method may be called to atten- tion one by one and genuine growth be brought about. As a matter of fact, very many good teachers have more or less completely embodied the project ideal in their work whether they use that term or not. Our task now is to develop the idea into a conscious educational policy and work out an appropriate technique for it. The third aspect in which there is the possibility and need of adjustment of elementary education to the project idea is in the field of supervision. Here, as everywhere else, example is more powerful than precept. The supervisor who would have his teachers use the project method must use it himself. He has but to raise the question as to how the teaching in the schools may be improved to call out responses from various members of his staff. Once these are subjected to discussion, a policy of experiment decided upon, and the teachers at work each in his own way, and the idea is launched. The follow-up will consist of group and general meetings, various visits of the supervisor to the classrooms, individual conferences, and, from time to time, a summing-up of results to date. This implies, of course, that the supervisor himself is an earnest student of educational method. He cannot, certainly, expect to run the mill with the water that is by. Ideals and practices good enough in his youth are not good enough now. He must expect to find in his classrooms suggestions new to him and should approach these with an open mind. Above all he should bring to bear upon their evaluation a reasonable grasp of modern educational philosophy and its counterpart, modern educational psychology. The supervisor is really a teacher of teachers, and, as such, has an un- DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 827 measured opportunity. Through his sympathetic leadership of the mem- bers of his staff, he multiplies his personality and insures to the pupils of his schools the best possible opportunities of growth. Meanwhile, he 1s instrumental in enlarging the lives and increasing the happiness of his teachers, and adding to his own a wealth of blessings. All of us who believe in the project method may well pray for large accessions to the number of supervisors who can become its intelligent and effective ex- ponents. There is time to touch upon but one other aspect of our theme. ‘Lhis, too, is fundamental. By some it would be called the most fundamental of | all. I refer to the training of young people for entrance upon the voca- tion of teaching. The graduates of our high schools who are now entering our normal schools have, for the most part, had a classroom experience more or less widely at variance with that which we picture when we think of the project method. This is especially true with regard to the high school years which lie immediately behind. The high school subjects are as yet largely formal and they are too often presented by formal methods. College graduates, as is well known, tend to present their subjects to high school pupils as college professors presented those subjects to them in their college years. As a result, the common conception of the entering normal school student is that teaching consists in assigning a lesson and later in hearing it, and not until a more modern practice has become established throughout the twelve years of common and high school education will the young person entering normal school bring with her the modern con- ception of method. As was said above, example is more powerful than precept. The other years of the normal school course will prove quite inadequate for the development of the project point of view unless it domi- nates all the activities of the training school. ‘The most effective lessons in method are the examples set by the teachers themselves. It follows that courses in educational psychology and in principles of teaching, as well as in the teaching of the various common school branches, must themselves be conducted in the spirit of the project method. Not only so, but the principles which characterize that method must be called to the attention of the beginner and made a part of her conscious policy of teaching. Such a procedure is evidently economical if it combines theory and practice in the same class hour and insures application because it becomes a part of the total experience. The normal school student who has studied geography by the project method will understand what is meant and will have relatively little difficulty in adjusting her activities when she comes intc the practice school to try her hand. Mere theory by itself, however, will not accomplish, as it never has accomplished, an effective making-over of the student teacher’s notion of teaching. By way of conclusion it may be remarked that the adjustment of ele- mentary education to the project method has been going on for a long time. We have reached the point where the various conceptions it embodies may be effectively combined and focused in a single fundamental point of 828 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION view. The time is right for the widespread application of a philosophy of method. For more than a generation we have had mainly a somewhat formal scheme for the conduct of the recitation. The new concept of method is much more far-reaching and much more flexible. It affects, as we have seen, many of the more important aspects of educational organiza- tion and endeavor. Because it is found in life we can go to life for its meaning and interpretation, and because it is as far-reaching as life, it is also inexhaustible in its possibilities. THE EDUCATION OF YOUNG CHILDREN IN RURAL COMMUNITIES MRS. KATHERINE M. COOK, SPECIALIST IN RURAL EDUCATION, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. To an audience made up as this one is of specialists in the education of young children it would be as fulsome as it is unnecessary on the part of one, not such a specialist, to enumerate or enlarge upon the principles governing this kind of work. Whatever may be the truth of the state- ment credited to some authorities on, and critics of, education that the quality of teaching in our public schools is best in the kindergarten-primary grades and continues to decline in quality as we go up through the grades, high school, and college, it is, I think, safe to say that no group of teachers is more expert in the knowledge and application of the best ideals, prin- ciples, and methods than are those represented in this audience. I need offer no apology then if I confine myself in this paper chiefly to the field of rural education and to the question uppermost in my own mind—even at the risk of seeming narrow in yours—namely, what can the application of the principles now practiced in our best kindergarten-primary schools do for the education of young children in rural communities ? I wish to discuss this question from three viewpoints: first, the prac- ticability of their application to the needs of rural children as understood by the thoughtful farmer, himself, and his children and by educators work- ing in this field; second, the efficacy of those principles in working out the solution of the special problems of rural education as understood and rec- ognized by thinking country people and by those of us immediately engaged in securing better educational conditions for country children; and third, the possibility of the use and adaptation of these principles to the organiza- tion of the new kind of country school. I say “practicability” advisedly, but with some trepidation, feeling as I do the connotation of the word, and knowing that its use is almost inev- itably misunderstood. I hope I may be pardoned then for a brief explana- tion. With those to whom ideals in education arouse reverence I am in the utmost sympathy. May I, however, remind you that we are not talking to each other alone if we are looking for results. It is a fact that must always be remembered DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 829 by those of us engaged in rural education that the farmer is an eminently practical person, that farm boys and girls are the most practical of children. They deal with realities as other children do not. The farm home is also the farm workshop or at least it is close to and familiar with it. The children know the economic problems of running a home and making a living in all their varied aspects. “They share the knowledge and fear of misfortune from unfavorable conditions as well as the elation and uplift which comes from favorable ones. The farm child is nothing if not practical-minded. With this experience and attitude we perhaps deal as others in our profession do not in our efforts to disseminate educational ideals. I like, therefore, to weigh principles and their application on the scale of what I call their practicability—meaning their probable appeal to the practical farmer, the man on the road, if I may so paraphrase the popular expression signifying the average man, with whom we must deal if our educational ideals are to be made realities. Is it then practicable to ad- vocate to thinking farm people the introduction of these new principles and practices for the education of young children, or are farm children so dif- ferent in their natures that principles of education applied successfully in city kindergarten-primary schools are not equally efficacious in the education of rural children? Farm children know that they are alike as they wish to be not unlike city children—what’s good for the gander is good for the goose. Any intel- ligent farmer, too, will answer the question. Indeed, it seems to me to carry its own answer. Principles of education, if they are right, are right throughout the school course and in however varied surroundings. If there is any fundamental difference in the nature of children based on the accident of place of their birth, that is, whether in the country or in the city, we have yet to have evidence of this fact. In the meantime it may be assumed safely that children are born with the same instincts and potentialities, the same educability whether in a crowded city or isolated rural community. Certainly not in this group need one speak for the eternal justness of the right of all children to equality of opportunity ; for fullness of development by all, whatever means we know. Our knowledge, if we apply it all, is meager enough. There are those who say that the country child does not need the ad- vantages which they, themselves, agree should be offered to children in the city, that the country per se offers training which must be brought to and devised for the children of the city: that the rural child who follows his father about the farmyard, or his mother about her household tasks, gets of his own accord all the education which the trained kindergarten-primary specialist has to offer. , To say this seems to me to deny that there is any such thing as a profession of teaching, or any such thing as the science of education. Let us examine this contention further. No one believes more than I in the country as the ideal place in which to rear children, especially young children. It is the real “child garden” designed especially for children 830 NatIonaL Epucation ASsocIATION by the greatest of teachers. It offers as no other environment does, the opportunity, the materials for education. But, like all opportunity, it must be utilized ; like all other materials of education these offered by nature are useless unless organized, in “significant sequences.’ All education must use and supplement the experiences the child has already met. It the farm in itself, the mother and the father without training can do this, of what use are prepared teachers? If trained teachers are not needed for young children why are they needed for any? Experience, too, fails to bear out this theory. Nothing has seemed to me so pathetic as the prevalence among country people and country chil- dren of eyes that see not, of ears deaf to everything worthy about them, of the paralysis not alone of the senses but of the finer sensibilities to the miracles of nature that surround them in such abundance. One month spent visiting schools in the country would be to any one here an everlasting refutation of any such tenet as that mentioned. Any careful observer of rural people, especially of rural children, could give numerous illustrations of the sordid, monotonous existence of the in- habitants. No misfortune, it seems to me, can be greater than that country children should grow up with the conviction that life on a farm is neces- sarily one of uninspiring drudgery. Yet this is the attitude we are im- planting in them by the shortsighted system through which we have crushed out joy and beauty and inspiration from education of country children and substituted a little formal knowledge designed to increase production and thereby save the nation from rearing a peasant class or from added increase in the cost of living. We need to understand then that it is not safe to leave the child to the chance of being educated by his environment unassisted. All country children are not Lincolns in ability. The fundamental principles of sound education for rural as for city children recognize the importance of bending the twig as the tree should grow; that children of the age we are discuss- ing—namely, from 4 to 8 years, are in that period when lifelong reflexes are established; that the opportunities and materials of education, varied and abundant as they are in the country, must be organized and used and that only those with special adaptability and training can do this best. To return now to our second consideration that is, the efficacy of the principles practiced in kindergarten-primary schools in the solution of the special problems met in the education of rural children. Perhaps first in importance among the needs of country children I should put love and appreciation of nature for fullness of life and joy in the day’s work without which life in the country is uninspired drudgery. To this I have already referred. Any career must have a “setting of inspiration” if it is to appeal to the child with imagination, and the foundation for this must be laid early in life before the golden moments when impressions are glorified by imagination have forever passed. In these early years or never must the love of farm life be instilled. It is all very well to appropriate money from the Federal Treasury to DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 831 promote production through vocational agriculture, but much of it is and will be wasted because these golden moments have passed and the boy or girl has faced in the wrong direction before this opportunity comes. Appreciation of nature, love of the open country, a wholesome respect for the land and the people who live in it must, like appreciation of literature, music, and all the fine arts, be developed through early association with what is good and beautiful in each at a time when much of life is accepted without undue questioning. It must come from association, contact, fa- miliarity ; just as a teacher must be a child among children so must she be a nature lover among other nature lovers. ‘The country child needs the stimulus of success, pleasure in his surroundings, physical, social, spiritual, and intellectual training to supplement his experiences, just as any other child does if he is to develop ideals and sentiments of worthy living and to cultivate love and appreciation of life in the country. Here, indeed, can the teacher with the special training for teaching nature, and its appreciation help us to solve our special problems. In school and out of school we are beginning to give some consideration to the health of rural people. ‘Time was when, like those critics already referred to, who think that country life in itself obviates the need of kinder- garten training; there were those who said that the country was a healthful place.in which to live and rear children, therefore, all country children were essentially healthful and special provision or attention to this matter was unnecessary. ‘That delusion has been dispelled by the draft data and by every investigation made concerning the health of rural children. ‘There has been of recent years a good deal of scientific study devoted to the edu- cation of little children from which it seems to me the country child has profited least. No one now would deny that we must begin early in our consideration of the child’s physical welfare or that the teachers most care- fully trained for it at the present time at least are those who have specialized in kindergarten-primary work. The country child notoriously lacks the social graces, the ability and desire to play with other children. Many country children are reared alone or in small families and are deprived almost or entirely of the op- portunity to play with or enjoy the society of other children of their own age. It is a mistake to think that the old-time large family still abounds in the country. A study recently made of farm families in a rural com- munity shows the average number of children per farm family to be a frac- tion over one. Visit any typical rural school and you find children at the recess period sitting about alone, or in small groups, knowing few games and finding pleasure in still fewer. No wonder Jack is sometimes considered a dull boy! Lack of the companionship of other children, dullness, and boredom have all done their work before the period of early training has passed. We find little in the curricula of rural schools that develops the imagi- nation, builds character, and instills ideals as the study of good literature does. Mr. Chubb tells us that the child who passes the nursery rhyme 832 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION stage without knowing Mother Goose has missed a contact which no amount of after training can fully supply and that this loss can be de- tected in a certain lack of full appreciation of literature in later life. What shall we say of the child who misses entirely the culture which comes from a familiarity with good children’s literature which the trained kinder- garten teacher knows how to select and tell? No one needs appreciation of literature and love of books and reading as the farmer and farm home- maker whose isolated lives throw them on their own resources for recreation and amusement. Indeed, students of rural education and of farm life and its needs are becoming more and more convinced that “as a man and as a citizen in a democratic country the farmer needs and js entitled to the same education for human development for sweetness and light and for an understanding of the responsibilities of citizenship as is any other man.” ‘The farmer, the farm homemaker, and the farm child are depend- ent on their own resources for culture and recreation as others are not. It appears, then, in considering the educational needs of young children in cities and of elementary children in rural communities we are on common ground fundamentally at least. Both groups interested—namely, those in the rural education and in the kindergarten-primary fields are working for more nearly equitable educational opportunity for all children based on their needs rather than on any accident of the place or the time of their birth. Both are interested that education should grow out of the child’s own experience and environment in increased opportunity for social con- tacts and development of social instincts through work and play under guidance and in right surroundings and in laying a foundation for liberal education, through more general appreciation of Nature, music, literature, and other arts. There remains, then, for our consideration only the practicability of adjustment to the organization of the new kind of rural school. I mean, of course, the larger consolidated schools which are now rapidly increasing in number and extent throughout the country; so much so that there are now probably 12,000 such schools in operation. ‘Their special needs, therefore, give rise to problems worthy of practical study and consideration. Among these may be mentioned the following: (1) In all rural communi- ties—those having consolidated schools included—many children enter school before the customary age of six years. This is due in part to laxity of rural boards in making and enforcing regulations, as is customary in cities where crowded conditions usually lead to more drastic action; in part to the fact that legal school age (in many States five years) and the age at which children should enter school often confuse country people. C2 ee lhe introduction of large motor trucks for transportation has led to the practice of using each vehicle to cover two or more routes or to cover the same route two or three times, hauling a large number of children per vehicle. This method of transportation is the most economical. Wherever teachers act as drivers of transportation trucks and more or less wherever transportation is used extensively the children have from DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 833 twenty to thirty minutes before and after school which, for larger as well as smaller children, could be busily and happily employed in supervised play, a story hour, with directed handwork, or in various other ways which the trained kindergarten is especially well fitted to direct. In many schools this free time of children offers a serious problem to the regular teachers who have been accustomed and desire to spend this time in preparation of work for the day. These conditions offer at least two opportunities for the introduction of a special teacher and special room for young children in consolidated schools. If a teacher with kindergarten-primary preparation were em- ployed in the school to have charge of a room for young children from 4 to 8 years of age, either by herself or with an assistant, she could conduct a school of the ungraded type, retaining all the traditional freedom and spontaneity that have characterized the best of the old one-teacher schools and at the same time having all the advantages of the best modern ideas in education. In addition to the regular work of the special teacher (particularly in small consolidated schools) all the children of different ages who arrive at the school building early or leave it late on the transpor- tation busses could be under her charge during these free periods. The question naturally arises if the introduction of special training for young children is practical in consolidated schools in rural communities why has it received so little attention? Those whose special-interest this field of education is, must speak for themselves. For those of us whose special interest is in country children, I think I may say authoritatively that neither indifference nor lack of appreciation of benefits to be derived is responsible. The problem is one of administration and finance in the larger consolidated school with the added one of organization in the smaller schools. Pro- moting better school conditions in rural communities is a tremendous problem with serious handicaps which need not be enumerated here. It is enough to say that so far they are being overcome only slowly and gradually. Adequate financing is not only difficult but impossible in some rural com- munities and will be until States.pass more equitable laws for raising and distributing State and local funds. In communities able to finance schools without better administrative organization it must be remembered that consolidation itself is a comparatively new movement in the majority of States, and that the present serious financial crisis affecting the farmer, came just at a time when the situation seemed in a fair way to improve with greater rapidity than before, and that for the present, at least, it offers a very difficult obstacle to overcome. The introduction of this special work in rural schools involves also the added problem of securing adequately prepared teachers. At present less than 25 per cent of the rural teachers have any adequate training what- ever for their work. To introduce a new field without a sufficient number of prepared teachers would be a serious error. ‘The rural kinder- gartner when she comes must be no follower of the letter but rather of the spirit of the law; to such the country opens a world undreamed of by 834 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the city teacher, a world where every child may see at first hand the miracles of growth in their own natural setting, where opportunities for service in new and untried fields open up with amazing regularity and where the uses of initiative, ability, and possibilities of experimentation are infinite in variety and extraordinary in appeal. ‘To open up such a field to an un- trained group would hamper rather than further the desired end. Not too much at a time must be our guiding slogan. If we are able to secure consolidated schools for our country children we will, we hope, eventually get the other advantages which accompany them. In the mean- time we must be patient and reasonable in our demands—without losing sight of the ultimate goal. We want for children in rural communities educational opportunities equivalent to those now offered, or which shall be offered, in the more progressive cities. We shall be satisfied with no less. Without insisting on their immediate fulfillment there is no time better than the present to work toward this end. Various conditions, accidental and otherwise, have combined to popularize the idea of greater liberty in the education of children. The mind of the public is better attuned to educational needs of small children than ever before. It is expedient while popular interest is alive to these needs that we keep con- stantly foremost all that makes for better education, for more normal, fuller, and richer lives for country children. THE WORK OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA- TION AS VIEWED FROM THE STANDPOINT OF A CLASSROOM TEACHER AGNES S. WINN, ASSISTANT SECRETARY, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The most pressing duty that lies before those of us who are engaged in educational work today is to convince those outside of the profession that we are united on a common program—the training of the children of the Nation for the highest type of citizenship. Groups vying with each other for influence and prestige can never bring this about. They must be will- ing to lay aside their group interests and unite their forces to carry for- ward a professional program of National service. These first few months at headquarters have strengthened my previous ideals for a great National association, an association having the unique privilege of binding the teachers of the Nation in one great professional organization with a common purpose, with a common understanding, and with common ideals. Through my office at headquarters I am hoping to keep in close touch with both administrators and teachers in every section of the country to assist in bringing about this unity. Since its reorganization at Salt Lake City two years ago the Associa- tion’s membership has increased from 35,000 to 110,000. With this re- DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 835 markable growth in mind, the officers realize that the Association must equip itself for a greater future service and for a more vital influence in the lives of its members than it has ever exerted before. _ For this purpose a Research Department has been established where information on salaries, tenure, and pensions, educational State and Fed- eral legislation, rural schools, in fact anything pertaining to the school systems of the country may be had for the asking. It is there to serve you in whatever capacity you desire. The Journal has been established to give information regarding the Association’s policies and to acquaint the mem- bers with the activities of the field and with the larger problems of educa- tion. The benefits you receive from membership in the Association will depend largely upon what you are willing to put into it in the way of helpful co- operation and constructive suggestions. It is your Association, not ours. Use your opportunity at the meetings of the Representative Assembly to let those of us who are carrying on the work of the Association know what we can do to make the National Education Association meet the needs of the educators of today. MEASURING CAPACITY OF PUPILS AND THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS BY MEANS OF TESTS LINCOLN OWEN, MASTER OF THE RICE SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS The general topic, The Value of Measuring Intelligence and School Progress by Standard Tests, means to me measuring individual intelligence, individual progress, and the efficiency of an individual school. In giving an intelligence test we ordinarily test language capacity and experience considerably more than we test intelligence and from these results we infer the degree of intelligence. The National Intelligence Tests were given recently in grades four and six of the school under my charge. Soon after Courtis Tests in Arithmetic were given in grades four and five and fraction tests in grades six, seven, and eight. In attempting to find the meaning of the results obtained my teachers prepared digests of thé results and some graphs. We have made many comparisons. ‘he pupil’s rank card for the year may be taken as the most reliable evidence of a teacher’s honest judgment as to the mental capacity of the individuals in her class. Grade six is a critical year, and I shall use for illustrative purposes the results in that grade. In all classes tested we found a marked agreement in about 80 per cent of each class. The cases of wide divergence need to be interpreted and explained. When results of scientific tests agree so markedly with the judgment of experienced teachers, is it worth while to give such tests? “This question 836 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION has been given to many principals and many teachers and the composite answer is ‘‘Yes, provided the tests do not run in grooves and thus stimulate excessive preparation for the passing of tests.” TABLE 1—GRADE SIX Class A Class B (R 14) Rank Card Intelligence Test. (R 17) Rank Card Intelligence Test. No. 1 is No. 10 ING. 1) 1S) eNO men 2, “ 3 g “ 6 Spas 23 foreign Shoes’ 10 4 « 23 “ q «6 18 bak 4 Cle a 13 10 “ 1 (148.1) 10 4 ZO 25 20 ee 31 ce 17 new 31 29 shirk with i Spans 7 ' poor habits re be eye 22 33/4 32 3 Om 32 Bye kes 30 yf ee 27 65a 28 What can be done with the results of these special tests ? 1. Understand and interpret them. Ask and answer the questions sug- gested by them. 2. Comfort the teacher by confirming her judgment. Improve the teacher’s power to rate capacity fairly. 3. Use them as a help to a better understanding of one’s individual pupils. Find the shirks. 4. Use them as a help in grading pupils. Many schools admit 50 per cent of the pupils from grade six into the foreign language divisions of grade seven on the basis of the results in the intelligence tests! The results of these tests are revealing and suggestive, but they are not absolute. 4 Scientific tests of intelligence, of arithmetic, of reading, and all other tool subjects—important and suggestive as these are—do not adequately measure the efficiency of a modern school. What then are the types of test or forms of inspection that would enable one to determine whether or not an individual school satisfies reasonable expectations ? An inventory that is reasonably thorough should cover the following points: the spirit of the school and its dominating ideals; the physical con- dition of the pupils; the methods and the processes of the classrooms; the adaptability of subject matter and of required activities to the needs and capacities of individual pupils; and intellectual results—both tangible and intangible. Because of time limitations I must omit a consideration of the most vital elements that determine the efficiency of a school and comment briefly upon schoolroom tests in comparison with scientific tests as a means of determining individual capacity, individual habits, and fitness for promotion. These same pupils were given searching tests upon their work in fractions. Class A whose average score was ten points lower than the average score DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 837 of Class B surpassed the record of Class B in three out of five tests. In earlier school tests upon fraction work Class A also surpassed Class B in each of five separate trials. There was a striking correspondence between the teacher’s merit list for promotion and a list based upon the fraction tests. In my view the judgment of a fair-minded, experienced teacher as repre- sented by the report card plus a recommendation by such teacher is a safer basis to be used in grouping pupils for next year’s work than the results of intelligence tests. Why, then, do the private schools make so much use of intelligence tests as a basis of classification? Because they have not reliable data furnished by experienced teachers to serve as a basis of classification. School tests in arithmetic and English can be made to yield to the princi- pal results which have values of a high order. A few years ago a brother master gave a test in arithmetic in my school in grade four. While only seventeen out of forty-two had perfect papers, this test showed clearly that the class possessed intelligence, the habit of attention, and a willingness to attack a new problem. Such a test is suggestive but it would not be suited as a means of de- termining fitness for promotion. In June, the same class took an appro- priate problem test. ‘There were thirty-one perfect papers and no child was below passing. When arithmetic tests, however, become so scientific that they test only abstract work, they tend to induce excessive drill upon the fundamental processes and there is no permanent gain in doing either abstract or problem work. Test results should be confirmed by comparison with standard scores, when available, and with the results in other classes or schools. Unless we are to confine research tests to the fringe of arithmetic, some problem tests should be given. Any attempt to determine the efficiency of a school should include some inspection of desk habits and an inventory of English results. “The most economical test in English is a dictation exercise, with correction by mem- bers of the class, and a rank mark obtained by counting the number of errors. Such an exercise need not take more than twelve minutes. The work in composition should be tested in writing, and orally to some extent. Oral composition should be accompanied by some class criticism to reveal the custom of the class. Written compositions should be marked by the teacher and should be arranged with the best at the top and the poor- est at the bottom. What shall be done with the results of such tests ? 1. Keep some as an index of attainment and growth. 2. Compare with earlier tests in the year. 3. Compare with some other school. 4. Ask and answer the questions suggested by the results—Do these pupils have sufficient variety in their composition work? Are they imagi- native and resourceful? Are they reasonably correct in the use of language? 838 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Something may be learned from the criticisms of our schools. Some of the educational ideas of business men are expressed by their criticisms. “The children cannot add correctly.” ‘They are not thorough in any- thing.” ‘They cannot write a short letter and spell the words correctly.” A few hours’ visit to any classroom would change these wholesale con- demnations to a fairer statement beginning with “some.” In reference to tangible intellectual results there is now a widespread movement throughout the country to test schools and rate their products. The subject in which results can be easily tested is arithmetic. [his sub- ject is taken partly because its results can be easily tested, partly because the subject is found in all grades, partly because it is fundamental in char- acter, and largely because business men say: “All children should add cor- rectly and they cannot.” With reference to this insistent demand for thoroughness, whether made by business men or professional testers, it is important to observe that abso- lute thoroughness is not the most essential element in a successful life. Of course, honesty, truthfulness, and fidelity are of fundamental importance, but the required power that makes for effectiveness in every department of activity is good judgment. Much of our school work, therefore, must be concerned in training children and young people to make wise decisions that they may become possessed of good judgment. With reference to the adaptation of the course of study to the needs and capacities of individual pupils, we are not succeeding in a manner entirely satisfactory. We are however, approximating to a condition of efficiency. We are efficient in adapting our program to about 85 per cent of our pupils. Schools generally are least efficient with the slower children. In nearly every class there are some children who are over-age for their grade. This problem, however, of dealing with over-age pupils is already half solved because we recognize the problem, its seriousness, and the direction in which the solution lies. It is the teacher’s duty to improve the average, but it is just as much a duty to improve the best and the poorest. Children differ greatly as to their capacity to do school work, for example, to express themselves in written exercises. In a set of papers written in a classroom the results will vary in quantity from half a page to two pages. The variation in quality will be equally great. As Dr. Charles W. Parmenter has stated the case, “In any given group of pupils, there are enormous differences of native aptitude, industry, ambition, and perseverance that cannot be overcome by the best organization and the most competent teachers.” The fundamental need is to make sure that every individual is making week by week a reasonable gain. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 839 RATING STUDENTS ON THE BASIS OF NATIVE CAPACITY AND ACCOMPLISHMENT IRA A. FLINNER, HEADMASTER, HUNTINGTON SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS In this article I am making a plea for a careful study of the boys and girls who are placed in our care and for whose development we have a great responsibility. We schoolmasters can learn a valuable lesson by observing the athletic coach. On the athletic field the coach sizes up his material and assigns boys to tasks in keeping with their abilities. A boy is asked to play fullback because he possesses certain qualifications or certain poten- tialities which make him valuable for that position. ‘The track coach does not select the under-sized boy of small muscles to try out for the shot put, nor does he select the big, heavy boy for the dashes. He assigns his ma- terial according to pretty well-established principles, which are the result of long experience. Such a study of individual differences should take place in classroom work. Among teachers there is a tendency to suppose that all students can do all kinds of mental work and that all students can attain high rank in school subjects if their effort is great enough. In fact considerable pressure is brought to bear to develop honor students out of all the raw material. Scholarship prizes, honor societies, honor lists, and praise by instructors, are means that most schools use to encourage the whole school to a high accom- plishment. It is decidedly laudable to secure excellent performances, but teachers and parents must realize that only a limited number of students are able to do superior work. Classroom teachers must appreciate that pupils differ as much in their ability to do mental work as in their ability to do certain physical work. If teachers and parents understood this fact fully, then greater effort would be made to secure high grades from superior individuals, and less discouragement given to individuals of average intelli- gence who do not measure up to the expectations of teachers but who, nevertheless, are working in accordance with their talents. In some respects school children are like gas engines whose ratings have been established by the manufacturer and under favorable conditions are expected to perform according to the official ratings. Each child has a different mental ability, ranging from very poor to very good. To set before individuals of average and poor mentality tasks that are very much beyond them is unwise and unjust. To be satisfied with average accom- plishment from individuals of superior ability is just as unwise. Each individual should perform according to his possibilities. Each one should be urged to give his maximum effort so as to produce results in accordance with his ability. The great task before educators today is a scientific study of the raw material. We are now able, by psychological tests and through other means, to estimate quite accurately the ability of individuals to do mental 840 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION work—that is, the ability to acquire subject matter such as is given in our schools today. At Huntington School we have devised a rating plan which takes into consideration both the accomplishment of the student and his native intel- ligence. By native intelligence we mean the innate capacities by virtue of which the individual is capable of learning, and by accomplishment we mean what he has learned because of those capacities. At the beginning of the school year, 1921, each of the three hundred boys in the school took the Otis A and the Otis B group psychological tests. TABLE 1—OriIs SCORES A=60+; B=30to 59; C=0to 29; D=—20to0; E=—xto21 Name Age mee pe Av. Grade ING Shes eT ee IDpey cote 15-1 —20 — 1 —10 D VND Soe aR So erie Arent 18-4. a2 82 ii A Ailepwe es Sic: ce toe Gel hae 18-3 25 34 30 B- AD ey eee PS Peer RO eee 17-2 31 73 1B A— Ave Were ee oe ee Cha 18-3 38 50 44. B Ba. AAs eee Hotei 20-2 42 57 49 B [sie aoe Se eT eee Onan 16-3 53 53 53 B Bie ees Sasser eee RO ie 13-4 89 93 91 A+ Bibeiaipee. Faeek See Fe: Rogtres 14-1 14 16 20 S Bid eee e cond wac teeta eases MNAMEy see 13-3 37 60 60 A-— DBA Sc tenia Sea OR fee gh Weiss’ os 18-4 1 44 44 B— deEBare tenet tee ase 17-5 —23 17 17 (e Brights sarsieaie ead: Hesa.ca 13-4 65 70 68 A— Bee. Gees Sian oe ted 7: aE eee 17-1 2A 19 20 Cc Bee rence eee eee Omer. 19-4 25 43 34 B-— Bate, aes Hdkatar 16-5 71 66 69 A— Caries tet aie Se, or Wes iWileee eee: 15-3 56 40 48 B (eit spit ite | Wi hehe oer 15-5 18 21 19 Cc Scores obtained from the Otis A and Otis B group tests for the first eighteen boys alphabetically arranged. The scores recorded are the number of points above or the number of points below the Otis norm for the ages given. The A and B scores were averaged in most cases. When large differences appeared between the two tests the higher score was used as in Case 4. Eighty-five per cent of the student body received scores above the standard norms. In Table 1 are given the scores which the first eighteen boys in the school alphabetically arranged secured. In Column 1 are given the ages of the boys; in Column 2 the number of points each boy secured in Test A above or below the standard norm; and in Column 3 the number of points for Test B above or below the norm. In the third column are the averages of the two tests. In some cases, how- ever, where there was wide variation in the results, as in the case of the fourth boy, who scored 31 above the norm in Test A and 73 above the norm in Test B, we took the liberty of adopting the higher score. Such wide variation we attributed to errors in testing, and so gave the student DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 841 the higher score. Obviously no boy could do better than his native ability, but there are many reasons why he might not perform according to his capacity. These increments and decrements were then translated into terms of the school grading system, using A, B, C, D, and E, as indicated in the fifth column. Just how the transition was made from the number scores to the letter grades will be explained in a later paragraph. In addition to these group tests we called upon the teachers to make estimates of native intelligence. At the close of the first two months of school teachers were asked to give their estimates of native capacity of the pupils whom they had in their classes, using the regular school grading letters for this purpose. It was understood that they considered all students rated A, B, and C able to prepare for college, that boys rated D and E, although they would profit by pursuing many of the subjects in a college preparatory program, would not likely enter college. Teachers generally are fairly accurate in estimating the native ability of students who lie at the extremes on the scholarship scale—that is the superior and the inferior pupils, but they are not always able to differentiate between good and average students. It is also a matter of record that where there is any conscious attempt made to separate college material from the non-college material there is considerable accuracy. “That our teachers were able to estimate the native capacity of the students fairly accurately is indicated by the fact that the correlation between the average of their estimates and that of the Otis scores is 71.1 That this correlation, considerably higher than is usual, was secured is due very largely to our small classes and the fact that all members of the staff had had considerable experience in teach- ing. Correlation scores usually run from 50 to 65.? In Table 2 are the same eighteen boys listed in Table 1 and the esti- mates of their native ability as given by their teachers. “The numbers from 1 to 5 refer to the teachers who made estimates. The reader will observe that there is considerable agreement among the various teachers’ estimates. These eighteen cases can be considered a good sample of the estimating done by the staff for the entire school of 300. Whenever the individual esti- mates of teachers showed wide variation, investigation showed that teachers who made these variable ratings did not have accurate data on which to base their judgments. For example, some of the pupils who were rated too high were repeating courses and for that reason during the first part of the school year were doing well in those courses. ‘These boys received esti- mates that were higher than their real ability. Teachers’ ratings which were obviously not correct were thrown out. In Table 2 in the last column the average of the various estimates 1s given. It will be observed that the average varies but little from each individual estimate. Now let me explain how the Otis scores were translated into the letter grades. “The increments and decrements of the Otis scores, which ranged z on’s method. J NS P Bee alate of less than roo is due to imaccuracies in both the Otis scores and the ach esti v i ts, lack of time for che imates. I refer to nervousness when taking the group tests, Lae pi ore etc. In estimating native ability, teachers rated over-age students repeaters ibd “d and loafers inaccurately. 842 NaTIoNAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE 2—TEACHERS’ ESTIMATES OF THE NATIVE INTELLIGENCE OF THE SAME EIGHTEEN Boys Name Age:| Lov|-2-9/iSeledoiulde iit ad Meee ING oo. toetes cae oe 1Dymge tS C=C (Cee i® sir, C— TA ae 8 OE ey ee UN a 18 A A ASA Ap hard A Al ag tiramessttis. des a: Ge auce 18 B A B |B ands B+ ae Re ye ROS sare. il B B Bae ey B+ AN te ee a Oe oe ee Chee 18 S G; [Del sere rin C-— Baten ry: arr ae Aas Hore 2e 20 A-|A Cows sis 3p B+ Bigh yay the, Fatah vale: Lowa.ee 16 B B CC {CAB aes B- Bi ee 2 ee ASKo has 13 B A A |A ee, A- 1B Derk athens Apda tied he RO. oe 14 C+ )C Caer C— Bis he ee ornare Whe or 13 A B+/|A /A A- BAS kesh Sey 5 Weak ccs 18 Cc € 1B eee C— GED sere coer tee Basa 17 D—|B iD) jueiDy 4/6: C— Bite oh Se ee He: eee 13 A B AN), CHE A-— ite a Pe a oo Jax cats: 17 E Cc 1B Peer D+ lier eee ee ae sO es teecer 19 S B (Ou leapt Ail C+ Beate as tee eee does tes pe 16 A B A |A |B A— Caras. ered. seme. iW Sree 15 ce D Grit ie C-— Caters face Sie. de one Bib ees 15 (S C— | BC (S from —60 to +80, were plotted on a base line of fifteen divisions. Each division included ten points. Likewise the teachers’ estimates of students were plotted, using a base line with fifteen divisions corresponding to the letter groups A, B, C, D, and E, each one divided into three groups by the use of minus and plus signs. As previously stated, it is likely that there is greater accuracy in teachers’ estimates between the C and D groups than at any other point on the curve. Accordingly the line separating the D and C groups as indicated by teachers’ estimates was extended to cut the Otis curve. An examination of the curves on page 9 will show that those who made Otis scores above the norm could be considered in the same classification as those who were estimated by the teachers in the A, B, and C groups. The reader will readily see, therefore, that the middle or C group must include those with Otis increments ranging from 0 to 30; the B group with increments from 30 to 60, and the A group increments above 60. The writer realizes that the fifteen divisions are really not of the same size, but for all practical purposes they can be considered equal. So far the data which we have discussed in classifying the students of the school included the two group psychological tests and the teachers’ estimates. Inasmuch as there were inaccuracies in both these methods of rating students, it seemed wise to give to each student the *Stanford Revision of the Binet Simon Tests to check results. 1 These tests were given by a trained psychologist DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 843 60 -50-YO -30-20-10 0. /0 20 30 ¥050 GO 70 0 IR JOY I2]% 3964. /2. Je PPM GC GGt bile Asien lb% 9.24 5086 286 P62 TEACHERS ESTUTATES Fic. 1—OTIs ScORES—NUMBERS ON THE Base LINE ARE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN : THE INDIVIDUAL SCORES 844 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE 3—BINET SCORES A=120+- B=110 to 120; C=95 to 110; D=80 to 95;- K=x to 80 Name Age | I. Q. | Grade VANS We Ray Cente eR cs os CRE Ree FD acs occ Shae EOS Sate ee 15 80 D— (AO oe AA ORR, Se. ee ae ot, ae Ares a8 18 120 | A— Jy oe Seer ke eee NE em OP ee es eee 3 Ges ee 18 110 | B— AN) OENE ASI, -cyn.09-c BRL Oe moe eee ce RO. tek 17 110 B— ACY Seen ae CMR eo Sees Ao had ARM JR IR Chakee 18 106 ‘€ RE at ou cM mR Ne RP RRC OR. fae SA SIN FR i a lakopey ic 2 20 116 B SBE eee gM oat Sg a te Aa Te De A a LOWeaee 16 110 | B— Bit ca ah. o> OO PAD cat ica ae he ROn eee 13 128 | A+ SS SO ee eo AEN Se ane Re ee ee ROs = ee 14 104 Bi gereeere. +. ska aicons, 2's Sees RR od othcus ce aes Withee 13 113 B BUR eis wcting ok 6 2 en ee ee Wastin. 18 107 GS GOB ia as ct cate PO ee ee Ped hee Tape, aoe i 102 & | 5 eR a RIS ARERR 2 2 opin cr eeR air -a ee ChE ANGEEONEN Hercrs 13 139 | A+ BY gut. dates as pct ee eo ae ee aes Ze ey 98 C— Brie te eee Oey soe ee cee Jom one 19 104 (C Bae osc. Bee ioe oeedak ote oe ee eee Bde: ae 16 116 B Ca. RP GRE 4 os» SR Wi eae 15 113 B GAS don ens ie acccartes NAS, ns heen Ne Lincs 15 104 C TABLE 3—THE INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS OF THE SAME EIGHTEEN Boys GIVEN IN NUMBERS AND LETTERS ~The following distribution was used: A120 and above; B—110- 120; C==95-110; D==80-95, and E below 80. This is approxi- mately the distribution recommended by Terman. In calculating these intelligence quotients sixteen, as recommended by Terman, was used as the divisor for all boys sixteen years of age and over. There seems to be considerable evidence available to indicate that the growth of the innate capacities of individuals does not continue for the majority of persons beyond fourteen and one half years. If we had used fourteen and one half as the divisor for the boys of that age and older, as recommended by Professor Dearborn, of Harvard, we should then have to increase the I. Q.’s for those boys from ten to twelve points. In the third column of Chart 4 we have given the I. Q.’s in terms of the school- grading system. ‘Those boys who received I. Q.’s of over 120 were classi- fied as A boys; those between 110 and 120, B boys; between 95 and 110, C boys; and between 85 and 95, D; below 80, E. This classification was made more or less arbitrarily. We should have included in the A, B, and C groups only those who had I. Q.’s above 100, because we found that all A, B, and C boys as classified by teachers received scores above the norm on the Otis tests; therefore they should be rated above 100 in the individual tests. We chose to include within the C group I. Q.’s from 95 to 100 instead of from 100 to 110, first, because we wanted to give the benefit of any doubt to the student and, second, our data indicated that the I. ae of boys fourteen and one half years and over were too low, as already explained. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 845 Name i T. Age HQ: IQ: Otis Est. Piglet INGO ee oe DR aoe 15 80 D—- C-— D /Nilsiseenpceaite Tes erga 18 120 A- A A A PAT ERIGR, TIE Gera on 18 110 B- B- B+ B Aare fert abr 3% RO mee 17 110 B-— A-— B+ B PNVaNOETs stata x che Gites, & 18 106 Cc B C— C+ Ae Ret eretae ee Hoghag ; 20 116 B B+ B [Biss teaSeneaee lpoyae Hae 16 110 B-— B B- B- iD oearananee ROR es 13 128 A+ A+ A- A Iota oe Rote: 14 104 © ic C-— C [Diner Ge baste Wiha ee 13 115 B A- A- A- Dig Rae Sears ANY. eee 18 107 Cc B- C-— c deBeees usos- al Res 17 102 Cc C C— (c Rie eee eee i exrcscm-§ 13 139 A+ A- A- A Bins Seperehl spss | Ee eee 17 98 S c D+ C-— Sioa cae AAO Bi Kote ecletet 19 104 © B- C+ C+ BU . eiShaks Braden idl 2 degot 16 116 B A- A- A- (Care pales Rite Warcne 15 113 B B C— B- (COE To eeene Ape aee 15 104 C C Cc Cc TABLE 4—DaTA FROM OtTIs Group TESTS, TEACHERS’ ESTIMATES AND BineT TESTS, WITH THE SCORES GIVEN IN THE SCHOOL GRADING SYSTEM In Table 4 we have combined the various results obtained from the two Otis group tests, teachers’ estimates of native intelligence, and the indi- vidual Binet scores. In the last column of the chart is given what we call the “Huntington Index of Intelligence,” arrived at by averaging or weigh- ing the evidence given in the three columns to the left. On the basis of the data given we are able to state that student No. 1 has D ability; student No. 2, A ability; student No. 3, B ability; student No. 4, B ability. A glance at the chart will indicate that there is considerable agreement in the three methods of rating students. In the case of the first boy the estimate given by the teachers is somewhat higher than that given by the psychological tests. This is because the boy was taking work of an elementary character. All methods agree in rating the second boy A. Whenever there is wide variation it is usually explainable. In some instances we did not use the average of the three scores, but weighed the available evidence. To cite an example: In the case of one student his ability was rated by his teachers as A; by the Otis group test C; and by the Binet test he was given an I. Q. of 140. We found a dis- crepancy here. Since the boy is only eleven years of age we could readily see which one of the three methods of rating was most likely to be incorrect. We, therefore, threw out the score given by the group test and used only the Binet I. Q. and the teachers’ estimates. Having obtained the ability index of each student, it remains to explain how we use this index. It is used as a measure of his efficiency. The accomplishment of a student divided by his intelligence gives his efficiency. 1H. I. I. is the Huntington Index of Intelligence, arrived at by averaging or weighing the three ability scores: Otis group scores, Binet scores, and teachers’ estimates. 846 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION An A student who does A work has an efficiency of A divided by A, or 1, but for convenience the score of 100 is used. A student of B ability who does B work also receives an efficiency rating of 100, likewise the C and D students who do C and D work. But the A student who does B work scores less than 100, as does also the C student who does D work. To obtain the actual efficiency score which each student of a known ability should get because of a certain accomplishment one must assign numerical values to the various letter grades. E-| E|/E+/D-| D|D+]C—| C |C+]B-— A+ | 44 |-48 | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 A 48 | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76'| 80 | 84 A— | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 B+ | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76] 80 | 84] 88 | 92 B 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 B— | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 |100 C+ | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 |] 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 |100 }104 Cc 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 |100 |104 |108 C— | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 |100 |104 |108 |112 D+ | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 |100 |104 |108 112 1116 D 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 |100 |104 |108 |112 |116 ]120 D— | 88 | 92 | 96 {100 |104 /108 {112 |116 [120 E+ | 92 | 96 |100 104 |108 |112 ]116 |120 E 96 |100 |104 ]108 |112 |116 ]120 E— |100 |104 |108 ]112 |116 |120 TABLE 5—A CHART OF EFFICIENCY QUOTIENTS The letters at the left of the chart indicate the classification of the students, and the letters at the top of the chart their accomplishment or scholarship grades, properly averaged. Thus the B boy who does B work receives a score of 100; an A boy He does A— work receives a score of 96; a B boy who does C work receives a score of 88. In compiling Table 5 we used the following values: A, 95; Be SSCL 5: D, 65; E, 55. The values given to A plus and A— are, respectively, 98.33 and 91.66; to B plus and B— 88.3 and 81.33, and in like manner the numerical equivalent for the other three grades were determined. The numbers in the squares are the quotients obtained by dividing the numerical values of the letters at the top by the numerical values of the letters at the DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 847 _Jtjwe. hi side. The letters at the top indicate the average accomplishment and the letter at the side the grade of intelligence of the individual. This chart has been subjected to a smoothing process, the reason for which will be seen in the following explanation: The quotient of Bo d85 Seeghd D265 — — — — 89; the quotient of ——— = 88; 2 pa Sick eS PRES A 95 B 85 CORT noted, therefore, that the quotients obtained ‘by dividing the larger num- bers is larger than by dividing the smaller numbers. By using the actual quotients there would be, therefore, an unfairness to students whose ability was low. Accordingly the differences found between these various quo- tients in the C column were used for the entire chart. By smoothing the chart in this manner the efficiency score for all students is the same in case they do work one step below their ability. To illustrate: The score of a B boy who does B— work is 96. So also is 96 the score for a D, C, or A boy who does D—, C—, or A— work. Scholarship Grades Name Age Ave. Grade il 2 3 4 5 6 ING OS Son oe irk cer: 1S D—-| D (DS || Ce! Ae eee eee D Nee hence: tee « Ar era 18 Cc © A+) C+) C+)|BB+ B- (Nines oo Gere, 18 ce B Pet SRDS eee. Be. ic yas Bes pee Rowe: 2 17 Geile & CAE | Beis ae G NNT eae nae one Ch eetes 18 E D E 1B Pann es coon nel ie erent F+ IB alepange ave ceos Ho. 20 c= C 1 eB A Nae, eaters IC Bitte ee Lo. 16 c-| Cc € CTD Se AAD. 22 G Bisiy. S5oe88 Rory s 2 13 A B B oA Sapellinwege: ost he ters: as A- (etic, Peotone Roa: ais. 14 D—-| D E S C—.| CC D+ ] Bi hin, eee eA Wiles 13 A B A—| A Bee" wares A- BU IS: VW eee 18 D D Ds et Etoile cob. ek oe D- deBiia. see eae capetee 17 (e D—-| D DMRS oe eentyn See D Bite nian trates Hiohieae 13 Ne plete 1S ee iene eas resi A Beeman acts 17 Cc C-—| D D CAS | ARR. : C-— Brenan ene {Omar 19 (S B (O 4 vee mel ease: B- Bitte hea erckae Ed! Aue. 16 D PRES) PTO 9 EP Bate ioe oo C+ (Gaye eRe Wier ces 15 E D+; C (SEM sesae | eehori ici D+ GCacweeeoe - Tete. Sys. 15 © D D Bar |eiac. Aor C— TABLE 6—ACCOMPLISHMENT OR SCHOLARSHIP GRADES GIVEN TO THE SAME EIGHTEEN Boys FOR THE SPRING TerM, 1922, By VARIOUS ‘TEACHERS Grades are based on a two-hour examination in each course. In Table 6 are listed the same eighteen boys and the grades which they obtained on the spring term examinations. The average of these various grades is given in the last column. In examining them it must. be re- membered that: these students are preparing for Harvard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and college board examinations, and are pursuing for the most part a classical course of study. 848 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE 7—COMPOSITE 1.Q. Teachers Estimates Scholarship Gr. A | B | Av.| Gr. ae ee ee ee ee eee Cases | Age! Otis | Otis | Otis | Otis ; H.1.1,)C.A. N/ L /Av. | °1 2 |3/4 |5 |6| 1 2 3 4 5 6 |Av. A.E...| 15 |—20/— 1;-10/D | 80)\D—|C—{/c—|c |c|Dj..|..\D—|D |D—Ic |....}..../D |p 100 A.A...) 18] 72) 82) 77/A |120A—/A |A |A IAJAJ..).1C [CG JA+/0+ /C+ /B+ |[B— /A 84 AG...} 18] 25} 34) 30/B—|110|]B—|B+/B |A |BIBI..|.\¢ |B |B—|D |....|..../0 |B 88 A.R...| 17] 31] 73) 73/A—J110|B—/B+ |B |B |BIAI.. |C+/C+ JE {C+ |B+ ..|C+ |B 92 A.C...) 18] 38} 50) 44/B |106;0 |C—ic jc |DJ|..|..|./E |D [EB weet |ecee|e eee | HH IC+ 76 B.H...) 20) 42) 57; 49/B /|116B |B+/A—|A |C|B|..|.\C-|c |D—|B—|A—|..../c |B 88 B.L.../ 16] 53) 53) 53/B |110/]B—|B—|B |B |C|CIB|.|c—Ic [a C Be pee | Ofer tt 92 B.R...| 13} 89) 93} 91/A+|128}|A+/A—/B |A JAJA]|../.|A |B B+ |A |A— JA 96 B.R...| 14] 14) 16} 20/C |1041C |C—|C+|C |CJE|..|.|D-|D jE |c |o—|¢c D+/C 92 B.W..| 13] 37] 60) 48)/A—|113/IB |A—|A B+ |AJA]..|..|A |B |A—jA |B+ |A-— |A— 100 B.W..|18| 12} 44) 44/B—|107IC |C—|c |c |DI..|..|/ID |D D—|E D—|C 84 deB.L.| 17 |—23] 17] 17/C |102;¢ |C—|D—|B |DID|c|_|c |D—|D |E DI 88 B.H...| 13] 65) 70) 68)/A—/139)A+|A—/A |B sales | Se |sAr Ay |e | eae A jA 100 BJ...| 17] 21) 19} 2010 93\C— | (D-F IE iC DIC}. |C=—|6-41D* 1D C— |C— 100 B.J...| 19] 25] 43) 34/B— 10410 |C+/C |B’ Ic}../... lc |B Je |B B-—/C+ | 104 B.E...| 16} 71) 66) 69/A—|116)B |A—JA |B |AJAIB |D |A+/D—|B Cc /A— 80 C.W..|15| 56} 40! 48/B |113;B |C—|C |D Ic|DI.. |E |D+\/C |C+ D+/B— 84 C.L...) 15] 18) 21) 1910 |1041C |C |c |c—|Bicic|.la |p ID |B C—|C 96 Table 7 gives all the data concerning these eighteen boys which have been given in the preceding charts. In the last column are the efficiency scores of these students for the spring term of 1922, obtained by dividing the accomplishment by ability. The scores range from 80 to 104. It will be noted that of the boys who receive a perfect score: Student ra, 13, 14, one is a so-called D boy, one an A— boy, one an A boy, and one a C—boy. All deserve the same score, for each has performed in accordance with his capacity. Practically all quotients are less than 100, as might be expected. When higher quotients are obtained, it is because the work is easy or the students put forth unusual effort. It must be remembered that the ability scores were obtained when students were in most cases performing with a maximum effort; so it is not likely that many of our students will do much better than their ability indices. In rare cases a boy who may obtain a score of 100 does not put forth his maximum effort, because such a boy belongs to the brilliant group, and even the arduous task of preparing for college does not challenge his best ability. The rating plan which has been described and which is in use at the Huntington School in Boston is supplementary to the usual method of rating students. It is used very largely by the school office and by teach- ers. The efficiency scores are not given to the students or to the parents in any perfunctory manner. Students of honor ability are informed of their rating-in conference. In the case of a boy of poor or average ability the information is used very largely to aid the parents and the school to guide him wisely in his program of work and in the choice of his career. With the office and teachers informed as to the possibilities of the students, it is possible to secure under this rating plan better work from all the students than from the usual rating plan alone. There is a tendency in any school system for the principals and teachers to direct their attention to boys in the lower extreme of the scholarship scale, because it is from that group that come practically all the failures in scholarship. But an A boy DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 849 ene se who does B work is really failing just as badly as a D boy who does E work. ‘This plan of rating directs the attention of the school to all the students. It is of most help with students of good and superior intelli- gence. ‘These students are checked up just as carefully if they fall a grade below their ability as are the students who fail. It is valuable in dealing with average or poor students, because they are not discouraged by an expectancy which is unfair. The whole theory of the grading plan is that each student should per- form in accordance with his capacity, and no pupil should be asked to do a task that is beyond his ability. Success in life is obtained more through tasks that are accomplished than through failures that are recorded. It is the contention of the writer that an ability-index which will show with some degree of accuracy the success an individual is likely to have in the type of school work which is ordinarily given in secondary schools can be arrived at by the use of group tests,. teachers’ estimates, and individual tests. Where the expense of giving individual tests is too great, practically the same results can be secured by using several group tests for the general group and individual tests for doubtful cases. After securing such an ability-index, it is fairer to judge a student on the basis of his efficiency arrived at by dividing his accomplishment by his ability than by the use of comparative grades alone. Specra Notse.—The writer realizes that there are a number of inaccuracies in the foregoing calculations, but he believes there are none that will seriously affect the results, viewed from the standpoint of the practical schoolman. ; “mbt heute tol @ § oko e -ifinani, tap equachet hohe Wy | | tery? fet Salle aK ney we | ~o@iilesb x aideulng: wt pone) Se ‘hee etoort pe toy ysis a9 had odve sphlig hea ir ein’ ed ik iad y ‘~< of - te aitsiey indy « 7 bli “wilbits 2), Higa. Hitures re trays CPOayaa ad re xr) some : ‘aha: at aboot eid aie. 3 e* ; bsg oa ag cen Tht (hypo eek; pag oh ‘ Exaile flaw aioieeh awtiett-ypilsds. ge yiks tasty of APH Ti sath wtfyloail at ip mara silt gongt atta celond “i cibbucrine nts fnmaherd i outer. how _ deviivitini: hielo iiehniees % Poo rape wo nh yUenitang 7i4y, ont-2i abeat losbretbn? ghivy Reber et Invqg7e sf? wt ties ek | fsr4a y yore yd » | Sees a ig tia TO on Reh ' oth vel ¢ se TAEHIM- slau Sars aol emma aameatis ' ; ac? icy a4 riax tenis we l-s hae rt ri vier Cnet aheg phased, pls hes tants the ne heat » pit firth wousuel Aaa OEP iniee ny t¢ fitziy Ate abculded when Pidleae werp Ti est Tie’ wit IRR WAMT eN TY oo VL ge- arip Uikely th ee : = ¥ Y letter than thee winlite iedion. - Trem enies : wee w) o~uw ih ie ditenuegs — i ; ; y tb ’ i ete Sie Sirebeedetie Cha ‘ 2 T Cay wet oh its a ae z n ] wala in cha S ant ; es, of % "| th hie sanel, aeeigad ae P we et mie srt Wy gee t nm tt ar + ft fo the ur s > oj! Tia) hw F . i] ci %s bp « 3 Pot : i : : « (. : j See, ~ {oye Oe eens ek ee Department of Elementary School Principals OFFICERS President—Luonarp Power, Principal of the Franklin School............ Port Arthur, Texas First Vice-President—KaTHERINE D., BLAKE, Principal of Public School No. 6...... New York Corresponding Secretary—Joun L. BRACKEN, Principal of the U. S. Grant STOO eee TAREE eta « Reate-c ona elaroieodereletsre = eieloletsiotlar=yaiekaseis:o esi cleraieyo e\sie\ehs Duluth, Minnesota Chairman of Yearbook Committee and Program—WortH McCtuvrE, Principal of Gatewood SAG hei aoG ln pote co amaidiblancin en GonInigio 0d 0 OSE CoG OTC Seattle, Washington PROGRAM OF CHICAGO MEETING FIRST SESSION—Monday Afternoon, February 27, 1922 The Professional Status of the Elementary School Principalship SoME OBJECTIVES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PrincipaLs—Leonard Power, Principal of the Franklin School, Port Arthur, Tex. Tue ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT— David B. Corson, Superintendent of Schools, Newark, N. J. Discussion—Led by Fred M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, Calif. ; Charles S. Meek, Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio; Edward N. Stitt, District Superintendent, New York, N. Y.; David C. Porter, Superintendent of School, Bridgeton, N. J.; William M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Tuesday Afternoon, February 28, 1922 The Elementary School in Its Social Setting DEVELOPING THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS A SoctaL Unit—Ide G. Sargeant, Principal of School No. 10, Paterson, N. J. THe Pusiic LipRARY AND THE PUBLIC ScHoot—Elizabeth Dolan, Principal of the Mark Twain School, Kansas City, Mo. Tue SPECIAL TEACHER IN THE Grapes—W. W. Walters, Principal of the Ashland School, St. Louis, Mo. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY AS A SocIAL FACTOR IN THE ELEMENTARY ScHooL—Olive M. Jones, Principal of Public School No. 120, New York, N. Y. SOCIALIZING THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL Coursr oF Stupby—Thomas Agnew, Jr., Prin- cipal of the Horace Mann School, Bayonne, N. J. Wednesday Afternoon, March 1, 1922 How Principats May PLAN Tuer Work AND Avorp GIVING UNNECESSARY TIME TO Petry Routine Matrers—Thomas Alexander, Professor of Elementary Edu- cation, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Tue ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL AS A PROFESSIONAL LEADER—C. E. Marston, Principal, Woodland School, Kansas City, Mo. Thursday Afternoon, March 2, 1922 An open conference. [351] 852 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION SOME OBJECTIVES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPALS LEONARD POWER, PRINCIPAL OF THE FRANKLIN SCHOOL, PORT ARTHUR, TEXAS, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT We must bring to our problems the combined thought of all members of the Department. To do this we must have a ready means of disseminating our studies. ‘This necessitates a Yearbook and will probably necessitate a monthly bulletin. We shall have the first Yearbook in the hands of members before the schools close this year, by the fifteenth of May if possible. This Yearbook will be the basis for the summer program at Boston. This program will be conducted by Mr. Worth McClure, who is chairman of the Yearbook committee, We expect to unite all organizations of elementary-school principals. In- stead of having each struggling at tasks not known to others and perhaps investigating problems that have been carefully studied by other organiza- tions, we shall make known the work of each to all. The Department will become a clearing-house for all principals. It will save much duplication. We propose to learn the present status of elementary-school principals. We expect to raise the professional standard to a higher level. This will be done by encouraging more men and women of high ability to enter and remain in positions as principals of elementary schools. We shall stimulate them to take higher degrees after having investigated problems for this organization. We propose to hold two meetings annually. The summer meeting will put us in closer touch with the teachers. The winter meeting will put us in closer touch with the superintendents and other supervisory officers. Our programs will contain numbers of sufficient worth to pay Boards of Education to send representatives to hear them. Organizations of princi- pals will be encouraged to do the same. The inspiration and education will be worth more than the expense to these organizations. Above all, we are unitéd for professional advancement. Our problems have long been in need of the kind of collective study that we propose to give them. Problems of almost every other field of educational endeavor have been more carefully studied than have our problems. Now we have decided to set forth the results of our own studies. We have some of the Nation’s greatest educators in our ranks, and we believe our task to be second in importance to none other. THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL PRINCIPAL FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT DAVID B. CORSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWARK, NEW JERSEY The principal discussed in this paper is the man or woman placed in charge of an elementary school in either a suburban or urban community to DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 853 manage the school and to supervise the instruction given in the classrooms. He is the responsible head and not merely the teacher of the highest grade with incidental duties as an administrator and with negligible influence over the instruction given in classes other than his own. Nor is he a nominal principal free, mayhap, from teaching a class, but giving the major portion of his time to executive rather than educational work. Superintendents agree that there are two distinct kinds of work which the elementary principal should perform in order to make a good school— one administrative and the other educational. They acknowledge that, because the school is becoming larger and ever larger, particularly in the great cities, and because the management of it is becoming more and more difficult, due to the complexity of the problem, the administrative duties are engaging too much of the time and thought of the principal and that the pedagogical duties are deprived of their rightful attention. He is in danger of becoming the school manager, but the office of principal connotes more dignity and better professional preparation. It is based upon a nobler con- ception than any managerial activity alone implies. The principal should be the dynamo of the school, the source of educational power. He should see the work in its largest aspects. He should be the unifying force through pedagogical knowledge, insight, and conviction, making everything else a means to the great end of educational leadership. No one denies the importance and value of administrative skill. If any- thing, the leadership in mind tends to place it upon a higher plane than it now occupies. It is a matter of common knowledge that much of the executive work of the principal is petty and routine and professionally de- bilitating, requiring familiarity with the details of the school, common sense, and judgment, it is true, but less vital than it ought to be. The chief officer of a great business house or of an institution of any importance is under the necessity of administering his trust with some regard to cost. This is not required of a school executive. Even if it be assumed that one of his functions is to manage his school with the relation between expense and results in mind, there is so little attention given it that the matter is more theoretical than real. With the increasing cost of schools, custom should be changed and a method should be devised whereby a prin- cipal should have more actual responsibility for the expenditure of money. In doing this, care should be taken not to attempt solely to save money, but to have the ratio between cost and efficiency more and more satisfactory. Herein is a possibility for executive skill of a high order, and its exercise tends to make administrative work a real aid in the attainment of leadership of outstanding character. 7 . The principal should be a leader in his supervision of the instruction. Here is where his knowledge of education, its aims and methods and means, is most needed. He should be a good teacher and an exemplar of the best in teaching. His skill as an instructor will do as much as any other one qualification in winning his rightful place. To teach is not all of a prin- cipal’s work, but it ‘5 the most fundamental in that all else must be con- 854 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ditioned upon his ability to lead the teachers among whom his work is done. It secures confidence, coéperation, and effort on their part. His presence is not always necessary, for his influence will be felt in every classroom. His energy and wishes and ideals are influential and effective in numberless ways. The teachers will aim to reach his standards; they will work for his approval ; they will value his commendation; they will grow in professional spirit. He recognizes and appreciates the good in their work, knowing the difficulties, but is frank in his suggestions for betterment wherever it is pos- sible. In a school where teaching skill of a high order prevails, it will be discoverable that the principal has developed it. Of principals it may truth- fully be said that ‘“‘as the principal so the school.” It is the principal who should radiate courage, firmness, moral stamina, who should breathe the breath of life into a school and make it a living spirit. A school that is not a living spirit but only a building with an indifferent personnel following a deadening routine reflects the ideals of the principal as well and makes clearer the truth, when contrasted with another school having a principal of stronger inspirational power. Educational leadership of the principal may be shown not only in his association with the teachers of his school, but in his relation to the super- intendent. ‘This may be aptly stated as somewhat similar to that of the Federal Union and the States—the respective States have powers and pre- rogatives, arising from their local sovereignty; the Nation has other powers and prerogatives which are exercised for the benefit of all, the National Constitution and the laws and treaties made thereunder being the supreme law of the land. Likewise, the superintendent has authority and jurisdic- tion over the whole school system, and his policies, designed for the good of all, should be the dominating thought and influence in the schools. The principal should know these policies and should seek to make them effective. He is the representative of the superintendent in certain respects. This does not mean that he shall be a subservient nonentity, for he has jurisdic- tion and powers all his own. The two fields are different but one includes the other. The principal should have reasonable freedom. He should have the night of initiative, provided it is in harmony in a broad way with the policy of his official superior. He should have the opportunity of leader- ship. The schools are not autocracies, although the practices of some great city systems appear to make them such. Whatever is wrong in methods of teaching, or of discipline, or in results achieved should be placed squarely upon him. He is the commander in his building. He should be able to command. He should be supported, if worthy, in the command. One of the specified requirements of a principal in a modern school system is to pass professional judgment upon teachers, the same being recorded in an official rating filed in the office of the superintendent. Such ratings are necessary, because there must be some record of a teacher’s work available. Merit schemes of all kinds, where professional men are engaged in large numbers, as in engineering, or hospital service, are made to insure fairness and justice. With some teachers there is resentment against any rating DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 855 plan. Efforts have been made by superintendents to remove the irritation and misunderstanding which it has caused, but they have not been wholly successful. Because of this feeling among teachers, principals often fail to give a true and just rating; this causes inferior teachers to become fixtures ‘nthe schools. Some teachers are able to create disturbance and to becloud the issue so successfully that it is the path of least resistance to give them a high rating. Another reason is that there was misconception of the purpose of efficiency records when they were first introduced. A principal, before giving a rating, should become so familiar with the work of a teacher that it is possible for him to furnish conclusive evidence of the teacher’s ability and skill, or the lack of them, to secure satisfactory results in a proper way. The rating should be the judgment of the prin- cipal, given without sentiment, favoritism, or personal feeling. There should be explicit reasons for rating a teacher high or low, and they should be so clearly convincing that any unsuccessful teacher cannot evade the issues raised or explain away unfavorable judgments. Unless this be so the principal has failed in the performance of one of his most important duties. His reaction in this matter is a reliable index of his professional capacity and fitness. Enfolded in it are all the possibilities for progress and success of his school. The inclusion in the program of studies of the expressive subjects—that is, art, music, domestic art, domestic science, manual training, and physical training—somewhat threatens the authority of the principal and somewhat challenges his leadership. For the supervision of these arts a new officer called the supervisor has been employed. In many places there are super- visors as well of academic subjects and the kindergarten. Although this is true, still the principal should be fully accountable for the instruction and inspiration in all the subjects and in every department. Divided responsi- bility weakens the school and injures the standing of the principal in the eyes of his teachers. Supervisors find it necessary to hold meetings with the teachers of their respective subjects or departments in order to secure effectiveness in the teaching body. Directions for teaching and official explanations of the courses of study are thus given to the whole group of teachers. Unless principals attend these meetings they are at a disadvantage in discussing the subject or subjects with their teachers. Frequent misunderstandings and not a little friction are caused by this condition. It may not be convenient for the principal to attend all meetings, but a method should be found to furnish him the information and instruction given the teachers so there may be unity of effort and no ill will engendered. The question, “What is the principal’s relation to the supervisor and of the supervisor to him?” is often asked. ‘The answer 1s not so evident as in the principal’s relation to the superintendent, especially in the case of super- visors of the special subjects. Only upon reflection is it clear. ‘These so- called special studies, because they have not been and are not now a part of general education, require special training. Some of them are taught by 856 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION special teachers in the school, and, because the principal lacks training in them, he may shift the responsibility for their supervision wholly on the supervisors. “That should not be. He may not know the subject-matter or the technique of a given subject in detail, but he is under obligation to in- form himself sufficiently in order that he, with the assistance of the super- visor, may perform his task. The supervisor’s function is therefore ad- visory. The relation between the principal and the supervisor may be such that the principal has confidence in the supervisor and does not accompany him in school systems where supervisors make such visits for inspection, pre- ferring to receive a verbal report with criticisms, suggestions, and recom- mendations based thereon before the supervisor leaves the building. That is a reasonable solution of the problem—cordial personal and professional cooperation of supervisor and principal. These considerations suggest the whole matter of the qualifications of the principal. Since he is one of the essential trinity in educational leader- ship—teacher, principal, superintendent—it is not too much to require that he be a person of broad scholarship, of professional training, and of per- sonal power and fitness. ‘To these qualifications as a minimum must be added those of experience in handling people and the wisdom which insight and reflection beget. Such a person does not spring Minerva-like into being but grows and develops with the years. ‘There are many principals who began as teachers, became head teachers, then principals, at first in small communities then in larger communities, and finally in the large cities, de- veloping and ripening with their expanding responsibilities, No one will seriously question the desirability of adequate scholarship for the principal. He should know well not only the subjects taught but should have the general academic equipment for admission to any profession. Scholarship gives a view of the field of learning which develops insight and creates scales of value. He should possess it, for it stimulates interest, commands respect, brings the experience of the past to bear upon the present, and gives freedom of action and sanity of judgment to its possessor. Of two principals one with and the other without scholarship, there can be no question as to the greater worth of the first in comparison with the second, experience and personal fitness in each having about the same weight. The professional equipment of the principal is necessary. He must know the field of education, its science, its art, its history, its purpose. He must have the practical sense of the business man and the finesse of the diplomat combined. Knowledge of the science of education enables him to call that which is valuable to him in his work from many sciences, such as ethics and psychology; knowledge of the art of education gives him the technique of the educational process; the history of education makes him familiar with the accomplishments of the past as well as the theories and the tremendous influences and movements that have affected educational practice and de- velopment. ‘This equipment is as essential to the principal as is that of mathematics to the engineer, of a knowledge of materia medica to the physician, of the methods of procedure and of jurisprudence to the lawyer, DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 857 or of exegesis and homiletics to the clergyman. Such professional attain- ment will create a professional attitude toward his work, and help to make him an upstanding, confident, clear-seeing, and efficient professional man. The personal fitness of the principal is equal in importance to that of his other qualifications. It is often the weakest of the three elements in the making of an efficient elementary principal. It is axiomatic that he should have vigorous health, for an invalid or a misanthrope is seriously handi- capped and not likely to be a stimulating influence. He should have a sane attitude toward life, comprehending it in a broad, tolerant, cheerful spirit. He should have the training in manners and in personal and social habits which will enable people to classify him at once as a gentleman. He should have convictions about truth and the eternal verities that will make him balanced and stablé and worthy. He should possess that blessed thing called character which means, at least, tolerance, poise, urbanity, and strength of will. His personality, the composite of physical, mental, moral, and spiritual health, should be such that all the world may rise and say, “This is a man.” The possibility of educational leadership on the part of the elementary principal calls for a resumé of some of his rights, powers, and duties. All of these may not be legally secured everywhere to him by statutory enact- ment, but if they are not they inhere in his position. He has the right to be protected against the uncertainties of politics or of changing majorities in the controlling boards. He should be secure against personal animosity and vindictiveness on the part of an individual member or members of the board of education who temporarily may have the influence to annoy and to harass him and even to cause his dismissal. This right of tenure should be given after a probationary period of not more than three years, in which time the principal should have demonstrated his ability and fitness as an educational leader. The fact that he may become inactive or indifferent or inefficient after obtaining his tenure is not a valid reason for denying him this right. There should be found means to relieve school systems of prin- cipals who have ceased to function as they should. The competent principal has the right to a salary commensurate with the dignity and value of his work. Until recently the salary has been wholly inadequate, but an aroused public sentiment has caused more satisfactory salaries to be paid. The office should be rated not as a subordinate, but as a professional one, requiring superior resources and initiative and professional skill and judgment. On this basis should the remuneration be determined. The third right is that of provision for disability and old age in the form of a disability or age retirement allowance. It is just that the beneficiary should help to sustain a fund, payments being compelled by law. His service entitles him to par- ticipation by the State ‘1 the fund to the extent that he and the State share, on an equal basis, in making this provision. With permanent appointment, with certainty of income commensurate with his responsibility, with sure provision for disability or old age, the principal would have secured to him the independence and freedom from worry which the accumulation of money from a gainful occupation provides. 858 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION The powers of a principal should be clearly defined and generally recog- nized. “They should be such that he has authority as well as responsibility. His jurisdiction is that of the school, the unit of school administration, and his powers should be sufficient to enable him to control and govern the school, to enforce all rules and regulations of the Board of Education, and to carry into effect the requirements of the superintendent of schools. ' This comprehensive statement of a principal’s powers may be made spe- cifically to cover concrete conditions which may arise in the administration of the school. The weakness at the present time is that the authority of the principal may be unpleasantly and unreasonably attacked by dissatisfied and unreasonable patrons or critics. The state of public opinion does not yet assume that the principal has powers and that his action may be within them. ‘The presumption appears to be in favor of the critic who can some- times damage a principal’s reputation and influence without a rebuke. The remedy lies in a widespread recognition of the powers of the principal so that pettiness, or prejudice, or malice cannot injure him. The duties of a principal are multitudinous. The great danger is that the lesser and relatively unimportant may absorb his time and dissipate his strength and influence. Again, the increasing size of city schools tends to enthrone mechanism and formalism. In our great city systems there is much clerical work to be done; in fact, we are in an age of quantitative education. We measure education in units and credits, we survey, we de- vise questionnaires and collate the answers thereto, we test and examine pupils, we investigate plans and methods, we write plan books, we collect statistics bearing upon every phase of school administration, every subject of the curriculum, every characteristic or qualification of pupil, teacher, or principal. This quantitative ideal taken in connection with the effort to control large numbers of people from a central office, the formalizing of methods—all tend to mechanize and to devitalize schools. It may be use- ful; it may be necessary to some degree; it may even be valuable in its illu- minating effect. It must, however, be within reasonable limits. Clerical work should be done by clerks, Investigations should be limited to fruit- bearing varieties. The principal’s chief duty is to supervise and inspire and lead his school. He must find a way to relegate these quantitative func- tions of his office to others, reserving his thought and action for the larger, broader, supervisory work that shall make his school a forceful and an inspiring center of educational life. Educational leadership may further be shown in the relation of the prin- cipal of an elementary school to the parents of the children and to the com- munity. Leadership will insure support of his policy and confidence in him as a disciplinarian. Without it, the school will be hampered greatly. The first means of acquiring this support is through the management of the school itself. The principal can by wise, tactful, firm, and just treatment of pupils and teachers secure the order and system which command approval and commendation. A man inherently strong will do this almost uncon- sciously, but if lacking in such native endowment, he should seek persistently DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 859 —— ae Se ee eee eS to acquire it. There will be given in the homes of his pupils descriptions of his conduct and methods, and his suggestions and advice will be repeated and discussed, and upon these reports opinions and general estimates of him will be formed. ‘The reflex is shown in the attitude and behavior of the children. If friendly, success is assured ; if otherwise, failure is the result, shown either in indifference or antipathy, open or covert. This indirect contact with the parents is admittedly the most fundamental and lasting in its effect. It can be and should be supplemented by a direct association by the principal with parents in order that they may form their opinion of him at first hand. It is an advantage to the principal to live in the neighborhood of his school if he can do so, and to be a part of the community life. He may be a member of the athletic or literary or some other type of club and thus make himself an influence and power. In all his social relations he is unconsciously effecting the same end. This direct relationship should be more definitely augmented by bringing the parents into an organization having for its object the cultivation of the interest of parents. With it as the center of attention and concern, acquaintance with the principal and with his aims and ideals is certain. Some objection to a Parents’ Association is made because of the burden of work entailed in preparing programs for the meetings. While such preparation does require extra effort, the return for the labor is so well rewarded that it is justified. It may be regulated by showing the work of the school in the form of model lessons, essays, debates, gymnastics or calis- thenics, and an address designed to inform the people about the school or about some phase of education. As different groups of children pass through the school different persons will be in charge of this organization and dif- ferent people will profit by the study of the school and its work and by the diffusion of information about education that will be made. No better agency can be found for the development of the public opinion in favor of the school and of education in general. Each school should have such an association, which should be duly recognized as essential to the welfare of the school. The elementary principal can possess this powerful auxiliary for his work, if willing to make the extra effort to arouse and hold the parents. It is conceivable that this larger service may have tremendous possibilities. The guilds of the middle ages and the labor unions of the present day are types of what parents’ associations may become. ‘True, they will not have the cohesive power of these organizations, because the motive for their existence is less impelling, but if each school had such an organization and these organizations were federated it is possible that their influence on public education would be great. Some elementary principals are prone to complain that they do not hold the place in public esteem that the clergyman, or lawyer, or physician holds. It is claimed that at public meetings they do not, have seats of honor as other leaders of the community have. A Phi Beta Kappa man, a teacher in a high school, recently related his experience on an Atlantic liner coming west a few years ago. He was, for the first few days out, an accepted 860 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION en member of a small group of gentlemen, holding his own in games and dis- cussions. In a conversation inevitable because of the friendliness estab- lished, each man told of his business and of his material success in life. From this point of view the teacher was the least successful. In relating the incident he spoke of the change in manner which the announcement of his work caused in the other men. They became less friendly but formally polite, and before the voyage ended he had ceased to be a member of the group. It may be asserted that this incident is not typical or that these men cannot escape criticism for their snobbery. No one, however, will deny the desirability of recognizing the principal as a leader and a man among men. True, he must deserve it because of devotion to his profession and of manly qualities. It is also true that the public must place a higher estimate upon his work as a part of National and social life and not regard it merely as an incidental in the lives of children. A change of attitude is slowly but surely taking place. The principal can hasten the process by contact with his community, by quietly and modestly magnifying his work in every legitimate way. He must realize, as we all must, that “it is not in our stars but in ourselves that we are underlings,” and by outstanding leadership bring the community and society to accord the respect and recog- nition and honor due him and his work. DEVELOPING THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS A’ SOCIAL UNIT IDE G. SARGEANT, PRINCIPAL SCHOOL NO. 10, PATERSON, NEW JERSEY Lord Bryce and other thoughtful observers of American every-day life have pointed out the dangers threatening our National life, through our rapid growth in wealth, industry, and population, unless that along with this marvelous development in material riches we can build, as a carefully adjusted counter-balance, a community conscience which will insure the same high sense of honor, on the part of each individual, in regard to public needs, public expenditures, and public affairs generally, as is now shown by our best people in their private affairs. Each citizen must develop a willing- ness to assume his part of the public burden, an acquaintance with the public needs, a sense of his personal obligation to the community and the same alertness to see that he has met this obligation as he shows in his private life between man and man. . In the old days when the Nation was largely rural, men met in small groups in town meetings, or other political divisions, passed ordinances and legislated for districts with which they were perfectly familiar. They were also acquainted with each other and knew each other’s qualification for a given position. But with the coming of vast industries and congested populations our people lost this intimate knowledge and personal acquaint- ance with municipal questions and the qualifications of their fellow towns- men. With the loss of the personal touch with public questions and their DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 861 eee ee fellowmen, went also a loss of interest in public affairs. Because of this the management of municipal affairs in many American communities has become a disgraceful orgy of extravagance and waste and reflects severely upon our national intelligence. The remedy is to get back to a community unit small enough to enable its citizens to know its needs and know each other. Just as in the Union we are finding that the Nation is too vast to allow a complete knowledge and efficient handling of certain, problems and consequently have delegated them to the individual States, so in the mu- nicipal group we must have divisions small enough to permit of an inti- mate knowledge and an alert interest. ‘This group will develop its local leaders. A conference of the leaders of the various groups in a city will give that city a community spirit and a community intelligence which will do away with the evils afflicting so many of our communities. For this community unit the public school of a district is the logical center. ‘he building and its equipment is owned by the municipality. It is convenient of access. It is the center of an area sufficiently limited in extent to enable all its residents to know it in all its parts. The principal in his school administration is non-partisan and non-sectarian. All can meet him on an equal basis. “he parents and children are accustomed to coming here as to no other place in the community. The school has the confidence of all the people to a larger degree than any other institution. It is theirs. It is their money that built it. It is their money that runs it. Why, then, has the school not played a larger part in bringing into being the better community life so much to be desired? For several reasons: First, because we have paid such niggardly small salaries, that we have not been able to secure the services of principals of sufficiently large ability to envision the possibilities within their grasp. ‘Too many of our principals lack energy, ambition, and the broad aggressiveness which the position de- mands. Many of our principals are too provincial, have too narrow a con- ception of their work and are slaves to the so-called 3-R’s. In their loyalty to tradition and a false notion of ethics they have sacrificed the big oppor- tunities of life. Too many of our principals belong in the cloister and not at the head of a big public school. They lack red blood. They are not good mixers. They are timid. All big business knows that publicity is the life of trade. But many of our principals shrink from giving their schools publicity. They consider it unethical and not professional. Yet these same principals de- nounce the public’s indifference to school matters. People are not generally interested in things of which they have no knowledge. Many principals pride themselves on taking no part in politics and are absolutely colorless on questions that arouse other citizens to a white heat. This is wrong. The principal should not be an offensive partisan or a tactless hothead, but he should be the best versed man in his district on current politics. In no other way can he command the support for his school to which it is entitled. A second big factor in preventing the proper development of the school as a social unit has been the petty restrictions imposed upon principals by 862 NatTIoNAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION boards of education and superintendents. The principal has been burdened with class teaching, denied clerical assistance, housed in a building-making community work practically impossible and in some instances denied the use of the building for community work when a suitable building existed. A third obstacle in the way of developing a virile, social community spirit has been the multiplicity of agencies attempting this work. Instead of centering all.this work under an intelligent, forceful head at the school, one familiar with all the ins and outs of his district, and able to codrdinate the various activities effectively, we find various agencies working in the district with little knowledge of what others are doing with the consequent duplication and waste that always results from an attempt by several agen- cies to do what should be done by one. In short, in our methods we have been using the shotgun where we needed the rifle. . Assuming that the principal has the requisite ability and training to be at the head of a large school, he is the one best fitted to direct the various activities which will give us a broader and better community life. He should be the ablest teacher and the ablest supervisor in his building, but it should be in the sense of the expert. Much of the detail must be done by clerks and assistants. Like the manager of a big manufacturing or mer- cantile plant, the principal must be able to organize, coérdinate, and inspire his force to do the big job at hand. The principal should rarely play the dictator as a community leader, but rather the part of the lookout and the skilful man at the wheel. If this is done tactfully, he will have all needed help from those in his school and in his community. Perhaps I can best illustrate what should be done to make a beginning in developing a school toward a social unit by relating what has been done at Public School Number 10, Paterson, New Jersey. In 1908, we organized a school Alumni Association and later an Improvement Association, the latter partaking of the nature of a parent-teacher association. ‘The Im- provement Association meets the second Wednesday and the Alumni the second Friday of each month. Committees of the associations for different activities meet several times a week as the need arises. Sometimes it is only a conference in my office between the officers, citizens, and myself, At the time these organizations were formed our building was very poor. Rooms with light and floor space for twenty-four children were crowded daily with ninety-six. We had no school assembly or gymnasium. Our people were discouraged and felt nothing could be obtained in the way of* relief, as my district is an industrial one and our children represent over thirty different nationalities. Through the efforts of these organizations backed by a progressive mayor, Board of Education, and Superintendent, we were able in September, 1918, to move into a new fifty-room building, which was commended by Dr. Strayer in his survey as one of the most completely equipped school plants which he had examined. The first step in making a social unit is to begin with the children. Our school nurse has her regular daily hours in school, with other hours for DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 863 visiting the homes or the mills if need be. Our baby welfare nurse has her regular hours in school for a clinic to which mothers come for instruction in feeding, dressing, and caring for the little ones. The rest of her time is consumed in visiting throughout the district, advising with mothers and prospective mothers. This nurse is able to confer with and aid about two hundred mothers yearly. The school dentist, with a completely equipped office and an assistant, is employed full time in attending to the children in our part of the city, six days in the week, twelve months in the year. A fully equipped gymnasium, with male and female directors, is in charge of the physical instruction of the children and adults from 8:30 a.m. to 9:15 p.m. The night classes for men and women in the gymnasium have cleared the loafers off the corners and given the younger element wholesome instruction in wholesome surroundings. ‘This, supplemented by a weekly dance in the gymnasium and moving pictures in the auditorium, provides entertainment free from vicious surroundings. . Many of our women attend the dress-making, milli- nery, and cooking classes with profit to themselves, and the men make many useful articles of furniture in the manual-training shops. Boy Scout troops and the Junior Patrol do much to train the younger ones in law and order. Different social groups—as Lithuanians and Italians—have a night when they are responsible for the program of an evening’s entertainment for the community. Besides the night classes, we have a dramatic club and other societies of a special nature. There has also been the personal service which has led many to look on the school as a protective as well as an educational agency. When flour suddenly jumped from $10 to $14.25 per barrel, we placed 350 barrels at $11 a barrel in the homes in the immediate neighborhood of the school. When many families were unable to get sugar we secured a shipment of 40,000 pounds and rationed it out according to the number of children in the families. When a shyster had buncoed one of our men out of his Liberty bond and the wife complained to us, we sent for the shyster, and after much bluster he returned the bond to the rightful owner. When a woman who had paid for coal in July, and in December, with a sick baby in the house, finding herself without coal for three days, because the dealer would not deliver any, complained to us, we called on the coal dealer, who sent her coal within two hours. I could enumerate many instances of the sort. What enables us to secure quick action? Publicity. We have a committee which gives the bald, honest facts to the press if the wrong is not righted. It is pretty well known that we will do it; it is also known that this committee will fight if milder methods do not prevail. In this support of our community needs we number lawyers, contractors, railroad men, manufacturers, and day laborers. The millionaire and the small wage earner have shown a fine spirit of codperation. We realize we have made only a beginning, but we feel sure that much better things for us are just within the shadow awaiting further community action. 864 _ Nationa Epucation AssocraTION THE SPECIAL TEACHER IN THE GRADES WILLIAM WADE WALTERS, PRINCIPAL OF THE ASHLAND SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI In the Ashland School every teacher specializes in some department of school work. As the interests of the teachers have centered upon fewer educational activities and have been extended over a much longer period of the development of their pupils they have tried to find out all that is useful and possible to know about their special subjects and the best methods of teaching them. ‘They have ceased to think of just so much ground to be covered in a period of ten or twenty weeks and have come to follow with a much more intense interest certain phases of the growth and development of the personality of their pupils through a period of two to three years. The older pupils stay in school better and enjoy their work more from year to year. ‘The special teacher knows how to get the best out of a pupil that comes to her the second or third year in the same educational activity. There are many theoretical objections to specializing in the grades. These objections do not seem to stand the test of thoughtful, careful, sym- pathetically guided experience. Instead of a narrowing effect upon the character and efficiency of the teacher, it tends to broaden her scholarship, improve her pedagogy, increase her zeal, and make her more efficient in the proper stimulation and guidance of the pupils with whom she associates for a longer period of time. Since all education is for the purpose of develop- ment and desirable modification of the personality of the pupil, we do not try to make any distinction between instruction and moral influence and training. But the experience of years has shown that the personal influence of the special teacher with a daily contact of forty-five minutes lasting over a period of years is much better than that of the general teacher who is with the pupil several hours a day for only a few weeks. Some have feared that the special teacher would not work harmoniously in the supervised activities. Practice has proved the opposite to be true. The departments of drawing, music, penmanship, and physical education have found their supervision easier and more effective with the special teacher, for the special teacher is more appreciative of the help of the super- visor. ‘The efficiency of the principal and all visiting supervisors is much greater with a corps of specialized teachers than that of a school that assigns to every teacher a little of everything in the curriculum. The special teacher and specialized classroom equipment afford great ad- vantage in the furnishing of educational instrumentalities. In the senior division of the organization of the school there are fourteen classes and fourteen teachers. For this division only one room is furnished for history and one for geography instead of seven for each. Only one room is equipped for fourteen classes in drawing and one for penmanship instead of fourteen fur each, There are only two gymnasiums instead of fourteen, only two music rooms instead ef. fourteen, only two rooms for arithmetic, two for language, and two for reading. The equipment for the fourteen classes is very much better and more economical than under the non-specialized plan. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 865 With special teachers better and more scientific methods of instruction have developed even more rapidly than the demand for more and better instrumentalities. A teacher devoting all or most of her time to one subject finds much more available material in the homes and community life near the school than is possible for the teacher of many subjects. This tends to make the work of the school less artificial. It tends to make the work in the school function out of school, to socialize instruction, to influence con- duct, to modify personality, to make of the child a better citizen, to develop character. We know that our specialization has helped in all this. We could not turn back to the non-specialized school. Social democratic class organization—Our classes range in numbers from a minimum of thirty-six pupils to a maximum of forty-eight pupils. Most classes have from forty-two to forty-five pupils. There is but one class in the care of a teacher except for brief periods during emergencies. The school day is divided into seven periods of forty-five minutes each. The work of the day is divided into seven divisions. Above the third grade no two divisions of the day are devoted to the same subject. Pupils take art and penmanship on alternate weeks; so that there are eight organizations of each class for different kinds of work. All organizations of work are for five days per week, although in some we combine two activities to make up the work for the week. Grammar, composition, and spelling are put in one division. Geography and nature are grouped together, and music and social welfare work make another five-period unit. : In each of these eight divisions of the educational activities of the school the three boys and the three girls who rank highest in personality and in efficiency in the subject in hand are selected by class and teacher as team captains. The ranking boy captain and girl captain are class leaders for the one period and subject. “The remaining boys are organized into three carefully graded teams. The girls are organized in the same way. Pupils assist in all organization and ranking. ‘This gives a fourfold ranking for all classes in each of the eight divisions of the work, making thirty-two dif- ferent ranks for each class. If all had the desire and ability to lead it would be possible for every pupil in a class of forty-eight to become a cap- tain in one of the eight organizations. The actual number who do become leaders during a half-year period varies considerably with different classes. More than half of every class are captains all of the time; and those who can never win a captaincy are given other responsibilities, all that they can carry. The captain and the members of each team assist the teacher in the rank- ing of the members of the team at least twice each quarter. The fourth and ninth weeks of each quarter of ten weeks are known as contest week. During the third and eighth weeks of the quarter each team is carefully ranked, and two or three of the poorest workmen of the first and second teams are required to defend their titles to a place on their teams. Two or three of the best in the second team are allowed to contest for a place on the first team. 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(ale peel * s “is i. ’ “Sole ted mer lxater orlt- ni s5sem Ko thdoess prevabcn.qurmnirrimoied Sar n im: fad 1 ‘ vuitie © hem het i sorte sy. } br dinqeity Avi eetenls Sal F Fenety. id = £ M : ai * La y | ‘ +, _ fay , = = y e ' A j nN } A v > = @ Ps 1 ow J "9 ‘ v j * + . pe i : =o) Berns barodicy : ¥ : : * * Les! « 1:6 m i 868 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of thought to another at will, purposeful thinking, and the ability to effect- ively follow up the solution of a problem when other interests are pressing their claims for attention; (6) Such training in citizenship as will best develop worthy citizens of a progressive social democracy, with powers and habits of initiative and self- direction, self-restraint, responsibility, codperation, leadership, and those companionable qualities that characterize desirable members of social, edu- cational, and industrial teams, clubs, societies, and other organizations and institutions of codperative welfare; and (7) The well-rounded growth and development and desirable modifica- tion of an individual personality, whose activities will bring rich returns of welfare and satisfactions to himself and to those with whom he lives and works and plays. The socialized school at work—Our social democratic organization of pupils into carefully graded teams with many leaders has been described. I have given an account of the coéperative departmental organization of the teachers. In addition to the social relations of teachers to their pupils and to one another, as already indicated, they are organized among themselves into many cooperative units. In this, also, the democratic idea of alternate leadership is practiced. No teacher in the school works alone. Every teacher belongs to more than one codperative group. Every teacher exer- cises leadership and carries responsibilities with other teachers. The teach- ing corps is much more thoroughly socialized than the classes of pupils. At 8:10 to 8:15 a.m. the general officers of the school begin to arrive and assume posts of duty in playgrounds, basements, and hallways. These officers are thirty in number and are elected from the three or four highest classes of the school. At 8:30 all these officers are on duty, and gongs sound in basements and hallways announcing that all pupils are welcome to all parts of the building. ‘Teachers and pupils are expected to be in advisory rooms at 8:45, though pupils are not legally tardy until after the 9 o’clock gongs. At 9 o’clock the work of the first forty-five minute period begins. The period from 8:30 to 9 is a very busy time. There is the assembling of twelve hundred pupils through eight different entrances. Teachers, gen- eral officers, class leaders, captains, special officers, and a host of others go about their duties in a businesslike fashion. If it is Tuesday morning three employees from the public library are with us. Books are being gathered and stamped and laid out for new distribution. The Tuesday issue has averaged about eight hundred books for several years. As each class gets its turn to go to the library during the day its reading teacher comes to meet it and act as advisor and guide in the selection of books for home reading. Within the classrooms and in the gymnasiums and playrooms each class at 9 o'clock takes up the work where it left off the day before. All or most of the teams of a class may have work left over from the day before. If so, each team goes about its business without waiting for directions, assign- ments, or supervision of any kind. It is possible that the teacher may call = DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 869 the attention of the entire class to some new business or to finish some pre- paratory work left from the day before or to hear a report that is of interest to the entire class and has been prepared by one of the teams. ‘Two or three of the six teams may have had work assigned them near the close of the last period. ‘These teams devote themselves quietly to individual work, each pupil doing the work in hand unaided or reaching the limit of his resources in the attempt. Two or three other teams may go at once into conferences for which they prepared the day before. Some team may ask the teacher to review with them some work they have been preparing to present to the class. The teacher inspects the work of individuals and teams, examines and instructs individuals when necessary, calls the class from individual and team work to class work when the codperation of all is necessary or of more im- portance than the work of smaller units. Most time is given to individual work by the pupils and individual instruction by teachers. The next larger share of the time is given to team conferences and other coéperative work of the members of teams. Class work gets the smallest share of the time. The best teachers use the least amount of time in class work. We never forget that self-activity is the only means of developing or modifying per- sonality, the only education. We have practically eliminated passive listen- ing. When the class listens it is to something relating to work just com- pleted or to be taken up immediately. We have given up the attempt to educate a child by requiring him to listen to the teacher and other pupils ninety-nine one-hundredths of the time he is in the classroom and to get his education at home of evenings. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY 4S A SOCIAL FACTOR IN LAE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OLIVE M. JONES, PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 120, NEW YORK CITY If I chose, I could stand here for more than my allotted time and make you laugh at stories of boys, labeled bad, who have in the last fifteen years passed through Public School No. 120, New York City. I could tell you of Philip, who could lick any teacher, or “tru-nty” who tried to take him to school, and ended in bringing in two little fellows by the back of the neck to get the same treatment that had subdued his bravado. I could tell you of another Philip, who went out with a quarter to buy my lunch, was gone two hours, during which he invested my quarter in “extras,” and returned with the lunch, the change of the quarter, and over a dollar profits in his own pockets. But I want to get you to believe with me that the problem of juvenile delinquency is a social problem of far greater importance than any other social problem affecting our community life. I want your help in making teachers and principals realize that discipline is not keeping order. We have just issued a Teachers’ Handbook in New York, which says on this subject of discipline: “Discipline does not mean keeping order. Many a poor ; teri ad ve aha tett ree Sy eee Pi ‘ie . ; etal etl if Ove "sift aries seo eet Let rq noed vert b paeh am tee! silt 2) aeclS- af ainon rela’ bs “ : Attn bait Ske nati raltt. 5. ‘ Ties, fgeebein'et ‘seo i: air iad , ae ee ee : : Metis WV caf) 1) TR Ae ety a tyes Lt badd ni S08 isis STV iS lit Se) 1h, tt? 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Sooty 4 NG. Te zach mn i) gore tS aay Shih Wate APSR c Aycmilt sayings (4 bedendaes jatidy 3 ait bie = OH 6 Spas! sunititte Thy seu sede gad ree on. otLtn | art Vs i SULIT Ito 1B FPOLTISIIG tui Tia ST lioet r tlw hater ae poesia “< _ Rperiy yd oslo gin eee. St to noiingoosa 1} vas ba JW. sty tia? atidnd [- - : pita “nie: iifetignin | i nr 6A. “ / Qn it? ; } 7 {: VV rete wail i ryt ‘remrtaat : ys | opal oN indt) wit TSdk1Y. Ot £910. & Soa et! syn) gn JAS Seth i Ey WR Sonstipniay say bi 14 4 to} Hit wed At std zien —- Semete ne bam ws) en tou isanioamn won ban swal ' toa may. - wiirtsins vhs Wile wieruded: bn SMR Tosco . tiie af We oni crt) iroo bi Leite : b sonal BSalivisy He Wadi halinater fu reid i, beresrzegs mabegius Tb moms flit q ra} : } ; a sett Kiiw ota) 570 } hens 7 : iit ae ioniteh. zeris Q bt ie t= rf aaa 41 = tert ends 2 A) ht al evs , ee ure? Sica NT QIOT ia mtg. Lt YG rat til AS} | 7 fh) sear yi ; ee LAL oie ar ee re ; : as oe AY rier - (pint Ai (t) aaVe, 14 t ’ ¥ pire y fier te ip aot LAL) id 70 » brn } ge et air Potlind ery agus Ri ao tf (i : + ewal nor i we i ¥: ee = Sia NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION vention of much adult crime, the study of the problem becomes the business of the average citizen. The best way to bring home to the average citizen the community re- sponsibility is to urge him to study the causes of juvenile delinquency. Before listing these causes, I desire to say with great emphasis that they are causes, to be regarded as such only, to be removed, and to receive scien- tific and organized care. They are not excuses by means of which we can put the blame on the Creator or on society or on Government, and shrug our own shoulders free. ‘They are not excuses which are to make us pity the delinquent child and forgive his wrong-doing, without taking steps to teach him self-control, and how to overcome his defects, to rise above his delin- quencies of birth or circumstance. The majority of treatises of causes of juvenile delinquency and the ma- jority of persons seeking to find the causes have been too apt to regard their work as completed when they have discovered and stated the cause. The majority of people who read these statements of causes rest satisfied that they have found the explanation of the thing which displeases them and seem to think that because they have excused the wrong-doer and generously forgiven his wrong-doing, he will forever after be good! The truth is that: (1) Stating the cause, however accurately and scien- tifically it be done, does not remove the cause or provide a remedy; (2) Removing the cause does not at once remove the effect of the cause. Habits, established by long practice through a child’s first eight or nine years of life, no matter what the cause, will continue long after the cause has been removed and will require careful attention and definite training before right habits can be substituted. Recognition of the cause, unless followed by proper treatment, reminds one of the physician who is a good diagnostician but whose efforts at cure leave his patient a prey to greater ills than he previ- ously knew; (3) For the treatment of cause of juvenile delinquency, we do not need new laws and new machinery so much as we do need an effective, efficient administration of the laws and machinery already existing. More than all do we need coérdination and codperation among all the agencies engaged in child welfare. It is a shameful reflection upon all concerned that, in this work above all, jealousies, ambitious aims, religious differences, class distinctions, financial inability are ever permitted to interfere with the best interests of even one delinquent child. Stated simply and classified as determined by my experience for sixteen years, the causes of truancy and delinquency lie: First, in the schools: (1) By putting unfit and unwilling children through the same training as other children; (2) By lack of sympathy on the part of teachers; (3) By lack of disciplinary power on the part of teachers; (4) By large classes and large schools, preventing proper care of the individual child. This last con- dition is greatly on the increase since the Great War; (5) By failure to meet racial differences by appropriate modifications of the course of study and methods of training; and (6) By insufficient or improper provision for the enforcement of compulsory education laws. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS » Os Second, in the streets: (1) By lack of play space; (2) By unemployed youths and men; (3) By gangs and “‘Fagins”; and (4) By moving pictures, more particularly the posters outside of moving-picture theatres ; (5) By cigarettes; and (6) By gambling. . Third, in the homes: (1) By inefficient or indulgent parents; (2) By working mothers. The absent mother, the mother absorbed in business, the breadwinner-mother cannot train children; (3) By widowed mothers; (4) By step-parents; (5) By broken or unhappy homes; and (6) By parents uninterested in or ignorant of their children’s right of education and of the State’s right to demand that children be educated. Fourth, in social conditions: (1) By housing conditions; tenement condi- tions and frequent moving, with necessary changing of schools and conse- quent lack of steady habits; (2) By racial differences; (3) By immigration. Chiefly because large groups of immigrants have been permitted to colonize in sections of New York City and perpetuate their foreign customs and lan- guage; (4) By cupidity of employers who use child labor and thereby tempt children to remain out of schools. The worst offenders in this respect are not large concerns but the small shopkeeper, the man who wants a package carried, the wagon driver who wants a temporary helper, and the like. Fifth, in childhood nature: (1) By conditions incident to adolescence— ages 9 to 16 years; (2) By rebellion against restraint unwisely or unduly imposed; (3) By temperamental difficulties and inherited tendencies; (4) By desire for spending money. Sixth, in physical condition: (1) By peculiar personal appearance which leads to ridicule, nicknames, feelings of repulsion among adults, loneliness and loss of playmates; (2) By partial deafness; (3) By speech defect; (4) By crippled condition ; (5) By sight defect; (6) By other physical disorders not evident to the observer; and (7) By nervousness and excitability. The order in which these physical causes are listed here is not accidental, but deliberately chosen as indicating their importance. Scarcely anyone realizes the torture experienced by children with a peculiar personal appear- ance. A lad whose face was drawn and crooked on one side was most repulsive in appearance ; he was shoved off by older people, including parents and teachers, and was tormented by other boys until he became a tornado of resentment. He used to carry a pocket mirror, and whenever he was unob- served he would pull at his face, trying to straighten it. His mother saw him one day, came to school and told his teacher, a wise, kind, and gentle woman. He had really very fine eyes, and his teacher told him so, and grad- ually led him to believe that his eyes would make people forget his face if he made his eyes attractive by good thoughts and good nature. The partially deaf child suffers worse than a totally deaf child because he so often hears wrong and because he becomes suspicious of all sound. The child with speech defect suffers from the ridicule of his mates and the im- patience manifested by adults over his inability to express himself in speech. The crippled child and the child with sight defect suffer especially from the inability to share naturally in the play of other children. 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J * ‘a. Ty Ai * 876 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of space-binding beings. He has offered up to his god of individualistic suc- cess a bloody sacrifice of not only the finer qualities of his own generation, but of much of the good which should be the heritage of his progeny. He has measured even the value of his own attainments by standards which are degrading in their beastliness. He has depressed man from the plane of a being “made in God’s image” and “‘a little lower than the angels” to the level of an animal with vague longings for ‘‘a place in the sun.”’ Social and political sciences have adopted this fatal premise from older organizations of knowledge. ‘The President of the United States in a recent speech said in substance, ‘As long as man remains preéminently self-centered, there can be no universal peace, there can be no disarmament, there can be no alleviation of human suffering. Wars will continue as long as human nature remains unchanged.” ‘This is right in part. However, it is not human nature that must change; it is man’s conception of human nature that must alter. Man must learn that only through the application of the prin- ciples of codperation with his fellows can his ultimate destiny be approached. Time proceeds in an arithmetical progression; humanity has the possibility | of developing in a geometrical progression. But individualistic ideals, war, disease, and other forces growing out of man’s false premise in respect to his own nature, have interfered with man’s time-binding properties. If it were not for this, civilization would be eons ahead of where it is today. But what is the significance of these facts to the elementary school and its course of study? The worth of this conclusion to elementary education lies in the fact that the problems of the school may be approached with a new method, in a new spirit, and with a new point of view. No reorganiza- tion of any department of the school can be attained unless a modified ideal of the purposes of the school is formulated. The old ideal of becoming educated (so temptingly held out to the scholar in days gone by) in order to attain material success in life is rapidly disappearing and is being re- placed by the concept of social service. While the ideal has changed progressively, the organization of the sub- ject-matter to which the pupil must react remains practically static. In form, it is distinctly individualistic, recognizing only slightly the relation- ships between the different courses. In fact, there exists no course of study, but a multitude of courses of study, which do not recognize that growth in knowledge may be latitudinal as well as longitudinal. The curriculum of the present elementary school apparently appreciates not the principle laid down in the greatest book of knowledge in the world, “The wisdom of the ages is my wisdom, there is but one wisdom.”’ _To the child in school there appears to be little codrdination among his studies. He does not acquire power or knowledge, but he takes subjects. The student’s knowledge, gained outside the school and before he enters, is much more highly socialized than that which he secures through formal instruction, because it relates almost entirely to his needs and the uses of those with whom he comes in contact. When the young child presents himself at school, he possesses, barring the meager knowledge and develop- DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS © 877 ment which his pre-school days have given him, two things full of potential- ity—the native ability which he has inherited [probably no greater than his progenitors] and the power to improve upon the work of his forefathers. To what end thus to attain his greatest possible growth in ability in order that his creative power may be such that not only are the factors through him preserved and developed which are essential to his particular civilization, but also that his improvements may be handed on to succeeding generations. And the import of all this to the course of study in our schools is that the subject-matter to which the pupil reacts must be so organized that it offers the greatest possibilities for these purposes. ‘This will require foresight as well as insight on the part of those whose task it is to prepare the course of study for the school. In addition, it carries with it the implication that material once useful to society at earlier periods, but no longer of service, must be eliminated. It goes further and indicates clearly that knowledge which may be needed only under special and unusual circumstances should be organized into such form as to be available to pupils when an actual need for such information arises, and not continued as required subject-matter in our courses of study. The innate capability of children to respond to educational stimuli is not with- out bounds. Therefore it is an offense against society and an unfair lim- itation of the individual’s right to function his greatest degree, if the time and energy of youth is wasted upon the non-essential. Consequently, two standards of judging the value of the curriculum may be established. In an interrogatory form they are: (1) Does the course of study present the greatest opportunity for developing the creative power of the pupil? (2) Does the subject-matter contain within it all elements nec- essary to the requirements of a present and future complex society and no more; and are these elements indicated in order of their relative importance ? The development of creative power is named first because it must be recognized that as an end in education it must share equally in importance with the acquisition of essential knowledge. Creative power finds scope for its activities not only in physical fields, but also in those realms in which man endeavors to express his highest aspirations—literature, music, and art. It is proposed, therefore, to exercise this faculty through a series of highly socialized topics or projects which will have as an additional mission the unification of the courses of study. While making an approach from the standpoint of human interest, this does not break down the continuity and coherent organization of subject-matter which is apparently at present nec- essary to the presentation of certain subjects, such as history. The projects fall roughly into three groups. Venturing the danger of confusion, the terms applied to types of life are here used to designate projects. (1) Energy-producing and preserving projects, those having some chem- istry-binding attributes, such as the production of food, obtaining shelter, and the like. (2) Space-binding projects, locomotion or transportation. (3) Time-binding projects, music, literature, art, and social service. 3 am 77 A cath v- i ao] iat é geht oe fs =tos) te iG ers +f aay 9909 inh ot ay a 3 | ba rye ti APD 4 he rthies i) Sept HY, a Span et ' ath, : sf out oi ‘ze ie Ri Ai 9,72 4 a 4 ' ; . ( > in-=og si Z oF ‘pana wl faz , p ; ~ <7 MA PST Hut quiinigyrs: + 5 rts ? pi Y i vy “ tir hens sidlo va Fa / viride it te hot; ant Hinedia “bits ; ; Pia! . iy at i anhiabtas BS 59 6 oo deo) elie ati BI moet ye ¥ ae Fi 1 "3 Aly t Bua ter Bt : oy theenst nia pad WN re ; : ; t SAfesibt: stasé er se51t nk saan ; wNs1S To ths wiqblsvah % rr 74 WE I TwIssS fe bas fe or sarlt. bas =. 5 fiery pk es | ‘a ioe eri a © 1? cerry bra pits 4 Wi c ut xt wi tmovtitq' Hi Hin sor V ivine r ; } | i aA) 5 iste Ry bowitoue rd “AT > ee as P .\y a » In Abn Th tates 27 to notsonipe oe i ne 22 nase + r. ye, = ‘ vir = : ' 7+ ft PIMC) FE onhests 2 , ‘i 21) y an i ' ee ee - = x is Pe tLSrily a IF Oo! Vises - 2 ; i PT rie >. ‘ my ce : lhe é ay >! ity i'r. o 7 s - ~ ‘ Ah . : netHTIO?D ts 7 ae - = >. fils “ Vee am Mis ots a Taha: A WVibier: Wy Serie Rue ait. . , we Uty j ioctl (3) Fes “AF ay ap che rea as RNZARAD" Vedi aes | sis 917 4 i. z 7 CF f g i ijt wobied rtusevtL i fry - ’ oateedleuardt Put OOuRN zi rere Ae ’ 7 1 YT, : r <7 at? Alo aun? | 2: ‘er « 4 ry f “tahoe aia hs , =p td ot hi ! . : 4 . | in = re bas ; i i uo « “ er 1 bier ph: dian: ‘sant! spores ieee at ve ed oto eet ht, cece Bi: “Aaiocibenls poten! > rT 4 > a tes Bi rit —. | ia has : of 3 = Lue *s ° = : : é 7 se fn. Seo Tit ay : i te es GOTT hake \e ried ek » Se fo yy tytn? isa locas mE i oe Sie PATRIOT | Mes oA 5; >e sate a Surety " ————— 1 t sate ‘ ~ by : a = . ~s se 7 ad ae a £ i ‘2 . ’ ’ y ‘ ¢ - . ’ ‘44 ’ + a3 e > ‘ | > - fn ty a . r ‘ #y ; ne Ce) . 4 wen Fi bf . 880 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION sary subject-matter already incorporated in the course of study. However, it does to a certain extent emphasize some of the more important elements, from a social point of view, in each of the courses. It does present definite factors through which a super course of study may finally be created which will act as a centripetal force, drawing together the now dissociated courses of study. But, above and beyond all, it opens up a wealth of oppor- tunities for the exercise of the pupil’s creative faculty, to the end that man- kind may become more human and that society may attain that normal rate of progress established for it by the inner law of its growth. THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL AS A PROFESSIONAL LEADER C. E. MARSTON, WOODLAND SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI Out of the scientific discoveries and inventions of the past century has come a new economic world and with it a new social order. Since the school exists to satisfy the demands of society, its curriculum, methods, and administration have undergone sweeping changes. Present tendencies in- dicate ever-increasing social and industrial complexity. Human adjustment is largely a process of education. New demands are met through special- ization. The farmer is no longer a blacksmith, carpenter, tanner, weaver, and soap maker; the barber is no longer surgeon and dentist. It is a far cry from the day when the village cobbler made the shoes for his community to the modern factory where several hundred men work on a single shoe but supply a world market. Time was when an Icabod Crane was peda- gogue, farmer, chorister, and sometimes minister or lawyer. But just as modern machinery with its enormous output has crushed many trades, so rising academic and professional standards have crowded out of teaching “the Jack of all trades.” With the development of the science of education and growth of skill in the art of teaching, our profession has reached a higher level. The super- intendent is now an educator instead of an administrative member of the board of education. The high-school principal has rapidly acquired au- thority and responsibility because of the great extension of higher educa- tion among the common people. With uncertain status the elementary principal is now recognized. Will he continue to be an upper-grade teacher, a visiting principal, or become an important unit in the school system? At present it is difficult to determine the actual work of elementary principals. Few are trained in supervision, and it is safe to assume that an overwhelm- ing majority devote their time to petty details of a clerical and administra- tive nature. In the words of an eminent educational authority, “Ofttimes he becomes little more than a mere unskilled, unprofessional, odd-job man engaged in oiling the places in the machinery which have a tendency to creak.” ? His first duty is to improve instruction. In order to do this, he + Babbitt, Elementary School Journal, January, 1920. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 881 must find time for thinking, planning, and supervising. He must delegate routine duties to others. It is his job to get work done rather than do it himself. Dr. Alexander has shown how this can be done. The principal will then cease to be an inspector and become a co-worker with his teachers. His power and influence with them will depend on his fitness. If he cannot detect weakness in teaching and suggest the remedy; if he cannot demon- strate how the work is to be done, he lacks the professional ability to be a leader of progressive teachers. The political favorite who often masquer- ades as principal is usually lacking in education, vision, and moral responsi- bility. One of the best tests of professional leadership is the ability to profes- sionalize teaching. Evidence of this is seen, first, in the willingness of his teachers to diagnose their teaching by standard tests and apply remedial measures; second, by their interest in intelligence tests and vocational guid- ance; third, by their eagerness to secure constructive supervision and a rat- ing of their ability; fourth, by their desire for growth; and fifth, by their professional ethics. The principal should encourage the spirit of investigation. Society is forever being reconstructed ; the science of education is in its infancy ; hence, it is the part of wise leadership to stimulate teachers to experiment. It is this scientific attitude that distinguishes our best schools. Professional leadership may be directed, first, in strengthening the school system and, second, in the training of teachers in service. Each of these in turn will be discussed. A superintendent, whose administration 1s loyally supported, will be glad to improve the school service by using the mental energy and professional ability of his principals. The principal is closest to the work, and, if his educational attainments, professional training, and successful experience fit him to render valuable assistance, the superintendent will not be slow in making use of it. The elementary principal should be an authority on some school subject ; able to construct a part of a course of study and write bulletins on subjects of interest to the entire system. He should participate in local, State, and National educational gatherings and contribute to pedagogical magazines. He should be able to advise with the architect in the construction of buildings. He should be the best judge of apparatus and supplementary material for his school. He should be competent to render unbiased and scientific advice on general school policy if asked to do so. Through him the public should learn what the school is doing that is worth while, to the end that they will appreciate and support it. He should take an active part in the social life of the community. In teacher training he should be a sympathetic but critical supervisor ; an inspiring and constructive leader. Since he reaches the pupils indirectly, his greatest responsibility is in directing and training his teachers. He should be the embodiment of a teachers’ college. From him should emanate right educational aims; true social and psychological principles and mastery of the fine art of teaching. He should himself be a splendid teacher. The ae oh ned. 3 is As sho A Fe ae a ‘sqakr q nay Jane nod: es eh ood 4 diiwqahiov 13D..8 ativead bh gs 30308 yin ; stil tla, coca San" bon 90) ah Wi ceowle ; b od ot ei gov slaw eae re Prt Ol YA st ,. MRT : r. _ ort wating : 4 ‘S Bae or beety pat. ite rigs byeigi ania ti, eg ix rea hes aR ry, ; ian sags ih a winia itanie igh! iia fe Bye shasyiametity ht marl tai bini 3 bi 40 egies ods; beaauiaenegs: grid weoed 2 on 41 ~hotl ad of al eetote cet nitlespbea!. ste thet togtiad = i oe x 7 ode testh rie ada deere vil te nlp shastings: wey eam i ot Ceo geoty ni, bres ised iin: wsthcnrt sl tesa treet eral esoptonss lok psvizetgets ro: neat Basten ray ee “S005 n haere 4 . Pe , oe ge oars ial Be ieicd { ‘Viupertl- at yarn we initobs stort yr Oey bi: ona oa, 5 ea I ‘ ues PAMISSALOEY Sere VQ ere Seo se elie ete tees faestos fio as : < t st + ~ es . ys | a¥ ' e 2 iether Mg soy : ) Pa Foe ib eeteciy. an 1 SLATE TG ehf? st Hw gsaek ; tits és rps 227 —~— * Z . . 7 a & 2G. } i: M30 wt t urs? iat 2 iy 5 ; a " r > a | pel. imi THINS 5S At i ™ = 7 i Li 32TH a cy teef «3 - 5 : 1 Pay ‘ a i y t rt: : iat brpenet } . ? 4 any tt : ry uyht wo rrite, ! oy : : i ; { a eit ‘ ly ‘ " KS tet ii4 * re. © a HL F . . = % ) a ’ is i ? { ee ’ Tr be z iF ~~ 4 ~ bod “ b> + . * : w i le “ a f ? > 9 s | 1 wy SE * ae te f y : a. st ap et yest ze 7 aii at ait wiiGeos ae ih utader- 4 Hii ‘—- i et lgiA sail. te \frotate - ; af , > gr. sul Ahi ft ' st | sity! } ofa amnlye +» et 7 § va | vant ‘ es ie af 1 T . So Pact “ Ted | on i tae to ore wy + ; Hine AP nine cakes ait igi nie ail PT =f » Seesrey t - doze rt = - * ; | = . ¢ 7 a ty; — Pe P . yi viedet OL & od dykteasted get DsTivene ot: ra Veith) EP ei noise : gee | t PR ine taser v2 eH situ a ji.-4 a, / ‘eens re . ae as Ie if ; * 2 4 : be a y 7 necptyir 5 sy > niiers? x f = TEN; : ‘ ' ' * abe — . Ba = : r ee = Fi efor er wetta ew | Z = > f ® se " t . te ft tz 5 A ysoop k= iScxXe . rere - ‘ +3 in 7 rte z n ‘ f . i . 4 . ' . 884 : NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION inspire his teachers. Like General Sheridan, he should turn defeat into victory, or like Kipling’s sergeant, who worked the ‘everlasting miracle” when “‘he drilled a black man white, he made a mummy fight.” 1 Unless a principal has this power of “arousing the divine life imminent in every human soul,” he lacks the personality of a great leader. The author of the statement, “As is the principal, so is the school,” recog- nized that a school has a soul that is dominated by a leader. The character of a principal’s school is an expression of his ideals, vision, and philosophy of life. We can measure in part his work as a supervisor, but who can even estimate his influence on the lives of others? His is the most human pro- fession and the most far-reaching in its results. We should never forget that spiritual forces are the greatest in life. The inspiration of the principal to pupils and teachers is his greatest contribution as a professional leader. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Boston MEETING FIRST SESSION—Monday Afternoon, July 3, 1922 VISITATION AS A MEANS oF D1aAGNosis—George Rugg, Principal of the Quinsigamond School, Worcester, Mass. THE RATING OF TEMPORARY TEACHERS AFTER A SINGLE SUPERVISORY Visit—Rose A. Carrigan, Principal of the Shurtleff School District, Boston, Mass. INFORMAL TEsTSs AS A MEANS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF INsTRUCTION—Clifford Woody, Director of the Bureau of Educational Reference and Research, Uni- versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. THe VALUE oF INFORMAL Tests—William F. Butler, Principal of the Belmont Street School, Worcester, Mass. Wednesday Afternoon, July 5, 1922 Joint meeting of the Departments of Classroom Teachers, Elementary Education Elementary School Principals, and Kindergarten Education, and the National Con- ference on Educational Method. See program under the Department of Elementary Education. zs Thursday Afternoon, July 6, 1922 UsING THE RESULTS OF TESTING—Jessica Marshall, Principal of the Newton School Toledo, Ohio. INTELLIGENCE TEsTs As A BASIS FOR Re-CLassiFICATION—Benjamin C. Gruenberg, Principal of the William T. Harris School, Manhattan, New York, N. Y. THE MEASUREMENT OF TEACHING EFFICIENCY BY MEANS OF STANDARDIZED INTELLI- GENCE AND EDUCATIONAL Trsts—Albion U. Jenkins, Principal of School No. 2 Paterson, N. J. : FINDING THE INDIVIDUAL—THE SUTHERLAND METHOD OF INDIVIDUAL EpucATION— Margaret H. Smith, Principal of the 61st Street School, Los Angeles, Calif. +“Pharaoh and the Sergeant,” McClure’s, Vol. IX. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 885 Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1922 Business Meeting In the absence of the President the meeting was called to order at 2:15 P. M., in the assembly room of the Girls’ Latin School, by Miss Katherine D. Blake, of New York, Vice-President. In the absence of the Secretary, Miss Sara L. Rhodes, of New York, was appointed secretary pro tem. The chairman asked for a list of the States present. They comprised Alabama, California, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Washington, and Vermont. The matter of a program for the next meeting was introduced. Miss Olive M. Jones, of New York, referred to letters received by the President, Mr. Powers, which indicated several lines of interest. Mr. Longshore, of Kansas City, moved that the classification of studies in schools be a subject of study, suggesting that consideration be given to the relation, simpli- fication, and correlation of subjects. Motion seconded and carried. Mrs. Peixotto, of New York, stated that the Boy Scouts are seeking to secure co- operation with the schools and that the Department of Elementary School Principals would be the appropriate channel through which the matter could be handled. Mr. Severson, of Minneapolis, suggested that the subject of visual education be taken, with the study of scientific data to determine its value and application. Miss Jones added that Mr. Searly, in investigating, had discovered that no less than three affiliated associations had the matter in hand, and suggested that a committee be appointed to bring together these three groups and all other inter- ested groups. Such an effort would be certain to be approved by the Executive Committee. The Treasurer, Mr. Courtland Davis, presented a brief report, not complete, because not all outstanding bills had been met. The report of the Treasurer was accepted unanimously. The report of the nominating committee was the next business called for. A discussion ensued, regarding the present constitutional provision that the committee present two names for each ofhce. In the absence of the chairman and two other members of the nominating com- mittee, the following report was presented by Mr. Kottinger, of Oakland, Cali- fornia: For president, Leonard Powers, Port Arthur, Texas; Worth McClure, Seattle, Washington. For first vice-president, Katherine D. Blake, New York, New York; Thomas Agnew, Jr., Bayonne, New Jersey. _ For second vice-president, W. T. Longshore, Kansas City, Missouri; Mary Morris, Denver, Colorado. For third vice-president, Mrs. Jessie Fink, Grand Rapids, Michigan ; S. O. Severson, Minneapolis, Minnesota. For recording secretary, Mary V. Reisse, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; A. B. Collins, Boston, Massachusetts. — For corresponding secretary, Julius Dorsey, Dallas, Texas; Florence Holbrook, Chicago, Illinois. For treasurer, Courtland V. Davis, Norfolk, Virginia. For director, John W. Anthony, Pitts- burgh, Pennsylvania. The following action was taken by the meeting regarding the above report of the nomination committee: It was moved, seconded, and unanimously carried that the report presented by Mr. Kottinger for the rest of the committee, be accepted and filed, and that, in the absence of several members of the committee, the vacancies be filled by the appointment of three other members, and that the committee retire and after consideration, report one name of a candidate for each office, to be acted upon as the committee report for the election. The three members added to the committee were Grace C. Swan, Worth McClure, and Abby Porter Leland. The committee (Mr. Kottinger acting as chairman) then reported the following list of candidates. These were unanimously elected as the officers for the ensuing year: For president, Worth McClure, Seattle, Washington ; for first vice-president, ‘Anna L. Force, Denver, Colorado; for second vice-president, Thomas Agnew, Jr., Bayonne, New Jersey; for third vice-president, Elizabeth Arlett, Oakland, Cali- fornia; for recording secretary, Mrs. Jessie Fink, Grand Rapids, Michigan; for i¢ ¥ oop 5 7." ¥ #1 ae be | “ath? “vil 1 Sit “7* his! 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Wb auirttnbs. au 3803, + Pra) i or piralrhey rte ta ols i te tear .ci) 4 — eax. 7. rami Te es : cy ae eset me “iuont uh 5 Sey. i bie yee * tasheosiq te Se it a vel au le hes a tA” ae et ‘bas lignwiaARsG Yiaw Jorn” nid gs AtRiodiye aly 3 Baring 373 yy is , ps f Fa Hap dUr or hd rhs Ne Bete “ripdios wit te “out aot ke ier - Bax Tivus alii t fu fe a i re EvititcraG S}T : in hdaeecr a oF ‘Longilsb- =* nt sefbrhuk ‘te ue Magiodise eit shy Stag aOF oR Bios! oll ¥ rab bot ibis hud 3 i ve alte Be "7 Wwumeth > tie » Jeeee ot Ss ue? eins hi ‘ Sat ‘wis eV ne YiasgdistG: A 7 ah eat) hie ee De —_ ——F — Patty age Se Selsey eh Pied (choise 4) (Tike eT sity’ pit ‘wy y dr ih r WITGSAY, 94 ut” el FS) ie eer) oe aie ; 738 id th bayeinstay i's as Ot thal Waris oF. wlio fgets SOP Syo5t yond aie ae : GASH iye( ines, Suites +ihd= Giuoel sgt! | } x ae 7. avira weir e of b feieii od bieed oi? ri ve Pivione 90 aut ihe v coal ety ni Sm tol vindiviinn Wd aus yy Fs 1 Tee Bae » cry rh - —a z= aed gjraeitys Re rss, Truth 0 _ = ~ ¥ Biya aii 10 Al btn wi. HOLIg!n tri ry i. OFA. ‘ “ . Rt Pes it Sisekoeh, ici rs SNpalgttion yt) al HUNTT a2 rr ’ sit out lapis mbtstont Dy ‘ ie a aoe, we sei" ve it a ’ q be vee odd ovr - sash yi ay sy eit SU latip jth P atbos ea GT age oe = 4 ' ' ; : ee Ss ren] “bie niussale Diet nai aE 27e) S 892 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION census without too much cost in time and good-will. Hence wide faculty participation through direct methods will be limited by the extreme spe- cialization of its members and the narrowness of interest which character- izes the specialist. 7. In a democratic society avenues of contact and mutual influence must be kept open between the institutions of higher education and the general public. Intensity of specialization on the part of faculty members requires that this service be performed mainly by administrative officials who are equally responsive to internal and external influences. With emphasis upon the fact that sound thought requires continual reference back to the social background outlined above a tentative applica- tion of the principles set forth may be made to the leading controverted issues. While attempting this I am fully aware of the differences of opinion to be encountered and the possibility of error; but if the logic of the social situation in which our institutions of higher learning are im- bedded seems to justify the trend of present-day practice that trend is likely to persist whether with or without our professorial recognition and consent. I have no thesis to uphold with reference to any issue but shall try to follow the principles where they lead. The brevity of this paper forbids detailed treatment, but it is to be hoped that later discussion will elaborate the arguments. The first of the specific problems to be faced is that of administrative and faculty appointments. At the head of this list is that of president. Since the board of trustees representing the supporting public meet only occasionally and render vol- untary service most of the authority vested in them by the founders is delegated to the president. He becomes their responsible agent and they will naturally be held accountable for his selection. Such an authoritative position calls for talent that can be discovered only by consultation and research, and this can be done intelligently only by a small group. Hence, if the board be a large one, the preliminary canvass must be delegated to a committee. But the president has large executive functions within the institution and the faculty are also interested jn his selection. Moreover their technical knowledge of the situation ought to enable them to render valuable assistance. In a large faculty this assistance cannot be rendered en masse but should as in the board be delegated to a small committee. It would seem to meet all of the requirements of the principles above enunciated if the nominations were made by joint action of a committee of the board and one of the faculty and the election be made by the board in full session. With reference to deans the situation js more complex. In large measure the deans are assistants to the president and therefore should have the sanction of the board acting for the public. But likewise and in equal measure they are agents of the faculty in the particular schools they repre- sent. Hence they should also have faculty sanction. Their qualifications, however, would seem to be too technical for board s election and too re- DEPARTMENT OF HiGHER EDUCATION 893 sponsible to the public to be trusted to faculty selection. ‘This is par- ticularly true in State institutions and others with large and specialized schools. Moreover a combination of general faculty and board action is unthinkable to one who knows the eccentricities of each. Under such circumstances some agency must be found that is able to consult with and understand the desires and needs of both board (representing in this case a specialized public, such as the legal or medical), and the particular faculty concerned. ‘To me this seems to point unmistakably to the president as the appointing power. If a check upon executive authority is desired both board and special faculty might be called upon to ratify the selection; but since the president, to be successful in his administration, must ultimately satisfy both groups there is some danger that the effort to provide the check might complicate governmental machinery without adding either de- mocracy or efficiency to the results. Beyond the deans, that is, in the selection of specialized faculty members, the board can take no intelligent part. The qualifications previously sug- gested require technical understanding possessed only by the thoroughly trained; hence faculty appointments must be left to some combination of president, deans, and department members. Possible combinations are too numerous for brief treatment, and since the opinion of all concerned is usually sought under any form of choice, few cases arise to produce controversy. The next specific problem leading to controversy is that of salaries and budgets. Quite naturally the extent of the budget will depend upon the social clientele of the school and the larger policies concerning it will be formulated by the board and its representatives, particularly the president. The internal distribution of funds is of interest and significance both to the board and the faculty but cannot be worked out in detail by either. ‘This is evident from the fact that both maintenance and salary funds for each department, school, and division of the college or university will affect every other. Not only will money spent in one part of the institution be unavailable in another but each professor’s salary affects, to some extent, the budget as a whole. No other phase of institutional management calls for a more comprehensive and detailed insight into the general function and comparative value of each phase of its work than the distribution of its budget. Hence whatever may be the feelings of individual members of the board and faculty, and we are here concerned only with the faculty, the maintenance fund and the salary schedule are administrative matters and must be handled by administrative machinery. It is conceivable that in large schools such as the college and engineering schools in a university an elected consultative committee of faculty mem- bers might serve a desirable purpose. Likewise in small departments increases and promotions might be agreed upon by soviet methods. But on the whole both human nature and practice in other institutions indicate that general participation by faculty members in budget making is im- practicable. If justice is to be obtained by individual faculty members it - ity 5 ‘aes i> athe : t “a ab iitve itvenos oF sida a teal bn oa} 34 ryan. er ve rape Sana © ade my writen oy mi) bogod dtud to.eb Pell bag Csr efastetta? at 9 hrs Algaibora yo [sual alt ay, doua, a Sagbieg Ady ea avi WH ae “ny Iniog oF a8. au Hod. boriesh “al dhod Sawaza Haque doone s f, Brea (oii reine ¢ ag? aes) aoqs, folins gd skate 7th yearn eet Ace eat mbe dil mi, Lotezoag fe 2, silt Shivaig oi softs forth sails , ST atte 2 arc a i) Bat bie vaHttet Yerqniilyg m ot OF. iS ay o add vont positnraage, $e te nitate i 5 a at Hise “CIEVOL TST. 20107 leup Me 4 Tagg, ae fae Au: Lee A filgeasnd sat Ve ihan boas antbnagershehny prerte hs . be nongnid 1 Hol od feu Acointc Tyas D as Mat 91 : Mine) 4idieesT | a as pont Eiiatoe): Dale ’ hi = bav 10 in BOWES tyre pas, Mi ring qi tits ae , 7 ‘ a Ne iebied . ay rt sant is aot =. = line b ie 7 : hae wel ey bas. a5nelnz intatious a djoibnat 1 restdi fay ‘ohea age ott no $i) abi, och tet Thy ot}, wins wii ati : > five t rat a 4th} bai fonts oh to ail Pe aft bizar Hd yiieliorr cf 29 Ee mG: 1 efi bor. brrod. bdp yd 6 925 oy. chit rR titra? big te tetas ey “et ‘about to noidudirsec rs > 7G Leis’ hi » batiow, 94 Jonnes sid Rhee) aft bus 4 vf te | in ty aot in hij “- i 12197 7 doors Snsarh 16h stag a J r i i os t . 0 anigunien ad to ty Dime Mi tps Sho Dry vino 307% sata, ca 0173 ynoe 4 _219Ha Tihlea esac roTd . done fod yal Hons rt ‘aldeligy sive to sentte I9lig a, slot: Ee At TeISAIE Oi) Ol tdgters boli sb bag svrencde LUTHYD JDM, f BIg to ROH ac} t 0% 225 10 ert te a6 ins Uigy rer RENE he idmeogt Irubivibal to 2 9 92 9d acts RI vaI eC He s0n0 Hi dagbyd . rset ; rine his rhe “atta wet Gres brsod -ast7 to VITHTPHiAU TE tut ott bre be SORCOT Cin sila ‘ ny tthe yd. helbns i sq FeAl O bag OTS I ne teri. aiclevisao oa 43 31 ) ie viata nm ai ¢ oloorlos 3h voll q Sidsiesb, & avane Gyo. aod ee wi want & id noge, Biers * Buse. 2g FOATIC ge e2897 30) = ; ; IMIG big suten nerud dtod sk achyy. ‘ of¥ 90 01 lion? : TH ADA ] 4 erly t df O od L So;S4uI( a “Ss ise fy: } a bie - mining < Hs re ‘. > . 7 tee re 7 SAR S “ZL Stet “DIE ——. Re chicane ah is bas i) 5 Tai i : ats i Bold en x &s : ee i ‘ J = : apne as — i Pe VAMAVAR BAivd ORI QAYA AD BE Te AM RSET V5 ota ee oa Le “< Hiotiny lining hne-? : : - ue? Me ue “arias i” buf ] “5 ie hom : : ¢ 4 Oh lt Artie DOE Soba tar tat bes: hi ici ‘5 a 4 . » Frtshe ily ae Ls Hr ait : ony a Fi Ly ae f v ‘ Hi Soe aie nf iti beint Sq “git : a? my o > : ,*4 hem rs 7 } ad pera Fy = : : i ] FeERE | = 2 oe ’ , i? Uru? TI64 a) ; , Le hogan? | EArt : rein rH. = 7 b - =. alts ten use : Yiu . a (ai : ; rae = Mapu oT? : is) Soe : . Fs : er 896 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION with confidence that the principles enunciated are in harmony with social tendencies outside academic circles and that the increasing democratization of society and the enlarging size and complexity of our institutions will tend more and more to force colleges and universities to adopt forms of government found effective in older and more adaptable social institutions. We can no longer, even if we choose, cultivate remoteness and exclusiveness and for the sake of the cause we répresent, we must not close our eyes to effective methods that will increase our contribution to general culture and social progress. ADVANTAGES INVOLVED IN EXTENDING THE SCOPE OF PACULTY PARTICIPATION JOSEPH A. LEIGHTON, PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, AND CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON FUNCTIONS OF FACULTIES IN UNIVERSITY ADMINISTRATION, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS The fundamental problems and general principles of faculty participa- tion in university government have been presented admirably in the comprehensive address by Professor W. R. Smith. I do not dissent from the general tenor of his address, which seems to me to be in harmony with the principles enunciated in the report of Committee T of the American Association of University Professors; the lion’s share in the preparation of which report naturally fell on me as chairman. I would add one principle. I think that the students should have a consultative part, through duly chosen representatives, both in matters of discipline, and in discussion of broad educational policies underlying the fashioning of curricula. In the latter regard, I am much impressed by the good judg- ment embodied in the recent recommendation of the “student’s curricula committee” at Barnard College. I believe that serious-minded students have ideas in regard to courses and curricula, which it is good to give respectful attention to. We professors are all in danger of cerebro- sclerosis. The advantages that may accrue from a fuller participation in university administration by faculties, working mainly through representatives, seem to me to fall chiefly into three categories, which indeed interpenetrate. ‘These are: Improvement in the mutual understanding, and consequent good-will, of trustees, administrators, and faculty members. It goes without saying that all three of the chief agencies in the conduct of universities are aiming honestly at the advancement of education and learning. I may have been unusually fortunate in my academic relations. I have never known per- sonally a trustee, nor even a president, who was not honestly and whole- heartedly concerned for the advancement of education and learning. I have heard of trustees that pushed personal and party advantages to the DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION 897 injury of education. I have heard, more than once, of presidents that were self-exploiters, of others that were lineal descendants of Ananias and Sapphira, and of some that were both. I have never known in an intimate, personal way any of these scalawags. The ill will, mutual suspicion, misinterpretation of motives and aims that I have known have arisen, in every instance, from lack of mutual knowledge. ‘The educational blunders that have been made by trustees and administrators, even most of the personal injustices that have been wrought on the teachers, have arisen from ignorance—the fruitful mother of misunderstandings and conflicts. When trustees and presidents have embarked on unwise educational policies, it has been due to their inability to see the implications and consequences of such policies; an inability that might have been removed by sitting down with competent and disinterested members of the faculties and threshing things out over the cigars. I have known many cases in which blunders have been avoided, and right policies established, by informal conference. Injustices done to individuals are largely of the same origin. ‘There is an obverse to this matter. If trustees and presidents always knew how incompetent some of the teachers were, there would be some shaking of dry bones in the valley of decision. I feel strongly that it is a paramount duty of faculty members to keep the teaching staff up to the highest possible point of efficiency. On the other hand, faculties should, through their own representatives, always have a voice in estimating the efficiency of their fellows and subordinates. “Teach- ers should never be dismissed, nor their promotion held back, on the basis of back-stair gossip conveyed by irresponsible, prejudiced, and ignorant persons to trustees and administrators. We are all fallible, but surely the best judges of the quality of a teacher and scholar are his confréres. The second category under which improvement may be expected is in the personnel of the faculty. It will conduce to increased self-respect, joy and efficiency in his work, when the professor can feel that, notwithstand- ing the inevitable multiplication of administrative machinery and his own individual remoteness from the supreme power—the board of trustees— he is recognized to be a real participant in the determination and execution of educational policies, not a mere wage-earner employed to do his stint under the direction of an autocratically placed departmental superintend- ent; whether head of the department, dean, or president, or all of these. No one is worthy of the profession who does not regard his calling in the same light in which every honest minister of the Gospel regards hig— namely, as a spiritual vocation, essential to the stability and improvement of human civilization. A church which treats its minister as its hired servant, paid to do its bidding and prophesy smooth things, is on the way to being an institution of the Devil; and a university which regards its teachers as hired and paid to teach what any class or sect may think it wants taught, is a spiritual fraud, a sham, and a mockery of the sacred cause of truth. We professors are called to the high, difficult, and holy vocation of 898 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION nourishing and augmenting that light by which alone associated mankind can walk with reasonable surety in its journey through time—the light of wisdom, which is fed by knowledge, enlightened good-will and moral courage. We, in greater measure than any other group of public servants, are the custodians of the great tradition of humane civilization. Our vocation it is to transmit to the youth the best insights of the past in order to help them, the oncoming torch-bearers, to bring these insights, enlarged, if it may be, by our devotion, to bear on the present and impend- ing problems of Human Good. Unless we are to have an effective voice in the control of the institutions through which we serve, this holy calling will be lamed. We must bear in mind that a university, like any other social institution, is not an end, but an instrument, an instrument for the progressive, perfecting of man in society. We need the best minds and the most virile characters, in this calling. We shall not get them, or getting them, shall warp and thwart them, unless faculties have an effective voice in determining institutional policies. Moreover we need this responsibility, this duty, in order to save our- selves from the ever-imminent danger of becoming mere inhuman and un- social specialists. ‘The two most insidious temptations of our calling, as I see it, are: (1) The danger of developing, from our constant relation to immature and docile minds, an authoritative and dogmatic attitude. We are prone to speak de haute en bas, to become crotchety and doctrinaire. Salvation from this danger will come through keeping alive the spirit of research, and the humble-minded sense of our own ignorance in the presence of the vast mysteries of the realms of nature and man. (2) The other danger is that of regarding one’s own subject as the most important one, and of disregarding the universe of learning in its relation to civilization in its totality. There is no one of us that does not need frequently to probe and debate such questions as these: A. What are the best organizing and guiding principles of higher edu- cation, liberal, vocational, and liberal-vocational ? B. What is the value, for the conservation and progress of civilization, of my subject and of the other subjects? We all need, for our own soul’s health, and for the health of the uni- versity, to think individually, and to debate collectively, on the philosophy of education. We all need to be challenged, and awakened frequently, to consider and reconsider educational policies in the light of principles. It is the duty of every university professor to think on these things. He will be stimulated to do so by having a more effective part in and execution of educational policies. We have been passing, in this country, from the traditional Yankee who could teach anything, to the narrow specialist who knows one thing and neither knows nor cares for anything else. It may be that I am prejudiced since, as a philosopher, my only specialty is the universe; but I feel strongly that much of our specialized teaching and research is being done on too narrow a basis—that a specialty begun in callow youth, built up on shallow the determination DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION 899 and narrow foundations, and pursued without regard to its relations to the whole universe of knowledge, is pursued blindly and ineptly; and that it tends to turn its practitioners into mere mechanical fragments of men. As for the poor students on whom your partisan and blind specialists op- erate, I can only say, God help them! I have come into contact with specialists who seem to be injuring the minds of their students and injuring the cause of higher education. Society has the good right to ask, as it is asking, what is the human good, the social value, the use to civilization of your specialists ? The third advantage of more faculty participation arises from the second. We are servants of society. Our special service is to be the agents in transmitting, to the generation that is to carry on the work of civilization, those social principles, scientific methods, spiritual insights and values, ideals of social conduct, by which society is perpetually renewed and ad- vanced, through the transmutation of the natural man into socialized rational ‘and spiritual personality. We can serve as transmitters of culture, only in so far as we become awakeners and quickeners of the living spirit— the intelligence, the feelings, and dynamic impulses of youth. Every method and content of liberalizing education is part of the process. Edu- cation is the continuous process of spiritual regeneration, of mental and moral new birth. We are engaged, in our American democracy, in the high and hazardous adventure of educating every son and daughter of man, in order that they may become fit participants in the cooperative effort to carry on and improve civilization. In no other time or state has this immense enterprise been undertaken on so universal a scale as here and now. Two dangers threaten its success: (1) mechanization and (2) a low mediocrity in aims and achievements. “These dangers are really two aspects of one danger. For the immensity of the task before us, its costs in money, materials, and human effort, seem best met by more organization and standardization, by more quantity production, by goose-step, mass instruction. We face the danger of a machine-like regimentation, from necessary increase in administrative organization. Our classes grow ever larger, our institutions more unwieldly, the clamor for tangible results more insistent! -We lecture to crowds, and we pass in to the Registrar’s office stacks of credit slips. There is great danger that we shall forget the individuality of the student; forget that the work of education is the re- orientation, the re-organization, of an individual soul, by living intercourse with another individual soul. If education is not this, it is as sounding brass and tinkling cymbal. We stand in jeopardy every hour of becoming parts of a soulless mechanism turning out mediocre results, handing out stereotyped stuff, and receiving back just sufficient fragments of it to enable us to ease our consciences into signing credit slips. If we professors are not to succumb to the rule of mechanical mediocrity, redeemed only by mole-eyed specialization, we must become more inde- pendent, more courageous; we must be able to function more fully as 900 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION dynamic personalities in the classroom, the faculty meeting, and the com- mittee. We must feel that we havea good right to be listened to on all the concerns of higher education. Just now one of the most baneful tyrannies is that exercised by the boosters for, and patrons of, gladiatorial athletic performance, as the chief social end of a university. A professor who would stand out against this prostitution of education to “Roman holidays” is apt to be dubbed an academic pedant. The economic status of our profession is still too low to attract enough men of vigorous personality. A professor who does not inherit or marry a competence must still face, not simply narrow circumstances, but poverty that harasses him and hampers his work; that often prevents his having, for his own use, a sufficient library; that shuts him out from associations with competent men in other fields that would broaden him; that hinders him from refreshing travel; that often keeps him worried over the fate of his wife and children should he die before the children are able to earn their own livelihood and take care of their mother. So long as, by statute and ordinance, university professors have only the legal status of employees in open shops, only a small portion of vigorous individualities can be ex- pected to enter the profession. Not enough able men will be willing to sacrifice, even for the joys of teaching service and research, the prospects of personal autonomy and economic competence. ‘The relatively low social status of our profession is chiefly a consequence of its legal and economic disabilities. If it be true that, for reasons given above, the present personnel of our profession lacks as a whole the vigor, independent courage and professional consciousness necessary to bring about a more effective recognition of its value to society, and the value of a deeper and humaner social wisdom, will it not be a risky adventure to entrust to professors a larger measure of self- government and university control? Does it not seem like telling a man to lift himself out of a quicksand by pulling on his own belt? But we shall not get a higher average of personnel unless the conditions are changed and made more attractive. We have been moving in a vicious circle, and we must take the plunge. Every adventure in self-government is a big risk. But surely here the prize is worth the gamble! And there is no other way. If faculties are now given a larger measure of partici- pation in university government, in many cases professors will make fools of themselves. If they are denied a larger measure of participation, we may expect the persistence of the present proportion of timorous dolts and solemn asses. There is your dilemma! Better give us the opportunity to make bigger fools of ourselves and learn to be more dynamic men and women ! Greater participation of faculties in government, I urge then, not in order that we may feel that we boss the job, or may earn more money with less work, or may set ourselves up as a privileged class, immune from criti- cism. We are servants of society, and we must ever stand ready to render an account of our stewardship. I urge it on the ground that, without a DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION 901 full measure of participation, we shall lack the courage and power to do our best work, lack the will and insight to prove sternly all nostrums, to weigh carefully all changes, to sift the specious from the genuine in education; shall lack the incitement to function as dynamic personalities ; and that we shall fail to bring that measure of wisdom, courage, and energy to our tasks, without which higher education becomes a depart- ment store affair or an industrial concern, and without which democracy cannot be saved from the tyranny of the crowd and from the crudity and low mediocrity in aim and standard which threaten it all the time. “If the blind lead the blind, they both shall fall into the ditch.” If we professors are not alive in wise insights as well as in special knowledge, in vision as well as in technical expertness, in courage and initiative as well as in routine faithfulness, American society will not become, what time’s wheel of fortune now offers it the chance to become, the foremost standard-bearer of a new, fine, just, and more humanely rich world civiliza- tion. In brief I rest the plea for greater faculty participation on the call of the hour to our universities to be the nurturing grounds of leaders who will guide western civilization out of its present dark hour into the prom- ised land of a world at peace, a world wherein peoples are chiefly engaged in the generous emulation of increasing the participation of human kind in mental sanity, moral balance, the joy that comes from intelligent self- fulfilment and social harmony. I verily believe that never before in the history of man has so glorious an opportunity and so heavy a responsibility been laid on institutions of learning as are now laid on American schools, colleges, and universities. I believe that the future of human civilization rests more on what American schools, colleges, and universities may do in the next fifty years than on any other single type of social institution. We need the biggest men and women, those of largest vision, more powerful mental initiative, fullest knowledge, and ripest wisdom in the university chairs. We need much bigger men in our chairs than in the administrative offices or on the board of trustees. The world is ripe for the harvest, but the laborers are too few and too weak. Shall we get pro- fessors of the mental and moral stature that we need? We shall not, unless they can have an effective part in the conduct of their institutions. A professor serves humanity through serving a nation by means of an institution. Every true professor must be a thoroughly equipped, large- minded humanist. If he is this, he is surely fit to participate fully in the government of his institution. If he is not this, he is not fit to be a pro- fessor. During the past fifty years or so our colleges and universities, and especially our great State universities, have been passing rapidly from the status of personal brotherhoods or communities of learning and inquiry into large-scale, highly-organized, educational industries. ‘This passage has been roughly parallel with the passage of the United States from domestic and individual industry to the highly organized factory system, efficient in cheap quantity production and facile distribution. I fear that there is all too much truth in the charge that our so-called higher educa- 902 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION tional system is becoming a complex and high-geared machine for quantity production and facile distribution. In the large-scale industry the most important, best paid, and most powerful members of the concern are the presidents, directors, departmental managers, division superintendents, and foremen. In the organization of higher education a fatal parallel obtains with the large-scale industry. The administrator, president, dean or director, is valued more highly, paid better and receives more recognition than the vital and inspiring teacher, the profound scholar, the original thinker. American society has transferred the standard of values that holds in large- scale industry to a field that is, in essence, beyond the reach of mechanism and superintendence by rule and measure. For education and research, from top to bottom, is a spiritual process; its essence is the enkindling of mind by mind, in living personal communion, supplemented by communi- cation of spirit to spirit through the printed page. We have thus experienced a baneful transvaluation of values—a con- fusion wrought by the transfer of forms and values from regions where they belong to’a region in which they do not belong. Thus, there has come to pass a relative depreciation of the real work of the teacher, the thinker, the scholar. Naturally the uninstructed public regards the ad- ministrative superintendent of the educational machine, the educational manager as the most important man in the system. Notwithstanding our much vaunted democracy and individualism, we Americans are too subservient to the crowd-mind, and too prone to over- value organization. We are lacking in a keen sense of the social and cul- tural worth of strong individuality, of personality rich in intellectual and spiritual qualities. American society will not go forward in humane civilization, either through the blind urge of the mediocre crowd-mind or through the mechanical efficiency of elaborate organization. If America is to be a leader in the work of civilization we must combine the qualities of a genuine mental and spiritual aristocracy—an aristocracy of great minds and strong characters, inspired with the spirit of service of the high- est cultural values—with a democracy which means equal opportunity for every child to achieve his best possible ; which means, in turn, a career open to every talent. The universities should be the genial mothers of all the higher talents. They should even be the genial mothers of genius—places where, in the sciences, arts, letters, philosophy, social administration, and statesmanship, our most richly endowed youth will find the intellectual and spiritual food which will enable them to develop, to the highest point of preparation for the service of society, their own God-given individualities. The universities cannot be the genial mothers of the best equipped, fullest, and ripest individualities ; they cannot train the right types of leaders until the professorate is restored to its rightful place. Not until we have more effectually recognized that the teacher, the scholar, and thinker—the professor rich in knowledge, wise in insight, and strong in personality—is the real heart of a university; I say, not until our society DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUGATION 90 OO recognizes this principle, and gives to the professorate a better status, a more adequate income, and a fuller part in governing the university, can the university fully achieve its mission. In the modern world there is nothing that moves, beyond the blind forces of nature, but thought— thought increasing in intensity, persistence, clear-sightedness, all-sidedness, and harmonious coherence. The progress of civilization is measured by the increasing control of thought over the blind forces of nature and the raw passions of human nature—a control gained by persistent interrogation, observation, experiment, and the creative synthesis achieved by the intel- lectual imagination of scientist, artist, scholar, and statesman. Thought lives and achieves results only through the medium of strong, full, har- monious personalities. To nurture such personalities, for service through leadership, is the paramount purpose of the universities. How can they fulfill this purpose if their vital business of teaching and research be not conducted by great personalities? How can a professor become or con- tinue to be a strong, wise, vitally-minded personality if he be treated as a hired employee who has no effective part in the determination and control of the policy and personnel of his university? To become a strong per- sonality one must be both free and responsible—free to suggest, to criticise, to initiate, and responsible to society for what he says and does. et ek eho Veteiartit@as ost: élsjensdl 1e-rfemnpl * Sptionds cari f rot iniitribeseame, soe osruting WT eae WET en tesgzeie lie: then peer eaie tne vanadate adh gr es yathe twviedte Sbilg p ai wsthe Hen aribhoer at al Lida tamed WE NOTE aun ial tee éeyrot “bedich pers preva liabic- ts vw aisteidtenaaaitieet f Batik! site chris wid wing Seaton ud beater hevthoo qe Bu. ‘tar Whbtesilincsewbate cde idscheku anes ftanor'f ... (br etddin seinen oie emt wap wotlk _aeisteesrvima Tae te HOA Tit SeOnecTAd gear atl atime Sree spent domegenediia Peeterieniad «farsi: = ito. 20) sapsoahe cree wy aud deb bin Sebi ca bebiore seb er ti vrilgeatray ‘oksefinds-9 Heyy tae istry tects yea |eézict? sss ty guld ee "May- yours s/omend oT iwtiady whey vt 4c rt bn = /éa ol wihy wht a ine Sie Ae «: ti4GGn, <6 ow ‘oaths a ' — , } ter —34 | si ote eth pied ool the aiit ot or ee 4 ) Sse m- Wien wictn ‘ tc Crd bbe cdineke oe 7 J Sy rey ah rhe ie Whine Tw Y eeteiy ioe win? it 3 [ eet ake Bathets AF a het Gab ve et ern aes | ta ths hiededt Sata’ of ahbncogint a s nha xind \ e®, Gt unt] ‘ « yal Department of Immigrant Education PROGRAM OF MEETINGS OFFICERS President—W ILLIAM C. Smits, State Supervisor of Immigrant Education. .Albany, New York Secretary—GRAck M. SHEPHERD.....6+es-eer esses teeter scr cr tees Warrensburg, Missouri FIRST SESSION—Monpay AFTERNOON, JULY 3, 1922 AMERICANIZATION—WHys, WISE AND UNWIsE—Owen A. Hoban, Special Justice of - the Court in Massachusetts, Gardner, Mass. SocIALIZING THE METHOD, CONTENT, AND ProcepurE—Ethel Richardson, State Director of Immigration for Calfornia. How SHALL THE PROBLEM OF THE IMMIGRANT MOTHER BE So_vep ?—Clara B. Spring- steed, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Amsterdam, N. Y. SECOND SESSION—WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 5, 1922 EpucaTion FoR CiTizeNsHip—Albert Shiels, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, New York, N. Y. THe DemocraTic AWAKENING IN ADULT EpucaATION: AN OpporTtuNiry—Frank P. Graves, State Commissioner of Education, Albany, N. Y. A New Literary Test ror Votinc—Alfred E. Rejall, Chairman Regents Literary Test Committee, New York. OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENTS—PRESENT DIFFICULTIES— FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE STATE—Robert C. Deming, Director of Americani- zation, New Haven, Conn.; Charles M. Herlihy, State Agent for Ameri- canization, Boston, Mass. FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT—William McAndrew, Associate Superintendent of Schools, New York City. FrRoM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE CITY Direcror—H. E. Stone, Erie, Pa., and M. J. Downey, Boston, Mass. FRoM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE TEACHER—Hazel R. Porter, Stamford, Conn., and Lillian P. Clark, Columbus, Ohio. GENERAL DISCUSSION. BUSINESS SESSION. THIRD SESSION—Tuurspay Morninc, JuLy 6, 1922 Pemberton (Boston Harbor) Chairman, B. Preston Clark, Vice-President of the Plymouth Cordage Company, Plymouth, Mass. DEVELOPMENT OF Facrory CLASSES IN MAssACHUSETTS UP TO DATE—George F. Quimby, Service Secretary, Associated Industries of Massachusetts. REPORTS OF INVESTIGATIONS INTO FACTORY CLASs PROGRAMS IN— (1) A Larce TEXTILE Ciry—Margaret Bruyn, American Bosch-Magneto Company. (2) AN INDUSTRIAL Town—Thomas F. Power, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Worcester, Mass. (3) A City anp A TOWN OF DiversiFlep INpusTRIES—Caroline Whipple, New York State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. Discusston—Led by Margaret J. Burnett, Supervisor of Immigrant Classes, Dela- ware. THe INDUSTRIAL CLASS SITUATION IN Derroir—Frank Cody, Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Mich. [905] 906 NaTIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION Luncheon—Pemberton Inn Chairman, E. E. Bohner, Associated Industries of Massachusetts Speaker—Wentworth Stewart, Boston, Mass. FOURTH SESSION—Tuurspay AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1922 FOREMEN’s FoRUM: PERSUADING EMPLOYEES TO ENROLL IN Factory CLAsses—Pre- sented by several foremen from representative industries. IMMIGRANT Pupits: How I HAvE BEEN HELPED BY FACTORY CLASsEsS—Two immi- grant pupils. QUESTION Box. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK—John J. Mahoney, Supervisor of Americanization, State Department of Education, Boston, Mass. AMERICANIZATION—WISE AND UNWISE OWEN A. HOBAN, GARDNER, MASSACHUSETTS Before I say anything to you about the details of the Gardner experi- ment, in order that you may get it as we see it, I shall talk a little about fundamentals. There is a story of recent vintage which is in line with a little point | wish to make. It is of an Irishman who was very active in ward politics. Coming home one evening, he burst into the house where his wife was waiting for him for news from the battle, saying, “Mary Ellen, the foreign- ers are driving us out of the country. I have just been down to the ward meeting, and there were five nationalities there. There were the Lithua- _nians, the Polacks, the Greeks, the Dagos—Begorrah there were five of ‘em, there were the Lithuanians, the Polacks, the Dagos, the Greeks— Begorrah, I can’t think of the other one.” “Maybe,” says Mary Ellen, “ twas the Americans you were thinking about.” “It’s true for you, woman; I forgot all about them.” Now, that situation could be duplicated in any large manufacturing city or town in the northeastern part of this country, east of the Mississippi River and north of the Mason and Dixon line. There are probably over fifteen millions of people in this country, ten years of age and over, who were born outside the territorial limits of the United States, and upwards of five millions of these can neither read nor write in the English language. In 1915, in Massachusetts alone, there were 346,000 persons who could not read and write in the English language, and of these 118,000 could not read or write in any language. The situation would not be quite so bad if these good people were dis- tributed evenly among the population. But they are industrial workers for the most part, and congregate in the large manufacturing cities and towns, where they live together as national groups, speak their native languages, read a native language press, adhere to their native customs and traditions, and actually live among us as nations within the nation, out of DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 907 oa Se a Oe ee ere touch and time and tune with the hopes, aspirations, and progress of American life. That is not all the problem. The immigrant is a human being. He is usually pretty nearly grown up when he gets here, brings with him the traditions of generations behind him, with the age-old animosities and antagonisms of Europe, and he sets them up here, in miniature, in the cities and towns of the country. The national antipathies, animosities, and the quarrels of Europe can be duplicated in a small way in any large manu- facturing city or town of the eastern part of the United States. ‘The attempt of Poland to impose its authority on a part of Lithuania has stirred up our Lithuanian and Polish neighbors so that they are not getting along very well. Up in Gardner the Lithuanian Catholics do not go to the Polish Catholic church, but come over to my church, because they are in the minority. The quarrel of Sweden and Finland, over the sovereignty of a few islands in the Northern Baltic, has resulted in antagonism among the people of these nationalities here. So you could, I believe, duplicate in this country, in any metropolitan population, the age-old quarrels of Europe which laid the foundation of that terrible world war into which all civilization was drawn. The first thing to do when a man is to get religion is to convict him of sin. We have not to be satisfied that we have a problem in our community or State; we have got to be assured that that problem is real; and then be convinced of the necessity of setting up the machinery to eradicate it, if it is worth while to do so. The first question that comes into the mind of a man who has-not thought of this problem very seriously is, ‘Well, what of it? What if these people are here in these numbers? What do we care about it? They have been coming here since 1882 or 1883. Why not let nature take its course? If they want to be Americanized, they will Americanize themselves in their own way.” Well, the first answer to that is: It is politically wrong. The genius of our institutions is such that they depend for their successful operation on an intelligent public opinion. We make laws here by the force of public opinion. The legislature of this State has written law after law upon our statute books through the influence of public opinion. ‘The President of the United States, the Governor of the Commonwealth, and the Mayor of the city are all public servants, and they execute the law of the land under the guidance of public opinion. They are chosen by the suffrage of a sovereign people. : Now how can you have intelligent public opinion in a commonwealth when 346,000 of its people cannot read or write the English language or properly exercise the right of franchise, and when 118,000 of them prob- ably could not understand anything that was announced as a law or pro- posed as a public program? It is a political anomaly for fifteen million, or five million, or any num- ber of people in a country like ours to be shut out by reason of a language 908 NaTIONAL EpucATION AssocIATION barrier from participating in the development of the political life of the nation. It is socially wrong. It is wrong not to set up social contacts, between yourselves and your alien neighbors, to get into their hearts and have them get into ours, so that we may realize together the hopes and aspirations of a common social existence in the community. There is a teacher friend of mine who has been teaching English to foreigners. An old Polish woman came into her class, sixty-nine years, of age, too old to successfully learn English. ‘The teacher was kind, and encouraged her all she could for awhile; but she made poor progress, and finally the teacher said to her, through an interpreter, “Don’t you think it is going to be a hopeless task for you to get this English language so that you can ever use it to advantage; aren’t you rather discouraged at the progress you are making here?’ ‘The old woman put her hand inside the bosom of her dress and drew out a letter written in English, upon stationery furnished by the Y. M. C.. A. to the American Expeditionary Forces in France, and answering through the interpreter, she said, “Here is a letter written to me by my boy not long before he was killed, while fighting in the United States Army in France. It has been read to me a hundred times, by my neighbors and friends, but I don’t believe they are telling me all it contains, and I shall never be satisfied until I have read that letter in English myself.” The social value of that mother to the city of Quincy, where she lives, and the value of all such mothers in the world to their communities, can- not be estimated in dollars and cents. | doubt if there is anybody in Quincy who knows of her life and love except that New England country school-teacher who is still trying to teach her the English language. It is economically wrong. A man who employs a great number of aliens asked one of them to drive him home one evening in his automobile. John jumped into the car with his employer and started up town at about thirty miles an hour. Coming to a bad curve, where there was a sign posted, “Slow Down, Blow Your Horn,” John continued on around the curve at the same speed. “Can’t you read that sign?” asked his boss. “No, me no understan’, me can’t read,” John replied. “How do you get along, driving this car?” said his employer. ‘Oh, me careful,” said John. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts has licensed that man to operate that automobile on the highways of this State, making him a danger to himself .and a menace to every lawful traveler on the highway, due to his inability to read the common warnings posted for the protection of his life and the lives of others. Now use your imagination about such a man working in a factory where there is an elevator with a sign on it, “Danger, Don’t Open This Door”; or a tag on a piece of mechanism, “Oil This Machine Once a Day”; or where the cost system requires him to put a time check on a card; and you will have some idea of the losses to industry in this country in employing men who cannot read and write the English language. DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 909 The only thing which prevents these good people from joining in the political life of the country, bars them from social intercourse with us, and which keeps them from making the fullest possible economic contribu- tion to industry and business, is the barrier of language which Nature. has raised up between them and the rest of the people in this country. Political, social, and economic considerations, if no other, ought to stir us to take immediate, active interest in the solution of this most intricate and fascinating of our domestic problems. Having decided that we have a foreign language problem and that it eught to be solved, the next question is, Can it be done? Many people say, ““‘What is the use?’ ‘These people are merely clods of the earth, country people, born on farms, come here ignorant; what is the use of wast- ing time and money in educating them? It can’t be done.” The mind of man is essentially the same today as it was in the day of Moses. ‘True, Moses didn’t have a telephone, electric lights, or a Twin- Six. He didn’t have woman suffrage, or an eighteenth amendment. But, if these things had been in existence in his day, I’ve no doubt that he could have given Central hell because he didn’t get the right number, could have driven the [win-Six through the Red Sea, apologized for his forty- year opposition to woman suffrage, and raised a thirst even in the desert. The average man, of any race, has the mental capacity to understand the institutions man has erected on this continent for the government and development of society. The co-mingling of the races on the battlefields of Europe taught men to understand that differences of race, language, or religion, have nothing in the world to do with the capacity of the human mind to grasp and hold firmly to a great truth. The homely virtues—love of home, love of offspring, love of country, charity, purity, and honesty—are as well-known in the frozen North, the Orient, or on the sands of the desert, and quite as frequently practiced there, as they are in Boston. Men the world over are capable of exempli- fying in their lives all the virtues we think so necessary to good citizenship. Race, language, or previous political conditions cannot and do not prevent it. All we have got to do is to have a little good-will in the matter, go out of our way just a little, lay our hands on the shoulder of the immigrant — and bring him into contact with our life, and we solve the problem. How do you do it? Simple enough. ‘There isn’t anything mysterious at all about it. It is just developing points of contact—social, educational, political, and economic—with the alien within our gates; approaching him with a little neighborliness; getting the knowledge of our language over to him; telling him the story of our country, and laying on him the mantle of our common citizenship. That was our problem, up in Gardner; and this is the way we went at it. We started away back in 1900. I have the figures, but I will not read them now, because they are lengthy. We started in 1900 with the evening schools. With that large alien population up there, all the people we could get interested in the idea of learning the English language were one hun- 910 NaTIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION ee ener EUENE IN CONE BS ow dred, and some of them were not even aliens, but Americans who wanted a little improvement. So we dribbled and drooled along, with 110 the next year, 155 the next, and 268 the next year. With the year 1907 there came to the schools in Gardner a man from Manchester, New Hamp- shire, Ralph Fitz, assistant principal of the high school, who took charge of the night schools. He found that the night schools were not getting things done in the night way. Some of the men were anxious to pea citizens of the United States; and so, outside of school hours, at odd times, at the factories and other places, he got them together, made out first and second papers of citizenship, put them through their paces to pass the Federal test, and was instrumental in helping them to become citizens of the United States. The night school record, under Fitz, went from 303 up to 557—just by showing a little interest in the alien. Then the war came on and calls for troops were made, and we found there were 700,000 men in the draft who could not read or write English; and of the men who went from Gardner some could not understand “Halt,” “Fire,” “Load”; some could not read an order. We began to wake up, and with other people, make up our minds that we were going to tackle the matter in a proper way. We set up an Americanization program which has for its purpose— First, to break down the language barrier which prevents us from com- municating our ideas to our alien friends and prevents them from com- municating theirs to us. Second, to lay on their shoulders the mantle of citizenship. Third, to instruct them as fully as possible in the patriotic traditions and history of this country, and relate that history and tradition, if we could learn how to do so, to the history of their native countries. Finally, to give them a night school that provides further opportunity for self-improvement. We have a vision of a great auditorium in our town, to be erected as a memorial to the men of all races who gave their lives under our flag to make the world a better place to live in, in which we can assemble our alien neighbors, on Polish night, or Swedish night, or Italian night, and there let them give expression, dramatic, literary, musical; in their own language, or ours, make their cultural contribution in their own way to the town of Gardner. We must contemplate building up in the alien a love for this country, without asking him to lose his love for anything that is decent and good in his own. In making out that program and attempting the Americanization work in Gardner and conducting the night school work, under the twenty-five or thirty teachers trained by Mr. Mahoney and his assistants, we have discovered that teaching the alien is a somewhat different job than we thought. One night-school teacher, not well equipped to handle the work labored long and patiently with a fine-looking, fair-haired alien. using common, DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 911 ordinary beads, on a rod, moving two beads over, then two more beads over, and trying to teach him that two and two makes four. This young fellow went away, and never came back. A year or two later one of us happened to meet him on the street and asked, ‘“Didn’t you once go to the night school ?” “Sure,” he answered, speaking English as we hear it most spoken. “What did you give it up for?” “Why,” said he, “I went down there and that teacher tried to teach me that two and two are four. ‘That disgusted me! it was insulting. I am a graduate of Gutenberg University, a civil engineer, and I have forgotten more about mathematics than she ever knew.” We found out, if you please, that our alien friends knew the facts of nature, of mathematics, and of science, and that we were insulting the in- telligence of a great many of them, by trying to teach them some things of which they knew more than we did ourselves. So we changed all that. Now we have a special corps of teachers, with special textbooks. We try to have every one in the schools feel they are not being belittled, but are being helped to be more useful to themselves and to us. In a word, appre- ciation, instead of depreciation, is the guiding principle which controls the approach we are trying to make to the alien’s heart and mind. We made a survey of the town, with a view to locating all non-English speaking adults. First we took a street list, and by checking it with the voting lists discovered that a great many of the people living in our town were not voting citizens, and whenever possible found out the reason. We discovered two or three streets on which there did not live one single, solitary citizen of the United States; we found other streets in which the percentage of non-citizenship was 90 per cent, 80 per cent, 60 per cent. We went to every factory in town and discovered how many non-English speaking people there were there, and how many they had employed there who could not read and write English, and got their names. “Then we went to the pastors of the churches, had sermons preached, and had the story of the Americanization plans and purposes communicated to these people. We went to the manufacturers and induced them to codperate, by opening schools for their employees in the plants, and thus prepared to gather the aliens into our schools. We have now in operation in that little community of 16,000 people, 30 factory classes, teaching English and citizenship, with 420 people attend- ing these classes two days in the week, after they get through their day’s work. In this slack time, when the men in the factories are working but three days a week, we have school just the same; and if there is no work, the men come to school at the factory, whether the factory is running or not. If there are any absences from the factory school, we make note of the fact, take the names and next morning some one goes to the house to find out why John Zobeiski didn’t come to school. Whether it is a school for -Americanization or a school of the ordinary kind, in the church, at home, or anywhere else, it is going to fall down unless you have a thoroughly good 912 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION follow-up system. All the alien needs is a little encouragemens, to keep him on the job; but if we don’t have somebody follow him up all the time, the night school closes. We have two mothers’ classes, one in the Young Woman’s Hebrew Association, the other for French Canadians. We have a class for men in the French Canadian Club. Most wonderful of all, we are negotiating, at their request, with the Finnish Socialist Club, about setting up an Ameri- canization school for the club. We have tonight in the schools of Gardner, in Americanization alone, 620 people; and 906 people, all told. You may be sure that we are grati- fied; but we are not satisfied. I have the confidence to believe that some day Gardner will be a community where every man will be able to say that at some time in his life he had an opportunity offered him to become a citi- zen of the United States. We intend to make it impossible in our com- munity for any alien to ever say he was not given a fair chance in the United States of America, by the town of Gardner. Well, is the game worth the candle? Is it worth doing? What do we get out of it? That is a perfectly practical, New England question. What do we get out of it? Next to the matter of doing something for the other fellow, have you thought of what these alien friends of ours represent in the world of men? Every nation, in the beginning, has some fundamental principle which determines the extent of its contributions.to the world’s welfare. In Palestine it was religion; in Greece it was culture; in Rome it was law; and the history and the development of our own country clearly demon- strates that in America it was the enfranchisement of mankind. There is no nation, certainly no civilized nation, with a history so barren of great event or stirring movement calculated to affect the thought and manners of mankind but has contributed something at least to the sum total of the world’s welfare. The last immigrant who landed on Ellis Island today is potentially the greatest man of his race. The population of this country represents a cross-section of the peoples of the earth. Men of every race, from every clime, are here, each bearing the peculiar gift of his people—their culture, art, music, law, literature— ready and willing to lay it on our altar. Have we received the gift in the spirit in which it should be accepted? Have we not been passing by our alien neighbors, without much knowing or caring who or what they are or have? I am afraid so; and we have been missing glorious opportunities of self-improvement by a social contact with men who represent much that is good and true and beautiful in this world of ours. ' I am going to take the liberty of introducing to you some of your fellow- citizens and ask if you do not see in them something you have never seen before. First, let me introduce Jean Baptiste Le Blanc, French Canadian citizen, who came out here thirty or forty years ago from old Quebec, to work in the mills at Lowell, Lawrence, or Fall River; brought out here his peculiar DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 913 eee a eA en fis be ee parochial system, lived by himself with his few friends and neighbors, be- cause he was shut off from the rest of the community by a language barrier. It is very convenient, I know, to think of him and others like him as nothing but workers in the factories, spinners and weavers in the mills, dwellers in the tenements. Why not think of them in the terms of the second generation—as great lawyers, merchants, bankers, judges upon the bench, governors of States? Why not think of them in terms of their great history? ‘The great-great-grandfather of Jean Baptiste Le Blanc sailed into the waters of St. Lawrence Bay, and founded the trading settle- ments at Quebec and Montreal long before there was a permanent Eng- lish settlement in New England. One of his ancestors paddled the birch- bark canoe which bore Champlain out on to the waters of that beautiful lake which bears his name. Another ancestor was a “Voyageur, a ““coureur de bois,’ who went with Father Marquette through the Great Lakes, down the Illinois River, the Mississippi, up the Missouri, and was present at the naming of St. Louis, St. Joseph, St. Paul, St. Mary’s, names which mark the spots in the wilderness where Christian missionaries raised the cross of Christ toward heaven for the salvation of a heathen race. You don’t know your fellow-citizens unless you know Jean Baptiste Le Blanc. Let me present John Anderson and Olof Erickson, fair-haired, blue- eyed, pink-cheeked sons of the North, Swedish and Norwegian citizens. Of course, we used to think of them as nothing but ‘‘gobs” in. the navy, workers on the fishing fleet, or “Jumpers” around the docks. But that is not quite fair to these two wonderful peoples. Why not think of them in the terms of what they really are? There is not a man in this hall who would wish to display his ignorance of modern literature by admitting that he had not read his Ibsen. Their ancestors were the Vikings of the North, sailors of the seven seas, discoverers of Iceland, founders of its unique repub- lic, explorers of the Virginia Capes, builders of the round tower, five hundred years before Christopher Columbus was born. Let me present to you John Druzinski, modern Polish citizen. Oh, what a terrible time his people have had; run over, trampled down, held in sub- jection for hundreds of years; Germany trying to poke the German language down their throats for forty years, and they surviving and becoming more Polish than when this began! Copernicus, discoverer of the heliocentric system, was a Pole, born in Cracow. Who has not heard of Kosciusko, and Count Pulaski, aide-de-camp to Washington ; and is not the greatest musical genius of the age none other than Paderewski, first president of the Polish Republic? Let me present another group: Luigi Limbardo and Alexis Cosmopolis, modern Roman and Athenian citizens; “the glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome.” I know it is easy to think of the Italian as the “wop” and the “dago,” that shovels in the trench, crawls under the river, labors on construction work, and fills the columns of the sensational newspapers with his Saturday-night brawls. It is easy to think of the Greek as the push-cart man, who gets in your way when you drive down the avenue in your T'win-Six. 914 NatioNnaL Epucation AssociATION But the little Italian boy, shining your shoes at the station, has been on the Grand Canal at Venice, has seen the beauty of Florence, and stood awe-inspired before the majestic grandeur of Rome. There may be cours- ing in his veins the blood of Virgil, Horace, Cicero, Michael Angelo, or any one of the thousands of those who bore magic Italian names; and who knows but that the little Greek is a descendant of Homer, Alexander, Plato, Socrates, Pericles, or of any one of many mighty Greeks? These people were civilized, had law, organized government, art, music, letter culture, and a place in history, when your ancestors and mine were bar- barians in the forests of Northern Germany, or offering human sacrifices to an unspeakable god in the swamps of England or Ireland. Finally, let me present to you Solomon Levy, Jew of Jews, from Russia, Poland, Austria, or God knows where. Has any race ever been persecuted as his has been? For nineteen hundred years the hands of men who ought to have known better have been against him. Oh, I know it is very easy to think of them as ragpickers, and junk dealers, and offensive persons in the dining cars. But why not think of them in the terms of their achieve- ments ?—the greatest bankers in the world, the greatest merchants in the world, the greatest manufacturers in the world—a race which produced, in Abraham, the greatest single leader any people ever had, and in Moses the greatest lawyer. Out of the loins of this race came the light and hope of the world. They belong to the very best of the human family. Their ancestors stood on the hills of Jerusalem and communed with God. These and many others I have no time to mention are our fellow-citizens, All we need to make them what we would like to have them be is vision, tolerance, and a little money. ‘They come, as we do, from the hand of God, and they go, as we do, to the grave. Why not join hands with them, and by coéperating with them, build up on this continent what this country really ought to be—the greatest republic the world has ever seen? SOCIALIZING THE METHOD, CONTENT,AND PROCEDURE ETHEL RICHARDSON, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT, IN CHARGE OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION, SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA In the history of the world there has probably been no more eventful period than that through which most of us have lived who are attending this National Education Association convention. We have seen evolution and revolution, industrial, economic, political, and social. We have watched the world change from hand-made to machine-made. There is no field of adventure, endeavor, or thought in which there have not been great discoveries. There has been no change which is more significant, for the future of society and civilization than the recent developments in the field of education. We are fortunate to be living, teaching in an age when we can see the dawn of an era of a real education as important as the DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 915 Renaissance. Leaders of thought for many years have been attempting to intrigue the common sense of educators by showing them psychological reasons for teaching a child by developing him rather than by developing subject matter. For the most part their words fell on deaf ears. It is only in our own time, under the leadership of John Dewey, that we have begun to find the relationship, better still the oneness, of education and life. With the increasing complexity of existence, and the surprising develop- ment in the facilities for disseminating knowledge, the volume of human experience to be transmitted from one generation to the next has so ex- panded that selection becomes necessary. Since the entire body of knowl- edge, skills, and attitudes, the cumulative possession of the race, could not become the heritage of each individual, there developed a need for wide dif- ferentiation. For that part of education which is to be obtained in the school, we have been compelled to evaluate, appraise, and often discard what was once regarded as indispensable. We have come to recognize that the im- portance of any bit of knowledge is not implicit but depends for its value on its usefulness to the particular individual who employs it. Hence the method of passing on human experience from one generation to another has changed from pouring in facts to making possible the contact with those facts at a time when the individual feels a need for them and can make them a part of his own development in order to put them to social use. ‘The student has ceased to be passive; the classroom and the teacher are merely.the environment in which he can experience a richer and more intense life. America is striving to create a democracy and therefore wants education that does not produce docility. Education for a democracy demands that the product of the schools be not a good pupil but a good citizen, with a capacity for wise judgments and independent decisions. Much is said lately about the business of the schools being the production of citizens. That may be true provided no narrow idea of the State is maintained. It is the business of the schools to create environment for richness of life which “depends upon the tendency, what one does, has to suggest succeeding activities.” It is the business of the school to give opportunity to those who attend it for achieving completeness and integrity, not through show- ing them what to think but through showing them how to think. It is not the business of the school to determine the pattern or the cast, or to set up any limitations for its pupils in order that they may fit any particular theory of education or the State. When each individual is developing to his own greatest capacity, the State can be without fear for its citizenry. These in brief are the broad educational principles to which the school is attempting to reshape itself. The recognition of a theory, however, or the logical rightness of a principle, is vastly different from discovering the vehicle by means of which the principle can be made to function, particularly when the application must be made to so large and long-established an organization as the public school. All the machinery and equipment of the schools has been devised toward another end. All the arrangements of 916 NATIONAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION ee EE EOE TRE eee the schoolroom and the teacher are predicated upon the idea of pupils as plastic and passive, molded by a superior being who in every instance is better able to decide, to make choice or judgments concerning both their immediate and remote needs. ‘To find specific ways in which this hide- bound system could be bent to carry out the accepted principles has been the task of all the great teachers of our generation. ‘The fact that the devices and methods which have been suggested as a means of effecting the practical application to the classroom of these general principles of work have been seized upon by the superficial as an end in themselves, by no means lessens the importance of the contribution. Unintelligent teachers have misused valuable methods because they failed to understand their pur- pose, but they have sometimes cleared the way for intelligent use of the same tools by the more discerning who regard each device as a step towards the discovery of another which will be more effective. Among the methods that have been proposed to give the child greater opportunity to gain experience rather than learn facts, the most important are the project and the socialized recitation, A wealth of material can be found on these two subjects, written both by those who have followed scien- tific methods and those who are eager to use “catch words” as substitutes for thought. ~ The significant principles which the project method attempts to embody are (1) that learning must be an accompaniment of pleasurable activity, and (2) that the activity must have purpose in the mind of the individual. Provided these two conditions are present the individual can make the efforts of the school room a part of himself. The socialized recitation is in a sense an aspect of the project method. The most successful projects are those in which groups of children are engaged together, sharing one another’s experience and each profiting by the successes and failures of the other members of the group. Once such a vital project is undertaken the teacher becomes a less important factor in the classroom. She is there for reference and consultation, but not for all the initiative and leadership to be displayed. This is equally true whether the. project be of the more manual sort, such as making a doll’s house, or house, or a drill which would make possible the dramatization of a story written about the doll’s house, Whatever the project, its success depends upon the self-activity of the pupils, This is as far removed from the first interpretations of the socialized recitation, where one child was substituted for the teacher and-followed the old question and answer method with less technique than the teacher, her- self, might have done. In the real socialized recitation each individual hand. Moreover, there are implications in the Project method which lead the group from the somewhat artificial surroundings of the school room into the world outside. This project, as Kilpatrick says, “A unit of the worthy life.” Charles Pendleton, of the University of Wisconsin, says DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 917 that the recitation as usually conducted is a failure because “it fails to establish a microcosm resembling the real world outside.” In contra- distinction to this, “The socialized recitation is not entirely a modified recitation, or any recitation in the conventional sense, but a substitute as a class room procedure. It becomes an attitude of the school. It is not a method, but a point of view.” Under the old system we had courses in hygiene and sanitation in which the pupil learned from a book certain facts with regard to the spread of disease, or the necessity for proper disposal of waste. As facts, it was possible for information to remain entirely outside the experience of the child and to have no valuable effect whatever upon his behavior. With the project method certain children in the high school will be led to make certain discoveries whereby hygienic living will assume importance to them. This might be through becoming aware of the fact that the part of the school grounds used by their own class was less or more tidy than the other part of the school. Becoming conscious of a condition is a step toward assuming some responsi- bility with regard to it. It would soon be easy to lead the class to a study of causes of sanitation and insanitation, which apply to the school and from that to the neighborhood and the city. In such a project each child would find his own place as his interest dictated. Without a combined effort of the entire group the project would fail and the interplay of knowledge gained would be infinitely greater than the experience of any individual. It is through relationships of this sort, as Dewey says, that “The whole is greater than the sum of all its parts.” Much experimentation and a considerable amount of writing has been done on this subject in the field of the education of the child. Little appli- cation, however, of either the general principles enunciated above or the methods by which those principles can realize results, has been made con-' cerning the education of the adult. Here, partly because little specific training has been offered to teachers, and partly because the subject matter is as yet undetermined, the most archaic methods still prevail. ‘This is particularly true with reference to the education of the immigrant; in the first place, because that education concerns itself (1) with the problem of teaching languages and the languages are the most intrenched of all the subjects in the curriculum. This is due to their classical tradition and the theories of formal discipline which much of our language study has used as a bulwark. Nevertheless it remains clear that there is as much, if not more, need for reform here than in the education of the child. Pro- fessor Albert Manbridge, of England, Chairman of the World Association on Adult Education, said that it is now clear that adult education is out of its swaddling clothes; that it requires material with peculiar qualities of freshness, directness, and simplicity not found in textbooks—‘‘the end of adult education is more than bread and butter satisfaction.” He would give a course on broomsticks if it would create hunger for higher things. It still remains for some one to devise means for more experimentation 918 NatTIonaL Epucation ASssocrIATION in this field so that educational theory can be applied to the night school curriculum for foreign adults. The night school has two fundamental tasks or rather there is one problem which incorporates within itself a lesser problem: namely, making possible free communication between the foreign- born and his American environment. Establishing such communication in its largest aspect, is the orientation of the individual in the social group. In a lesser way it is giving him the tool which makes that orientation pos- sible for the first medium of communication is the common language. In this the teaching of English tothe foreign adult differs from modern foreign language-teaching in the secondary schools or universities. If the aim of the latter has been to establish a closer relationship with the people of the language studied, the methods pursued have not revealed that aim. On the other hand, all of the assistance which the directors of immigrant education have had in attacking the inadequate character of the teaching has come from such scanty material as can be found on the subject of methods of teaching a modern language. In the beginning either the means which were used to teach Latin and Greek, or those employed to teach reading to the primary children, were found in practically all of our night schools. An impetus, given by the war, to greater expansion of the night school program came at about the same time as the revolution in the traditional methods of teaching French or German or Spanish in the high schools. As with the project method, mere devices, formulated by the modern language specialist in an effort to discover a more natural method of learning a language, have been seized upon by the poorly trained teacher of adult immigrants as a carry-all for teaching English. The larger benefits of the project method and the socialized recitation, gained by those who understood their use, have never been shared by the school for foreign adults. Even where the teacher has eliminated the béte noir of language instruction—namely, oral reading and grammatical presentation, she still maintains her place as the dictator rather than the companion of her pupils. After visiting English classrooms all over Amer- ica I find that the old discarded system still prevails in most instances— a little effort at desultory conversation, and then the book. Sometimes the book is a lesson specifically written around the interests of the group. Oftener it is the text prepared with little science and with no relation to the particular class. The real purpose of the school is forgotten—the establishment of modes of communication between the foreign adult and his American life. The dictatorship of the teacher prevents that one activity which would contribute to the accomplishment of this real pur- pose—namely, practice in the art of speaking the language. All language teaching in his native tongue for the American child has been encumbered with over-emphasis on reading and writing. The capacity for fluent oral expression, which is probably the acid test of education, is the possession of very few. The necessity, therefore, for assiduous effort in discovering a classroom procedure in which as little as possible of the valuable time shall be absorbed by the activities of the teacher and as much DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 919 as possible given to the class, is obvious. Beyond this, it is important that the time devoted to the activity of the pupil will have purpose for him which will give him a desire for self-expression and will eliminate self- consciousness. Probably the poorest place in the world to teach a language is in the ordinary schoolroom. ‘There is so much more involved in language teaching than the acquisition of new symbols for old concepts. ‘There is the entire past experience tied up to the old symbols. They carry an emotional connotation which has more to do with the meaning than their exact relation to the imagery which they may call up. ‘Therefore, to attempt to substitute a new symbol unstrengthened by the habits and atti- tudes of the past in an atmosphere devoid of interest and most suggestive of hard work, makes the task almost impossible. The foreigner comes to his English class motivated by a tremendous need for the new language. That is his only asset and the only point of contact between him and the teacher. All the other factors are against his learning. The strangeness of his surroundings, the inappropriateness of the school room, and the entire disturbance of his emotional life reader him unfit for the learning process. Therefore, the teacher’s most important task is to create in that classroom an atmosphere in which the pupil loses not only his sense of fatigue and shyness, but his belief that he has come to undertake a task. The whole idea of a task must be removed. If it is true that a child learns most while engaged in pleasurable activities, it is infinitely more true that a foreign adult can supplant the language which has often been the most cherished possession of his race only when the acquisition of new speech habits is secondary to his participation in absorbing social intercourse. Specifically how this is to be done is a matter for much experimentation and long striving. In theory, at any rate, we have abandoned all that con- tent of material which does not bear a direct relation to the everyday life of the foreigner. We have furthermore established a pedagogical principle that in learning a language, hearing and speaking should precede reading and writing. Therefore, all of our better teachers are devoting a larger amount of time to talking, and less and less to reading and writing. In its many modifications the Gourin method of developing language in series with the emphasis on verbs has become our most common vehicle for language teaching. It has undoubtedly served a splendid purpose in offering one way of using oral English with real method instead of the casual conversations, which were the first reactions against classical proce- dure. On the other hand, if used very much it completely destroys the natural- ness of the group and is particularly objectionable in that it emphasises the teacher-pupil relationship. So long as this relationship prevails, there will be little or no expression on the part of the pupils of their immediate needs . and desires, or of the degree of satisfaction which those desires are receiving in the classroom. J This paper does not pretend to offer a treatise on the methods of teaching English. This subject has been so well covered in the chapter by Dr. 920 NATIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION Goldberger in The Schooling of the Immigrant that further discussion is unnecessary. We are concerned here, not so much with the technical presentation as with those classroom attitudes which make possible the functioning of the technique. Certain definite rules may be followed with success: (1) Let the pupil determine and express his own needs; (2) Serve the pupil’s immediate needs rather than those more remote, even though the latter be more important; (3) Provide a regular channel through which the pupil’s expressed desires may come to the teacher; (4) Establish a method by which the pupils can test their own progress; (5) Find a sub- stitute for the play situation in which children learn a foreign language so easily; and (6) Have activities in the school that will carry over into the life outside the school. 1. A special study should be made of each pupil as he enters the school room. The arrangement found in many night schools is the usual question- ing concerning name, address, and other categorical inquiries which have little to do with the causes for the student’s attending school, or with the things which he hopes to accomplish. This accounts in large measure for the inadequacy of the grading in most of our schools. In many instances, there is no one free to make this fundamental examination of each student. It is, therefore, very important that every night school have a principal whose main concern is not with record keeping, and other clerical work, but with the social relations of the pupils. In many instances it will be neces- Sary to use an interpreter and carry on an extended interview, perhaps over several evenings, before a student is properly classified. When such classi- fication is made it may be possible that there will be no grade where the particular service desired can be rendered. In this case, it should be the duty of the principal to give the necessary individual instruction to satisfy the wants of the newcomer. 2. A night school which is teaching the English language in general, and not supplying the particular lack which the student recognizes will not keep the student long enough to interest him in the aims which the school has determined upon. Dewey says, ‘A man must know many things which seem useless to a child: teach a child what is of use to him as a child, and it will take all of his time.” This is just as true, perhaps more true, in the teaching of a foreign adult. If we teach him what he needs at the moment, the meeting of that need will create other needs to be satisfied. 3. It is not enough to determine upon the classification for each student as he enters. “There must be a permanent arrangement for him to make his wants known. ‘This can be done where a night school council, made up of representatives from each class, meets regularly with the principal and teachers to discuss the classroom activities, suggest new material in which the students are interested, and to report on devices which have been used and found helpful in increasing the speaking ability. 4. It has been discovered that the child learns more readily when he understands the purpose behind each task and acquires each new skill as a tool in the successful completion of a self-initiated activity. It is all the DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 921 more important, therefore, that an adult mind should not be expected to waste time doing things without knowing the reason. Children are always happy to check on their own progress and to discover their increased power. Provided the proper conditions are created, the adult is much better fitted than the child to measure his own progress. During the past year a most successful class has been conducted in an evening school where the students fully understood the teacher’s methods and cooperated with her in making them a success. It had been previously determined by the teacher, through careful experimentation, that the aver- age night school student could increase his vocabulary at the rate of about six new words a day, and could increase his capacity for correct usage by not more than two new problems of grammar or syntax. Just what this vocabulary would be was determined by a careful study of all the members of the class, with the help of the interpreters. Lessons of a theme char- acter were then prepared, incorporating that vocabulary. Members of a class prepared questions outside with which to test one another’s ability to use the acquired vocabulary in new combinations, and to test their own understanding of the idioms which the structural problems involved. ‘This selfcorrective intercourse was so stimulating that fear of losing the daily ap- portionment made the attendance on the class almost perfect, and where absence was necessary an effort was made to get the new lesson before returning. In the same way the students reported their increasing ability to make themselves understood in specific situations outside the classroom, and asked for assistance in saying correctly those things which they had said with difficulty. 5. To find a substitute for the play situation in which the children learn a language so easily is by far the most important point in the procedure and has to do with making the language a part of the individual, rather than an awkward tool whose use he can never learn. The problem is simple enough when it comes to the child. When a non- English speaking child enters the first grade it is entirely within the power of any teacher to remove his handicap and make him at home in the strange language. In the light of this fact it is unfortunate that so many children sit through one, two, and even three years of their school life understanding little or nothing of the activities which are taking place about them. Un- like the adult, in the beginning the child has no motive for learning English. His mother tongue has supplied all his wants up to the time he enters school. It is the business of the teacher to supply motive. She can do this only by creating a situation where he is desperately anxious to talk and where his mother tongue will not communicate his ideas. This is the play situation. Although the adult has all the motive for talking—his presence in the schoolroom being assurance of that—the classroom seldom supplies the stimulation which the toys and games can give the child, and the consequent self-forgetfulness is never achieved. So long as the English is used as an exercise for acquiring language facility the foreign adult will never get the “feel” of the language (sprachgefiihl), which is the essence of all real understanding. 522 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Just how this is to be accomplished with the adult is difficult to say. It comes nearer accomplishment in those schools which are highly social in character. I, myself, never saw it so well achieved as at one school where all the pupils were acting as host to the pupils of a neighboring school who had been invited, with their teachers, to spend the evening and visit classes. An effort was made to have each school interpret itself to the other school by the spontaneous expression of the student. The visitors were not only newcomers to the community, but to this country. All of them were young Greek boys, and their hosts were Italians. Each class in the school acting as host, had prepared a dramatization of some problem which its members had had on first coming to America, and they were bent upon pointing a way to their guests by which their own difficulties could be avoided. ‘This led to the Greek boys recounting some of their own experi- ences, particularly with regard to the problem of employment in which they had all had much the same misfortune. After such consultation it was agreed that both schools would set about to find ways by which these trying situations could be eliminated. The sympathetic sharing of experi- ence, and the new companionship, as well as the prospect for working to- gether, overcame many language difficulties while presenting language prob- lems for future solution. 6. When such an atmosphere can be created in the schoolroom it is not dificult to obtain a close relationship between the schoolroom and the community. It is in the achievement of this last aim that the implications of the fundamentals of adult education are carried. So long as the night school is merely a group of classrooms, organized ever so efficiently for the teaching of language, it has met only the smallest part of its public obligation. It is the business of the night school to create an environment in which the pupil can live an American life. It is often said of us that in spite of our effort to be a democracy, we have as yet organized no institu- tions which are training for democratic living. The most flagrant violation of this ideal is in our penal institutions, where we are rather training men and women to be good prisoners than to be good, responsible citizens. In a measure less obvious but none the less real, our evening school, although it claims to offer training for citizenship, seldom makes any contribution toward the greater participation of its students in American life. Three fundamental changes will be necessary before we can have this enlarged conception of the night school: 1. Citizenship can no longer be narrowly conceived as preparation for passing naturalization examinations. In many cases this has nothing to do with citizenship, whatever. The skill required to meet this test must be added after the student has become an American in everything but word. The ordinary naturalization class is the poorest place to train for citizenship. The students, strained to memorize all the required facts, are in no mood to be interested in the larger aspects of the question. It would be like asking a college student, on the day before his final examinations, to spend his time in drawing up a constitution of self-government for the student DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 923 body. The citizenship education in the night school should begin on the first night the pupil enters the school. 2. The content of the language education of the foreign adult, once he is beyond the very beginning stages, should cease to deal with trivial sug- gestions used for language exercises, and should concern itself with the larger ideas which are interesting to adult minds. 3. The night school teacher should have broader contact with the foreign people, on the one hand, and the American community, on the other. ‘To make specific the meaning of these three suggestions I shall have to draw my illustrations from California, because it is the only field with which I am sufficiently familiar. _ (1) In order to make the night school a less scholastic institution and to have it a real part of the life of its students, many of the schools in California have been organized as a club. This club undertakes all the responsibility of running the school. “The Cosmopolitan Club of Berkeley, which is now eight or nine years old, is one of the most successful organiza- tions of this type. Here the teachers and students are integral parts of the same body, each rendering the service for which he is most fitted. ‘There is a committee of the students on attendance, which follows up absentees and keeps strict report on the reasons for leaving school. ‘There is another committee on school activities, which has representatives from each class. This committee makes suggestions concerning new courses of study and keeps those courses which are in progress close to the interests of the student body. There is another committee on entertainments which, with a committee from the neighborhood, plans the Friday evening community night which has become a regular part of the club’s activities. Through the initiative of the club, the speakers on all important subjects have been obtained from the University and elsewhere. When a question directly relating to all of the men in the school is brought up, it is often necessary to have lectures in several languages. Every public occasion and holiday is utilized to the full, including those festivals and holidays belonging to the nations of the various countries represented. Other schools have more nearly realized within the school walls a sem- blance of the world outside by increasing their contacts and extending their services to groups which are not interested in the English and Citizenship classes. Millinery, sewing, cooking, drama, dances, and folk games of other countries, when properly organized as neighborhood activities rather than classes, make the school the important center of the life of a com- munity. The difficulty of most of this extension work in the past has been with the way it was set up. A class in dressmaking may be a woman’s sewing club or it may be merely a class run by a teacher. The spirit and the attendance wil quickly show which type any particular group represents. (2) As soon as the vocabulary of the foreigner is large enough to enable him to use his English for other things beside: the acquisition of more English, the class should concern itself as much with the content of English 924 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION as with the technique of modern language teaching. Whether it be speak- ing or reading or writing, both vocabulary and facility will grow through interest in the subject matter. In a large number of our night school classes, we find the intermediate and advanced groups spending their time reading Fifth Grade histories and Seventh Grade geographies, which are without interest to the adult. Here is the best opportunity in the night school for the use of the project method. Several interesting projects carried out in schools in California this year have proved their value not only as general education but as methods of teaching a language. One excellent history project came from a study of the life of Colum- bus. A school club, largely Italian, was interested in utilizing Columbus Day for one of its regular entertainments in order to show the bond between Italy and America. It was decided that a play would be given dramatizing important events in the life of Columbus and the discovery of America, in which each class would take its own part. The most ad- vanced class prepared the material which the beginning class carried out. In the other groups, committees were appointed who looked up particular events and reported on them, and after the study had been carried on for some time a play committee was selected to write a dramatization. History, geography, and citizenship were all taught by this project, as well as con- siderable understanding of the use of libraries for reference. Another project carried on by a country school began with interest in the problem of water supply for that district. This was an irrigated district to which the water had been brought many miles. The study of the principles of irrigation and the reasons for regulations wiped away a great deal of local dissatisfaction and led to an investigation of large projects, such as the Colorado River and even the Panama Canal. In the course of the study, comparisons were made of water supply in California and in the home country, and a splendid opportunity was made for a talk by the farm adviser on proper care of the land with reference to water. Beside the County Library, the students were forced to consult the State Library, the State Department of Agriculture, the University, and several depart- - ments at Washington, in order to understand the whole question. Some of the findings of this class which would be useful to all the farmers in the district were reported in the night school paper. The night school paper in a new form has become another valuable project in the language work. Whereas these papers once contained com- positions by the students, which no one but the students or his friends would be interested in reading, they now serve as a valuable text for classroom work, carrying items of interest to the whole community. This method of preparing their own reading material has been particularly valuable in the country. In fact, where a number of country schools are maintained under the same supervision, they have served as a medium of communication and have set up a friendly feeling between the various districts through which they are distributed. In another school district in the country, where taxes had become burden- DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 925 some and the thrifty Portuguese were rebelling, the class undertook a study of the uses to which their tax money was put. Without giving the details of the numerous heated discussions and consequent search for new facts, the total result of this effort was the carrying of school bonds after they had been lost in three previous elections. The Labor Movement for workers’ education in both England and America challenges the public school to reorganize the content of its adult education to matters which are more mature and which involve all of the present-day problems. When one visits a class of young Italian women in New York City, all of whom have been in this country but a few years, and finds them studying the history of the organization of society in order better to understand their own industrial relations, one is somewhat chagrined at the childish pabulum which the public schools are offering. If men and women want such education when they pay for it themselves, they undoubtedly will prefer it when it is furnished from public funds. (3) All of the problems of the night school are more nearly met when the night school’s relationship to the world outside is explicit as well as implicit. In California it has been possible to make that relationship more substantial through the employment of the full-time teacher of adult immi- grants, of whom there are now more than a hundred. So long as all of our immigrant education is done by teachers whose day schools are their prin- cipal profession, it will be difficult for the school to make sufficient contact with the outside world to make much impression on it, whether that world be the native America or the foreign community. Pactically every school district, whether it be the large city or the rural community, has the services of this interpreter of the school. Her first task is to know thoroughly the foreign-born people living within the radius of the school where she is employed. This means knowing large numbers of people in a friendly way, understanding the attitude of their leaders, and being accepted herself as a leader. In the second place, she knows the American community into which the foreign-born resident must ultimately be inducted. She understands conditions in the civil, political, and social life of that com- munity. She knows the forces which can be utilized in bringing about a closer union between the foreign-born and native-born. In the city districts this teacher is usually known as the home or Ameri- canization teacher. She has a definite assignment to one school... ‘There, she is responsible for organizing and teaching mother’s clubs and classes, for creating a more wholesome environment for the boys and girls above school age, and for organizing the night school. Many boys and girls of native parents are entirely uprooted from their social groups, because they have lost the respect for their home and hence belong to no nationality. ‘They are sorely in need of assistance and have been little considered in most citizenship programs. In many instances this teacher is also the principal of the night school, so that her daily contact through the neighbor- hood results in a well-attended school. 926 NATIONAL EpucaATION AssocIATION In the rural districts this teacher is employed by the high school which has in its union a large number of elementary schools, often at great distances from the high-school building. As ditector of immigrant educa- tion for the high school, the teacher is responsible for organizing an evening school in each elementary school in the high-school union where there is a large foreign population. Her territory is large and scattered, so that it is necessary that she make these local night schools as independent as possible and although she employs and supervises the teachers, she attempts to make the responsibility for the growth and development of the school rest upon the community. Whether in the country or in the city, through the effort of these teachers, a number of concrete accomplishments may be noted, all of which have contributed to vitalizing the night school and making it a part of the social life of its students. In one city, there has been organized a night school board which acts as an adviser to the city supervisor of immigrant educa- tion. ‘This board is made up of leaders of the various nationalities repre- sented in the city, and a number of the night-school principals. As a part of the general plan, many local schools have advisory boards which work with the principal. This board is made up of people from the neighbor- hood who can make useful suggestions concerning the night-school pro- gram, and representatives from each class in the school. The local boards are also represented on the city board. This has made a wonderful channel for the ideas and suggestions which the foreigner himself has to make about his own education. One such city advisory board arranged for a beautiful pageant of the nations. Because through their work during the year the foreign leaders had become better acquainted with their own groups than they had ever been before, and because the Americans knew where to turn for help, the finest display of old-world art was collected. More than that, artists and people with all kinds of special ability were discovered. The city is be- ginning through this effort to know itself. The night schools with this advisory board are given unusually interest- ing publicity in the foreign newspapers, because in a sense it is the foreigners themselves who are running the night schools. Another plan which has been found useful in bringing the night school students into touch with an American institution, has been the arrangement by which a local newspaper carries an article twice a week upon some im- portant item of current events, written in English which the foreigner can understand, about a subject in which he is interested. An effort is now being made to have these articles prepared each week by a different class and to have some member of the class take them to the newspaper office and make the arrangements. As all studies of methods of Americanization have pointed out that the best work is done by the foreign organizations themselves, the full-time Americanization teacher devotes considerable attention to strengthening the life of the native groups and giving those groups American contacts. DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION 927 In one place—this is particularly significant because the nationality is Mexican, a people generally believed to be hard to organize and uninter- ested in education—the local teacher was able to revive a society which had been inactive and was responsible for obtaining for the Mexican com- munity a church for which they were clamoring. After numerous efforts to have the church established for them, they built it themselves, devoting their Saturdays and Sundays to the work. As a result, they have a charm- ing stone edifice which would put to shame the ugly frame structures so often built in new countries by native Americans. After the church was built, a club house was undertaken for a meeting place for education classes. This club house is now in constant use. A well-baby clinic occupies it in the morning, mothers’ classes and club for young mothers meet in the after- noon and the recreational club activities for the younger Mexican boys use it in the evening. ‘The night school outgrew the club room and was moved to the school. The real reason for moving to the school, however, is interesting. The board of directors of the club said that non-club mem- bers should not be deprived of the opportunity for education, and although they were all welcome to the classes they would probably come to a school house more freely, since it belonged to everyone. In another school a Mexican club put up a building for the use of the school because the school house was too far for the women to walk. This again was undoubtedly due to the activities of the full-time Americaniza- tion teacher. One night-school principal has made it possible for the neighborhood to educate the school, as much as the school educates the neighborhood. ‘This principal has kept his evenings free so that he can maintain an information office for the neighborhood. With the help of the home teacher, he has advertised that the school will be an information service station to which anyone who cannot speak English and needs help may come. Thousands of people have come to him for every sort of assistance. A record is made of the questions that are asked him and this is used in his upper classes as the text for their citizenship work. As far as possible he utilizes people of the neighborhood to solve the difficulties, thus increasing their own inde- pendence. Almost every social and civic organization in the city has been called upon at some time for assistance and in consequence the school is well known far and wide. The most complete example of using the adult immigrant education forces for community organization is found in one neighborhood in Los Angeles. Here the school appointed one teacher who was to work out a plan of civic education which would reach a much larger number than are ever inveigled into attending night-school classes. On a theory that the best type of civic education comes from engaging in a civic activity, the teacher set about to discover some activity of that sort in which the people would be interested. In order to inform herself and to know what was necessary about their interests, she spent six weeks in studying her neighbor- hood. She interviewed more than 100 people who had some position of 928 NatTIONAL EpucaTion ASssocIATION leadership, as well as making friends-with countless others from whom she got some expression of opinion. In the end, she discovered that a large number of people wanted to read books and papers in their own language without going to the public library in the center of the city. As an initial effort, therefore, she had a committee of the leaders call together the whole neighborhood to undertake obtaining a library. All of the steps in the process, from circulating petitions to the final interview with the city librarian and the city council, were taken by the people them- selves. Offers were made in the neighborhood to supply the necessary attendants and thus a young woman was discovered who had formerly been a librarian in the city of Prague, at this time working in a shirtwaist factory, who was glad of the opportunity to renew her contact with books. The building used was a small house on a city playground, and the equipment was built in by the neighborhood carpenters. In spite of the skepticism of many in authority during the first half year after it was installed, this library had the largest circulation of any deposit station in the city. What the people had worked for they were glad to use. The solidarity of the people brought about by working together for a common cause made possible many later achievements. At one time committees canvassed the neighborhood for talent, listing everyone who claimed to be able to do anything by way of entertainment. As a result of this survey came a drama club, an orchestra, and a chorus. The drama club has since been able to finance other activities of the neigh- borhood association. In two ways, after a year and a half of substantial growth, the organization showed its strong civic character. At one time there was a plan to remove the playground which had developed under the protection of the neighborhood organization. . Wy curd. ‘oe? ‘cal , ‘ i ’ "Mest thee ? viel wetk 2 7) ; _—— vacate tie Lye tt eee neil a Picke ad et : cs he ear. iJ tor tae az Teer Py 19 ‘ “% ~ * rite \ ‘Xe pan 1a iisercy . - 4 ¥ i i atSON A Deed ure 2, : reel Oe ‘ snes T, iT] t a v2 wie: : i+ Pol@iicd§ che = ? Sb. ne ’ eee ST) eee id | ~ el y- belly * F, +4 -= ‘ 5 Lyi 3 vile a Library Department SECRETARY’S MINUTES OFFICERS President-——SuERMAN Wrutxiams, Chief of School Libraries Division, Department of Educa- Taye: wwe Miao Ro rtarc Aono iS Sab op dirs OCU ctor oc cot ig CuOLMORsGS aid Ce Albany, N. Y. Vice-President—Gract D. Rost, Public Library........-+e-eeeeeeerrereees Des Moines, lowa Secretary-Treasurer—Marcaret EF. Envy, Public Library........2---seseecoeress Chicago, Ill. BOSTON MEETING The Library Department of the National Education Association held its annual meeting at Boston with the Association, July 5-7, 1922. There were three after- noon assemblies, July 5, 6, and 7. At these the following programs were given: Wednesday Afternoon, July 5, 1922 How SHALL ADEQUATE LIBRARY SERVICE BE ESTABLISHED Wuere Ir Is Nor Now DEVELOPED? (a) IN THE ScHooL—Martha C. Pritchard, Teachers’ College, Detroit, Mich. (b) In THE Locatity—Sarah B. Askew, Public Library Commission, Trenton, N27 J: (c) In THE NaTion—Joy E. Morgan, Washington, D. C. Lrpraries AND RurAL ScHoots—Florence M. Hale, Augusta, Maine. THE CONSOLIDATED RuRAL ScHooL Lisrary—Ruth E. Drake, Chazy, N. Y. Lrpraries AND LipRARIANS—Sherman Williams, Albany, NGEYS Thursday Afternoon, July 6, 1922 How THe Liprary HELPS THE FOREIGNER TO Make His AMERICAN CONTRIBUTION— Ernestine Rose, New York, N. Y. EFFECTIVE CoOPERATION BETWEEN THE PUBLIC LipRARY AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOL— Bertha M. McConkey, Springfield, Mass. Tue Darcy NEWSPAPER IN ScHoor—O. 8. Rice, Madison, Wis. Tue Spirit oF LisRARY SERVICE—Mrs. Edward Carter, Port Arthur, Texas. Srory-TELLING, ITs RELATION TO LITERARY ApprecIATION—Edith C. Parker, Buf- falo, N. Y. Tue Pupits’? CONTRIBUTION TO THE SUCCESS OF THE ScHooL Lisrary—Mary E. Hall, Brooklyn, N. Y. Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1922 Joint Session with National Council of Teachers of English Books For Boys—A. B. de Mille, Winthrop Highlands, Mass. OPPORTUNITIES IN JUNIOR H1GH SCHOOL Worx—Laura Grover Smith, Los Angeles, Calif. Tue STIMULATION OF HOME Reapinc—Helen Cosgrove, New York, N. Y. TRAINING FOR SCHOOL LiprariANs—Ruth Tobey, Terre Haute, Ind. Tue Cuitp’s Own Reapinc—Frederic G. Melcher, New York, N. Y. Liprary Work IN NorMAL SCHOOLS TO Fir STUDENTS FoR THEIR Work IN 'TEACH- 1nc—Mary E. Richardson, State Normal School, Geneseo, N. Y. [987] 988 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION A library luncheon was held at the Hotel Vendome on Thursday. At this there were a number of five-minute talks on library topics. The luncheon was followed by a social hour of general discussion of individual problems. : ’ There was an attendance of about 150 at each meeting, general discussion fol- lowed the papers when time allowed, and there was opportunity for interchange of ideas among librarians and teachers present. At the business meeting preceding the July meeting the officers: for the next year were elected. They were as follows: President, Martha C. Pritchard, ‘Teachers College, Detroit, Mich.; Vice-President, Mrs. Edward Carter, Port Arthur, Texas; Secretary-Treasurer, Della Frances Northey, State House, Indianapolis, Ind. The Library Department organized as to membership this year and now has a total of 181 members. Any member of the National Education Association or em- ployee of institution which is a member of the National Education Association may join the Library Department on payment of a fee of 50 cents. HOW SHALL ADEQUATE PUBLIC LIBRARY SERVICE BE ESTABLISHED WHERE NONE NOW EXISTS IN THE NATION? JOY E. MORGAN, MANAGING EDITOR OF THE “JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION,” WASHINGTON, D. C. It is to the things that have not been done rather. than to achievements of the past that this subject points. It is not necessary to review the splen- did ideals of the men and women who founded the free public library in America or to describe the wonderful service which notable libraries are rendering their communities. It is not necessary to review the work of the American Library Association during the War, although it constituted National recognition of the importance of library service. Neither is it necessary to evaluate the standards that have been set by library organiza- tions for school and public libraries. These are significant achievements. They point to a time when the Nation will face the problem of making library service genuinely universal as it has faced the task of making elementary education universal. Under our system of government the control of education is placed en- tirely in the hands of the States. Yet there is not a single State in the Union which does not have compulsory school attendance. This highly desirable result has been achieved by force of example and by the publicity which has been given comparative studies in education. Compulsory school attendance without free library service is an absurdity. The one implies the other. It is for the library to conserve the high purpose and the ideals of work and life which schools exist to create. Possibly the public school makes a more direct appeal to the community than does the public library because it deals daily with the children of the community. But, looking at the matter broadly in the light of the complexity of our life, the public school is hardly more essential to the perpetuity of our National ideals than is the public library. The amount of education that can be given during a brief period of eight or even twelve years is too small to guarantee effective citizenship. These years can only lay foundations. The Nation LipraAaRy DEPARTMENT 989 cannot afford not to build upon these foundations. Maintained intelligence is no longer a luxury for the individual, for the community, for the State, or for the Nation. Our political, social, industrial, commercial, and eco- nomic life all require a sympathetic understanding of current happenings and a mastery of the sources of reliable information vastly greater than has been necessary in years gone by. According to every indication the future will demand maintained intelli- gence even more sternly than has the past. The demand for intelligence is implied in the new world leadership that has come to America in the years since the War. It is implied in the enlarging use of the automatic machine which results in a rapidly increas- ing leisure. It is implied in perfected means of communication and trans- portation. Merely to mention the telephone, the motion picture, the talk- ing machine, the automobile, the airplane, and radio is to suggest the vast extent of the new forces that are playing upon our boys and girls, that are transforming the lives of adults, that are calling for increasing mastery of ‘nformation and surer educational backgrounds for the great mass of the people. ‘These inventions and those that are certain to follow promise for the common man and woman opportunities and responsibilities that but a short time ago were the exclusive privilege of royalty. Unless the energy of the human race is to be dissipated in frivolity and fruitless over- stimulation the common man and woman must be equipped to live, must be trained to earn and to demand the finer and better things of life. The key to these things is education and the door thereto is the library. No other single educational agency has in proportion to its cost greater undeveloped possibilities than the free public library. The standard set by the American Library Association calls for a dollar per capita as a reasonable expenditure for public library service. This would require over a hundred million dollars for the Nation. The latest figures available indicate that less than twenty million dollars is being spent for such service. In other words, a great public service which at so slight a cost may be made to touch and quicken every phase of community life and activity has been developed to less than one fifth of its reasonable efficiency. ‘There are vast areas that have not known the benefits of the free library; there are thousands of communities which have libraries that carry the name without administering in any effective way to the dynamic interests of the com- munity. ‘There are city libraries that do certain types of work surprisingly well, but which are so limited in funds that they are able merely to scratch the surface of their educational opportunities. The American public library will not have reached its full development until its service is as universal and as near at hand as the grocery store and the motion picture hall. To bring about such a development is not only a local problem and a State problem ; it is a National problem. The social, economical, industrial, and political bonds which unite our several States grow stronger year by year. The division of powers between States and Nation has proved generally wise and as applied to education it may be expected to continue. The educational leadership of the Nation 990 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION is overwhelmingly committed against Federal control of education. It is equally overwhelmingly committed: to frank and full recognition of the responsibility of the Nation for the education of its citizenship. “The Nation cannot control education, but it must encourage education. Only through such encouragement can it improve the quality of its citizenship and protect itself from the destroying influence of ignorance and super- stition. The legislative program of the National Education Association as em- bodied in the Towner-Sterling Bill has brought forth much discussion of the Nation’s responsibility for education. Men who are familiar with the situation at Washington are confident that it is only a matter of time until the essential provisions of the Towner-Sterling Bill will be enacted into law. Perhaps before we are aware education will have primary recog- nition in the President’s Cabinet, and there will be Federal subventions to encourage the States in the improvement of certain phases of education. It may take a vear, it may take two years to bring about this achievement, but when it comes we shall wonder why so important a responsibility was not sooner assumed by the Federal Government. When education receives primary recognition in the Cabinet of the President, there will follow a period of reorganization of the educational activities of the Nation. The divisions and activities of the new Depart- ment of Education will be defined. When that time comes the librarians of the Nation must be ready to act. “They must be ready to present to the Secretary of Education a program for the Federal encouragement of libraries. ‘The library forces must have agreed upon the basic principles that underlie such a program of library development and must have a com- mittee of men and women who stand solidly for those principles and who are free to work for them. Such a committee could enlist in behalf of its program the support of many organizations throughout the Nation and of many leading citizens who stand ready to do battle in behalf of public education. Such a committee would, in the first place, need carefully to define its scope in order to avoid activities and ramifications that would dissipate its energy and influence. Such a committee should be charged with the single and responsible task of determining what measures the National Govern- ment should take to encourage the development by the States of genuinely universal free public library service in charge of professional or trained librarians. Questions of technique, of management, and of organization within the library and within the State should be held in abeyance. “They will find ready solution when the first and larger problem has been met. The libraries which are directly maintained by the Federal Government should not come within the jurisdiction of such a committee. “They con- stitute a separate problem, no more related to the primary problem of uni- versal library service than West Point is related to elementary public edu- cation. Having defined its scope, the committee might well consider what meas- ures should be undertaken by the Federal Government to encourage uni- Liprary DEPARTMENT 991 versal library service and how the Government may best be induced to undertake those measures. Two possible activities of the Federal Government with relation to libraries are investigation and Federal subventions for their encouragement. Section 5 of the Towner-Sterling Bill provides for investigation in speci- fied fields, including (a) illiteracy, (4) immigrant education, (c) public school education, (d) physical education, (e) preparation of teachers, (f) higher education, (g) such other fields as in the judgment of the Secretary of Education may require attention and study. Free public libraries should also be specified. Perhaps this change can be brought about before the bill is reported out by the committee. The importance of having libraries specified lies in the fact that the items specifically mentioned in the bill would first receive consideration by the Secretary of Education as a possible basis for the organization of his department into divisions. There should certainly be a division of libraries charged with the responsibility for the investigation of problems relating to the development, financing, organization, and administration of libraries in the various States and localities. This field has been so greatly neg- lected that there is not in Washington a single trained library worker devoting himself to the investigation of the basic problems of public library extension. Such systematic investigations as have been made have been conducted by persons not trained for the task and not primarily interested in public library development. It is not possible to estimate the enormous loss to education that has resulted from the failure of the Government to bring persistently to the attention of the Nation the best library experience of the various States and localities. Neither is it possible to estimate the impetus that would come to libraries in consequence of the studies that might be made by the Federal Government. ‘That the influence of such studies would be great is indicated by results that have been achieved in other fields of public activity where careful investigations have been made by experts. Having pointed out the function of the library as an agency for insuring intelligent citizenship, the Federal Government should assume its share of the burden. It should encourage the States in the promotion of libraries by means of subventions or grants of Federal aid. ‘The arguments in favor of such subventions are based on the same precedents and needs as the arguments in favor of Federal aid for the removal of illiteracy, the Amer- icanization of foreign-born, physical education, the training of teachers, and the equalization of educational opportunity. In fact it is possible, even probable, that a part of the money appropriated for these other objects would be used by the several States for the promotion of libraries, particularly in the promotion of the work of libraries in Americanization. However, the library is so distinctly a separate institution charged with a unique function in the scheme of education that it should receive separate recognition and encouragement. Such encouragement need not be large— possibly a million dollars annually at first—but its ultimate effect would 992 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION probably be greater than that of any similar amount spent by the Federal Government. These are the two most important problems that would logically come before a committee charged with the development of free public libraries on a national scale. Having stated them clearly and having gathered ample facts and precedents, the committee would be in a position to state its conclusions and to enlist in support of its program the organized ‘librarianship of the Nation, along with educational and civic organizations generally. ‘The free public library has always made a strong appeal to citizens of unusual public spirit. America has produced no institution more characteristic of its demo- cratic spirit. ‘The free library stands for equalized opportunity for main- tained intelligence. It stands for good citizenship and for all the best in life. It represents the spirit of freedom that founded America. It is a fitting memorial to the Nation’s self-made men who frequently through books have caught the spark of inspiration that has been the soul of their leadership. The library can magnify manyfold the influence of the ele- mentary school, the high school, and the university. As librarians, as edu- cators let us point with just pride to our great libraries in city and in university, let us point also to those other great libraries that are serving people in the small towns and on the farms, but let us not forget the tens of millions of men and women—often in isolated places—who in vain wait for the inspiration and the guidance that more fortunate ones enjoy. Let us not in our own plenty pass by on the other side. LIBRARIES AND RURAL SCHOOLS FLORENCE M. HALE, AUGUSTA, MAINE In 500 of the one and two-room rural schools of Maine we have School Improvement Leagues comprised of parents, teachers, and pupils working together for school improvements, notably school equipment. ‘Through this organization permanent libraries have been started in many of the schools and good books added from time to time. Perhaps the greatest help our rural schools have received in the line of library facilities is the splendid system of traveling libraries which exists in our State. While we are waiting for a library to be established permanently in each way place, this travelling library is helping to educate a whole generation of country children in the love of good books. The travelling library idea in our State had its beginnings in the minds of some of our progressive club women who saw the need of making good books accessible to the people of the way places and to the children of the rural communities. In 1899, twenty-one such travelling libraries were made a part of the State Library equipment and were sent out at request over the State. In 1914 the calls had been so insistent that 171 sets were necessary to fill ees and last year 581 such sets were sent out from the State Library. I could Liprary DEPARTMENT 993 spend a much longer time than is available for this whole paper in describing the many lines of community service which these travelling libraries have rendered, but I must keep closely to my particular subject of the rural schools. In passing, however, I must say that one of the largest calls - for these libraries, according to the library organizer in charge of them, is in the remote lumber camps of the State. Another feature of travelling library service that may prove suggestive to other workers in this field is the benefit that has been wrought by plac- ing the travelling libraries in summer resorts. Each book bears the stamp of the State Travelling Library and in this way news of the work is spread. Summer visitors have become interested and in some communities these summer people have maintained library stations for the use of residents in the winter time and have made it possible for several rural schools to have travelling libraries of their own. In one fishing village where the village and the schools have thus been enabled to secure the best kind of reading matter, the State librarian tells me that this broadening influence of good books has resulted directly in the starting of a forward movement and in the development of a community spirit. “The Maine Federation of Women’s Clubs and the Colonial Dames each year give a considerable amount of money which is to be given to remote schools selected by the State Department of Education and the State librarian working together. The plan of the travelling library for rural schools is as follows. ‘There are in the State Library different sets of books available for schools. In each set there are fifty volumes. Printed lists of the titles of books in each set are sent out upon application. ‘The school may select from these lists the set whose titles most attract the pupils and teachers. A fee of $2.50 is required to obtain the library of 50 books—or 5 cents apiece. ‘This fee includes all charges of packing, expressage, and the like, and the library may be kept six months and renewed upon request. “The books are care- fully selected for listing—there is a “juvenile” list which covers the needs of the ordinary rural school—there is the so-called “children’s” list especially appropriate for young children. ‘Then there is the rural high- school list made up about as foliows: books dealing with history 10— science 10—English 10—fiction, poetry, drama 10—miscellaneous (war books, sociology, biography, travel). In putting up the matter of the service of the travelling library to our last legislature in the hope of securing increased financial aid, our State organizer in speaking of the school demand said, ‘““While we have been able to supply nearly all types of demands with a slight wait on the part of the applicant we have been totally unable to cope with the demand on the part of the teachers of rural schools who clamor for the juvenile sets for the children in their charge. Last spring saw thirty of these applica- tions unfilled owing to the lack of books. For example on June | there were on file 12 applications for these sets for September use and as the bulk of our demand comes in October there were certain to be many dis- appointments. Three or four years ago these sets sent out to the rural 994 NatTIoNAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION schools did not in fouf times out equal in book circulation what they do at present after having been out only twice.” You will be glad to note that in response to this appeal, the 80th Legislature recognized the value of the work of extending library facilities to the remotest corners of the State by appropriating $20,000 for the work of this extension department alone. Another valuable service to our rural schools of the travelling library idea is the professional library for rural teachers themselves. This con- sists of sets of twenty-five volumes each of the best professional books avail- able and is obtained by the payment of $1.25 per set of twenty-five and may be kept six months. It is a common custom for several teachers in a rural community to unite in obtaining one of these sets and then by ex- changing. The cost of reading the best books in their field becomes, in this way, nominal only. Where the teachers do not themselves have such a set, it is the custom of some of our rural superintendents of schools to keep a set of these professional books constantly on hand and as they drive from school to school to leave one with each teacher. On the next visit these books are simply exchanged from teacher to teacher and thus the good work goes on. If any of you sometimes believe that the days of Lincoln when one good book was a precious possession are days wholly of the past, I wish you might have my place some day as I ride about over the rocky hills of Maine with these earnest young superintendents and see the joy of many a rural teacher in little schools, sometimes ten and fifteen miles from a railroad, when the superintendent passes her the one new book. One such teacher said to me, “I just look forward to Superintendent B’s visit, because I know he’ll always bring me some fine book.” From our State library any rural school may also obtain post-card col- lections, victrola records, or any single desired volume upon payment of postage only. The above are some of the ways in which rural supervisors and librarians are working together for the love of good books and the inspiration that they bring. In closing, as one outside of the immediate field of expert library workers, I must express to you the appreciation of the school work- ers for the great service you are rendering to education throughout the country. “The increasing movement for trained library workers in every community is one of the most hopeful movements for community spirit and character building of this generation. In my own State, our State Librarian, Dr. Dunnack, and his force are considered an indispensable part of our educational system. Much of the success of the travelling library movement which I have herein described is due to his vision and to the executive ability of the travelling library organizer, Miss Stewart, from whom I have obtained the figures used in this study. Let us then, long-time lovers of good books, our unfailing friends, continue to work hopefully together to spread the inspiration of such friendship to those way places of the earth so remote that oftentimes human comfort and help- fulness may not always be at hand. Lrprary DEPARTMENT _ 995 THE CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOL LIBRARY RUTH B. DRAKE, LIBRARIAN OF THE CHAZY CENTRAL RURAL SCHOOL, CHAZY, CLINTON COUNTY, NEW YORK Education is our greatest rural problem today for upon the boys and girls attending rural schools rests the responsibility of making country- life the solid foundation for future democracy. ‘The consolidated rural school movement, which is rapidly becoming national in scope, proves the significance of the centralization of educational facilities in relation to the community, State, and Nation. A well-equipped and well-selected library plays an active and an im- portant part in the life of the rural school. The time is approaching when each State will consider such a department an indispensable feature of every consolidated school. ‘The librarian in charge, trained in educational as well as library methods, will be employed for full-time and possess a status equal to that maintained by the head of any other recognized school department. To be thoroughly efficient she will portray not only a love for and understanding of childhood, but a genuine interest in rural life and an eagerness to share in the solving of its problems. A committee of the National Education Association has prepared a valuable report, ““The Standard Library Organization and Equipment for Secondary Schools,” and is, | understand, now working on a similar report for elementary schools. A guide to the standard library organization and equipment for consolidated rural schools would be extremely timely and useful, and I hope this matter may be taken into consideration at the present meeting. The organization of a library in the modern rural school has its peculiar problems. Since the consolidated school usually registers children of grade and high school ages, the library must combine elementary and secondary features and serve as a book laboratory for the entire school. Perhaps a brief outline of the methods employed in a model rural school in New York State, which methods could be adapted for use in the average con- solidated school, may be of interest. In the school under consideration, a reading-room, centrally located on the first floor of the main building, is open each school day from 8:30 a.m. until 4 p.m. ‘This is equipped with a professional library for the teachers, an adequate reference collec- tion for upper grade and high-school use, current periodicals of general and departmental interest, and a carefully selected elementary library. Tables and chairs are provided sufficient to accommodate at one time one- fourth of the total school attendance. “Io supplement the book collection, slides, pictures, and clippings are featured. A combination stack and work- room adjoins the reading-room. “Library periods” for pupils in the elementary department are considered a part of the regular school curriculum, each class spending an entire period weekly in the library according to schedule. A corner of the read- ing-room reserved for the youngest patrons 1s made as alluring as possible 996 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION by the arrangement of a fascinating collection of selected pictures and posters as well as books. Children in the first two grades assemble in small groups around a low table especially constructed for their use and the librarian not only assists them to an appreciation of the attractive picture-books and primers but instructs them in the proper care and handling of books. Soon after entering school they are able to sense, to a certain extent, the “library atmosphere.” Grades three to eight, inclusive come to the library weekly by classes during school hours where they receive ‘nstruction in the use of books and libraries, do any reference work previously assigned by their teachers, obtain a book a week for home reading, and look at the current magazines and papers. The selection of all books is supervised by the librarian who aims not only to create a love of reading and a taste for the best in literature but to induce a choice of books from which the readers may derive profit and inspiration as well as pleasure. ‘The librarian’s familiarity with the school curriculum and coéperation with the teachers make it possible to help the pupils select books which directly supplement the work of the classroom. It is hoped that this correlation brightens the daily routine and broadens the youthful vision. In working out the plan with grade pupils, it has not yet been found desirable to give school credit for home reading, though the Youngstown’ (Ohio) plan is followed to the extent that every pupil is required to submit reports on books read. This information is valuable for, thereby, the. librarian not only obtains the child’s viewpoint on his reading but also has on file a complete and accurate record of the type of literature read by each individual. Reading circles are encouraged, and certificates issued by the State Department of Education are granted to those who have satis- factorily completed the reading of a definite number of approved books. Vacation reading is possible since the library is open one afternoon a week during the summer months for the use of all pupils who care to take ad- vantage of the opportunity. It has been found that a centralized library for the grades in the con- solidated rural school is as important, if not more important, than the high- school library. If children in the early years are not educated to ap- preciate the possibilities of self-advancement through the use of the library and do not have the preliminary training which introduces them to the public library as a means of continuing their education after leaving school, they are deprived of one of the richest endowments of life. Since many children in the rural districts leave school before they reach the high-school age, an opportunity for specialized library training must be presented to them before the completion of the elementary course. | ‘Teachers do not have time to take charge of classroom libraries since their programs are usually filled to the brim. For the same reason, the children do not have an opportunity to satisty their love of reading during school hours. On account of the fact that the majority of them are transported to and from 1 Wheeler, J. L. Home Reading with School Credit. Library Journal, Septem- ber 1, 1920. v. 45, pp. 679-682. Lisprary DEPARTMENT 997 their homes in busses which leave promptly at the closing hour, it is not possible for them to linger after school in the classrooms to choose or enjoy their books. If they go to specialists for their music, art work, or gymnastic training, why is it not as necessary to go to a specialist for so important an accomplishment as reading! _ High-school pupils are permitted to use the library before and after school and during school hours whenever they have a free period and wish to do reference work, read, or glance at the daily papers and current maga- zines. Standard reference books and a well-balanced collection of works pertaining to literature, fine arts, industrial arts, household arts, science, agriculture, travel, history, and biography are provided. The librarian selects with care each year volumes necessary to keep the library thoroughly up-to-date, so that it may meet the increasing demands of teachers and pupils. Material aid is given in the compilation of supplementary reading lists and the reservation of books on special topics to be discussed in the classroom. College and university catalogues are on file for the use of those students contemplating higher education. Vocational books, covering all fields, are available, so that pupils desiring to train for a special trade or profession may obtain practical assistance. As a special feature of the work with the English Department, instruc- tion is given in the use of books and libraries and a limited number of pupils showing adaptability for literary work are allowed to help in the library after completing a short apprentice course. ‘They are able to render valuable service to the librarian in the matter of shelving books, mending, and the mechanical preparation of books for the shelves. In this way it is possible for the librarian to have whatever assistance she needs in order to accomplish the daily routine of her department. The pupils also derive much benefit from the experience. The library not only serves the pupils of the school but also the ad- ministrative officers, teaching staff and other employees connected with the institution. School laws, blue-print drawings of school buildings and grounds, and periodicals, such as The American School Board Journal, are on file for the use of the Board of Education. ‘The principal calls on the library for catalogues of other schools, professional books and journals, educational reports and proceedings and publishers’ catalogues from which trade information may be obtained concerning textbooks which may be ordered for school use. Educational journals, as well as books are provided for the teachers so that they may find it easy to inform themselves of modern tendencies which concern their profession and read for profit as well as for pleasure. “The resources of the library are intro- duced to each member of the faculty individually. Since the consolidated school is, in many instances, the center of the community, the library has an unusual opportunity to exert its influence. While it is not advisable, especially in localities which support public libraries, to allow the public to use the school library, it is possible to reach the community through the children. The school library should be a 998 NatioNAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION stepping-stone to the public library, and members of the younger generation, if properly trained to know and appreciate books will, in the future, de- mand adequate library service for their communities. Through the in- fluence of the library, National community honor and loyalty are fostered and deepened and through the inspiration of books it is possible to create a living faith in country life, such as Norman Gale so beautifully portrays: Here in the country’s heart where the grass is green, Life is the same sweet life it e’er hath been, Trust in God still lives; and the bell at morn Tolls with the thought of God o’er the rising corn, God comes down in the rain and the crops grow tall, This is the Country Faith—and ‘the best of all. LIBRARIES AND LIBRARIANS SHERMAN WILLIAMS, CHIEF OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES DIVISION, DEPARTMENT 3 OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, NEW YORK In a democracy like ours in the long run public opinion is certain to con- trol, therefore it is of the utmost importance that we have an intelligent public. It is not enough that it be honest, well intentioned, and proper spirited. It is not enough that the people are unselfish, that they love their neighbors as themselves. It is not enough that they possess all the virtues of humanity and none of its vices, if they are not intelligent. It is not enough that they mean well. They must be intelligent enough to be able to act well. It is proper that people be taught arithmetic, history, geography, and other subjects usually studied in school, but all this may be done and the people still not be intelligent in regard to the relations that should exist among men regarding what should be done or avoided to secure general welfare in homes, communities, and States, and to the betterment of humanity generally. To bring this about the people must in some way come to have a fair general understanding of elementary social science. It will be a long time before our schools will accomplish this very fully. What should be done in the meantime? Our pupils should be trained to form the reading habit, and led to make use of a public library in order that their after-school education may par- tially make good what they failed to acquire in school. It is well to try to see that all are well educated while in school, that every one has at least a good high school course, but ‘we all know that the possibility of bringing this about belongs to the somewhat remote future. We know that the great majority of pupils will never graduate from a high school. We know that a majority will leave school and go to work quite early in life. We know that they may, and that many will, take an active part in governmental affairs. We should see to it that they realize that their schooling is very meager and that they should continue their education as long as they live. “They Lisrary DEPARTMENT ; Doo will do this anyway; they can hardly avoid it. But the kind of education they will secure will depend upon the make-up of the individuals and upon circumstances and conditions. “The newspapers will be an important ele- ment in their education, but they are of necessity hastily written, and are more or less superficial. ‘There is not time to make them otherwise. Magazines that are published only once a month can, and usually do, give their writers time to prepare articles with considerable care; but even these cannot compare with books written by those who have taken months and often years to prepare themselves for their work, some giving the results of a lifetime of study and observation. We should so train children that they may know where to go for the best books on all subjects and to have a desire for the best. All the agencies mentioned are important. We must rely upon newspapers for matters of local interest, for a hasty glance at the affairs of the world. One must rely upon magazines for a fuller treatment of matters of immediate inter- est than newspapers can give. But it is through books alone that we may have the best thought of the world on matters of enduring interest. We need to keep clearly in mind that ours is not primarily a department of school librarians, or public librarians, but an organization that is de- voted to the task of making it possible for every one in our land to have easy access to a free library. Whether this be done through school libraries, public libraries, State libraries, county libraries, traveling libraries, or any combination of such libraries, is for each State, county, or locality to de- termine for itself. We should hold tenaciously to the general proposition that some provision should be made whereby every one may have easy access to books, leaving each State, or locality, to determine the methods best adapted to its conditions. It is important that the relations between the school and public libraries be clearly understood, not merely by librarians and library trustees, but by the general public as well. It is not at all clear that they are understood today. Until those relations are understood there will be more or less working at cross purposes, and more or less confusion in the mind of the general public. Let us at the outset try to recognize that the school and public libraries are the two parts of a whole, and while each may help the other, and should do so as far as may be practicable, that neither can do in a satisfactory manner the work of the other. ‘The problems that each has to deal with are quite distinct from those of the other. The school library deals, or should deal, chiefly with children, while the public library should be most concerned with adults or pupils who are approaching adult age. “This does not mean that the school library may not sometimes properly provide to some extent for the adults in the dis- trict, or that the public library may not do some very effective work with children, but that in the main the school library should confine its interest to children, and the public library to those who have finished the common school course. The school library has for its main work that which is a teaching propo- 1000 ~~ NatronaL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION sition. It is to train the children to love to read that which is worth while. This it is possible for the school to do. It is not possible for the public library to do it to any considerable extent. Taking the country as a whole it is not probable that one half the children, while attending school, ever go to a public library, and certainly the public library cannot do much for those who never go to it. If the children all went to the public library the librarians ‘would be utterly overwhelmed. ‘There would be a great lack of librarians, room, and books. All the children go to school. ‘They have to do so, therefore it is at least possible to reach them there. In the schools there is room for them all, and teachers for all. There is time to do the work that should be done. It is quite feasible to give the children the training needed to lead them to acquire a love for good reading. ‘There is no lack of teachers for this work, though there is a lack of teachers who have had the right kind of training for it, and it is likely to continue as long as there are very many people who think and say that this work can be done by the public library, a work that it cannot possibly do, as has been shown. When the public library attempts this it not only fails, but to a considerable extent it hinders the school from ac- complishing the work that it might easily do. What is the work of the school library? Primarily to act as a feeder for the public library, through training children to love to read that which ‘s worthwhile so that they will make use of the public library both for pleasure and for instruction as long as they live. It should train the pupils so that they will know how to use the public library intelligently, inci- dentally it should train the children to use a library to supplement the study of geography, history, English, science, and other subjects taught in school. To say just how this work should be done is outside the province of this paper. Library and educational journals, and addresses at educational meetings, suggest any number of devices for doing such work. As to which device is best depends upon many varying conditions, teachers, fa- cilities for doing the work, public sentiment, and other matters. We cer- tainly must have clearly in mind what the outcome of such work ought to be, for without it we cannot make any real headway. There should be a sufficient number of public libraries so that there may be one within reasonable distance of every one. ‘These libraries should be supported by public tax the same as the public schools because they are free educational institutions. Public libraries are the only institutions that can satisfactorily serve as continuation schools for any considerable number of people. They furnish the only school for the adult immigrant that is open to any considerable number of them. It is only through the public libraries that the great majority of adult immigrants can become acquainted with our history, our government, our ideals, our hopes, our desires, and our ambitions. Only those who know these fairly well can really become Americanized. What is the work that the public library should do? First, it may aid the school library, which seldom has enough books. ‘The public library Lrprary DEPARTMENT 1001 may relate itself closely to the school library and the school librarian. It may loan books to the school library. It may send members of its staff to the school now and then to talk about public libraries and their use. It may through its wide experience suggest to teachers books worth read- ing, books for themselves and for the children. ‘Chere may well be held from time to time joint meetings of teachers and librarians to discuss mat- ters in which they should have a common interest. It may make pupils feel at home when they first begin to use the public library. HOW THE PUBLIC LIBRARY HELPS THE FOREIGNER MAKE HIS AMERICAN CONTRIBUTION ERNESTINE ROSE, NEW YORK CITY My paper is conceived from this angle and in this spirit. A suggested new coin for America: on one side, the Statue of Liberty, in one hand a book, in the other a cake of soap; on the other side, a line of stoop-shouldered immigrants with burdens on their backs. We have considered what “Liberty” typifying America thinks of these immigrant figures—what she has to offer them. Let us consider now what they think of America, what they have to offer her. On these con- siderations hangs, to great extent, the future of our country. Its base is Anglo-Saxon, but the superstructure will be Mid, Eastern, and Southern European—that is, New York is made up of foreign cities; Poles and Germans in middle West; Jews in every line of life and effort. Politics, commerce, music, and art are permeated by “foreign” influence. What then have these races to offer? What is expected of a loyal citizen? Honesty in work, obedience to law, an intelligent vote, his sword in time of war. Are these all? More subtle qualities of devotion, generosity in civic life, constructive expressions of individuality, self-sacrifice, courageous adherence to ideals, all these helped to make America. Are the immigrants giving her these qualities? ‘That they have them to give, the artistic life and wonderfully constructed civilization of Europe testify. If they are not offered to America, we must ask, ‘““Has America given opportunity to the immigrant for the development of these qualities?” What are the institutions interpreting America to the immigrant? ‘They include: (a) Church, often foreign ; (b) Police court; (c) School; and (d) Library. The school is thought of as the most universally efficient American agency. But less than ten per cent of children go beyond the grammar grades, and less than two per cent go to college. Moreover, school does not touch the older immigrant. The library is the most uni- versal and democratic public institution in potentiality. It makes no distinctions and erects no bars of race, color, creed, or age. The New York Public Library, where my experience has been, is typical. Consider three branch libraries there: Webster Branch in the 1002 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION Bohemian section, Seward Park in the Russian Jewish Ghetto, and 135th Street in colored Harlem. In Webster, there is a Bohemian department pre- sided over by a Bohemian, where there is the largest collection of Bohemian literature outside of Prague, and where also there are paintings and other forms of art from Bohemian lands. ‘This place is an: intellectual centre for the neighborhood. The same is true of Seward Park, but here the whole district is Russian Jewish, so the library must as a whole serve for a centre. Many assistants are Russian Jews and there is a large Yiddish collection. At 135th Street there is a growing collection of books not only on race questions, but on Africa and Africans. “There are also colored assistants here. In each case, opportunity is offered for growth and expression of original- ity, peculiar gifts, and aptitudes. This, far from militating against the Americanizing process, aids it. Loyalty is developed, opportunity for giving is offered. “Those who would never learn English come to get books in their own language and stay to “get the English,” hence the gulf between genera- tions and civilizations—a great danger to American life—is being bridged. Moreover, it is to be remembered that the libraries are primarily Ameri- can, in their generous spirit, in the majority of assistants, and in the over- whelming majority of books. The most, the only efficient method of bringing the foreigner into American life is to offer the opportunity for a wider and freer expansion of his personality and abilities. Such an opportunity the library has to great degree. Americanism is not a structure built 300 years ago into which must be crowded ever-increasing numbers, incompatible and restricted, but a road which we started to travel 300 years ago, and in which we are being joined constantly by all the races of the world, each with its own contribution, which we need. EFFECTIVE CO-OPERATION BETWEEN THE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOL BERTHA M. MC CONKEY, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS i No two educational agencies are so closely akin as the public library and the public school, and there is already a good degree of codperation between them in certain favored cities. “Chis codperation might everywhere be closer and more effective ; libraries in the smaller cities and towns are.often poorly equipped to render much needed service to the schools. The children in these communities too often think of the library as a repository for story books rather than as a source of information. They know nothing of its resources and it has never become a positive factor in their lives. On the whole, librarians seem to be more disturbed by this state of affairs than Liprary DEPARTMENT 1003 are teachers. It is evident that the rank and file of teachers should come into closer touch with the librarians of their communities, that they may help in the solution of some of the problems. On the other hand, it would be well if every librarian were an active, interested member of the National Education Association, fully conversant with its aims and proceedings, for every librarian is a teacher the effectiveness of whose work depends largely upon his knowledge of the trend of education. He must know what the schools and colleges of the world are doing and how and why they are doing it, or he cannot adequately meet the demands of his position. ‘The problem of effective codperation between these two allied branches of public service should receive the earnest attention of librarians, school sup- erintendents, and teachers everywhere. It would be well if every superin- tendent of schools should arrange for at least one meeting each year between the teachers of the city or town and some member or members of the library staff. At this meeting a teacher or principal representing respect- ively the elementary, the junior high, and the senior high schools might profitably outline the probable needs of these schools for the year, stressing new viewpoints in education and noting the outstanding elements of strength or weakness in the previous year’s library service. Some repre- sentative of the library might in return review the situation from the point of view of the library, outlining any contemplated changes in plans, calling attention to certain valuable library bulletins, and referring teachers to books of recent issue and vital interest. Very few libraries do enough of this sort of book advertising. Merely allowing book bulletins to lie on library counters in the hope that they may be picked up by teachers is insufficient. ’ Marked bulletins should frequently be mailed to schools with the request that they be given a place-on the bulletin boards or that they be brought to the attention of the faculty in teachers’ meetings. The new impulse in education tends to encourage children to “dig out” for themselves needed information. Pupils working out projects in social groups are seeking to verify their impressions and to make some contribu- tion that will help carry things forward to a successful issue. They are therefore discovering their need for the library. It is the psychological time for intensified codperation between teachers and librarians since they have, or should have, an equal interest in meeting this new demand on the part of pupils for access to sources of information. Where branch libraries are located in schools, the problem is compara- tively simple. But where books must be furnished, on demand, from one or two centers, the solution may call for the services of a boy and a delivery car. Why should not teachers be supplied with stamped and addressed envelopes and blanks upon which they may note the project or projects under way or about to be undertaken in a class or a school? By return mail they could be advised of helpful reference books available for use on the subjects indicated. A telephone message with the subsequent dispatch of the delivery car would then quickly meet the demand and the work of the schools be greatly advanced. Delivery service should not, however, 1004 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ee ee ee ee a ee be permitted completely to take the place of visits by pupils to the library, as it is very desirable that children should not only learn the way to the building, but should be taught by the librarians themselves how to use the - files and reference books: Classroom loan libraries mark an advance in practical coéperation, and this service should be made more nearly universal. Its purpose is to supply classrooms with graded collections of books that pupils will enjoy reading, rather than with reference books or books that are informing but dull. The reference book service should not displace the classroom library service but should be a separate feature of the cooperative program. No summer playground should be without library facilities of some sort, and it is encouraging to note the growing interest in this direction. The playground instructors and librarians in each community should together work out a plan for as liberal a distribution of books as possible during the summer season, and children who are regular patrons of the play- ground may well be encouraged to take home books for the use of the adult inembers of their various households as well as books for their own reading. The promotion of vacation reading affords a wide field for effective coéperation between school and library, and many teachers throughout the country are ably seconding the efforts of librarians to establish a close relation between the library and the children during the summer vacation. By encouraging library clubs among school children, teachers and librarians are establishing new contacts with one another. “These clubs have grown to such proportions in some cities, notably in Cleveland, that special supervisors of school library clubs are in charge of the work. I do - not know the qualifications of these supervisors, but if they are trained teachers who have also had a librarian’s training, they can do a great deal for the cause of liberal education. Readers are made, not born, and the distractions of present-day town and city life gravitate against the cultivation of the habit of reading worth- while books. "The newspapers, the magazines, moving pictures, and the light, brief novel absorb the reading time of too large a percentage of the educated public, and there is need for much of the sort of work that is being done by the library club leaders who are bringing to the attention of groups of enthusiastic children the great pleasure and profit to be derived from an acquaintanceship with good books. Library club supervisors might well be paid jointly by school and library boards since their work is closely related to both library and school. There should be library service of some kind in connection with every public evening school and Americanization center. A well-lighted reading room should constitute a feature of evening school and Americanization centers, and the neighborhood should be made welcome there. Expensive! Yes! but greatly needed as.an aid in forwarding the work in Americani- zation. Books in all the languages of the quarter, as well as many books in English, should have a place on the shelves at these evening centers. Liprary DrepartTMENT 1005 Exhibits of various kinds under the direction of the library should have an important place, and there should be demonstrations of the more simple scientific principles and their applications to daily life—these in addition to picture shows and popular lectures on books and their contents. Still another problem calling for codperative action is that of supplying schools with material for visual education: The educational value of pic- tures has in the past been rather stupidly overlooked. Children have long known that the most instructive features of a geography are its pic- tures, and it must be a source of some satisfaction to them that their teach- ers are now adopting their point of view in this regard. Moving pictures, stereopticon pictures, and stereoscopic photographs are all important as educational assets, but the sketches, photographs, etc., that are so universally available today constitute a mine of wealth upon which teachers should make constant demand. Comparatively easy as it is to secure suitable pictures for illustrative purposes, no teacher or school can collect and mount enough of the best of them to meet the needs of present-day instruction. The public library, therefore, should be the great storehouse for these pictures. In order to get a good running start in the direction of a sufficiently large collection for school use, some enterprising librarians have sought the codperation of women’s clubs, chambers of commerce, and interested friends. Many people are glad of the opportunity to contribute old copies of the Geographic or other magazines or out-lived children’s picture and story books, rich in illustration. One library founded its school picture collection upon a gift of old copies of the Chatterbox and Geographic Magazines and the London Graphic. The mounting of the collection upon cardboard or heavy building paper need not strain the resources of the library staff if an appeal for help with the task is sent out to women’s clubs or the girls’ and boys’ scouts. Mount- ing bees might well become a recurrent feature of the library year. All pictures should be of good size, 2 x 4 prints being taboo. It should be remembered that the pictures are for class use and that they are of little value if very small. Portfolios of two or three sizes should be provided in which to send the pictures out when they are called for. These holders should have a pocket for the library charge card. ‘The fine for lost pictures should be very small and should be submitted at the end of each year to the superintendent of schools for payment by the school board, since the aim is to encourage, not discourage, the widespread use of pictures as a means of education. For the enrichment of these educational picture collections, librarians should not hesitate to cut up entire books or to sacrifice a book in order to secure even one or two especially desirable pictures. It is becoming evident that there should be in every library a supple- mentary supply of stereoscopic pictures that may be loaned to schools for the illumination of certain texts. "The wisdom of multiplying indefinitely individual school collections of stereopticon slides is open to question. Widely useful collections of such slides are unduly expensive in view of the fact 1006 NaTtIoNAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION —_ that they are not in constant use. The space occupied by a collection of any size is also an item, and the incompleteness of individual school collections limits their usefulness. I question, therefore, whether it is not one of the provinces of the library to serve as a distributing center for all stereoscopic photographs and slides required for schools. The cost of the service rendered the community by the school and the library is steadily increasing, but the thoughtful will not complain of mounting costs if these great educational agencies serve more people year by year and serve them better. The time is ripe for a concerted effort on the part of teachers and librarians to the end that unnecessary duplication of effort, equipment, and space may be avoided in the interests of true economy and improved service. These National Education Association conferences afford the best possible opportunity for mutual discussion and enlightenment. “They are markedly codperative in spirit, and each year they are bringing us nearer the ideal interchange between school and library that is our ultimate goal. THE DAILY NEWSPAPER IN THE SCHOOL O. S. RICE, STATE SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES, STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WISCONSIN It is of interest in connection with my topic that the first English news- paper printed in America was issued in the city where we are now meeting. This was in the year 1690, and the paper was entitled Publick Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestic. It was to be issued once a month, but oftener if “any glut of occurrences” happened. It was printed on three two- column pages of a folded sheet, seven by eleven inches, one page being blank. ‘The paper was immediately suppressed by the authorities and so the first issue was also the last. Fourteen years later the Boston News- Letter appeared. It was published by the postmaster and “by authority” and so was permitted to survive. It is a far cry from these struggling attempts at journalism to the cry of the modern newsboy as he heralds the latest daily “uxtra” in this and other cities today. Every day thirty-three million copies of daily news- papers are sold to the people of the United States. Estimating that, on the average, each copy is read by two persons and making allowance for many who read more than one paper, we have a total of some sixty million people who, as it were, each day are saying, “Give us this day our daily paper.” Twenty minutes per day is a low estimate of the daily time spent by the average reader on newspaper reading. ‘This gives a total of twenty million newspaper hours per day; or, enough to keep two million people busy reading ten hours per day. Eleven billion copies of daily newspapers are issued annually in our country. The aggregate of printed matter in this total is at least equal to that in six billion books. Liprary DEPARTMENT 1007 What of the influence exerted by this vast aggregate of newspaper read- ing? As much as fifty years ago a prominent essayist said: ‘““The daily press furnishes nine tenths of the subject matter of conversation.” If, perhaps, that was a somewhat exaggerated statement then, it surely is close to the truth now. ‘Thomas Jefferson is often quoted as having said: “If I had to choose between a government without newspapers and newspapers without a government, I should prefer the latter.” Some recent writer has truthfully said: “It is difficult to imagine how the social reforms that distinguish the age could have been realized without the aid of news- papers.” <4 Paraphrasing what Melville Stone, in his Fifty Years a Journalist, says of the Associated Press, we may say of newspapers in general: “On the accuracy of the newspapers the people of the United States depend for the conduct of their various enterprises, as well as for the facts on which to base their opinions of the activities of the world.” Our dependence on the daily press was well illustrated by Professor Bleyer in an address last year before the students of the Medill School of Journalism when he said: “If the American péople were to decide by ballot tomorrow upon the merits of the threatened railroad strike, they would have to decide almost solely on the basis of what they have gleaned in the last ten days from the newspapers.” Newspapers are the greatest single influence on the course of events which are determined by public opinion. Parallel with the great services of newspapers run the possibilities for doing harm. Every agency for good has its possibilities for evil. Power can be applied destructively as well as constructively. The necessarily great haste with which newspapers are prepared accounts for many of their misstatements of facts. “The itch for “scoops”. detracts from the reliability of the daily press. Some one has said, newspapers used to be satisfied with having the last word, now they are even more con- cerned to have the first word. Powerful political interests use the newspapers as much as they can for propaganda purposes. ‘This at times makes their political news unreliable and the editorials misleading. However, the number of really independent newspapers, politically, has greatly increased in the past few years. In order to increase sales, sensationalism is often employed. ‘The trivial is magnified. Things of more importance but of less popular interest are relatively ignored. The great cost of issuing a daily paper makes the commercial feature a dominant one. Especially is this true of the advertising. In 1880, the newspapers of the United States received for subscriptions and sales $49,- 000,000, for advertising, $39,000,000; that is, ten million dollars less for advertising than for subscriptions and sales. In 1919, the receipts for subscriptions and sales were $205,000,000, for advertising, $408,000,000 ; that is, twice as much for advertising as for subscriptions and sales. In view of these figures, it would be too much to expect that the effort to secure advertising would not at times wrongfully influence the editorial policy. 1008 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION Notwithstanding these and other adverse influences, the great majority of news articles and items in newspapers are reliable and the editorials as a tule are written to promote worthy objects. Of some newspapers this is, of course, much less true than of others, while, on the other hand, it is decidedly an understatement of the merits of some of them. That newspapers have their “‘seamy side’’ is but a feature in common with all of man’s institutions and agencies. ‘That this is the principal and almost the only side, as Upton Sinclair, in The Brass Check, would have us believe, is as far from the truth as would be the unreserved de- nunciation of theaters, politics, or the legal profession. The real status, services, and disservices of the press are well given in Bleyer’s The Pro- fession of Journalism, a collection of articles by various writers which ap- peared in the Atlantic Monthly, and including a discriminating introduc- tion by the editor. Due to the immense influence of newspapers, their faults are of great public concern. ‘To protect society against the evils of colored news, sup- pression. of legitimate and important news, and the cunning propaganda of “doped” headlines and cartoons and other expedients for wrongfully in- fluencing opinion, various remedies have been proposed. An endowed newspaper has been advocated by a number of influential writers. “These argue that such a paper would be relieved of the temptation of bowing to the wishes of advertisers, partisan politicians, or others with axes to grind, and would be free to serve the truth at all times. Publicly owned news- papers have been proposed and to an extent tried out. Treating news agencies as public utilities is suggested by many. Better and more stringent libel laws are favored by others. Whatever of merit may be connected with these proposals, it must be kept in mind that a plan for improving the press which amounts to govern- ment censorship would merely substitute one great evil, historically proved as such, for a number of lesser evils. Besides it would conflict with the guarantee of freedom of the press provided in the first amendment to the Constitution. Even an endowed newspaper might come to be controlled by special interests. But why should discussion of this subject, almost without exception, concern itself only with what can be done to improve the newspapers? This is not half the problem. Improvement of the readers as readers of news- papers is far more to the point. Furthermore, improving the readers as such will lead to improvement in the newspapers. For, in the last analysis, the reading public determines the quality of. the press. Here the schools can do a service of vital importance to society. By training young people to be intelligent and discriminating readers of daily papers, much will be done to increase the good results of newspaper read- ing to a maximum and to reduce undesirable effects to a minimum. ‘This will require not only that the daily newspaper shall come regularly to the school, but also that a definite and comprehensive course in newspaper reading be given in the upper grades and in the high school. By the time pupils reach the upper grades they will have had consider- Lisprary DEPARTMENT 1009 able experience in reading newspapers. “This gives the necessary back- ground for the course. During the course in newspaper reading, all the instruction and exercises should be directly connected with daily papers to which the pupils have access at the time. There is here an opportunity of teaching and training under ideal conditions. ‘The pupils will have had the necessary preliminary experience, they will have access to the thing studied at the time it is being studied, and they will continue the use thereof throughout life. This pedagogically perfect situation is so unlike most conditions in teach- ing that teachers are likely at first to be confused as to how to proceed. The lack of any such instruction when the teacher was a pupil adds to this paradoxical hindrance. We have here an added reason for a carefully planned and definite course of study in newspaper reading, with accompany- ing concrete exercises. Without such provision, we shall have only another of the useless “snap” courses with which teaching is at all times more or less afflicted. First, we must select the topics which are to be treated in the study of the daily newspaper. “These would include: (1) Analysis of the contents into news, editorials, information about the paper itself, advertisements, market reports, and weather forecasts; (2) analysis of news articles into headlines, lead, and details, with consideration of the part played by each both when used legitimately and when “manipulated”; (3) general news and classified news; (4) local, State, National, and foreign news; (5) editorials; (6) how news is gathered, including the news agencies, such as the Associated Press, the United Press, etc.; (7) how newspapers are made; (8) how to read newspapers, with special attention to judging the reliability of “news.” In this series of topics, with the related sub-topics, there is sufficient material for serious and practical study of the daily newspaper. If the instruction is made concrete throughout, with practical exercises as a large part of it, we shall get results which will please the pupils at the time and which will prove to be one of the most valuable contributions of the school course. This presupposes that sufficient time and a sufficient number of class periods will be allotted to the course. Simply hurrying on and dragging the pupils through “by the ears,” as it were, would be worse than useless. In order that the newspaper lessons may be given the time necessary with- out the necessity of disturbing the daily program with an extra class, they could well be given in the civics class or in the English class, with both of which classes their subject matter is closely related. As an illustration of practical exercises, may be mentioned the making of newspaper clippings and mounting them on bulletin boards. Groups of pupils in turn daily clip and mount significant news, timely editorials, and other contents of the daily papers. “This may be started in the class on the newspaper, but should be continued after the course of lessons has been completed. Credit for the work with clippings, in proportion to merit, should be given in English or some other related subject. 1010 NationaL Epucation ASSOCIATION The high-school course on the newspaper would differ from that in the upper grades mainly in being more advanced in the treatment of each topic. For example, in the upper grades the service of the news agencies would be explained and a general idea given as to how they gather the news and distribute it to the daily papers. In the high-school course, each agency would be given considerable attention. Certain pupils might be asked to fnd all the information they can relating to the Associated Press and report to the class; other groups would report on the United Press, the Federated Press, and the leading foreign agencies. The use of magazines in current events classes is now much in vogue in the high schools. his is closely related to the work with daily papers. One of the most effective correctives of wrong impressions gained from the daily papers is discriminating reading of reliable magazines. Especially important for this purpose are weekly periodicals issued especially with a view to giving accurate information of current events. Lessons on the newspaper are beginning to appear in high-school English texts. ‘The lessons in such books, however, are likely to be from the stand- point of teaching the correct and forceful use of English; this is a good justification for the inclusion of such lessons. Training pupils how to read newspapers for the purpose of accurately knowing what is taking place which has a bearing on their lives is quite a different matter and needs radically different treatment. Both in the course for the upper grades and in that for high schools, lessons on the daily newspaper are included in manuals issued by the Wis- consin State Department of Public Instruction. It will require some time, however, before such lessons, even with that impetus, will be given as well and as universally as the lessons on traditional subjects. But, say the spokesmen for “the defence,’ the school curriculum is already overloaded. Here you come with another subject, a last straw with which to break the camel’s back. This brings into the discussion the matter of relative values. If it is more important, for example, that a pupil spend a full year on algebra, which he will never use after he leaves school ; if it is more necessary that he muddle his brain with intricate points of technical grammar beyond his mental reach; if it is more needful that he learn scores of things in school which he will probably forget after leaving it (or before leaving it) ; if it is of greater concern that such things be given all available room in a crowded curriculum than it is to train pupils in the use of the greatest agency of the times for enlightened public opinion—the daily paper, which they will daily read—then we must of course keep the daily newspaper out of the school and out of the course of study. But, if the school is to prepare for life, as educators have for decades affirmed and now assert more emphatically than ever, then the daily news- paper should come to every school with pupils far enough advanced to read it and lessons on the newspaper should be given to the end that the people may be trained to ascertain the truth relating to the times in which they live, the truth which is necessary to make and keep them free. Liprary DEPARTMENT 1011 THE SPIRIT OF LIBRARY SERVICE MRS. EDWARD S. CARTER, LIBRARIAN, HIGH SCHOOL, PORT ARTHUR, TEXAS When Chairman Williams gave me the choice of my topic, with a librarian’s true instinct to seek the best, I chose the “Spirit of Library Service,” for did not the Master ‘Teacher who came that man might have life and have it more abundantly say, “It is the spirit that giveth life’? The purpose of the library is to contribute its part to the more abundant life. . The accomplishment of this purpose is commensurate with the spirit of service rendered. You are familiar with the psychological law that knowledge plus feeling determines conduct. Substitute for our library law codperation plus conviction determines service and you will have the point of view in this paper. The method of library service is essentially that of codperation. The best barometer of the library is the desire and ability of its staff to co- operate with individuals, institutions, and organizations. Now for the second factor of our law—conviction. A digest of the faith, philosophy, and experience of librarianship for the past twenty-five years converges into the growing consciousness, the conviction that the library functions over and above all other educational factors in enriching the human life with (1) The best perspective of the past; (2) The best mastery of problems of the present; and (3) The best prophetic vision of the future. Individual service—The librarian should go to her service as to sacra- ment because her tools give to her more than to any other workman the truest perspective of the past. “This lore is her leverage in serving the needs of the individual in (1) Information; (2) Recreation; (3) In- spiration. Information—“Where shall wisdom be found?” Where is the place of understanding? Where can we procure this heritage that is more precious than rubies? Our answer, fellow workers, is, “Go to your public library and find it in books.” ‘‘All that mankind has done, thought, gained or been is lying in magic preservation in the pages of books.” ‘“Books are the storehouse of knowledge, the record of civilization, the fulcrum for the lever of progress.” ‘They are the precious life-blood of master spirits embalmed and treasured up on purpose to life beyond life.’ The li- brarian’s privilege is to reveal this heritage to the wonder-loving mind of the reader. The reader is continuously seeking the solution to some problem. ‘The question may be one of family relationship, finance, or the correct method of using a silver service at a formal luncheon. Books point to the effi- ciency short-cut in every problem—mental, physical, or spiritual. ‘They prevent useless experimentation and show how to secure quickly the useful and to concentrate intensely upon the practical. Recreation—The library outranks the moving-picture show, the vaude- ville, and the city natatorium in the quality of its recreational service. An 1012 NaTIOoNAL EpucatTion ASSOCIATION erstwhile Board member of the institution I serve once said to me in part, “The library is the reservoir of my recreational hours. The earth is big. I would see it. Strange men live. I would know them. Other lands are. 1 would visit them. Strange customs prevail. I would understand them. ‘The library is my magic carpet. In an eyeflash I ride the surf of Honolulu. I round the world in eighty seconds. I travel from Green- land’s icy mountains to India’s coral strand. Adventures strange with men, with beasts, with elements safefold me from hunger, strife and famine. The library is my open’sesame. I speak the magic words and doors fast closed by time are opened and I talk with those who are but never were. The characters of fiction come and go at my merest whim. ‘The library is my Aladdin’s lamp. Space and time vanish. Genii appear to do my bidding, be that the rebuilding of the eternal city or the tower of Babel. The library is my Jacob’s ladder to give wings to my imagination and set my fancies free.” Inspiration—“The poet is the best benefactor of society. The soldier fights for his native land, but the poet touches that land with the charm that makes it worth fighting for, and fires the warrior’s heart with energy invincible.” The recent war proved that men are still willing to give their lives for ideals. The library is the custodian of the traditions of justice, equality, liberty, and democracy as recorded by statesman and poet. The library gives the reader vision. He comes to a true perspective of life. He realizes that history repeats itself, that to look backward care- fully and studiously is to look forward successfully, that through a knowledge of what has been one may grow a prophetic sense of what is to be. Social service—Aside from service to the individual, the library co- operates with institutions and organizations in the dissemination of knowl- edge. ‘These twain, the librarian and the book, serve as an open sesame for problems educational, social, and civic. Educational—My conception of the ideal relationship that may exist between the public school and the public library is beautifully expressed by Elbert Hubbard in that part of his autobiography which explains his Roycroft organization. He speaks of this codperative plan which begets a high degree of personal diligence, a loyalty to the institution, a sentiment of fraternity and. feeling of permanency among the workers that is bene- ficial to all concerned. ‘Each worker calls it Our Shop and feels that he is an integral part of the whole. ‘The Roycroft idea is one of reci- procity—‘“you help me and I’ll help you.” Mr. Hubbard continues, “We will not be here forever. Soon Death, the kind old nurse, will come and rock us all to sleep and we had better help one another while we may; we are going the same way but once; let’s go hand in hand.” And so it is that the public school and the public library are going the same way. “They both have to do with the education of the people. Both the school and the library are an integral part of education. ‘The difference is one of scope and intensity. “The school has to do intensively with the education of the child during the first twenty years of its life, Lrprary DEPARTMENT 1013 while the library touches the educational development of the individual from the cradle to the grave. Inasmuch as both the goal and purpose of the library and the school are practically identical, should they then not walk hand in hand in mutual faith, mutual trust, and mutual confidence? The effort of the Public Library at Port Arthur, Texas, and the public school to work together in book engineering has been made possible by the coéperation of the board of education, the superintendent, and the faculty. This co6perative spirit may be briefly summarized. 1. Passes and permits are issued to the maximum of thirty students for each of the eight periods of the school day. All students have free access during the noon hour and from 4 to 6 p.m. 2. Through the codperation of the head of the English Department, the library becomes a laboratory for intensive study in current periodical literature during three weeks of each term. Each student of the High Junior class is assigned thirty stories, autobiographies, essays, dramas, and letters. “The reading is supervised by his English teacher. 3. An annual lecture is given to the senior classes by the librarian, preparatory to selection of topics and materials for their graduation essays. 4, Reserve shelves are prepared upon the request of any teacher. 5. Depository libraries of 1200 and 800 volumes are maintained in the English and history departments of the high school. ‘These branches are operated upon the same plan as the public library under the supervision of members of the senior class. ‘This plan has many advantages: (1) Teach- ers are able to personally supervise all reading; (2) The library through these channels serves an indefinite number of pupils; (3) Pupils may procure reference material during the transition periods; (4) The teachers can check upon students who are not reading. 6. Branch library collections from 1500 to 4000 volumes are operated in the grammar schools. ‘The school librarians are members of the public library staff. 7. Each student above the fourth grade has his library period each day. 8. Pupils promoted from the grammar grades to the high school have a “journey through the library.” They are shown the floor plan, the card catalog, the class arrangement of books, etc. 9. Heads of departments assist in the selection of books. 10. Students in arrears with the library may receive neither promotion certificates nor diplomas. 11. Teachers may not draw pay checks at the close of the year until they have in hand an O. K. slip from the librarian. 12. Each class in the high school is given a lesson on how to use books. 13. The librarian makes a monthly and an annual report to the super- intendent covering circulation statistics, usage of books by pupils, refer- ences procured, new books of interest to schools, etc. ; 14. The board of education and the superintendent are given a list of the names of teachers using the library and the number of books read. 15. The history department codperates with the library through a 1014 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION certification scheme for high school history reading, similar to the Youngs- town (Ohio) plan. 16. During Children’s Book Week, a lecture is given to each library period and to teach auditorium period. Posters, stickers, prizes, and the usual publicity methods are carried on through the schools. “The English department conducts questionnaires and vocabulary tests. 17. The library closely codperates and correlates with the Port Arthur Business College. Dictation lessons and auditorium lecture materials are furnished by the library. Librarians are more and more stressing the knowledge of book-using skill. ‘They are becoming professors of books. Should you grant me the liberty of prophecy, I should say that within the next few years training in the knowledge and skill of book usage will be a prerequisite to certification and will take its place among the minimum educational essentials of all time. In man’s brief span of three score years and ten, all knowledge comes through contact with nature, with books, and with people. ‘The librarian serves with the conviction that “Education consists not in at- tempting to master all there is to know, but in mastering the knowledge of how to find information on any topic when it shall be wanted.” Cultural—The library is not only educational, but it is also ‘cultural in its sphere. “The close bond of sympathy and service that has always ex- ‘sted between libraries and women’s clubs is too patent for us to pause for more than a moment in the discussion. ‘The library recognizes its debt of gratitude to women’s clubs for their support and development of the library. At Port Arthur, Texas, the close codperation between the clubs and the library may be briefly summarized: (1) The chairmen of all program committees of the Department of Federated Clubs assist in the selection of books; (2) Books used for program purposes are purchased and circulated by the library; (3) Refer- ences and materials for club papers and addresses are collected by the Library Club—a student organization ; (4) Materials desired for yearbook and annual programs are arranged and placed at the disposal of the pro- gram committees. “These committees meet at the library; (5) The librarian is a member of and attends as many club meetings as her work permits; and (6) The president of the Department Club automatically becomes a member of the Library Board. Civic—One of the greatest opportunities for mutual exchange of service, teamwork in service for the common good exists between the library and civic organizations, Red Cross, Hospital, Men’s clubs, Campfire girls, Boy Scouts, etc. Among the important features of the institution which I serve are the channels opened for us by the American Red Cross, oppor- tunities for service to merchant marines, and codperation in community pageantry. One of the great values of books is the therapeutical value. Librarians have found that one of their greatest opportunities for service is through branch collections in their city hospitals and sanitariums, Liprary DEPARTMENT 1015 Industrial—It is too frequently thought that libraries have to do only with ideas and ideals. ‘They have also a very practical value. Large in- dustries are more and more realizing that there is a very tangible benefit in increased skill and power of the library-using laborer. Wherever libraries can extend their influences through industries they are blessed. In our city the library and industries codperate in the following ways: , 1. The composition of the Library Board is something unique in the de- velopment of library administration. “The members of the Board, repre- senting as they do civic administration, technical, school, industrial and business interests, indicate the harmony that should exist between the various interests of the city in their mutual acquaintance and mutual action. Inasmuch as every man is a member of the Board by virtue of his office, all vacancies are filled automatically. 2. The Texas Company subscribes for twenty-five technical and scientific periodicals annually for the library. Refineries also donate files of scientific and technical materials. 3. The refineries post bulletins and notices to encourage library usage. 4. The head of the Chemical and Engineering Departments assist in the selection of all technical and scientific books. 5. A branch library is maintained in one department of the Texas Com- pany for women employees. Spiritual—All of you are familiar with the service which the library renders in spiritual uplift, through codperation with the Ministerial As- sociation, churches, Sunday schools, young people’s societies and leagues. Every Christmas, Thanksgiving, Mothers’ Day, Easter program gets its inspirational idea from the library. The Triple Entente (the librarian, the reader, and the idea) constitute the alchemy of prophecy and vision of things pertaining to the future. Library service is not a simple elemental thing; it is a synthetic process as is harmony or beauty. One receives this idea and that; one is interested. Suddenly there is a fusion. Dry bones stir; the soul lives. Do you recall that Emerson said, “One single idea may have greater weight than all the labor of all the men, animals and engines for a century.” ‘The librarian in bringing the right persons and the ideas awakens the souls of men. ‘Through ideas and ideals men come to realize that the foundation of progress is spiritual, not material. “T gave a beggar from my little store of wealth some gold, He spent the shining ore and came again and yet again Still cold and hungry as before; I gave a thought and through this thought of mine He found himself the man supreme, divine, Fed, clothed and crowned with blessings manifold And now he begs no more.” We must have the two-fold vision of both a Martha and a Mary. Above all we must retnember which is the better part. Just as in the physical world gravitation is more powerful than the planets which it holds together, and radium is more wonderful than the masses of matter which 1016 NationaL EpucaTion ASsocIATION it has power to remove, even so the spiritual uplift is our supremest sphere. Personality, flowering into intelligence through ideas and ideals, is the supremest marvel of the Universe. “Tgnorance is the curse of God; knowledge the wing wherewith we mount heavenward.” ' STORY TELLING: ITS RELATION TO LITERARY APPRECIATION EDITH C. PARKER, STORY TELLER IN THE BUFFALO :PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BUFFALO, NEW YORK Many books have been published on the subject of story telling, and many story tellers of recognized worth are filling educational positions throughout the country, but all do not approach the subject by the same road. ‘Their aims differ according to their personal revelation. Some feel that the aim of story telling is to emphasize ethical points and lines of conduct, others use it as a point of departure in teaching nature study; others use it as an aid in teaching history, or biography, while others think its artistic and literary value is sufficient worth for its being. Now I do not intend to discuss the relative merits of these differing aims; each is supported by reputable advocates. I shall simply state my own point of view. I believe that story telling has for its primary object the presentation of the great literature of the world, in’such a manner_as to make the Strongest and happiest impression at the time when it will have the greatest appeal. maski, Foe Unfortunately children do not select for themselves the great literature of the world for their reading. ‘The subject matter is removed from their own experience, and there is little to arouse their interest. But the story teller may take some great masterpiece and choose from it some dramatic incident, which if it is told artistically and sincerely will awaken a dramatic joy that is amazing; the emotional response will be sufficiently strong to carry many of them out to find that book and read that story for them- selves. | When the first cycle of stories from the Iliad and Odyssey were told to the seventh and eighth grade children in the Buffalo public schools, great numbers of them went to the libraries asking for books from which they could read the stories of the siege of Troy and the adventures of Ulysses. The only way a person may know the genuine from the counter- feit in literature is through experience; through intimate, sympathetic inter- course with the best literature, and story telling is an opening wedge to that end. Of course the time to begin training children in the appreciation of liter- ature is at the beginning. “The average child brings to the kindergarten a real literary background. ‘The beautiful lullabies, the mother-goose classics, have not only familiarized him with rhyme and rhythm, but with the conventions of literary diction as well. For does he not say: “Curly Lisrary DEPARTMENT 1017 lock ‘wilt thou’ be mine” and “The North wind doth blow” and “Mistress Mary, quite contrary.” It is sad that such an excellent beginning should not be continued and the standards maintained. Very often this is so, and we find the kindergarten and primary teachers following Mother Goose with the beautiful poems of Robert Louis Steven- son and Christina Rossetti, and these followed in turn by some well-chosen folk tale that has been worn smooth by the centuries—folk tales that are frequently models of form and containing all the essentials of a good story—action, suspense, climax; leading the child away from the common place into a delightful world of fancy. But unfortunately this is not always true. The teacher with her adult point of view gets in the way, and her desire to teach and instruct, to pour in authentic information through every possible channel, leads her to select stories for the matter rather than the form, and the result is that she is presenting stories with no literary value. She does not realize that she ay be laying a foundation for the child’s future taste in literature. After a child has been taught and preached at through stories or books; and after he has had to read certain required books and write about them, learn meaning of words from poems and find certain data about the author, which he ought to know, he has often had quite enough of literature to last him for the rest of his life. Frequently children have looked at me apprehensively when I was about to tell them a story for the first time and some have had the courage to ask: “Will we have to write about it?” But when I have assured them that they had only to listen and enjoy the story, they settled down to do that in a most thorough manner. In arranging stories from the classics, great care should be exercised to choose the version that has the greatest literary value and charm, and to maintain so far as possible the style of the author. Then when the child comes to read that book there is a certain familiarity which makes it easier for him to go on. Some stories, where the form is as important as the matter, should be read to the children, that is unless a story teller is able to tell a memorized story with ease and charm. Such stories are Kipling’s “Just So Stories.” As a matter of fact, a good story, well chosen, appropriate to the age of the children, may include the points desired by the teacher of ethics, nature study, history, geography what you will. But stories chosen for these ends should always be made to pass the standards required by good literature. eases abet Eprror’s Nore—Miss Parker’s remarks were supplemented by stories from Kip- ling and Stockton. 1018 NatTIOoNAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION THE PUPILS’ CONTRIBUTION TO THE SUCCESS OF THE SCHOOL LIBRARY MARY E. HALL, BROOKLYN, NEW YORK ‘Twenty years ago a library could run very easily without help of pupils. Now, it is impossible to run satisfactorily without their help. Occasionally school libraries are started by pupils. In two schools this was done—Adams Grammar School, Lexington, Massachusetts, had but ten books. It had a lighted closet. This the pupils used to store the books which they bought from the proceeds of candy sales and special parties. They used the adjoining corridor for a reading-room which the manual- training department equipped with tables and chairs. Gradually all library furniture was supplied by individual pupils. Again in a Junior High School in the South—Huntington, West Virginia—there was an in- teresting project worked out. The public library was unable to handle the school needs. An English teacher decided to work up a library by means of the project method. ‘This is described in the Journal of the National Education Association for December, 1921. The problem in the Girls’ High School, Brooklyn, New York, was the rapid growth. It was a question of attracting at first; immediate results followed efforts along this line. Therefore the need arose for extra assist- ance in the administration, and the library established what is known as page service. The number used is eighty students a year. “The teachers record the number of periods of service given which is kept as a record of service to the school. At the close of the year there is a special talk given by some celebrated speaker especially for the pages. In the Boys’ High School, Brooklyn, they have boys’ squads, and at the Morris High School they also have a library service group. The students advertise the library and bring in the newcomers and ask for special books. ‘They recommend books in the Girls’ High School, and a file is kept of their comments on books they have read. The pupils give books to the library in the Girls’ High School instead of silver cups. ‘They are inscribed, and are much more attractive than the usual gift. They also present furniture and luxuries which cannot be secured otherwise. All this is a very joyous service. BOOKS FOR BOYS A. B. DE MILLE, WINTHROP HIGHLANDS, MASSACHUSETTS ‘The problem of sound reading for boys has been attacked by every teacher, but for most of us, I fear, the final solution is far away, and we must be numbered among the “inheritors of unfulfilled renown.’ In the half-hour placed at my disposal today, I should like to offer some sugges- tions based upon experiment, as a modest contribution to an important subject. Liprary DEPARTMENT 1019 Of the value of good reading there is—or ought to be—no doubt; here all educational authorities are at one. But when we come to the explana- tion of what is meant by “good reading’”—what books ought to be put in boys’ hands, we find a marked—almost a hostile—difference of opinion. The opposition engages itself all along the line: it discusses not only the “What,” but the “how” and the ‘when.’ Shall it be the classics, the great books, that stand preéminent? Or shall we say that the modern boy is bored by Ivanhoe, David Copperfield, or The Pathfinder, and should follow the bent of his own tastes into easier fields? How should he read— under guidance, or at his own sweet will? We all remember Ruskin’s advice about browsing in a library; yet what kind of fodder will be sought by the boy who reads cheap magazines and haunts the movies? Of his own accord will he ever set foot inside a library? When shall he read? On every side we hear the calls of athletics, of home affairs, of social func- tions—not to mention the exhaustive demands of the curriculum. And through the shouting and the tumult that interesting creature, the boy, to whose ultimate good it is all directed, goes his cheerful way like Kipling’s midshipman—“diverse, undulating, and irresponsible.” How are we to reconcile these differences? Before coming to speak about the books themselves let us look for a moment at some underlying needs of the situation. What the boy will read is almost wholly a matter of habit and environment. Our effort should be to form the habit and provide the environment. How can this be done? In the large private schools, particularly throughout the east, the problem presents fewer dif- ficulties, since the careful supervision both in school hours and outside makes possible a direction of reading which in general is wisely and ben- eficially exercised. In the public schools we have to take into account some serious obstacles. ‘There is the huge heterogeneous school population, increasing year by year, the crowded condition of the classrooms, the lack of library facilities for this great section of youth, the numerical inadequacy of the teaching staff, the complexity of the curriculum, the lure of all sorts of outside interests—the automobile, the club, the theatre, the maga- zine. ‘The way, certainly, is hard to find, and yet, if we admit the value of reading, some way must be found. What is the best way, then, to form habit and provide environment ? The best way, perhaps, has not yet been discovered, but one way may be outlined which has the elements of reasonable success. Let us first define our terms. By “boys” I mean normal young Amer- icans of high-school age—the home-grown supply, to whom the English language is natural and who have at least some ideas and traditions grow- ing out of books written in that language. By “books” I mean the fiction or miscellaneous material that such boys may be influenced to read outside the regular school hours. ‘The problem is how to turn boys towards sound books for amusement and recreation, even for help. The initiative rests fairly and squarely upon the shoulders of the teacher of English. In the almost complete absence of home training or influence, 1020 NatIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION he is the only one who cares. If reading be worth while, it is he who “must show the way to form the habit; he must organize enthusiasm, both among his boys and among his colleagues. He is hard pressed—if he is conscientious, he does more work than any of his fellows; he labors, like Arnold’s weary Titan, under the too vast orb of his fate. Yet he must shoulder one burden more. If he uses his chances, however, this burden soon will become no burden at all. We must assume a teacher of English who is an enthusiast about books. For this teacher three things are necessary ; not only enthusiasm, but sound knowledge; not only sound knowledge, but the ability to read well. Armed thus, he begins the attack. His classes are made up of alert young minds, and for a certain number of hours every week he has them at his disposal. The routine work, of course, is insistent; but he seizes five minutes at the end of a period for a bit of reading which has no connection with the required work. He picks up, let us say, Conrad’s Typhoon and reads a paragraph or two about the coming of the storm. Next day, he follows up this beginning with a few stanzas from Masefield’s Story of a Roundhouse, as an example of stirring poetry written by a real sailor- man, who tells what he has actually seen. After a few experiments of this nature, the enthusiast inserts a delicate wedge. “I don't know,” he says, diffidently, “if any of you care about reading, but if you do we might get together for half an hour now and then. I have some books. that might interest you.” There will be some response, if only from motives of curiosity, and it will go hard if he cannot build something upon these beginnings. But this is only the first step. There is an idea prevalent among school boys that reading, as distinguished from study, is a pleasant vagary of the English department. The duty of the teacher is to show that it strikes much deeper; that books are concerned with life in general, and not only with that section committed to the charge of the English department. ‘To this end he seeks to enlist the codperation of his colleagues. He goes, then, to his friend of the history department and after be- moaning with him the incapacity of the average pupil and the hard dealings of the College Entrance Board, he makes his suggestion, walking delicately, like Agag in the Bible. ‘Do your boys carry on any outside reading?” he says. “Certainly, as much as they have time for,’ is the suspicious response. “Because,” proceeds the English teacher, “I saw a book the other day which I thought might possibly be in line with their work. It was called Scaramouche, and the scene is laid in the French—” “O, fiction!” rather scornfully. “I hardly think they would find that useful.” At the end of half-an-hour’s hard work, the English teacher pledges him- self to make a list of some sound historical novels, and the history man promises to look them over. Next he seeks out the palatial abode of the Science department. Some natural tears he sheds as he notes the exhaustive and gleaming array of apparatus without which no self-respecting science department would Liprary DEPARTMENT 1021 consent to carry on its work for a moment, but he dries them as his colleague bustles up, brimful of energy and exhaling a fine full flavor of chemicals. ‘Splendid equipment you have here!” says the English teacher. His friend glances round disparagingly. ‘Fair—tair,’ he remarks, “But what we really need is—’ (you know the list). After some desultory chat in which the intruder gallantly tries to conceal his lack of scientific small-talk, he puts forth his feeler. “I suppose your boys don’t find much time for outside reading.’ ‘“Well—no, they don’t.” The scientist is perfectly frank about it. “They have so much real work to get through that they can hardly be expected to take time for the unim- portant things.” “There were two books that I happened to notice recently,” continues the other, “the Life of Edison and the Chemistry of a Candle. ‘Vhey ought to be more or less in line with your subject.” The man of science involves himself in a mist of vague good-will and retires to his retorts and test-tubes, while the English teacher seeks his unimposing classroom. Doubtless there are many schools where codperation is welcomed— where departmental jealousy is unknown and the lamb lies down happily with the lion. Codperation in some degree we must have if we are to create the kind of reading environment which is right for the boys. So many books of literary value have a direct bearing upon the work of de- partments other than English that they, no less than the boys, will profit if they can be brought to see the value of reading for reading’s sake. “The boys will gain some notion of the immense field of good literature; the other department will learn something about the practical value of English reading. Reading for reading’s sake—how many of us really believe in it? It is unpractical, you say; it is not good pedagogy; it produces no definite results. Now “pedagogy” is a word that I am very much afraid of, so I shall let it respectfully alone. For the other objection it may be said that reading for reading’s sake is both practical and definite—but its divi- dends are not immediately payable. Isn’t this the root of our objection? Isn’t it true that we are over-anxious to get immediate results, “reactions,” and the like? That we baulk the end half-won for the instant dole of praise? Do we not risk losing the deeper and broader results—the power which is not matured in a moment—because our vision is obscured by the glamor of the immediate foreground? Don’t our boys miss something, because they regard books as guides and philosophers rather than as friends? There is a great gulf fixed between what a boy reads and what we > think he ought to read. Anyone who has boys growing up in the family knows how eagerly they absorb the modern Oliver Optics, the emasculated dime novels which have superseded the fine old crusted Nick Carter of our own youth. Here are a few titles that show the sort of thing—some of them, I regret to say, were found in my own family. The Motor Boys’ Club at Golden Gate, or a Thrilling Capture in the Great Fog; Submarine 1022 NATIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION Boys; Square Dollar Boys; Range and: Grange Hustlers; Pony Rider Boys; Boys of Steel; Battleship Boys; Circus Boys; and Automobile Girls. The real objection to these books is not that they do harm, but that they do no good. ‘Their perspective is all wrong. Vice is still punished and Virtue triumphant, just as used to happen in the dear old dime novel days, but the whole thing is out of key with real life. Yet they are less obviously out of key than the old style of book—and that perhaps is where the harm comes in. Moreover, they are monotonous, and they act as a drug upon the youthful mind. A course in these books will check the development of sound taste. They are widely read by boys, and their reading, if un- checked, leads either to the abandonment of reading altogether, or to the selection of extremely undesirable material as the boy grows older. So much for what the boy reads. What we think he ought to read brings us at once to the core of the subject. The matter presents itself to me under three sections, and so I hand it on to you: (1) How shall the boy read? (2) When shall he read and (3) What shall he read? How shall the boy read?—Should the boys have definite guidance, or should they be left to themselves? It would seem that what we have just said about the natural taste of the average boy shows the need of some kind of leadership—what kind depends so much upon the type of boy and the quality of the teacher that it is difficult to lay down any definite rules. For the average boy, probably definite guidance, but limited requirement, would serve the purpose. And guidance may be perfectly definite, yet veiled, suggestive, incidental, so as not to frighten the most motley-minded youth; all boys, like the majority of older human beings, enjoy most what they think they do not have to do. But, be it said again, without a teacher who is himself widely read and enthusiastic, the matter will not proceed very far. If he is widely read, there is not much limit to what he can do. For boys respond, for instance, to the pure beauty of literature, if only it be adequately and sympathetically presented to them. I have seen a group cf western school-boys—a most unpromising company——held motionless while they listened to the opening of Aeneas’ tale of the Fall of Troy— “Infandum, Regina, jubes renovare dolorem,” “You command me, O Queen, to renew my memories of unutterable grief.’ I have seen a class of fourteen-year-old boys look grave over Antony’s beautiful lament: “O mighty Czesar, dost thou lie so low . . .” The thing can be done, under competent leadership—and it is well worth doing. Let us have guidance, then—veiled, if need be, under a teacher who is himself a bookman. When shall he read?—Here, of course, we meet the time limitations which form so serious an obstacle to our advance. Time? Where are we to get it? Modern educational systems encourage a schedule which is packed to the limit, and the three “R’s” (of which, mark you, Reading comes first) are swamped under a list of studies, required and elective. Sometimes it almost seems as if any one who has a panacea to try, or a pet project to foist on the long-suffering child, can get it adopted if he has perseverance and a slogan. But this is beside the point. ‘Time is the Lrprary DEpaRTMENT 1023 question. As for time within the school period, we can only fight for it, using as the basis of our argument the fact that sound reading tends to produce sound minds, that sound minds are not easily stampeded—they will weigh, and balance, and draw reasonable conclusions—in a word, they will think straight. As regards time outside the school hours, we must organize the interest of the boys so that they will take time for reading which ordinarily would be given to some less worthy thing. What shalljhe read?—To this question, although it is perplexed by sev- eral complications, it is possible to give a definite answer. ‘The list? which has been distributed at this meeting presents some suggestions. It is not a final list; it does not lay down any law; but it does possess the value con- ferred by actual experiment inside the classroom and out. ‘The books have all been tested, at various periods, with boys of good—not exceptional— ability. Upon this list one may turn boys loose, I think, with but little guidance; from it they will derive both pleasure and profit. The books should serve as a general guide, and while they form part of a series which is capable of indefinite expansion—especially in the direction of recent fiction—yet as they stand they should be found usable. The list contains but few recent titles. “There are two reasons for this. In the first place, boys will read recent fiction anyway; it can take care of itself—there is no object in making any appeal in this direction. In the second place, recent books lack what must be considered from our point of view, an important limitation—they have not stood the test of time. The books cited on our list have been read and enjoyed by generations of boys—all of them most remarkably like the boys who throng our classes today. The insistence upon the modern in literature, which colors more or less of our teaching at the present time, has been commented upon by Professor Brander Matthews in the following words: There is no more patent absurdity in our education today here in America than the devout attention we are paying to contemporary literature. Our schools and our colleges and our universities have little enough time to acquaint students with the masterpieces of literature, with the works of the great men of old. If teachers cannot provide students with a knowledge of the abiding traditions of literature, with an understanding of the underlying principles of the art of letters, where are these things to be acquired by the young? The fleeting fashions of the moment do not need to be expounded and made plain in the classroom; they can be got from the nearest news-stand. c £ It cannot be said too often and too emphatically that what is contemporary is four parts temporary, and that what is up-to-date is certain swiftly to be out of date. Then why study the ephemeral? . . . Why waste our time in criticism of the minor men of today when the major men of yesterday and of the day before yesterday are awaiting valuation and revaluation? The criterion laid down in the selection of books for this list was a simple one. (1) They must be popular with the young. ‘That is, they must have passed the examination of frank and unbiased boyish criticism. (2) ‘They must have literary merit. The books on this list all are writ- ten in good clear style, show knowledge of plot construction, and evince 1See ist at end of address. 1024 NatIoNAL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION views of life which may be shot through with adventure and excitement, but which are never distorted. If we believe at all in literature as a living and moving force, we must be ready to bear witness to our faith. Any boy can read the cheap maga- zine, the cheap school story, the rehash of Jules Verne or H. G. Wells, which reveals to an observer the pirate’s lack of knowledge, of good taste, even of the ordinary canons of rudimentary art. But we must not be content with what any boy can read. By all means, I should say to my boys, cultivate a love of good books— make yourselves book-lovers. You will gain much besides mere amuse- ment. You will gain mental strength and moral tone. Your daily work in after life will draw upon reserve stores which you-are laying up uncon- sciously by your contact with great personalities. Hours of loneliness will be to you unknown, so long as you are within reach of books; you will - have congenial companionship—and the better the books the better the company. The book of travel will open up new realms for you, in your own country or in the uttermost part of the sea; in the heavens above or in the waters under the earth. ‘The biography will introduce you to good men and true—brave soldiers and far-wandering navigators—great hearts that you are the better for knowing; the novel and the drama will stir your imagination and your emotions deeper than ever plummet sounded. Does this sound fanciful? Perhaps so. Yet it seems to me that the whole experiment is worth a careful trial. SUGGESTIVE LIST OF BOOKS FOR BOYS COMPILED FOR THE NEW ENGLAND SCHOOL LIBRARY ASSOCIATION This list is neither exhaustive nor final; it is intended to be a guide for those who are interested in the question of sound reading for boys of high- school age, and to serve as the basis of further experiment. It is the out- growth of tests extending over a number of years; all the books cited have been submitted to frank schoolboy criticism. As the “classics” normally form part of regular school work, it was judged best to omit them from a list of “outside” reading. The few recent publications included are those which were found especially well adapted to the purpose in hand. School life— Tom Brown’s Schooldays, Thomas Hughes. Vice Versa, F. Anstey. The Hill, H. A. Vachell. Jeremy, Hugh Walpole. The Tennessee Shad, Owen Johnson. The Jester of St. Timothy’s, Arthur S. Pier. Stalky and Co., Rudyard Kipling. The sea— Mr. Midshipman Easy, Captain Marryat. Tom Cringle’s Log, Michael Scott. Two Years Before the Mast, R. H. Dana. Moby Dick, or the White Whale, Herman Melville. Liprary DEPARTMENT 1025 The Cruise of the Cachelot, F. T. Bullen. A Year with a Whaler, W. N. Burns. The Wreck of the Grosvenor, W. Clark Russell. The Captain of the Kansas, Louis Tracy. Captains’ Courageous, Rudyard Kipling. Dory Mates, Kirk Munroe. Out of Gloucester, J. B. Connolley. Youth, Joseph Conrad. The Nigger of the Narcissus, Joseph Conrad. Naval Occasions, ‘“Bartimeus.” The Mutineers, C. B. Hawes. Lost Ships and Lonely Seas, R. D. Paine. Travel and exploration— In the South Seas, Robert Louis Stevenson. Mystic Isles of the South Seas, Edward O’Brien. Through India and Burmah with Pen and Brush, A. H. Fraser. Across Australia, Spencer and Gillan. The Old Transport Road, A. Melrose (South Africa). South! Sir Ernest Shackelton. Journal of Captain Scott. (The two preceding books deal with the South Antarctic Continent. ) Four Years in the Arctic, Donald MacMillan. Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle, Charles Darwin. Policing the Plains, R. G. McBeth (Canadian Northwest). Campfires in the Canadian Rockies, R. Hornaday. Locality— (Books in which the setting has a special significance.) Old Times on the Mississippi, Mark Twain. Roughing It, Mark Twain. The Virginian, Owen Wister. Robbery Under Arms, Rolf Boldrewood. The Raiders, S. R. Crockett. Black Rock, Ralph Connor. Doctor Luke of the Labrador, Norman Duncan. The Mirror of the Sea, Joseph Conrad. The Blazed Trail, Stewart Edward White. Animals— Wild Animals I have Known, Ernest Thompson-Seton. Bob, Son of Battle, Alfred Ollovant. Grayfriar’s Bobby, E. §. Atkinson. Black Beauty, Anna Sewall. Jock of the Bushvelt, R. Fitzgerald. A Dog of Flanders, Louise de la Ramee. Rab and His Friends, Dr. John Brown. The Call of the Wild, Jack London. Lad—a Dog, Albert Terhune. Scally, Ian Hay. The Bar Sinister, R. H. Davis. Wild Brother, W. L. Underwood. The School of the Woods, R. Long. A dventure— King Solomon’s Mines, H. Rider Haggard. Soldiers of Fortune, R. H. Davis. The Prisoner of Zenda, Anthony Hope. The Wings of the Morning, Louis Tracy. The Great Impersonation, E. Phillips Oppenheim. Historical novels— ‘ (The dates indicate the approximate periods in which the action takes place.) The Count of the Saxon Shore, Alfred Church. Close of the Roman Occupation of Britain. 412. Hereward the Wake, Charles Kingsley. The Last Stand of the Saxons against the Normans. 1070. 1026 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Richard Yea and Nay, Maurice Hewlitt. A Study of Richard ieathe Lion-Hearted. Some period as Ivanhoe. 1190. The White Company, Sir A. Conan Doyle. England and Europe at the Beginning of the Hundred Years’ War. 1360-70. The Cloister and the Hearth, Charles Read. Dawn of the Renaissance—Europe. 1470-80. The Black Arrow, Robert Louis Stevenson. England Just before the Wars of the Roses. 1480. Westward Ho! Charles Kingsley. The Reign of Queen Elizabeth. 1560-88. Master Skylark, John Bennett. Shakespeare’s London. 1600. Old St. Paul’s, Harrison Ainsworth. The Plague and Great Fire of London. 1665-6. Lorna Doone, Richard Blackmore. Western England and Monmouth’s Rebellion. 1670-90. Henry Esmond, William Makepeace Thackeray. Early Eighteenth Century; Reign of Queen Anne. About 1700-13. The Seats of the Mighty, Gilbert Parker. Struggle of France and England for Canada. 1750. The Scarlet Pimpernel, Baroness Orczy. French Revolution. About 1793. The Broad Highway, Geoffrey Farnol. Social Life; Late Eighteenth Century. St. Ives, Robert Louis Stevenson. Napoleonic Wars. About 1800. Rodney Stone, Sir A. Conan Doyle. Early Nineteenth Century—the “Regency.” 1810. Ramona, Helen Hunt Jackson. California in the “Forties.” On the Face of the Waters, F. A. Steele. Life in India—the Indian Mutiny 1857. Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe. The South before the War. Red Rock, Thomas Nelson Page. The War and the Reconstruction Period. Humor— Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain. Three Men in a Boat, Jerome K. Jerome. Many Cargoes, W. W. Jacobs. Spanish Gold, George Birmingham. Abroad at Home, J. L. Street. Nonsense Novels, Stephen Leacock. Three Men and a Maid, P. G. Wodehouse. Miscellaneous— Everyday Adventures, S. Scoville, Jr. With the Men Who Do Things, A. R. Bond. Romance of Modern Inventions, Archibald Williams. Flame, Electricity, and the Camera, Geo. Iles. Thomas Alva Edison, S. A. Jones. Chemistry of Common Things, R. B. Brownlee. Half Hours with the Stars, Mary Proctor. Buccaneers and Pirates of Our Coasts, Frank R. Stockton. Home Radio, How to Make and Use It, A. H. Verrill. Harper’s Aircraft Book, A. H. Verrill. Short stories— The Outcasts of Poker Flat, etc., Bret Harte. Soldiers Three; The Day’s Work; Puck of Pook’s Hill, Rudyard Kipling. Main Travelled Roads, Hamlin Garland. ee Pierre and His People, Sir Gilbert Parker. : The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, Sir A. Conan Doyle. Liprary DEPARTMENT 1027 The Four Million, O. Henry. Thirty Strange Stories, H. G. Wells. Tom and I on the Old Plantation, Archibald Rutledge. Tales of Our Coast, “Q.” Ghost Stories of an Antiquary, M. James. Poetry— (Experience with the following selections has shown that it is possible to interest normal boys in good poetry in a normal way.) i The Ghost Heath Run (Reynard the Fox), John Masefield. The Story ofja Roundhouse, John Masefield. Collected Verse of Rudyard Kipling. Tales of the Mermaid Tavern, Alfred Noyes. Rhymes of a Red Cross Man, Robert Service. Modern American and British Poetry, Untermeyer. The following books have been found useful for boys who wish to write for their school papers, or who are interested in writing generally. The Short Story, Albright. Short Story Writing, Barrett. ra The Plot of the Short Story, Phillips. Self-Cultivation in English, Palmer. A Study of Prose Fiction, Bliss Perry. Essentials of Poetry, Cross. Handbook of Poetics, Gummere. OPPORTUNITIES IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARIES LAURA GROVER SMITH, LIBRARIAN OF THE VIRGIL JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA The Junior High School Library plays its part in the general scheme of the junior high school plan, it works for the same objectives and shares the same opportunities. As is well known, the plan originated in California, and was first worked out as feasible in Los Angeles. ‘There are at present eight schools of this kind in the city, two are ready for next year, and five more are to be built from the last bond issue. ‘The librarians in all high schools rank as teachers and are subject to the same laws governing salaries, vacations, and retirement. As some of you may not be familiar, other than theoretically, with the junior high school plan, I may be pardoned for using the various “‘ob- jectives” as a series of texts. Retaining ninth grade children in the Junior High School is to start them far on the way to a higher education, and has prevented the exodus at the end of the eighth grade which was formerly a discouraging feature. This saving of children for the higher schools is perhaps the first great achievement of the plan. "To accomplish this, it was found necessary to vitalize education. ‘The library has aided in this, by direct reference work and in supplying illustrative material of all kinds, making the daily lesson a picturesque thing, a reality based on things that are. For example, in the study of geography there is infinite material about the great natural and artificial water-ways of the world, the commerce of countries and the way people live. Geography is no longer only a glib 1028 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION oo recitation of the capitals of the world, with maps of wavy ocean lines and series of parentheses for mountains. We have to compete with the movies in the way of visual education, and the school librarian should be as keen a gatherer of facts as the editor of a newspaper, and as efficient in present- ing them to her voracious readers. The Junior High School age is what my mother called “the apple core and book age.” ‘There is no other time in life when reading gives such keen pleasure, and no other time in life when education can be so pleasantly disguised as these three junior high school years, the sseventh, eighth, and ninth grades. Besides, reading the inevitable and desirable stories, this is the age when a child glimpses gallant and high-minded living by reading biography—the story of General Gordon Hawkes “Hitting the Dark Trail,” “Roosevelt, the Happy Warrior,” and many others. He learns of interesting experiences by reading “Ten Thousand Miles with a Dog Sled,” “The Story of New England Whalers,” “The Romance of Aircraft,” and something of science :n Mitton’s “Story of the Stars,” and acquires a new angle on mathematics, in Dr. Smith’s “Number Stories of Long Ago.” He see great events afresh in Hall’s “High Adventure,” and in achievement what can be more fas- cinating than the Curtis book “The Flight Across the Atlantic.” The junior high school provides a better provision for the gradual transt- tion from the elementary to the high school. It was found that the average eighth grade child was too young physically and mentally for association and competition with older boys and girls. Ninth-grade children who remain in the junior high schools make a better showing in the tenth grade, having had one more year of individual supervision. Entering the seventh grade is the first “grown up” step in a child’s life, therefore, this year of encouraged reading is of great benefit to the child; he is still young enough to be guided. It does not often happen that a boy does not care to read, but occasionally one does not, and if he can be persuaded to read one book, and the choice has been a happy one, a reader has been made, and life has been made more interesting for not only that boy, but his group. In this transition age, the librarian must supplement the card catalogue. No matter how many analytics are made, she is still a librarian plus the card catalogue, and in the high school it may be and should be, the card catalogue plus the librarian. John and Mary become Mr. Brown and Miss Jones in the high school, but in the junior high they are still little boys and girls, and must be helped to think—the librarian is building bridges all day. Another objective of the junior high school plan is the adapting of the course of study to the individual needs of adolescent youth. ‘The library aids in this by supplementing the usual course of study and suggesting ways of adapting new material. In connection with the new note in education, the possibility of the “beyond average” child advancing along individual lines is assisted by the librarian’s oversight of his reading. As there are Liprary DEPARTMENT 1029 men and women who attain more culture and acquire more general informa- tion, so there are children with a like facility, and added opportunities should be furnished them. The normal group of children quite naturally find the average in books, and as we have the super-normal, we have also the more or less subnormal group, with its claim for special books. One of our greatest pleasures is working with the English teachers— we seem to have much in common and reach the same objectives by much the same roads. I recall one teacher who teaches the children to love the books they are required to read. Her class was reading a Shakespeare play when one of the little girls came in to find out, what “Love lies a-bleeding” was. With some research we found it was a flower. The class had been finding the flowers mentioned in the play, and in that way had learned to know the background of beautiful old gardens and the hedges and woods of England, which Shakespeare looked upon. In connection with the codperation of the departments of the schools and the librarians, the junior high school librarians of Los Angeles have recently compiled a list of books of about 1800 titles which I think is the first one definitely arranged for this new departure in schools. It shows the gradual approach from the elementary to the high schools with the necessary overlapping at each end. ‘The preparation of this list was a revelation of the individuality of our various junior high schools. The classification was divided among us, and we proceeded to put on the list the books we thought useful. There was great difference of opinion, and in this way, we were able to arrive at a somewhat basic list, by a process of elimination and addition. It is a limited list, many of the best books we have are not in it, but it is at least tentative and suggestive, and because compiled by a group is general in character. The possibility of enforcing more suitable discipline for children of the ninth-grade age is obviously an advantage in the junior high school. In this, the library also functions with the school. ‘The librarian has many ways of reaching the child, and is frequently able to give a bit of kindly advice, which a boy will accept. The fact that she has been able now and then to help him over a rough spot in his studies makes him sufficiently grateful and appreciative, to be willing to accept a suggestion as to morals and manners. The library being a place of special privilege, it is easy for the librarian to point a moral by withdrawing the library privilege. There is no doubt about the library and concentration—as a boy said to me one day “When a boy is reading, he is just as good as dead.” I know of nothing that diverts a group of reading boys except the arrival of the Radio News. If I pass through the room with the latest number, they rise here and there like fish to bait, asking for the first privilege. Likewise, when I have a number of new books, both boys and girls seem to know it by subconscious mind and find their way to the shelf, almost in a trance. I wonder what there is about bound volumes to make them so delight- 1030 NaTIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION ful—I remember when we were children, the old volumes of Harpers were enchanting. Our school children read the bound volumes of the National Geographic, Popular Mechanics, Outlook, and Literary Digest, with as much pleasure as they would stories. “Exploratory Opportunities” is the somewhat generic phrase familiar in Junior High Schools that defines opportunities made for the side excursions of the child’s mind. It is the age of ideals, of dreams, of imagination, of experiments, and a constructive sense which is mixed with a love of adven- ture. This mind traveling would not be possible without the library. In these magic years the child finds himself in a great field with freedom to wander—a few years later his vision narrows with the definite aims of life and successful education must go in paths. As some have said this is the age one teaches children—a little later one teaches subjects. Our scientific magazines are torn into shreds and tatters—we take Scientific American, Popular Science, Popular Mechanics, and Radio News, and at the end of the month, there is nothing left to bind, but all that scientific information has found its place in the active minds of the children, and we take extra copies for binding. Still another objective, in the Junior High School, or perhaps advantage better expresses it, is a social one. Teachers are able to come nearer the children, and so nearer the parents with children of this age. Our library is the common meeting-ground—1100 children are assigned to the library twice a week, and may come for special reference at any time with per- mission from the teacher. Consequently we know them very well, having met each one at least twice a week during the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. Whether a child is conscious of it or not, there is a continuing influence, and he must, with no effort on his part become a reader of books. Such systematic exposure to the atmosphere of books, must leave a permanent impression. School libraries are feeders of the Public Library, as an army of trained readers go out from the schools each year. The parent-teachers in our school have a friendly feeling for the library— every year they give a tea in the large room—about the time our new books are on display. I am usually asked to talk a little on our work and the books. The consequence is, that the mothers realize something of the collateral influence the library has in the school and are reassured as to what and why their children are reading. “The reaction from this is that I have many requests as to what books are good for Johnny’s birthday and Christmas presents. This so-called pre-vocational age is the time of reading and formulating ideals. Not that these children are being pledged to certain vocations— they are simply having spread before them the range of human activities. There was a pre-vocational survey made in our school recently with the interesting revelation that more than half of our 1100 children expect to go to college and a large proportion have decided on professions implying a college education. Liprary DEPARTMENT 1031 ee SSS All Junior High School librarians have children as assistants, and in addi- tion to the five periods of work each week, one period of instruction along this general outline is given, on the structure and history of the book, simple classification and the card catalogue, magazines, and the Readers’ Guide— the dictionary and encyclopedia, special reference books, and something about the editors, publishers, and libraries of the world. After a lesson on simple classification and a talk on the card catalogue, one of the boys came to me and asked “Was Callimachus anything like Dewey?” I con- fessed to knowing something about Mr. Dewey but nothing about Calli- machus. He, however, informed me that “the guy Callimachus was the librarian of the great library at Alexandria and made a classified catalogue of the books,” which afterwards I learned is all we know of its priceless treasures. Our lesson on the dictionary revealed many surprises and delighted the class—especially about the retirement of old and the making of new words—aviate, nose dive, hangar, shoot, camera, and now, broadcast, jam- ming the ether, and hook up. Real estate agent and insurance agent have recently been scrapped, and the dignified insuror and realtor taken the place. Hike and joy-ride are in the last Funk and Wagnalls dictionary— the latter gravely defined as ‘‘a ride taken in some one else’s automobile, usually at a high rate of speed.” Another of my boys, so his father tells me, thinks that the library economy would be greatly improved, if the publisher would stamp the classification number on the back of the book and on the title page when it is published ! This opened endless possibilities. “The publishers might send the skeletons of their books to a committee of the American Library Association, who would classify them as is done in the book list—and how it would simplify everything if catalogue cards could accompany each book! ‘That is too much to dream—but the fact of the boy thinking of it was interesting. At the suggestion of one of our teachers we are starting something new, a teachers’ library class. ‘They come at the lunch hour and have their lunch in the library, and we talk about library things, the classification, and brush up on the card catalogue, about our magazines and recent articles, something of publishers and editors, library news, and late books. In this mutual interchange we are helping each other, and next year we think it will develop into an interesting symposium with an occasional outside speaker. Each term we hope to have, perhaps, four or six of these meetings. It is a sensitive age with children “where the brook and river meet.” The librarian who is obviously not over the child, as one who is trying to make him work and marking him for the ability to do that work, has another kind of influence and a grave responsibility. T’o paraphrase— what a child readeth so he thinketh. It is a shining opportunity to be in at the character moulding of children. One sees beautiful expectant youth with eyes toward an unseen goal—as he attains it he will receive the gifts of wisdom and understanding, the knowledge of good and evil, and on the way will write his own page in the Book of Life. 1032 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION THE STIMULATION OF OUTSIDE READING AMONG HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS HELEN W. COSGROVE, INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH, HORACE MANN SCHOOL, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY What children, especially children of high-school age, shall read outside of school and how they shall be encouraged to read more and better books are questions that are challenging every one at all interested in children and books. Mine, naturally, is the teacher’s viewpoint, and I should like to present to you for consideration, and possibly discussion, some conclusions I have reached in regard to the stimulation of outside reading among high- school pupils. First, the purpose of reading is fun and more fun;-second, the major purpose of an English teacher is to make reading fun, and in order to do this she needs to be a book expert; third, the way to stimulate children to read is to help them find fun and more fun of an increasingly higher type. First, the purpose of reading is fun and more fun. I have used the word “fun” purposely instead of our more academic term “pleasure.” Can you remember when you first read Robinson Crusoe, or Little Women, or David Copperfield? Wasn’t it fun to live with the characters, to laugh when they laughed, to cry when they cried, to do brave deeds or have thrilling adventures? Didn’t you ever rise from extreme poverty to the epitome of luxury, overcoming innumerable obstacles with an Alger hero; or go through innumerable colleges with a Patty or a Frank Merriwell? Haven’t you fought battles with Ivanhoe, walked to the guillotine with Sydney Carton, mourned the lost gold with Silas Marner, and rebelled with Carol Kennicott, or agonized with Alice Adams? Wasn’t it fun? On the other hand, can you remember when you first looked up all the new words in the first three chapters of “Treasure Island,” studied the para- graphs, bisected the chapters, and trisected the plot until the joy was gone out of it? How you gradually came to build a wall between the books you read in school and those you read by yourself for fun? ‘The last situation is undoubtedly exaggerated, but the fact remains that children do regard reading in school and outside of school as two entirely separate activities. In the early part of May candidates for admission to Horace Mann in the following year present themselves with their credentials for examina- tion, and members of different departments meet them and question them, to find out if they are fitted for the work of the department in that particu- lar grade. Among the candidates last year was a little girl, aged fifteen, whom we will call Marjorie for convenience, accompanied by her mother. When I asked, “Do you like to read?” I got an enthusiastic affirmative. “What do you read?” “Good books, the classics,” came in affected tones accompanied by approving smiles from mother. “What do you mean by good books?” Marjorie started to explain, but her mother interrupted, “Aren’t you acquainted with the classics? I should think it was your place to know,” and launched into a lengthy description of the complete set Liprary DEPARTMENT 1033 of the World’s Best Literature, which she had just purchased. Later, when Marjorie handed in her written work I had a chance to ask another question. ‘““What do you read just for fun?” Her face brightened. ‘Oh, my brothers’ books, the Boy Scouts Series, they’re great; and I just love Swiss Family Robinson. Ivanhoe is great, too. I like knights and fighting.”’ Then she added ‘That is a good book, too.” That term “good book” I somehow find objectionable. It has an in- sincere, snobbish connotation and suggests an arbitrary separation into sheep and goats. It doesn’t seem to me culture is as simple a thing as having read a certain list of standard books, the Five-foot Bookshelf of advertising fame, for instance. It seems to me that the essential thing is an honest taste for reading just books, and a good book will be a matter of self-determination on the part of each individual. It is a term very much qualified by the time, place, and person. For little Johnny from East One Thoity-thoid Street, coming to me in the summer session, “The Motor Boat Boy” was a very good book. He could think and talk nothing but boats and motors, so we thrilled over Jack and his pals on the motor boat where something happens on every page. We agreed that thrilling things happen on the sea and I suggested “Captains Courageous.’ For two days there was silence. ‘Then came remarks. ‘Gee, that fellow likes boys, don’t he? Did he write more stories like that?” I had to admit no more sea stories just like that, but put several volumes of Kipling in easy reach. However, near the Kipling lay a volumne of Terhune, ‘Bruce, a War Dog.” That went the rounds and the cry was for more animal stories. The hope would be that the Motor Boat Series was a thing of the past and that he was ready for a classic, but he probably wasn’t. However, those boys found their books sincerely good, and tested both books and authors by a safe and honest standard—their nearness to life. Academically we may raise our eyebrows at Zane Grey, but he has given many an eastern boy his only acquaintance with cowboys and ranchers on the western plains. John Fox, Jr., has made many of us who might never have the privilege or opportunity know the mountain folk of the South. Mark Twain has left none of us unable to experience the feelings of a real live harum-scarum boy. If breadth of mind means the taking into consideration of other points of view, then these books certainly widen the experience. Honore Willsie’s “Enchanted Canyon” may fall short in many respects of becoming a classic, but the reader is entertainingly in- formed about the Grand Canyon and about a great deal of the work of the Department of the Interior. History books can give all that, but you know that facts, situations, and problems that form the background of a gripping story are more real and consequently more lasting. Seeing one of Ralph Barbour’s books on the desk of one of the boys in the summer school, I asked, “Why do you always read Barbour’s books?” ‘Because I like the fellows in them,” came the answer. “Why do you like them?” ‘‘Because they always play square. They do the right thing.” Sam and a great many others are at the point where they like their heroes 1034 NatIionAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION perfect, and the villains must always be properly punished. From that point of view actions are judged ; but the very fact that the young readers begin to judge actions, even from so obvious a standard, is a point in favor. I do not mean by all this that I do not make any distinctions between books. I most certainly do, and I think the fun in the game for the teacher is helping the child to find those distinctions, but I have come more and more to believe that if we are going to stimulate children to better and better reading, we must meet them on their own level whatever it is, and help them climb up. My girls of three years ago put the case rather aptly and the phrase still clings in the classes. After a time they began to dub many books that were reported on ‘Goce cream stories,” and explained the phrase by saying that some books were very nice while they lasted, but they left only a flat taste afterwards. So we began to look for books that had the fun of the “ice cream tale,” but which in addition gave us something fine and real beside. Some of the booklists prepared by those classes, I think, show that some at least are climbing up to pure, intellectual fun in reading. Is there any one who hasn’t had the experience of being asked all in five minutes, “Where can I find somé good sea stories? I like books with lots of fights. What’s the name of a good detective story? My mother says ghost stories aren’t good for me to read. Why not? Did you ever read any of Ethel Dell’s books? Who wrote some good stories about the French Revolution?” I think it’s a not unusual occurrence for many of us, and it is the reason for my second contention—the English teacher needs to be a book expert. It goes without saying that we must love to read and have read much, and that our reading must be catholic. I'd like to add here, if I may, a very necessary postscript to an English teacher’s background, I think it may well be a prayer—‘‘Dear Lord, let me never forget the books I read in my youth, classic or no; and let me never forget the thrill of a first attack on a thoroughly good story.” For if we have forgotten the first joy of “Tom Sawyer” or “Treasure Island,” can we ever share it with a group? An English teacher can’t afford to let good stories become old stories. “Keeping up with literature,” when 100 wide-awake girls set the pace, I find is no small task, though I had thought that I read quite a little. With limited time, then, what is the best way to know all the available material ? ‘There are many aids that I’ll name over, though probably most of them are familiar: The publications of the High School Librarians’ Association ; the A. L. A. “Booklist”; ‘“The Children’s Bookshop Lists” (published by the Women’s Industrial Union, Boston) ; the “Boy Scout List” ; individual lists of various schools which one gathers from one’s locality. Let me say in passing that such lists are primarily for the teacher and not to be placed promiscuously in children’s hands. Current literature is just as important “to keep up with,” especially when one considers the number and popularity of magazines published. One class of thirty girls last March reported over 100 magazines read in Lisrary DEPARTMENT 1035 their homes. Of course it is impossible to know and read all, but one should have the monthly habit of dropping in at the library and reading the best standard ones. Other helps for keeping in touch with the newest in literature are the book reviews in the papers (Saturday edition of the Evening Post and Sunday Times and Tribune in the vicinity of New York) ; book reviews in magazines, such as the A ftlantic’s Bookshelf; book ads in magazines, where.full reviews and quotations from reviews are fre- quently given; publishers’ catalogues; and lastly, the Boo&list, published monthly by the A. L. A. Now, for the third point. How is one going to help children to find more and more fun of an increasingly high type? ‘Three years ago I started in my present position, and one of the first questions raised in my fourth-year or Sophomore classes concerned outside reading. Was I going to require outside reading? How many a month would I require? Would I post lists? What kind of written reports did I want? One of the very few instructions I had received as a new instructor was “encourage them to read.” My experience in the past with posted lists and lengthy reports had not been too:satisfactory. ‘To the first question I countered, ‘“Aren’t you all reading anyway?” “But those don’t count,’ was the answer. “Why not? Why shouldn’t they?” Would I count them? Before I could consider an answer, ‘“‘Let’s not have reports; let’s talk about them instead,’ came. And so what amounted to a book forum started, in which we mutually discussed the books we'd read and tried to pass on the best of a story that had thrilled us so that the rest would want to thrill too. It was in this connection that the phrase “ice cream story” started after a number of best-sellers, so-called, had proved thin and flat discussion ma- terial, and of a remarkable sameness. Gradually through the free, and sometimes alarmingly frank, discussions, standards began to evolve, which, though they did not prevent or cure light reading, caused it to be evaluated almost invariably at its true worth. Most of the success of this beginning venture with outside reading, | lay to the fact that the first book on the list for class study in that year was the ‘““Tale of Iwo Cities,” which is most admirably adapted to group discussion, and that, after all, is only the kind of conversation we all like best. The class work almost invariably colors the outside reading some- what, if not in type, in author. For instance, the fire of revolt in Dickens’ tale led to more stories of that period—‘“The Reds of Midi” and “The Scarlet Pimpernel,’ even to some reading in Carlyle’s history, which I slipped on to the class reserve shelf; spread out into stories about France and by French authors; and eventually was replaced by reading of dramas, because the class work had marched on through some Shakespeare, “The Rivals,” and ‘Beau Brummel,” by Fitch. ‘That in turn gave way to the making of short-story bibliographies when our class book was “Atlantic Narratives” (second series). Since we were spending so much time and thought on this reading the need arose for some way of keeping track of it in order to give credit. 1036 NatIoNAL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION The regulation library card was finally adopted as being most convenient for the girls and for me. It was easy to check and easily taken care of, for many girls began to keep individual lists in card boxes. At first it was filled out bearing the following heads: Title, author, setting, char- acters (important only), plot (one sentence), and comment. Very soon, however, it came to bear beside title and author, only the comment, the argument being that was the vital part anyway. What I have just described of one group was more or less typical of the others, for of course the idea spread and has persisted. “To have the reaction the same is to expect what we all know is impossible in dealing with human beings; but the principle of free and informal discussion in class groups has remained. Instead of individual lists, with a posting from time to time of class lists, this year each class kept a box in which all the groups filed their cards for the year, and that box was accessible to any member who wished a suggestion for something to read. One group this year introduced the discussion of movies and plays the members had seen ; another became interested in the writers of the books, an interest that led into reading biographies; still another freshman group, having become ‘nterested in the word “bibliography” pursued the making of bibliographies for several months. The discussions that attended this interest and the resulting widespread reading were gratifying. That same group started and conducted during this year a circulating library which they called the green vegetable department, in contrast to the guaranteed canned goods to be procured in the school library. Need I say the books were largely modern? The initiation fee was a book; one borrowed them at five cents a week. Although the group work just described was the biggest single part of the problem of outside reading, there were many other helps, all of which you are no doubt in the habit of using. An illustrated edition or an especially well bound edition of some story brought into class and talked over, rarely fails to bring a response and creates in many a desire for ownership. A reserve shelf in the library, or in some easily accessible spot if the school has no library, is another help. Finding a shelf of in- teresting books, relating to a class discussion, right at hand frequently starts an interest that might never have come to life if one had to hunt the shelves over to locate material; and the interest is later often vol- untarily pursued. Before leaving the point altogether, I want to say an especial word about poetry. Young people frequently have an aversion to it as being difficult to understand, but that doesn’t happen if they hear it first and learn to like it that way. For adults even, poetry is best read aloud, and where read silently the one who is enjoying it is constantly aware of its aural qualities. So if we would have poetry on their book lists and shelves it is my belief we must read it aloud and have it read beginning with those in which the rhythm is strong and the story easy, like Noyes’s “Highway Man,” Kipling’s “Ballad of East and West” or “Gunga Dhin.” Collec- Liprary DEPARTMENT 1037 tions such as “Poems of Action,” Jessie Rittenhouse’s Anthologies, or “One Hundred Narrative Poems” (Lake Classics) are good for desk and reserve shelf. Poetry, more than any other type of literature, it seems to me, requires of us that we meet the individual on a common level, make the joy and the fun most apparent, and climb up with him. The big point then that I would like to make in this connection is the one I stumbled on by -accident. The most successful way to stimulate reading by children is to get into the fun with them, thrill with them, laugh with them; help them carry on and carry on with them the kind of conversation we all enjoy most—a give and take of opinions of the books we read and the plays we see. That is what they are going to be doing when they leave school rather than analyzing paragraphs and out- lining plots. So I would like to conclude with the ideas with which I started: the purpose of reading is fun and more fun; the major purpose of an English teacher is to make reading fun, and in order to do this she needs to be a book expert; the way to stimulate children to read is to help them to find fun and more fun of a higher type. TRAINING FOR SCHOOL LIBRARIANS RUTH TOBEY, TERRE HAUTE, INDIANA In the development of school libraries, one factor looms large—the necessity for a well-trained, able person to administer the school library. The committee on Library Organization and Administration of the Na- tional Education Association has given us standards for the qualifications and professional requirements which are necessary to produce this well- trained, able person. Its report states that the librarian of a high school should have a college or university degree and one year post-graduate library training in an approved library school, that the librarian of a junior high school should be a normal-school graduate with college or university training in addition and be a graduate of an approved library school with special training in children’s work. These are admirable standards and we should work for their adoption wherever possible. In some States it is useless to urge their adoption, for the qualifications for teachers are not that high. In those States one cannot expect the school authorities to insist on these requirements for their school librarian, even were there an ade- quate supply of qualified librarians to be had. Furthermore, there are many small high schools in communities with no public library, or, at least, no adequate one, where the school authorities are awake to the possibilities of a school library and eager to institute one or improve the one they already have. But their school funds do not permit them to hire a thoroughly trained full-time librarian. What can be done to meet such a situation? Being in the work I am interested in what normal schools are doing and can do for high schools and grade schools in the small communities with no adequate public library facilities and with no funds for a full-time highly qualified school librarian ? 1038 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Are we going to let things drift and see the school stenographer or an especially bright high-school graduate take charge of the library, or are we going to prepare teachers and prospective teachers to take part-time jobs as school librarians? If the latter, what can the normal schools require of these students? In the first place, we can substitute for the library-school course recom- mended by the committee technical courses covering cataloguing, classifica- tion, library economy, book selection and evaluation, use of reference books, indices, and library helps, care and loaning of books, equipment and., ad- ministration of a library, and how to instruct children to use and enjoy books and libraries, given by a competent library staff. Granted that the students in these classes will go into small school libraries as part-time librarians, the instruction in these subjects should not only be limited to the scope of school library work but all the processes taught should be simplified with the idea of a small library in mind. By eliminating non-essentials, the handicap of the shorter time given to this work will be diminished. In the second place, the normal school should give credit for practice work in the library field, this to consist, first, of reference work with chil- dren, and any other phase of library work in the children’s department under the supervision of the normal librarian who has charge of the work with the children, and, second, of practice in teaching the use of books and libraries to the children of the training school. As to academic requirements, the fact that the librarian is part-time teacher will insure the minimum State requirements for teachers. But the mere diploma is not enough, the choice of subjects that lead to this diploma is very important. In the first place, what courses in education will help the prospective librarian ? Her work in education should include a study of methods, first of all, not only that she may intelligently meet the teachers on professional grounds, but that she may be able, for example, to correlate the teaching of Readers’ Guide with the work in civics and history, that she may make the library a vital part in the various project problems undertaken in her school. ‘Then she should study curricula, for in order to administer her library successfully, she must know the curriculum of the modern school and especially her own. Literature is, of course, another subject of primary importance. Au- thorities are generally agreed that literature is the best major for a teacher- librarian, for teaching literature and administering a school library go to- gether logically. In this literature work a course in children’s literature is highly desirable. Whether a junior-high school librarian or a high- school librarian, a knowledge of the folklore, fairy tales, fables, and heroic stories of all ages is essential for a thorough appreciation of literature. History is another subject, the knowledge of which is necessary for the efficient school librarian. And as history these days is taught with an emphasis on economic and social problems, courses in economics and sociology should be required. Child psychology or educational psychology | Liprary DEPARTMENT 1039 is a course generally required of all prospective teachers and is anothe: fundamental subject for the librarian. I can hear many of you say—this is all very well but how can you require all these subjects of people who already have so much required work to take in order to get their teaching certificate? This is a problem and a rather difficult one at that. But if there is any virtue in teacher-librarian courses, is not this the time to study what should be included in such a curriculum and then, in the event of changes in the general normal school curriculum, put in our plea at the proper moment for an adjustment whereby these subjects can be required? I am strongly convinced that in normal schools are many opportunities for the solution of problems relating to curricula of school librarian courses, for the teacher’s viewpoint and knowledge of educational technique so necessary for our school librarians, is there, right at hand. THE CHILD’S OWN READING FREDERIC G. MELCHER, CHAIRMAN OF THE “CHILDREN’S BOOK WEEK” MOVEMENT, NEW YORK CITY If there is truth in the saying that there must perpetually be a race be- tween education and catastrophe, we will all agree that it is the children who must be groomed for the race. Opinions may differ, however, as to the regimen to be offered to the young people, the character and theory of coaching, and also as to the value of children’s own theories of prepara- tion. ‘The catastrophe which is to be avoided is not wholly food shortage, but, what we fear even more, a lessened vision or a decreased faculty of leadership. A short time ago I was visiting a Western library and was to be shown a collection of books that had been gathered for a Children’s Book Week display, a collection to show how much foreign countries had contributed to our reading heritage. While the bookcases, which were in the back of a lecture room, were being opened, I heard a teacher talking to a Uni- versity Extension Division about Browning's life and education, emphasiz- ing the fact that Browning’s education had been personal and informal and not in class groups. ‘This, the teacher thought, gave new emphasis to the old saying that the ideal education consisted of Mark Hopkins at one end of the log and a pupil at the other. If there is any pedagogical saying that gives me continued irritation, it is the Mark Hopkins’ anecdote—the argument that only by individual tutoring can genius be developed. Such conditions of teaching will never exist, and one wonders whether we must forever consider our class groups as a handicap to effective education. I could not but think as the teacher spoke, that if there had been children in the room instead of advanced students they could have turned to those book shelves and found a way to every part of the globe, to every literature, to every type of writing. Surely with such chance for individual en- 1040 NaTIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION thusiasm and development as can come from open-shelf reading, there need be no fear of levelling, or that bright minds must be pulled down to the speed of dull ones. If we can but develop in our classes the habit of general reading while we are teaching the ability to read, there need be no handicap to individual growth. Turn for example to the book-list on the ballot for the Two- Foot Book Shelf, which has been in your hands today. Cannot a future leader of national affairs get inspiration from “The Hero Tales of Ameri- can History”? Cannot the boy with the pull of the sea in his veins get some sense of its power from ‘““The Cruise of the Cachalot”? Cannot the girls who are to be our home-makers get some conception of the fineness of real home life from “Little Women”? Or cannot the future business man see more clearly the characteristics of good human judgment in such a volume as “The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin”? Open-shelf reading in school might be called the cafeteria method where we put some reliance on the taste and palates of those who come by the table. It is for us to see that the menu is balanced and that the cooking and ingredients are good. This morning’s papers record prominently that this Conference has gone on record in favor of an International Educational Congress to be held next year, a congress which will emphasize anew the binding power of schools and of books. Perhaps the ground work for such a getting together of nations has already been laid in the children’s reading. Are not the picture books of Boutet de Monvel, of Caldecott, or of Larsson giving the children an insight into the ways of other countries? Are not stories such as “Heidi,” ‘“‘Pinocchio” or “The Story of Mankind” giving them knowledge into lands afar? Are not the older ones through such books as “The Three Musketeers,” ‘David Copperfield,” or “Torna Doone” getting some conception of the lives of other nations? and will not these open-shelves of the literature of other nations grow steadily until our children shall have become internationally minded and internationally tolerant? ‘This school book-shelf will not only grow in its own capacity but also through the school’s ever increasing contact with the book collec- tions of the public library and of the growing interest on the part of both schools and libraries in the increase of home book collections. In order to increase the codperative power of the different groups in- terested in the increase in reading Children’s Book Week was first de- veloped. In four years the movement has grown to be of national im- portance among all those who work with children, and has also increased the genuine interest of the boys and girls themselves. It was four years ago, at a convention on this same Copley Square, that Franklin K. Mathiews, chief librarian of the Boy Scouts of America, first suggested this plan. It was my privilege to help in its development by having close contact with booksellers and librarians, and a personal interest in the matter as a parent. The book publishers of the country, who are leading the world in the amount of intelligent interest paid to children’s needs, Liprary DEPARTMENT ; 1041 were from the start actively codperative and supplied the larger part of the funds needed for supplying material and covering the office expense. We are asked sometimes why such an effort should be encompassed in a “Week.” ‘There is a little feeling today that “weeks” are not so ef- fective medium as once they were, but it should be remembered that while we all want the increase in children’s reading to be a year-round growth, still it is impossible tojcapture the public’s attention through the news- papers over a long period. In a ‘““Week”’ it is possible to get all interested groups together and to introduce into the event some of the play spirit that will dramatize the idea in the minds of parents and children. November is selected for the date because the new books are out in greater numbers at that time and new books are stocked in larger quantities and a fresher display seen at that time, for the Christmas season is just ahead, the best time to get increases made to children’s home libraries. Children’s Book Week has certain characteristics as a promotion effort that I should like to emphasize. In the first place the plan has complete flexibility: the Committee in charge, which is made up of representatives of many interests, has no fixed program for all communities, and any idea that will work is a good idea to encourage. The Committee is able, by its circulars, to pass the good ideas from one place to communities where it can be of increasing value. Each year we need new suggestions and plans to give new aspects to the movement. In some communities they call the occasion “Good Book Week” so that the older boys and girls do not feel excluded. In some cities the movement takes on a full community aspect, in others it is only one section or group that gets started to use the occasion to its full advantage. Secondly, the movement stands for no standardized list of children’s reading, although it encourages the publica- tion of lists by any competent organization. It would not be well to crystallize into any one list of titles the whole effort to increase reading, and certainly no one is competent to draw a definitive list. Children’s libraries will grow by the attention to old titles and to new, to imaginative literature and to informative literature. Parents need concrete suggestions when their interest is aroused, and for that reason lists are of great value. Thirdly, this movement does not wish to be labeled as an uplift move- ment with the present stigma that sometimes attaches to that name. The Committee might have used for its slogan Better Books in the Home. That is really the purpose. But the wording More Books in the Home keeps it from falling under suspicion of the children themselves. Wher- ever there is discussion of children’s reading, there is discussion of better children’s reading, and only where there is no discussion do “wooden” books get their chance. Again, the movement has stood for a program that would supply a background of publicity for local efforts; to the best of their ability, the central Committee tries to inspire attention to children’s reading in newspapers, magazines, among the critics and columnists, on magazine covers and by lectures. Such general publicity creates the at- mosphere in which local efforts can thrive. If more could be done to 1042 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION —— bring good lecturers or authors or authorities on children’s reading or parents themselves to the platforms during the week of November 12, great good would be accomplished. Again, the Committee tries to supply concrete material that will enable local groups, schools, libraries, or book stores to draw the public to the problem of children’s reading. “The Jessie Willcox Smith poster, designed for the first campaign, is still in active use, because still the most effective weapon we have. This poster, of which I am sure you have seen repro- ductions, gives the feeling of the delight children can have in growing up among plenty of books. Fifteen thousand of those posters will be dis- tributed this year; in similar form it is made in postcard size and sold at the nominal price of 50 cents a hundred for the use of local committees. We also send out streamers, thousands of circulars, suggesting plans for the celebration. A favorite suggestion has been the building of Thomas Bailey Aldrich bookcases, of which a sample is in the next room. This bookcase is a replica of one in the old memorial house in Portsmouth, the working plan supplied by Mrs. Aldrich’s kind interest. Boys and girls will be interested to make such cases for their own walls. For the continuance of this work organization has been necessary, and the Committee has permanent headquarters at 334 Fifth Avenue, New York, with Miss Marion Humble in charge of the work. Interesting programs have been arranged of plays with book characters, or costume parties with many children dressed after the people in their favorite books. "There have been competitions in essays on reading with prizes, perhaps, of books offered by local stores. ‘There have been competi- tions in lists of books, some times lists of what the child actually has at home. ‘There have been competitions in poster designing or book plates. Samples of such book plates, which were made in Providence, are on exhibit. Again there have been authors’ lectures, usually in the school assembly hall or in library lecture rooms. Women’s clubs have put the subject of children’s books on their programs, ministers have talked to Sunday Schools. From our headquarters, teachers can get material and suggestions. Any teachers who wish to turn this annual. observance to their school’s ad- vantage will find that they can get codperative interest, not only from the libraries, but from women’s clubs, Sunday Schools, booksellers, boy scouts, and other groups. It is usually easy to get moving-picture houses to put on a book film and to flash an announcement of the week. In these and in a score of other ways, the interest in books can be dramatized. We should not forget also that by creating a greater audience, we are also creating literature itself, for the creator of literature is drawn out by the appreciation of literature, the author needs the audience as well as the audience needs the author. Liprary DEPARTMENT 1043 LIBRARY WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS TO FIT STUDENTS FOR THEIR WORK AS TEACHERS MARY E. RICHARDSON, LIBRARIAN, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, \ GENESEO, NEW YORK The normal seheol is the crucial point for improving the school library conditions of the State. It should send out graduates with a clear and high ideal of what a modern library should be and do. We librarians should see to it first of all that our students associate during their normal- school course with the kind of library we wish them to imitate in the pub- lic schools. We cannot be too careful what kind of library our students have access to during their normal-school course. We must give them an ideal toward which to work and that ideal must be as high as possible. I am afraid it is still true that superintendents and principals need to be convinced that the library side of the school is of as great importance as any other side of its work. In talking with the principal of a Maine high school just after a new building had been erected—a very fine building with all kinds of provision for progressive school work—the principal admitted to me that he had searched the country over for expert advice before completing the plans for most departments in the new building, but had assumed that any room would do for a library. The result is that there are not proper facilities for the librarian’s work to be done, there is not provision for a library classroom, or committee work for the students, and nearly every period there are many students sent away from the library because of lack of room. We should make our students familiar with the pamphlet, High School Libraries, by Mr. C. C. Certain, so that if they are in a town where a new building is to be erected they can at least recommend this pamphlet on the needs of the school library. By doing so, some of these errors may be avoided. A few years ago a normal-school librarian had to be her own judge of whether her library was of the type necessary to give an ideal to the students which should have the right result on the schools of the State. Now we have a measuring-stick for normal-school libraries which ought to do much toward unifying the normal schools of the country and also toward raising the standard of our libraries. ‘The National Education Association Committee, of which Mr. Kerr is chairman, has worked out some excellent standards to guide us in measuring our own libraries. So we no longer have to guess as to whether or not we come up to the requirements. There may be some points in this report with which we do not agree, but at least we have a measuring-stick and can find out what our weak points are. Let us make sure that every student who goes out from a normal school has acquired unconsciously a clear, definite, and high ideal of what part the library should play in the schools of today, just by associating for two or three years with a library which is functioning as the center of the school system. 1044 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Second, we should give students clear and definite instruction in how to use their own library intelligently, and without loss of time. Every student who comes into the school should be given such instruction that he can find his way around the library without the help of the librarian. He should be able to locate all the tools of the library, such as the card catalog, the reference books, the Reader’s Guide, the picture file, ete. In fact, he should be made to feel perfectly at home in the library during the first week of his school year. We sometimes ask each student to make a plan, locating all the tools mentioned above, and then follow this with a prob- lem which requires the use of the card catalog and involves a slight under- standing of classification. Teaching the use of reference books is a neces- sary part of “getting to feel at home in the library.” Another part of this course which is not so generally given is directing the students how to teach children in the grades about the use of the library and library tools. After getting their own background the students are prepared to answer the question “Just what of all this should be put in the first grade, the second grade, and the like?” For we believe that there is no place in the whole school system where it is so important to teach the use of the library as in the elementary grades. We believe that a child finishing the eighth grade should be able to find for himself in any public or school library all the necessary material on a given subject about which he may wish information for business or for pleasure. We believe that every child before finishing the eighth grade should have formed the library habit, so that he goes almost intuitively to the library for help when he wants information on some subject or has leisure time he wishes to spend. Beginning with the first grade let us consider what the main lesson is that we will put into each grade. In the first grade, teach the children the care of books and the reason for learning to be quiet in the library. In the second grade, make the connection with the public library, teaching the children to go there for books which they would like to take home to read. Teach also the use of the table of contents. In the third grade, give pre- paratory drills for the quick use of the dictionary, and drill on the usé of an index in a book, reviewing the table of contents. In the fourth grade, teach a little of classification, and emphasize the use of a dictionary as a reference book. In the fifth, teach the use of the card catalog; and in the sixth, teach the use of the atlas and the World Almanac. In the sev- enth and eighth grades, the children are ready to study such reference books as Who’s Who and Who’s Who in America and the quotation books—Bart- lett and Hoyt—the Brewer reference books, and to learn how to use the Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature. From the fifth grade through the eighth, the encyclopedia, the World Book, is useful. Thus, at the end of the eighth grade, as has already been stated, children will be able to go to any library, find fdr themselves material on a given subject, and in short, will have the equipment to carry on their education: through the public library. Our next responsibility is to send out teachers who are lovers of chil- dren’s books, who know thoroughly and through actual reading the best Lisrary DEPARTMENT 1045 of children’s literature. In some normal schools there is provision made for courses which give just the instruction and training necessary to do this. The home reading of the child is of the utmost importance in the child’s development of character. Only recently have we come to appreciate how large a part in the formation of character guidance in the reading of the young plays. No one can doubt this who has had the experience of watch- ing the growth of character of an individual child, under the influence of good books, from a little savage with no tastes but for eating and sleeping and fighting to a civilized boy or girl with ideas of right and wrong and ideals of truth and honesty and beauty. What better method could there possibly be of teaching a child high ideals and strong, clean morals than through good children’s literature ? Yet, a.teacher who has not a first-hand knowledge of the books for children has a serious handicap when she tries to guide their reading. So one aim of a course like this is to familiarize student teachers with the best in the world of children’s books—teaching them how to discriminate be- tween the good and the bad, and also how to study into the child’s tastes and ability in order to recommend the right book to the right child at the right time. One writer says, ‘“Without doubt there is a most favorable time in every child’s life for the reading of each book, and if offered to him at just the right age, it appeals to his nature with peculiar power even to the extent of setting him on fire. . . . There would be wonderful economy of effort if the books selected for children were always given them at just this time.” ' Another aim of this course is to teach student teachers how to introduce a book to children in such a way that the children will be interested to read the book, and at the same time not give enough to detract from the child’s enjoyment in reading it. Still another aim is to give the student teacher a background of the his- tory of children’s literature and an understanding of various classics for children. Such a background increases the teacher’s interest in the books and adds to his enjoyment of the books themselves. The real problem here is to conduct the work in such a way that the class will come sincerely to love the books they are reading or re-reading, and become so saturated with the right atmosphere that they will un- consciously radiate among children a love of the best children’s books. After a brief study of the development of children’s books from the Horn Books, Battledores and Chap Books to the books of the present day, it is well to take up books in groups and have each student read just as many from each group as is possible. We have found a very good group of books to take up first, one which makes an easy transition from the book the grown-up enjoys to the book a child enjoys, is the group which may be termed “Books about children, but interesting to adults.” I do not know of any better way to acquire the child’s point of view in reading and to developing an enjoyment of good children’s books than to read such books 1046 NatTIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION as Frances Crompton’s Gentle Heritage, or Dorothy Canfield Fisher’s Understood Betsey, or Myra Kelly’s Little Citizens. A lesson on children’s classics may well come next. A discussion of what makes such a classic is profitable. The King James version of the Bible, Homer’s Odyssey, , Chaucet’s Canterbury Tales, Spencer’s Fairy Queen, Malory’s Morte d’Arthur, the best of the Shakespeare plays, Robinson Crusoe, Gulliver’s Travels—all of these are great because they combine simplicity with strength. “They are true to life, skilful in ex- pression, are imaginative, and are universal in their appeal. In the course of study for normal-school pupils in literature for children, published by the Newark Library, we find this in regard to the classics: ~“(1) They acquaint him with the best literary models—that is, with those books in which the words are full of imaginative suggestion, and are per- fectly fitted to the theme and the theme is true to life. (2) They help him to understand and interpret his later reading. All literature is filled with turns of phrase, figures of speech, direct quotations and illusions taken from the Bible, Shakespeare, and in less degree the other classics. (3) Childhood is the language period. It is only through familiarity with books in which words are used to mean exactly what the author intends that the child learns to understand words alike in their exact and their true meaning, and to use them with precision and skill.” From this group of books we are ready to go on to the other groups— such as books of humor, including Lear’s Nonsense Rhymes, Burgess, Goops and How not to Be Them, and Lively City o’ Ligg, Alice’s Adven- tures in Wonderland, Benson’s David Blaise and the Blue Door, Thack- cray’s Rose and the Ring, Hale’s Peterkin Papers, Stockton’s Rudder Grange. : Other groups are poetry, natural science, books of travel, and adventure, true stories of heroes, history stories, animal stories, and fairy tales. Throughout the course, we try to inspire in the student’s confidence that a good child’s story is equally fascinating to an adult. If we can in- fluence a teacher to love children’s books we shall have done something which will react favorably toward the child under her care. When she has actually read and enjoyed the books we want all children to know and enjoy, we may be quite confident that the influence on children’s reading will be good. If we normal school librarians can do these good things—see that the students associate, during their years of training, with the finest kind of a modern library, teach prospective teachers how to use their own library, and any library, intelligently and without loss of time, instruct them how to each children in the grades the use of a library, and so teach children’s literature that our teachers will both know and love the best of children’s books—then our work will have been worthwhile, for normal-school stud- ents are soon to become the teachers of the children of the Nation, and when we burn an ideal into a teacher’s consciousness, we are influencing the life of a nation. Department of Music Education OFFICERS SHEE TO PORENE McConaruy, Director of the Department of School Music, Northwestern ‘ SEAS BUS Od OOS AA ator oe lop sb Jo ondiis dloromianad pane UdCn GoaOndn Oop Evanston, Il. Vice-President—C. A. Fuiterton, Director of Music, Iowa State ‘Teachers College... aperte st sof hale ledsiodeucfaraer cus, coy ca ie cous ecole stale ter tans ates ian cisre, & Giansletes. shee: tacroeue apatc Ced Fall Secretary—Mary McKay, Supervisor of MOM, GANS TT. ee ee SECRETARY’S MINUTES FIRST SESSION—WEDNEsDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 5, 1922 Music In THE RuRAL ScHoors—Thomas L. Gibson, State Supervisor of Music for Maryland; Evelyn C. Perry, Supervisor of Music, Buzzards Bay, Mass.; and John R. Kirk, President of State Teachers, College, Kirksville, Mo. : The Boys’ Glee Club, of Revere High School, composed of nineteen voices, sang six songs illustrating “average results with average material in an average high school.” : At the business session which followed, a nominating committee was appointed to report on Thursday. This committee consisted of Samuel W. Cole, Massa- chusetts; Miss Garver, Ohio; William B. Kinnear, Larned, Kansas. Mrs. Frances E. Clark moved that a committee be appointed in interest of greater recognition of music education by the Department of Superintendence. ‘The motion was carried, and a committee, consisting of Mrs. Frances M. Clark and Samuel W. Cole, was appointed to report on Thursday. SECOND SESSION—Tuurspay AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1922 PrEsIDENT’s AppRESS—School Music and the Community—Osbourne McConathy, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. A Mopern VIEWPOINT OF Music EpucaTion—Ernest A. Smith, Superintendent of Schools, Evanston, Ill. Tue New America: A ProcRaAM oF FoLk Soncs oF Various Nations (including songs of Italy, Brittany, Canada, England, Ireland, Kentucky Mountains, Negro, and Russo-Jewish)—Constance and Henry Gideon, Boston, Mass. Business Session At this session, the Nominating Committee appointed the following officers: For president, Glenn H. Woods, Oakland, Calif.; for vice-president, Teresa Armitage, Chicago, Ill.; for secretary, Mabelle Glenn, Kansas City, Mo. The following resolution, framed by the Committee on Consideration of Music by the Department of Superintendence, was read and adopted: In the interest of music as an educational force of growing value in the school curriculum, and in order that the importance of the subject be brought more prominently to the considera- tion of leading educators and the public in_ general. Be it resolved, That this body, the Department of Music Education of the National Education Association, in convention assembled, request the Department of Superintendence to include in its general program next year an address on music as an educational force, by a leading authority. MUSIC IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS THOMAS L. GIBSON, STATE SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC IN MARYLAND, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND Rural schools defined—The discussion of this subject in its general atti- tude is based on public education as it is organized in my own State. In Maryland all one and two-teacher schools located in rural communities [1047 ] 1048 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and conducting classes in the elementary grades are regarded as strictly rural schools. It might be inferred from the wording of this subject and its assignment to the section before which it is presented that the teaching of music in the rural schools is a problem all its own and one to be worked out on principles differing from those relating to music in city and consolidated schools. In its practical application there may be some difference, but fundamentally we believe the problem is the same in all elementary schools. When time allotment for recitations, experience of children, training and experience of teachers, and material equipment for the teaching of music are taken into account, the problem may be, and usually is, a different one in the rural school from that in the consolidated school. When the character of the subject, however, and the natural endowments of children are considered, the problem, we believe, is fundamentally the same in all elementary schools regardless as to whether they are rural, suburban, or city. A discussion, then, of the problem in the rural schools should take into consideration (1) The time allotted for the study of music; (2) limited musical experiences of rural children; (3) amount and character of con- tent; (4) experience acquired through this content ; (5). training of rural teachers in music; (6) material equipment as an aid in the study of music; and (7) technical study incident to song study. The rural school program in Maryland provides for class study of music a minimum of 65 minutes out of a school week of 1800 minutes. This does not include, however, music during opening and closing, or any special exercises, of which music may be a part. A tentative course in music has been placed in all our rural schools, and-in this course the seven grades are divided into two groups for the music lessons. Grades one, two, and three constitute the primary group and the other four grades, the grammar group, classified, respectively, as Groups A and B. It is believed that the erammar group may receive valuable musical experiences from listening to and taking some part in the music taught to the primary group, so that the grammar group receives in class actually 65 minutes of music study each week. These 65 minutes for music do not, in my personal opinion, give enough time to this subject, when compared with 545 minutes given each week to reading, 225 to arithmetic, 195 to language, 80 to writing, etc. In making this comment, however, we must not forget that the children receive valu- able musical experience in school in addition to that obtained from class drill. As a matter of fairness also, in making a comparison of the time allowed for music study with the time allotment for other subjects, it should be remembered that while to reading, for example, 545 minutes per week have been allotted, this time must be divided among four or five classes, and that in music the entire school is taught, in most instances, as one class. The necessity, also, for a greater amount of individual attention in other subjects must be recognized and considered, and, furthermore, that reading DEPARTMENT OF Music EpuCcATION 1049 is the most important of the subjects taught must be fully accepted. With all this in mind, it is my opinion still that at least one hour each week, in addition to the 65 minutes, should be used in all rural schools for the purpose of giving the children, through the phonograph, or some other available means, just such musical experience as they have been deprived of during their rural childhood. As a rule, suburban and city children have had, in both their homes and schools, more musical experiences, and particularly during their most 1m- pressionable years, than rural children can have. ‘They hear music almost every day and evening, in their homes, in the Sunday Schools and churches, at the theatres and movies, and on many civic and social occasions, and learn to recognize and to express both rhythm and melody with joy and skill almost as soon as they learn to walk and talk. On the other hand, rural children as a class, are more or less vocally awkward and deficient in rhythmic feeling and expression. With a large number of our rural children this awkwardness in voice and movement is pitiable. It is evident in their walk and talk; in their oral reading and attempt at singing; in their shyness, self-consciousness, and barrenness in social life. The two factors to be kept in mind in determining upon the experiences which should come through music in the rural schools are the song and the child. The song is the content of the subject. It is to be used so that by its use it will furnish valuable emotional experiences, develop the power of careful, sensitive aural attention, and give skill in the correct use of the vocal organs. The procedure is not that of teaching the song for the sake of the child’s learning it, but rather to teach it for the sake of the experiences the child will acquire in learning it. The emotional reaction has been advisedly placed first among the experiences to be brought through music to the child because of the interest awakened through the feelings. The sense of hearing is more likely to be in perfect tune and the vocal chords are more likely to give out richness of tone when they are both stimulated by the emotions. It is in the realm of the emotions that music has its great value and the experiences which may be given children through song are among the finest and most fundamental, we believe, in the entire scheme of education. Is it not largely through the human voice and the medium of emotional language that this experience is imparted? Every mother and every good teacher possesses this power. It is found in the Mother Goose melodies, in the Twenty-third Psalm; in Handel’s Largo, in Wagner’s Pilgrims’ Chorus, in Brahms’ Cradle Song, in the Ave Marias, in the simple mother hymns and prayers, in Boy of Mine, and in the Long Trail; it is in America the Beautiful and in My Country "Tis of Thee; it is in Foster’s folk songs and Nevin’s and MacDowell’s beautiful classics ; it is in the Sermon on the Mount, and I have often wondered if there was not divine power in the voice as well as in the words of the Master when “He opened His mouth and taught them saying.” I am quite sure there were emotional expressions, charitable, chaste, comforting, convincing, com- pelling, lifting toward heaven, in the voice of the Son of Man. And the 1050 ’ NatIoNAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION children in the elementary schools, whether they are rural or urban, can understand the spiritual meaning of these things, and it is for things similar to these that I would plead for one hour more each week in the program of the rural schools. It will come some near day, I believe, in our plan of education. In our Maryland tentative course of study in music for the elementary schools, our aim is to require pupils who have gone through the seven grades to be able to sing at least fifty songs in correct voice, a few of which are easy two and three-part songs, and one third of which the pupils can sing correctly from memory. It is also our aim to have the pupils able to recognize, from hearing them played or sung, some thirty additional musical compositions, and to be conscious of certain elements in each com- position from which it is recognized. The content is to be so varied in character as to include patriotic songs, folk songs, ‘some standard sacred music, easy classical selections, a few wholesome popular songs of the past and present, and method songs in various keys, measure-rhythms, and scale intervals. In the organization of the music teaching for all elementary schools in Maryland, outside of Baltimore city (which has its own school administra- tion), we have proceeded on the principle that music should be regarded as one of the regular elementary subjects to be taught and that eventually all elementary teachers should be trained in the teaching of elementary music as they are trained to teach other elementary subjects, under the same direction and supervision given to other subjects. With this end in view, a course in elementary music was prepared the past year for our normal and summer schools. ‘This same course has been placed also in the hands of all elementary teachers as a guide for the teaching of the subject. Our State Department of Education regards thorough and intelli- gent supervision as one of the most. important factors in elementary edu- cation. ‘The county in Maryland is the unit for both administrative and professional direction, and a new school program looking to more complete supervision in every county was enacted into law by the Maryland State legislature of 1922. By this legislation, there will be next year a super- visor of the elementary schools in every county, and, in addition to this, where the body of elementary teachers reaches a certain number, there will be one or more helping teachers, whose work will be somewhat similar to that of the supervisor. It is expected that in the near future, both the supervisor and the helping teacher will be prepared to supervise the teaching of elementary music as a regular elementary subject. There is another factor in the training which the elementary teachers of Maryland receive that gives promise for better trained teachers in this subject. “The time is rapidly approaching when no teachers will be employed in the elementary schools of Maryland who are not graduates of our normal schools, or who have not had an education equivalent to a normal school course. Only graduates of four-year high schools are now enrolled as ~ormal school students in Maryland and, in practically all the four-year DEPARTMENT OF Music EDUCATION 1051 high schools, music is taught and will, beginning with the next school year, be carried on under a definite course of study. The outlook for the teach- ing of music in Maryland is indeed encouraging. When all our rural teachers are graduates of a four-year high school and have in addition a two-year normal school course with definite early musical training in the elementary grades, continued through the high and normal school courses, when they have all this and then work under the direction of experienced supervisors and helping teachers, as they will in Maryland, may we not expect that this subject will receive the attention its value demands, and in the way the best professional thought may direct? Music has been defined as an art, as a language, and it may be defined as a science. For its values in school and life, it appeals to me as being chiefly a language, and a language that all may understand and use. It had its beginning back in the early experiences of the race. From the beginning of language up through the centuries, the individual, the social and racial group, the State and National units, each has had its slogan, motto, proverb, poem, song, and hymn for emotional expression. Into these have been woven experiences of the past and from time to time a new vision and a profounder faith in the future. Individual morale and social, racial, and National unity require these binding and directing expressions. To feel their finest effect and greatest power, they must be said and sung. Vocal expression has been standardized, popularized, emotionalized, and beauti- fied by putting it into song form; namely, a melody in foot and phrase rhythm in the major or minor mood, which form may embrace the entire realm of varied human emotion. This statement applies to both vocal and instrumental music, since the former is set to poetic language and the latter complies with poetic form. It is purely an aural language, if indeed there can be any effective language other than that which primarily comes to children through the sense of hearing. It is a language which takes on strong individual, social, and racial characteristics and is a means of preserving and handing them down as a valuable heritage of future peoples. It has in it an emotional tonic that leaves no injurious reactions, but serves as a most healthful stimulus. Much of all this can be had from the teach- ing of a carefully selected content of song, and songs form the real content of this subject in the elementary schools. It has been stated elsewhere in this paper that the best musical instru- ment that the school can have is the correct singing voice of the teacher, and if all our rural teachers had this acquirement, they could teach music in the absence of all other instruments. But even to the teachers who possess the correct singing voice, there are other instruments and material equipment which may be used in valuable ways. On the other hand, when a teacher believes she does not have any singing voice, and a few are lacking in this respect, then a phonograph with an appropriate stock of records is probably the first and best instrument to provide. Steps have been taken by promoters of.this instrument to have phonographic records made which will substitute in the lack of a teacher’s correct singing voice, with, however, 1052 NatioNaL EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION a limited amount of success up to this time. It is difficult to secure in a record just the right quality of voice and a properly combined tempo and pitch for children to imitate. Even if these qualities were satisfactorily recorded, there still is the difficulty of using a machine with anything like the same degree of reactions which the voice of the teacher can have. How- ever, with the improvements that no doubt will be made in these respects, the phonograph will then be an indispensable aid to the teacher who does not have a correct singing voice. In addition to its use for imitation sing- ing, it has other valuable uses to every elementary teacher. The most valuable keyboard instrument for the school is the player-piano, which may be used either with or without the player attachment. Unfortunately, on account of the price of this instrument, it is not within the reach of many rural schools. ‘The most practical and satisfactory keyboard instrument for most rural schools, when all things are considered, at the present time, seems to be the small folding reed organ. Other valuable equipment are the pitch-pipe, staff ruler, and music in printed form for the grammar-grade children. It is necessary also to have available blackboard surface for ‘Illustration and class drill on the interpretation of the eye symbols of music. There is an honest difference of opinion among teachers as to when chil- dren should take up the study of music through the eye symbols of tone, pitch, key, and measure signatures, note values, etc., for skill in sight read- ing. There is, on the other hand, unanimaus opinion that music is heard rather than seen, that it is a tone language, and that the first and most important procedure is to give children much experience in hearing music and rendering it by imitation. It has been verified over and over that with skilful teaching most children can be taught at an early age to read at sight elementary music. It is not a question, however, of whether they can be taught to do so, but rather a question of whether there are other things of more value in music to the children in the elementary schools. It is my opinion that most of the time for music, in the rural schools, should be used in training the children to sing well many appropriate songs, to listen attentively and intelligently, to appreciate good music and to form a prefer- ence for the best in music. Sight reading is an indefinite term. There are few, if any, perfect sight readers, and very few who even approach or ever will approach perfection in the sight reading of technically difficult music. Learning to read simple, elementary music, however, is not a difficult feat for most children, but all along it is a gradual learning process as the score grows in difficulty. Just on this point the music teacher often goes astray by striving through repeated ‘drill to make sight readers, rather than to give children real musical experience... It is my opinion that only a small proportion of the time scheduled for music in the rural schools should be spent in learning to read music from its eye symbols, and that this should be done almost wholly from blackboard drill, using sections of the music already learned by imitation as exercises for this drill work. To this drill I would add intelligent eye observation of the printed score when it is played on the phonograph, by having sections of the score DEPARTMENT OF Music EpucaATION 1053 written on the blackboard, and occasionally by having the printed score in the hands of the upper grade children. The question of the value of sense impressions and through which of the senses the most valuable impressions are received is a very vital one and especially so in this day of the movie film, the clavilux, and all the schemes for an appeal through the eye. Is there not the danger of over- estimating the value ‘of the eye appeal and forgetting that it is very largely through the human voice, and through this medium only, that children receive and retain the best that the adult can give? The human voice is really a living and divine thing and it has been through the voice and musi- cal sound, the real and only language of childhood, that the mind and emotions of the child have been most deeply touched. More and more of the rural school children are having the advantage of a high-school education in Maryland, and this fact should be kept in mind when considering a course in this subject for the rural schools. ‘The skill in the use of their voices, their appreciation of good music, their familiarity with a number of good things, and their elementary knowledge of the meaning of the most common of the eye symbols, all establish a mus- ical basis on which to build in the high schools for a more technical study of the subject, on a credit basis, by those having special musical talent. On the other hand, the large number of rural children who will not enter the high schools shall have been given a basis for appreciation and some means of bringing joy to themselves through their own singing and through the power they have acquired of listening to good music with intelligence and pleasure. The rural school should be a distinctive social as well as an educational center, with the school itself as the center, contributing indirectly, however, to the good of the adult community. Rural children especially need the social, civic, and character training which very properly may be given in connection with anniversary and holiday occasions, and there is no other school subject that can be made to contribute more to this training than can an appropriate repertory of song material. The rural teacher has a special opportunity in this field. She should have the children learn each month songs which relate to the features of each recurring season, to historic and holiday anniversaries, and to community affairs held in her school. *In- deed, it is my belief that just such things should largely guide the rural teacher in selecting the music for the entire school year. For example, there is no holiday season more generally celebrated, or looked forward to with greater interest by all ages, classes, and races, than is the annual re- currence. of the Christmas,time., .The music which has come out of the Christ-mass season, in the form of carol, cantata, oratorio, anthem, and hymn is a heritage of immeasurable value, ministering much toward and promising more of “Peace on earth and good will to men. ' This season, as well as several others, is the teacher’s rarest opportunity to get into closest sympathy with both the children and their parents through the school music activities. 1054 - Nationa, EpucaTIon ASSOCIATION To sum up this rather brief discussion, the following vital points should be kept in mind: The subject is fundamentally the same for the rural school as for the more closely graded consolidated school. It is different in the former only in time allotment for recitations in the musical experience of rural children, in the training and experience of many of our rural teachers, and in the material music equipment of most of the rural schools. The time allotment should be not less than 120 minutes of each school sweek. Part of this time should be given to purely listening rhythmic exercises. Since the rural children have had little opportunity for acquiring musical experience before they enter school, the most important .initial step for the teacher is to furnish them this experience. The procedure is to bring emotional reactions to the child, through song content; to develop the power of careful sensitive aural attention; and to give skill in the correct use of the child’s vocal organs. The song is the content, first, last, and all the time, in this procedure. During the seven or eight years in the elementary grades, the children should learn to sing well from fifty to seventy-five songs, one third of which should be memorized, and should hear twenty-five more for the mere pleasure of knowing how to listen intelligently to good music. This song content should include patriotic and folk songs, some standard sacred music, a few classic selections, and a practical list of simple method songs, and a few wholesome popular songs. Elementary teachers should be trained in the teaching of music as they are trained to teach other elementary subjects. Supervisors and helping teachers should be able to supervise and direct the teaching of elementary music. In its values in school and life, music is a language, emotionalized, standardized, popularized, and beautified, and should be regarded as such. Necessary musical material equipment for the rural school are the phonograph, with a stock of carefully selected records; a keyboard instru- ment in correct pitch; a pitch-pipe; staff-ruler; blackboard space; and some printed music for the upper grades. The best instrument, however, is the correct speaking and singing voice of the teacher. Technical study of music is to be only elementary and incidental to song study, and based on the songs learned. ‘This technical study should be given by drills and illustrations on the blackboard, and by having pupils observe with intelligence the printed music score when it is rendered on the phonograph, piano, or sung by the teacher. ~The human voice, in its use, is a living and divine medium of communi- cation, and the aural sense the one through which deepest and most lasting impressions are received by children. Music training contributes to both school and community interests and is one of the strongest factors in unifying and socializing both the school and the community. DEPARTMENT OF Music EpucaTIon 1055 MUSIC IN THE RURAL SCHOOL EVELYN C. PERRY, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, BUZZARDS BAY, MASSACHUSETTS Music in rural schools, a most interesting phase of my work in public schools, varies greatly and depends largely upon the teacher and her prepa- ration, the methods used, as well as the different community conditions. One of the most difficult of all schools is that of the country village, which needs the strong hand and good judgment of an experienced teacher rather than that of a young, inexperienced person. From actual work in such a school, both as teacher and supervisor, I have been able to see both sides of the situation and have watched the growth under supervision and seen excellent results. We hardly appreciate the amount of good and moral uplift, as well as musical education, that can be obtained from the victrola in rural schools; the possibilities of such an instrument are unlimited. Appreciation alone deserves much of our time and consideration, but it is rather the other side of music in these schools which I desire to present you—namely, teaching these village boys and girls to sing and to become somewhat independent singers. To illustrate, let us take a school with six classes or grades. “The songs for general singing may be taught the school as a whole during the morning exercises, just as any general instruction may be given them. Divide the school into two groups—Grades 1 and 2 form the “B” group—Grades 4 and 6 the “A” group. If there are more grades in the school, Grade 4 may be the “flexible” one and be allowed to recite with both groups, thus giving support to the little people and also learning much themselves from the older ones. Time allotment is a serious problem in these schools of more-than- crowded programs. Four ‘12-15’’-minute periods during a week are possi- ble, however, alternating the recitations of the A and B groups. Songs for general singing are many and varied and may be chosen by the teacher. Two books (Books I and II) of any course are preferable to a “one-book”’ course. The work of the B group consists chiefly of rote songs—with syllables by rote and song study of several—chosen from Book IJ; that of the A group—the technical terms of staff rotation and sight reading songs to illustrate from Book II with two-part work, when possible. In fact a Grade 5 outline is generally followed with these people. Much depends, as I said before, on the ability of the grade teacher, and surely if she does not possess the average amount of musical knowledge, she falls far short of her privileges in those country schools, where she stands as the model in so many ways to her pupils. Alternate songs and exercises each year, thus keeping material from be- coming too familiar. Although merely an outline, this gives a general plan of work in music as used in my outlying schools and has produced some gratifying results. 1056 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SCHOOL MUSIC AND THE COMMUNITY OSBOURNE MC CONATHY, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, EVANSTON, ILLINOIS The discussion of relationships between school music and the community is not new. My apology for introducing the topic at this time lies in my desire to present one phase of the subject which, as far as I am aware, has not as yet been discussed at these meetings—namely, the responsibility of the school as musical advisor to the family. Heretofore the topic of this paper has been construed to mean the manner ‘n which school music study might be projected into community life by means of entertainments, operettas, choral concerts, orchestra and band performances, music memory, and other musical contests, and so forth. Or possibly the topic has led to a discussion of evidences of music interest in the homes; the recital and concert halls, and other musical events brought about through the music activities in the schools. We have also heard discussions of the place which the up-to-date music supervisor should occupy as a stimulator and director of community music activities, even suggesting that in the future our profession will become broadened into that of city or community music leader. Possibly still other thoughts are suggested by my topic, but I shall dismiss them all for a brief discussion of the thought above outlined. Assuming that the object of public-school music is to stimulate, elevate, and guide public taste and interest in music, we cannot fail to realize that a-close relationship between school music and home music is highly desir- able. ‘That the American people are musical, or at least that they insist upon an enormous amount of music in their homes, is amply shown by the amount of money annually spent for home music. Possibly this manner of meas- uring the extent of musical interest on our homes may seem unworthy, but, after all, the American standard of dollars is a pretty accurate indication of American interest. We are told upon good authority that more money is spent annually upon music education in this country than upon all higher education combined. hat is to say, if all the expenditures for high schools, colleges, academies, normal schools, universities, technical schools, theologi- cal schools were combined, the sum would be less than that spent annually for music education. This does not include the expenditures for concerts, opera, recitals, the music trades and manufactures but represents music lessons alone. At first thought this statement seems impossible, but when we stop to consider the situation, its possibility becomes apparent. In almost every family except the poorest, some of the children are given music lessons for at least a part of their lives, and in most families which we know, several children are studying music at the same time. These lessons are not items of small expenditure, either, but, per capita, amount to a very considerable sum. The question which I would here bring to your consideration is, do we, DEPARTMENT OF Music EpucaTIon 1057 as a Nation, as a community, as a family, get the value of the enormous sum spent in giving our children music lessons? Is it not quite possible that much of this money does not represent value received ? How many families have bravely started Johnnie or Jennie on a course in music, only a year or two later to give up the task which obviously has become hopeless. Of all the Johnnies and Jennies that begin music study, how many continue toa point that enables them to even partly fulfill the hopes and wishes which first prompted the fond parent to start them on their musical way? How many parents are quite clear just why the child should be sent to a music teacher and just what results should be expected ? In many homes the story begins in some such manner as this. Father comes home some evening and at dinner mother casually remarks that Jennie’s mother, across the street, had told her that Jennie had just begun taking music lessons. This casual approach is merely a pleasant method of leading father to agree that their own son, Johnnie, should also take lessons, a proposition to which father agrees with a vague feeling that it is expected of him, but a much more vague idea as to why it should be done. Then the question arises as to a teacher, and mother suggests that Miss Williams, the elderly unattached daughter of the recently deceased minister, plans to give lessons and thinks that it would be so nice to send Johnnie to her. Just how well Miss Williams is prepared to help Johnnie, how well trained a musician or teacher she may be, seldom enters into any careful consideration. She is known to have studied, perhaps she plays the church organ—at all events she needs the help. Johnnie sets out to his task nobly promising to practice faithfully. But very soon mother finds that unless she follow the proceedings quite care- fully and persistently, Johnnie misses lessons and escapes practice with remarkable consistency. Soon each daily hour of piano practice is a period of forcing and urging and policing, until finally mother’s and Johnnie’s patience are both exhausted and the lessons come to an inglorious end. Of course the parents had no intention of making a professional musician of Johnnie. This they explain most carefully to Miss Williams, letting her understand that they merely wish the boy to play for his own pleasure and the enjoyment of his friends. Miss Williams is soon convinced that there is no danger of professionalism in Johnnie’s young life, but that dis- covery has little effect on her mode of procedure. She was instructed along a certain line, and Johnnie must tread the same path. If by any chance Johnnie’s or mother’s persistency lasts until Miss Williams marries or moves, then the next teacher inevitably will assure the fond parents that the course pursued by the young musician has been all wrong, and that he must begin all over again. Not infrequently this experience occurs several times until even a really musical child becomes thoroughly discouraged. My story is not an exaggeration, but is repeated times beyond number all over the country. I am here raising the question as to whether or not some means of musical guidance could be instituted under the auspices of our public schools. Is there not some way to determine whether Johnnie is 1058 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION adapted to piano? Maybe in putting him at that instrument a potentially excellent violinist or cornetist or clarinetist is spoiled. Maybe a potential music lover and concert supporter is made to detest music. Is the piano the only approach to fuller acquaintance with music? Moreover, is the type of lessons which Miss Williams gives the right approach to piano playing for a vigorous young American boy or girl? Our schools are rapidly developing a technic in child study, in vocational guidance, and the study of the musical capacities, tastes and talents of chil- dren should do much to prevent the haphazard lack of method now prevalent in starting children on their musical studies. Such procedure should be helpful not only to misfits in music training, but also in the discovery of talent. My plea is not for the training of talented children alone, but I would urge the study of children to the end that the training of each individual child might be so conducted that music would play that part in his life which would bring to the child the greatest measure of happiness. Some children should learn to play, some to sing, some to listen, some to pro- fessional perfection, some to amateur accomplishment, but each to that point where music would fill its finest place in his life. But it is not alone in determining the type of music study to which the child is adapted that the modern educator might well turn his studious thought. Our studies of teaching in general, our specific studies in all that concerns the learning process, ought to enable us to so organize all branches of music teaching along lines in conformity with the best modern peda- gogical principles. “That a very large part, if not most, of the present- day teaching of music is not in accord with these principles must be apparent to the trained educator. [The unfortunate thing in this con- nection is that all but the very fewest educators are not sufficiently ac- quainted with music to apply their general knowledge of the laws of teaching to this particular subject. Moreover, educators apparently have seldom given any thought to the subject of music, even to those phases that appear as usual parts of our school curriculums. The matter of teaching instrumental music has probably never occurred to them as a field for their thought, investigation, and study. But I respectfully protest that the vast interest in music education shown by American parents, as demonstrated in the private music teaching all over the country, challenges the best efforts of our educators to place such instruction on a sound pedagogical basis. A MODERN VIEW-POINT OF MUSIC EDUCATION ERNEST A. SMITH, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EVANSTON, ILLINOIS From the official head of the Women’s Music Clubs of America there has lately sounded a startling challenge and prophecy in the statement, that the hope of the nation for universal music culture rests upon music in the DEPARTMENT OF Music EpucaTION 1059 public schools. This involves a vast responsibility. How is it being met? Bulletin No. 9 U. S. Bureau of Education, 1921, shows voluntary re- ports from 359 high schools of thirty-six States which offer music courses. Music is named as a possible subject in all State courses of study, but made compulsory in only six. If the common schools shall meet adequately their task, they must rec- ognize that music as a school subject belongs to all the children of all the people. Not the same sort of instruction will be given to all pupils, for the recognition of individual differences is a cardinal tenet of present-day pedagogy. To be sure some intensely zealous musicians maintain that the fundamental harmonies are potentially present in almost every person, awaiting only to be heard or to be sung. Yet the question will very naturally arise in the mind of the interested, ambitious parent, how can I find out whether my child is musical. It may possess a good clear voice, have a keen sensitive ear, a lively imagination and a bright intelligence. These are all important contributory qualities, but they do not comprise the full equipment of the gifted musician. On the other hand the child may not have shown the slightest concern for vocal or instrumental performances. It is possible that a favorable attitude to music is deeply hidden; no special stimulus has opened an avenue of expression. “The latent musical instincts of the child are the legitimate province of the public school, just as much as is the reasoning faculty or the sense of color and of form. Modern education aims to recognize the potential possibilities of every child and seeks to draw these out. ‘The school of today does not conceive its purpose to be to fill a void, but to lead forth what is latent and innate. Music education then takes account of the native stock of each boy and girl. This must be done patiently, broadly and scientifically. The second grade is not too young an age to have a survey made of the group. ‘The general singing ability of each pupil can be noted by the room teacher. His standard of mental attainment is shown in the school subjects, if the intelligence quotient is not estimated. His sense of rhythm is reported upon by the teacher of physical education. ‘The fourth factor in the study of the individual is supplied by a questionnaire concerning musical heredity, home and social environment, degree of interest shown in music. As a result of this tentative survey choices are made of certain children who are invited to take free instruction in piano in the third grade. In the classroom of the Evanston, Illinois, elementary schools it is dis- covered that the children have fallen into three groups, the actively musical, the passively musical and the negative. For the talented the piano is selected as the best medium by which the capable child will learn tone relationship. A lack of interest and failure to progress will bring a discontinuance of instruction. ‘The lessons in piano continue through the fourth and fifth grades. For the two groups of the passively and negatively musical, chorus singing and appreciation are prescribed. Not until after the fifth grade is the listening course assigned as the only re- quirement for the few positively unmusical pupils. 1060 NationaL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION In addition to the early preliminary survey there has been in operation for four years a program of psychological investigation of the native musical characteristics of every child in the fifth grade. First, there are the five fundamental experiments in the classroom of listening to a series of Columbia records on the victrola. Their purpose is to throw light on the problem of the innate capacity of each child by determining its degree of discrimination in pitch, time, intensity, consonance and musical memory. ‘These tests were worked out in the laboratory of the Uni- versity of Iowa by Professor Carl Seashores. ‘Their application to the Evanston Schools has been made by the Department of Education of Northwestern University under its director, Dr. Elmer E. Jones, and Professor Osbourne McConathy of the Northwestern School of Music. | These five basal experiments measure the average musical quotient. Not many pupils grade one hundred per cent in their recognition of pitch, time, and intensity. In consonance, the sensing of the true chords, a larger diversity in the feeling for harmony is revealed. In the test for musical memory it often occurs that while the ear is fairly accurate, the voice is not able to reproduce correctly what is heard. The Evanston ex- periment has indicated that those children who make an average grade of seventy-five per cent belong to the tentative group of the musically talented. Their number runs about twenty per cent of the entire fifth grade. The significant educational contribution made in connection with this Illinois school system arises in a third series of tests, where the pupils visit the Northwestern laboratory to have the specific qualities of their musical capacity gauged. A dozen and more measurements are taken which reveal the abilities of the child for entering vocal or instrumental courses. “There are sensory and motor tests. One of the machines, the tonoscope, was in- vented by Professor Seashores, the others have been devised by Director Jones and President Walter Dill Scott, of Northwestern. For those who are possible candidates for the orchestras there are tests for left and right hands in rapidity and precision of movement, in dexterity and grip. Auditory and visual reactions are accurately measured. Free and con- trolled rhythm as interpreted by the pupil are graphically recorded to the hundredth of a second from an electric tuning fork upon a small revolving drum. In the tonoscope the vibrations of the child’s voice mechanically raise or lower a flame for each sound wave. A revolving card-board disk carries rows of punctures upon which the tone is registered. : As the sound is made, the holes on the disk corresponding to the tone seem to stand still, the other dots moving and tending to blur. Thus the pupil sees himself sing and the teacher has an exact measure of the tone. In addition to the musical tests, the intelligence quotient of each child ss also calculated. The individual chart having been completed and drawn, the supervisor is fully equipped with data for his campaign with the homes. Letters are sent to the parents, giving the ratings of the candi- date, which are interpreted from the showing in motor and sensory re- actions, as indicating that it would be advisable for John or for Mary to DEPARTMENT OF Music EpucATION 1061 take lessons on the violin, the cornet, the piano or other instrument. It is announced that free instruction will be given in the schools at the hours named and the parents who desire to avail themselves of the lessons are asked to notify the music department. In Evanston in 1921-22, 13 per cent of the.total enrolment in four grades received free instruction. This was an increase of 60 per cent over the previous year. “Two thirds were pupils in piano. Of the remaining one third, 60 per cent were pupils in violin. Have all the embryo artists been discovered? ‘The answer is, not with exactitude. But the special music teaching has been done with intel- ligence. Many gratifying incidents in the discovery of unusual talent and the larger development of obvious musical ability are being registered. Scores of children begin to take special private lessons, their public school instruction having pointed out the field. “The various school orchestras are built up readily from ambitious, competent players. A musical card index is kept for each child, giving the record of work and appreciation through the seven grades. A survey of 1921 estimated that of 2500 pupils from the first to the eighth grades, 565 were taking private lessons at a yearly cost to their parents of $81,370. The outlay for music teaching of all pupils is but a small fraction of this figure. ‘There is the tradition and the inclination in the homes to have music as a subject a special study for the children. The Evanston schools by their program of musical tests supply some share of scientific guidance as to the aptitudes of these young people. It has been a modest effort in codperation in a community that has a sincere devotion to the universal art of music and maintains a civic association for its development. Vocal instruction has received in the schools such attention as is ap- propriate to the voices of six to fourteen years of age. The upper grades sing yearly in the widely known North Shore Musical Festival. ‘There is careful training in the fundamentals and the pupils upon promotion are ready for the more mature choral work of the high school. Musical appreciation begins with listening lessons in the second grade and a course is outlined for the years following. Music memory contests are entered with enthusiasm and have been of signal assistance. “The aim is to awaken and secure an inner musical consciousness. “There is the sound educa- tional method of having the pupil work out something for himself, to be able to hear inwardly, to know melody, rhythm, and harmony. The instrumental work is of necessity introductory, the basal prin- ciples being laid. From group work, the more talented pass on to special instruction. A musical atmosphere is created. “The child experiences a joy and gains a confidence. He knows something of self appreciation. He is being trained in self expression. He is in a way to become productive and original. The aim of musical education in the public schools of America must be to produce children trained in the broadly cultural and appreciative side of the art, using band and orchestral training, vocal and 1062 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ‘nstrumental instruction as tools for it. This will give the child versatility in the art. Our teaching must develop adaptability and initiative, the cre- ative faculties. ; No matter how Americans may betray their different ancestry by looks, accent and temperament, yet back of these distinguishing marks they possess a more or less similar something in speech, appearance and thought which stamps them as American. An international musical language is an impossibility. We possess our distinctive national ideals and feelings. How shall they receive adequate musical expression? Not through negro spiritual and songs, not through Indian music, not through the transplanted folk songs of Europe. Music is a creative, not an imitative art. From the foundation supplied in the public schools by devoted scientific and artistic teaching the generation is arising that will create an American music. Department of Normal Schools SECRETARY’S MINUTES OFFICERS President—W. P. Morcan, President of the State Teachers College............ M bss Di. Vice-President—A,. J. MattrHews, President of the State Normal School...... Neinge, ‘Ariz, Secretary—Rosert I. Exriott, President of the Nebraska State Teachers College........ eRe eter ete ent ter Sec henster enter cere cisca tips circa a ieucrel nist opeoeuere lola ci lGhiee ope acon Osco. Chadron, Nebr. The first session of the Department of Normal! schools began at 2 o’clock on Wednesday afternoon, Room 116, Simmons College, with President W. P. Morgan, President State Teachers College, Macomb, Ill., presiding. The at- tendance was unusual and most encouraging to the officers. After a few preliminary remarks by the President, Dr. Wallace W. Atwocd, president of Clark University, was introduced and gave an excellent address on the subject, What Shall the Geography of the Grades Include? This was followed with an address by Robert M. Brown, of Rhode Island College of Education, Providence, R. I., on Objectives in the Teaching of Geography. ‘The last address was given by Douglas C. Ridgley, Professor of Geography, State Normal Uni- versity, Normal, Illinois, on Geography for the Rural Schools. A hearty discussion followed. President W. P. Morgan announced the appointment of a nominating com- mittee, consisting of the following: John A. H. Keith, chairman, J. G. Crabbe, D. N. Cameron, and J. A. Pittman. An inyitation was extended to all to attend the banquet in the evening. Meeting adjourned. The banquet, given under the direction of the Massachusetts State Normal School Teachers’ Association, was well attended, there being over two hundred present. Roy Leon Smith, president of the Massachusetts State Normal School Teachers’ Association, presided and introduced the toastmaster, W. P. Morgan. Dr. John W. Withers, dean of the School of Education, New York University, gave the principal address. This was followed with short talks by Dr. J. G. Crabbe, G. E. Maxwell, Dean Russell, and Frank W. Wright. The second meeting of the Department of Normal Schools was on Thursday afternoon, July 6, with W. P. Morgan, presiding. The first address was given by Frank W. Wright, director of Elementary and Secondary Education and Nor- mal Schools, Boston, Mass. This was followed by an address by George H. Shafer, principal State Normal School, Willimantic, Conn., and with a_third address by John L. Alger, president Rhode Island College of Education, Provi- dence, R. I. All three of the addresses were well received and thoroughly discussed by those present. Dr. Keith, chairman of the nominating committee, announced the recommenda- tions for officers for 1922-23 as follows: for president, J. C. Brown, State Teach- ers College, St. Cloud, Minn.; for vice-president, Joseph Rosier, State Normal School, Fairmont, W. Va.; and for secretary, Ernest Silver, State Normal School, Plymouth, N. H. The report was unanimously accepted. Meeting adjourned. Ropert I. Eviiorr, Secretary. [1063] 1064 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WHAT SHOULD THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GRADES INCLUDE? WALLACE W. ATWOOD, PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS When children come to the study of geography, they are enthusiastic research students; they love to know more about the people of this world; their powers of imagination are keen; and if the study of the actual living conditions in the various natural environments of the world is taken up in a dramatic way, so that the children study each habitat as a home of people, the knowledge of geography will come as readily as the rules of play, and the information thus gained will remain with those children because of the vital interest in that information at the time it was obtained. Later in the upper grades when a more systematic and well-organized study of geography must be included in our curriculum, the work should have a sound, scientific basis. "We need organization of our geographical information. In no subject in the elementary school curriculum is there a greater abundance of information. ‘The problem of the teacher is that of selection and organization. Within the last few years we have come to recognize, along with leading geographers in many European countries, that the natural or geographic region should be the unit of study. Each region should include a portion of the earth’s surface, throughout which the geographic conditions which influence life do not differ greatly. ‘The study of geography becomes a study of man’s effort to adapt himself to the environmental conditions, and to re-adapt himself as evironmental conditions change. ‘The study of one region after another leads to frequent compari- sons, to the emphasis of contrasts, to the fixing in the memory and under- standing of the child of the differences in geographic conditions in the dif- ferent parts of the world. The natural regions become complementary ; one developing as a manufacturing region, another an agricultural, one a mining district, and another a grazing land. Exchange of commodities becomes necessary; domestic and foreign commerce develop; and world relations soon grow out of these complementary conditions in the different geographic regions of the world. The study should then prepare the child to a sympathetic and intelligent interest in the different peoples of the world, leading to a broader and broader point of view, and in the end to a greater citizenship. No subject in the elementary-school curriculum can so appropriately present to the children the accurate living conditions in the different parts of the world, and geography should take the responsibility of awakening and developing an intelligent and sympathetic interest in our larger national and inter- national problems. DEPARTMENT OF NoRMAL SCHOOLS _ 1065 OBJECTIVES IN THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY ROBERT M. BROWN, RHODE ISLAND COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND At one of the meetings of the Association of American Geographers, representatives from the Continental and Commercial National Bank of Chicago, the American’ International Corporation of New York, and the Simmons Hardware Company, of St. Louis, told of the need of young men trained in the rudiments of geography. The plea was not that men should be so trained as a subsidiary line in vocations in which a knowledge of geography is useful if not essential, but it was. made for the general body of students who had any expectation of entering business. As an illustration, one of the speakers stated that a pamphlet on Egypt recently distributed throughout his city told of 14,000,000 Egyptians engaged in agri- cultural pursuits who were using the crudest implements and that there was a rich field for more modern products. A manufacturer was stirred by the opportunity and sent a cargo of spades of American pattern to Cairo. As these did not sell readily in the Egyptian market the manu- facturer was forced to bear his losses, and he probably resolved never again to engage in foreign trade. Part of the trouble with the spade market in Egypt was the fact that the barefooted Egyptians could not use the Amer- ican spade with its sharp metal top, but the greater share of the difficulty was the lack of money and credit of the bulk of the 14,000,000 Egyptians. This is a typical case: It illustrates the tendency to treat foreign trade as it all the conditions in foreign lands were similar to those existing in the United States. An elementary teaching of geography if properly conceived and executed should have led the Chicago manufacturer not necessarily to know off-hand that the Egyptians wore no boots and had no money, but to know that foreign customs were more frequently than not different from our own and that he would be wise to investigate the market before he shipped his wares. Furthermore, a proper grammar school training in geography should have taught him how to make this investigation—if indeed it had not already given him the facts of it. If this lack of any functioning of the school geography with the affairs of the world is wide- spread, and recent experiences seem to assert it is, it is time for a thorough change in the aim of our teaching—along lines which a small group of geographers have always urged, but which more potent forces have not carried to fruition. In an address recently, President Faunce told of a consignment of American cereals shipped in the usual pasteboard cartons arriving at the port of Singapore and exposed to the heavy tropical rains being completely sodden with water. When later he spoke of this and suggested another method of packing for such climates, he was told that the way to pack cereals was in pasteboard containers and the inference was that that was all there was to be said on that point. We in this country are a contradiction of desires. In the slogan of the 1066 NaTIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION politicians we both “point with pride” and “view with alarm.” We see our foreign trade decreasing and we make no effort to revive it, although we mourn the loss. We read with concern that European trade is driving our merchants from the markets of the world; we regret it in words only and in the same breath we fear entangling alliances. Frequently we insist that we are sufficient unto ourselves; that the intricacies of world affairs are beyond our consideration; that we can live easily within our own borders; that all this stir about foreign markets is too remote from the pathways of the average man; and that as a whole the citizenry of this country have no contact with these things. In early days this would have been presented to you in parable but today in this particular, facts so crowd in upon us that it is not easy to select from the abundance. A mid-western town a few years ago refused to accept an invitation to a conference on foreign trade on the ground that its trade was entirely local. It bought its raw materials for its factories and sold its manufactured goods within the limiting area of a few States. It produced goods of which in this country, we manufactured a surplus of about 10 per cent and this surplus we sold in Europe. Eight years later the European markets were closed— no other foreign market had been developed and the 10 per cent surplus had to be floated in this country. This surplus became a competing product in the sale territory of the mid-western town and in course of time one of its factories closed its doors because our foreign markets were gone. This is but a sample of the attitude of many trade organizations: they cannot see that there is any foreign trade for them unless they are them- selves selling to foreign markets; yet in the case of the mid-western city their entire market depended directly upon a successful continuance of foreign trade. “The members of that commercial organization were in dire need of a good grammar school training in geography—such a training as their geography had not given them, but which we as leaders should insist that the young people of this country obtain. We are teaching much geog- raphy without a vision, a geography of facts and names, and not a geography of utility. It will take a tremendous jolt to awaken the people to their responsibilities in this regard. In pre-war days, the Consular Reports filled pages of their daily issues in explaining the inadequacy of our knowl- edge of foreign markets; the inattention to conditions of transportation ; and the disregard for the needs of foreign people. A stupid and unexcus- able conceit reigned which could neither be penetrated by advice nor roused by diminishing orders. ‘Those were the days God winked at; now he calleth every man to repentance. A second objective is the study of the peoples of the earth. The general ignorance of other races and what is worse, the obstruction to progress which this ignorance engenders is a very serious menace to the promotion of world affairs. There are many definitions of the word “race,” and many ideas diverse and contradictory rush to the mind when the word is mentioned. I am talking of race as a social ritual; into which a man is DEPARTMENT OF NoRMAL SCHOOLS 1067 born and out of which he rarely emerges. I have not time to defend my definition, but an understanding of it explains our attitude toward the immigrants who come to our shores and is intricately associated with all true Americanization efforts. It offers one a solace when his evenings are disturbed by the noisy demonstrations of our Italian people in celebra- tion of a fiesta; when foreign flags fly in our streets in memory of some alien holiday; or when a group takes sides against us on issues involving the land of their birth. It should double our efforts to make the children of these—born in our own social ritual—truly American. I like the story of the boy of Italian parentage who, during the war, refused to take punishment from his father on the ground that ‘we Americans are not going to be licked by any foreigners.” And I condone the practice fre- quent in our public schools of classing as Portuguese, Italian, and the like children born under this social ritual of ours. To know the races of the earth or to know those with whom we have contact is a duty which every person in a land of so diverse a character as ours should meet. We ignorant are fertile ground for the propagandist and many a voter has been unconsciously misled by a half truth attractively stated. Whether we like it or not, we have not the choice of being or not being involved in foreign affairs. We are involved and will be increas- ingly so. ‘There is no greater safeguard to hasty and ill-advised action on the part of a country of wide franchise than an intelligent electorate. The I. Q. of the American is said to be lowering, because of the influx into the body of great numbers of middle and lower-class people from other lands. It is not comforting to contemplate this; but with the more rigid immigration rules of the present, especially the restrictive measures, we can take heart if we undertake our task with courage and intelligence. The foreign people to a large degree bring their prejudices with them; their lives have been ones of suppression; one of the greatest tasks of our schools is to teach the children of these immigrants to be constituents of an amalgamated group, and not partisans of an isolated one. “There are many lines to be pursued, and here geography, well conceived, should be of vast help. It should give to them the background of the ideals of the land of their fathers; and not less so the aspirations of other lands equally as well. The study is not one of capitals and boundaries, exports and productions, but one of development of a nationality under the peculiar environment. And not only do these children of foreign parentage need this, but children of native parentage need it as much. Americanization of foreigners is well enough, but an intelligent American public is the greatest step toward Americanization. Of course, if Americanization means what Russification or Germanization meant, we can get along with a deluded public; but I take it that this is not true. It has been confidently stated that the Con- ference for the Limitation of Armaments had every promise of failure before the actual meeting took place, because of the rabid anti-Japanese propaganda which was being inoculated into the public. ‘The telling blow which Secretary Hughes struck on the opening day drove this from the public press and the Conference was little hampered afterwards by this 1068 NaTIionaL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION feeling. But why should the American public be subjected to this; why should not the public schools prepare the pupils to know Japan and the Japanese well enough to decide for themselves? Count the number of times in recent years that foreign policies have been decided by the propa- ganda of a few rather than the thought of the many; and you will be almost persuaded that we have another Potsdam among us. Again we have in our magazines the beginnings of serious warnings con- cerning backward peoples of the earth. “I'wo books have appeared, one on the menace of the Islam world and the other on the threat of the sup- pressed peoples, and both probably tend to overstate the conditions. One half a billion people of the earth are classed as advanced peoples and one and one quarter billion as backward peoples. The menace of these one and one quarter is the theme of these books. Only by a just and equitable dealing with these can we avoid some clash. ‘They are realizing their strength in numbers and some unscrupulous yet powerful leader may be able to bring these people to fighting pitch and to throw again the world into chaos. ‘The only insurance against such a calamity is to so befriend these backward people as to render them unwilling and so to develop their resources for them as to make it unprofitable for them to create turmoil. This cannot be done by teaching a superficial classification of races in our schools. The equipment of most of our generation concerning the people of the earth is of the most meager sort and to a large degree vicious. We can recite that mankind is divided into the white, black, yellow, and red races; and, with our shoulders back, we continue that the white race is civilized and the others uncivilized and savage. A man who can tell only that the Chinese wear queues, constrict their feet, and let their finger nails erow as a sign of gentility is not adequately prepared to maintain the open door in China or discuss the Shantung question ; but that is what most of us are doing. Nor is he competent to consider the menace of the backward peoples if his only picture, as an inheritance from his geography, is the Circassian Beauty of marvelous head-dress. None of these things is im- portant or necessary; most of them are irrelevant and lead to a vicious thinking. In many cases the teaching of races has developed into a dis- cussion of fashion and should be classed with the Godey’s Ladies Book style of literature rather than geography. We need a knowledge of peo- ples in their environments; of the Japanese of such a character as to show how in their peculiar physical setting, they have developed their ideals and aspirations, their nationality. We do not need to know the individual or exotic specimen; we need to know them collectively as a people. ‘The commencement addresses brought to our attention this need ; and if commencement addresses were potent in shaping public opinion, we have the greatest hope that the steps which I am urging are on the way to fruition. Secretary Hughes in his Ann Arbor address emphasized the need of a sound public opinion, declaring that untruths concerning the peoples of the earth are the greatest present hindrances to the country’s foreign policies. DEPARTMENT OF NoRMAL SCHOOLS 1069 The third objective is based on conservation. We have long lived in a profligate country and our adjustments to a world in stress are slow. We have boasted of our land of plenty, our asylum for the down-trodden of Europe; and our ability to give them liberty of mind and body. The last of our free land is gone; our cattle ranges are being restricted ; extensive agriculture is giving way to intensive cultivation of the soil. The new generation must face a new day; not a day of wasteful extrava- gance, but a day of careful measurements of resources. The last Census recorded that there were 100,000 less people in rural communities than there were in 1910; and 10,000,000 more people in conti- nental United States: a 10 per cent decrease in food producers, and a 10 per cent increase in consumers. The United States Geographical Survey informs us that many here will see the depletion of our petroleum preserves. We have been using our forests at the rate of 40 cubic feet of wood per acre per year and growth is only at the rate of 12 cubic feet per acre per year. Great plans are being presented to Congress for a Trunk Power line between this city and Washington, which has for its primary argument the conservation of coal and the utilization of water power. Yes. We are facing a new day. What are we to do about it? Shall we continue to listen to youngsters, drone out the unrelated facts of wheat and lumber and fish? Or shall we induct them into the problems of pro- duction as it affects a world ready to starve or be easily fed according to its intelligent decision? These are the objectives for the study of geography which I am pre- senting to you. I have purposely omitted one or more commonplace ones and I have refrained from arguing a place in the sun for geography, based on purely academic reasons. There is a great need for the knowledge which a proper study of geography offers. This need is not apparent to the teacher whose main object in her work is completing a prescribed course or finishing a textbook ; nor is it patent to the supervisor whose attention is on set courses and not on the world about us. The public schools should face the demands of today and tomorrow in its geography program and not the conditions of yesterday. “This work appears to me as simple as it is desirous. Why spend millions on a merchant marine and allow our young people to grow up ignorant of foreign markets?) Why send a million or more men into Europe to end the militaristic threat of a deluded people, and make no attempt to dispel the delusion of our own people? Why turn all the available departments of our government to the task of conservation and utilization, and make no attempt to keep pace in the schools with these necessary and intimate problems of livelihood? 1070 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION GEOGRAPHY FOR RURAL SCHOOLS DOUGLAS C. RIDGLEY, CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS, FORMERLY OF ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY, NORMAL, ILLINOIS The previous discussions have presented geography from the view point of the course of study and of objectives in teaching geography. ‘These viewpoints look out upon the entire field of geography and upon the rela- tion of geography to all pupils whether in city or in rural schools. In this discussion, we are asked to point out some of the opportunities ‘n rural schools for the effective teaching of geography. “The local en- vironment of the school in the open country, is widely different from that of the school in a large city. Each, however, has its advantages as well as its disadvantages in the concrete presentation of the subject of geography to boys and girls of the elementary school. ‘The teacher of the rural school and the teacher of the city school, each has an ever-present abun- dance of geographic materials in the local environment with which to make vital connection between the geography of the textbook and the actual work-a-day world in which the pupils are living. In order to appreciate what geography may offer to the boys and girls of America, it is necessary to keep in mind the progress of modern educa- tion in general, and the progress in modern school geography in particular. In an effort to have the school contribute more and more fully to the wel- fare of the individual, and to enable him to cooperate in a helpful way with those about him, geography has its unique contribution to make. Geography has always been a study in which man’s relation to his natural environment has had a place. At times, the study has seemed to deal with places without definite effort to associate the places with funda- mental relationships existing between the region and the activities of the people living there. At other times the study has seemed to lead to an interesting investigation of the activities of people in various regions of the earth without a keen appreciation of the powerful influences exerted by the natural environment on the activities under consideration. In re- cent educational progress, students and teachers of geography have turned more and more to the point of view that geography is to interpret to boys and girls, the relationships existing between the ordinary, every-day work of mankind and the natural environment in which people live in all parts of the earth. This relationship may first be brought to the pupil’s attention in the study of home geography, for here the human activity and the natural environment are matters of first-hand observation. Under the direction of a skilful teacher of geography the relationship between these two factors becomes readily apparent, even to pupils of the third and fourth grades. In the study of more distant regions, a concrete, first-hand knowledge of the geographic relationships of the home locality is of great value in gain- ing an appreciative understanding of other regions. These geographic DEPARTMENT OF NoRMAL SCHOOLS 1071 relationships of the home locality may center in the open country with its wealth of natural environment and its essential connection with the city or, on the other hand, these relationships may center in the city with its wealth of human activities, and its vital dependence upon the open country. Frequent and direct comparison of the geographic relationships of the home locality with other regions of our own and of foreign lands, will aid in developing ideas necessary for intelligent citizenship in America, and in the World. ‘The teacher in the rural school has an exceptional opportunity to develop the study of geography by means of illuminating comparisons with the region best known to the pupils. In order to see the possibilities of the teaching of geography in the rural school, it is desirable that the teacher have clearly in mind the factors of the natural environment which are unquestionably geographic in their bearing, the kinds of human activities which are closely related to man’s environment, and the relationships which are strongly geographic in character. The natural environment in which the people of the world are living may be considered under nine categories: location, climate, surface features, soil, water supply, ocean, minerals, plants, and animals. The human activities of the world may be grouped under three categories: economic, social, political. The twelve topics of this enumeration include basic materials for all of the natural sciences and all of the social sciences. ‘These topics may be treated separately, and fully, without touching the subject of geography. It is the special province of the teacher of geography, how- ever, to select from these two great groups of subjects the large, simple, outstanding facts and show the relationship existing between them. These relationships are ever-present, fully operative, and readily ap- preciated in the local environment of every rural school. ‘The region in the neighborhood of the rural school thus becomes a laboratory in which to develop definite, concrete geographic concepts, to test by comparison the geographic facts of distant regions, and to make the study of geography reach beyond the covers of a book. Let us now turn to the opportunity thus offered to the teacher of the rural school and see how the materials at hand may be used. We shall assume, that a course of study in geography will follow the same large units of study whether for rural schools or for city schools. We shall assume, also, that the great objectives to be attained in the study of geography are suitable alike for pupils of country and of city. We wish merely to examine how the teacher of the rural school may use effectively the materials at hand in developing the course of study and in attaining the objectives of good geography teaching. For this purpose, we shall select from the list of the geographic factors in the natural environment a few topics which may readily find concrete presentation in rural schools. We shall first consider climate, one of the most far-reaching controls of human activity in the world. This control is fully appreciated even with- out any theoretical knowledge of meteorology. The facts of temperature, 1072 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION moisture, and winds are self-evident. The relationship of man’s activities to these climatic controls is concretely illustrated in every locality. The teacher of the rural school has the opportunity of discussing with the pupils these relationships as they arise. “They need to be brought definitely and concretely into consciousness in order to be appreciated in their local in- fluence and in order to appreciate the climatic controls in lands, having a very different climate from that of the region in which the school is located. In times of wet weather when farm operations are delayed, or in times of flood when heavy losses occur, the teacher may help the pupils to understand that such conditions occur at many places throughout the world and that people plan great systems of drainage to lessen the de- structive effects of too much rain; that bridges must be built high enough and strong enough to withstand the highest floods which may occur. In times of dry weather when crop yields are less than usual, or in severe drought, when lack of rainfall results in serious crop losses, the local situa- tion may be discussed and the application made to other regions of the earth. The desirability of a well distributed, moderate rainfall for the home locality gives a basis for concrete thinking about the geographic conditions in extensive areas of the earth. We may next consider surface features of the land. ‘This topic may be dealt with concretely in the immediate locality of every rural school. An examination and a discussion of the actual relief of the land in the school district, and as far beyond as the experiences of the pupils have carried them, is well worth the time and effort required as a means of carrying the subject of Surface Features beyond the covers of the textbook. ‘Teach- ers and pupils may see that in their own locality the land relief compels the expenditure of much money and labor in draining swamps, and that the improved condition of the soil and the large production of crops year after year yield a handsome return for the effort. They may see that the upland ridges have a poorer soil and yield smaller crops than the more nearly level tracts between. They may see that the slope of the land has led the farmers of the locality to use certain portions of their land for crops, other portions for pasture, and other portions for woodland. Such concrete observation of local relief and a discussion of the relationship of this local relief to the actual work of the families to which the pupils belong, lays a sure foundation for correct thinking concerning distant regions which can be known only through pictures and reading. A definite study of the plant life and animal life of the region about a rural school and their relation to the work of the neighborhood, will yield valuable results in the study of geography. A good starting point in this study is that of the native plant life and the wild animal life of the region and their relation to the work of the Indians who occupied the region before the coming of white men. We may then show the advantages of substituting cultivated crops for native forests or open prairie, and the advantages of raising domestic animals in an agricultural region. “The very existence of mankind is so directly dependent on plants and animals, DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 1073 that these factors of the local environment in any agricultural region, are now dependent on man’s own work. A study of the kinds of plants and animals in the locality of the school and the reasons for their selection in this region aids greatly in understanding the local geography. A clear notion of the geographic controls of the plant and animal life of the home ° locality gives a concrete basis for the study of the plant and animal life of other regions of the world. ‘the social sciences combined, according to Professor Works’ findings. The important place that the social and natural sciences are to play in the years that lie ahead dictates a policy of giving a large and important place to these subjects in the preparation of teachers. American history and civics, professional ethics, the elements of economics and sociology, nature study, hygiene, gardening, agriculture, and practical science, afford a background for instruction in the normal school that will carry over into the elementary school. When many of our secondary schools give as much time to Latin as is given to all of the biologic sciences and American history and civics com- bined, and as much time to modern foreign languages as to the physical sciences, economics, sociology, agriculture, home-making and shopwork combined, there is need to shift the center of gravity in the curriculum of the normal school away from the traditional and academic and into the social and scientific if the six or eight years of preparation following the elementary school are to give us teachers who can train this generation of children for the important responsibilities that face them. That English should be the centre of the elementary curriculum is obvi- ous. I do not mean that we should spend our time in correcting the speech of normal school students, or in teaching them the elements of good form in writing letters. When we have the courage that we ought to have we shall admit to our normal schools only those who can pass a thorough examination in at least the elements of literature, who can express them- selves accurately and with some fluency in both speech and writing, and who can spell the minimum vocabulary of a high-school graduate. ‘There is more important work for the normal school to do in the field of English than to serve as a correctional institution. A thoroughgoing course in literature for children, dramatization, story-telling, oral and written com- position, library study, and spelling content and method, offers a wide enough field for an elementary course in the normal school longer than two years. The normal school that would best serve the public schools of today is the normal school that in its curricula gives proper place and attention to physical education, with all that that term connotes. ‘Twenty-eight States now have compulsory physical education laws in one form or another. No State-wide program for physical education can be effective, however splendid the law creating it, unless the normal schools of that State see the tremendously important part that they must take in carrying the program forward. We have made it clear to our recently appointed State super- visors of physical education in Massachusetts that the State normal schools 1080 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION _—$$$<$<$$$<$<_ are to receive a large share of their attention. A two-weeks’ conference of all of the teachers of physical education in our State normal schools and our State supervisors of physical education will open next week at the summer session of one of our normal schools, as will two summer schools of physical education for supervisors and classroom teachers, under the direction of our State supervisors. “The normal schools must teach physical education and not be satisfied with formal gymnastics as the supposed means of caring for the health of the students in attendance. If we are to become a nation of intelligent consumers, more attention must be given to the fine and practical arts in the preparation of teachers for our public schools. Drawing and handwork, music, the elements of home economics and shopwork must be given their proper appropriation and time allotment in the curricula of the normal school. Among the new developments of our curricula for State normal schools in Massachusetts is a course in professional ethics. “There is now in process of printing a bulletin setting forth the work of a committee appointed from our faculties for the purpose of preparing such a course. After two years of discussion and trial of the material, it has taken somewhat definite shape. Here, it seems to me, is a point for emphasis in the preparation of teachers. Both the medical and legal professions are developing codes of ethics. No body of public servants with the intimate social contacts of the teachers in our schools should be without a set of guiding principles in doing their work. Time should be found in our normal school curricula for the development, possibly through projects, of the ethical responsibilities of our profession. The occasion does not demand that a catalog be here given of the several units of study that shall make up the elementary curriculum in normal schools. Specific reference has been made to three or four that seem especially significant in the light of present educational tendencies. It has been urged, however, that we have methods courses in the curriculum of the elementary school, together with such courses of a cultural and profes- sional nature as will give breadth and depth to the teacher’s preparation. That has been, and is; the conception we have in this State of the duty of the normal school in preparing teachers. With this conception in mind, a significant piece of democratic curriculum making has been going on in the State normal schools of Massachusetts for the past three years. Eighteen committees were appointed by the Depart- ment of Education and a steering committee of three principals for the distinct purpose of revising the elementary curriculum. Preliminary reports were made at the end of the first year, at our second annual State con- ference of normal school instructors. _Mimeographed copies of each report were distributed and departmental conferences held. After a year of trial in the several schools, the reports were revised and presented for further discussion at our third annual conference. “These reports are being used as a teachers’ and students’ manual in the normal schools. Each graduate will carry a copy away for her use as a teacher, a sufficient supply DEPARTMENT OF NorMAL SCHOOLS 1081 of each having been printed for a five-year period. After further revision, three additional reports are now in process of printing, including the report on professional ethics, already mentioned. It is our intention eventually to print all of these committee reports as the basis of the elementary cur- riculum in our State normal schools. ‘To be sure, we shall keep them under constant revision and use them with sufficient elasticity to give free scope to the initiative of our most ambitious instructors. As a means of interpreting this work in curriculum making, special investigations have been carried on for the past two years in the field of intelligence testing, with group and individual applications. Special com- mittees are at work on the project method and on educational measurements in the training school. Our annual State conference makes an excellent clearing-house for these committee reports. Any curriculum to be effective must be under constant study and under constant revision as to detail. ‘The survey of the curriculum from within affords the best means of appraising its value. In Massachusetts we have in our State Normal School Teachers’ Association an effective agency for assisting in this work. ‘This association, since its formation three years ago, has, in conjunction with the Department of Education, set for itself each year some distinctly professional task. Through the efforts of this association, and in the light of our own present experience in curriculum making, we hope to keep not only our elementary curriculum, but all of the curricula in our State normal schools abreast of the needs of the schools for which our teachers are being trained. SUBJECT MATTER IN THE TEACHERS’ COLLEGE CURRICULUM GEORGE H. SHAFER, PRINCIPAL OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WILLIMANTIC, CONNECTICUT For some years now we have been talking in spots about professionalizing the teachers’ college curriculum. In the more recent literature we come across a still more specific term—namely, “‘professionalized subject matter.” Now to those of us who did not experience the birth pains in producing these expressions, they give the impression of a specific, they convey some- what the odor of a nostrum. ‘‘Professionalized subject matter”—it sounds so much like peptonized milk. It must contain some magical element, some potent for which ordinary subject matter is merely a vehicle or perhaps a sort of filler. But then these are only superficial impressions for which perhaps we ought to ask the good Lord to forgive us and we ought instead to be thankful that the teachers’ college as a democratic institution shows signs of life and health and that there are those who are giving their best energies in trying to comprehend and to define the immediate necessary steps in its adaptation. The fact of the matter is that these expressions which I have 1082 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION just mentioned are tremendously significant both in their general purport and in their specific meanings. They indicate that the teachers’ college is becoming conscious of itself and of its objectives and that it is beginning to take itself seriously as an independent institution. It is no longer to be a mere expedient in a system of examinations for teachers’ certificates, nor is it any longer to try to stand under the shadow of the liberal arts college and borrow whatever of glory it may from that institution. “These expressions are the symbols of a declaration of independence. Hereafter the teachers’ college is to shine by its own light and it is to make its appeal for public support on the ground that it has a tremendously important function to perform in the general scheme of education and it will demand that it be allowed to perform that function unobstructed. Education is both preventive and constructive. “The public supports education for the same reason that a city supports an effective water system, fire department, and streets. “These things are necessary for the life and growth of the city and for the comfort and convenience of every inhabitant. Education is a National necessity. It gives individuals and nations the light necessary to appreciate the values of life and the power to control those values. The effectiveness of public education depends upon the teacher. ‘The teacher occupies the strategic position. He is the one who must direct the experiences of the learner so that life controls may result. The teacher must be the artist, not the artist’s tool. He must appreciate life values. He must have as clear an understanding as possible of his particular func- tion besides the technique of his profession. It is the function of the teachers’ college to select—and I say select advisedly—to select young men and women of adaptability and to guide them as far as possible into the appreciations and controls of professional values and technique, always bearing in mind that professional values include life values for the ultimate objectives of teaching are found in life values. Strictly professional values are a means to an end. Life values are ultimate values. Human beings must learn to control natural and social forces for the welfare and happiness of individuals and of groups of individuals. It is these life values that children must learn to appreciate and control. ‘The content of the curricula of our schools, history, geog- raphy, sociology, citizenship, economics, literature, mathematics, is the intellectual resultant of the experiences of the race in its efforts to gain control of life values, and its purpose is to lead the oncoming generation into such experiences as will make it possible for them most effectively to gain control of life values in their generation. . Now if teaching is to be effective, teachers must have a fair control of life values, but they must also become conscious of the functions of specific subject matter in bringing about these controls. Here is where the work of the liberal arts college and the teachers college overlap. It is the function of the liberal arts college to give control of life values but it would be neither practical nor economical to make all DEPARTMENT OF NoRMAL SCHOOLS . 1083 students conscious of the values of specific subject matter in bringing about these controls. The student in high school or college takes subject matter for granted. It is not so essential that he should know whence it came nor how it effects its purpose. It is sufficient for him that the purpose is accomplished, that he acquires the knowledge, forms the habits, and establishes the attitudes which are essential to control life values. The teacher, on the other hand, must not only acquire these controls as such, but he must also learn to view subject matter, arithmetic, geography, litera- ture, as an instrument of control. One may think effectively without knowing how he thinks, without even knowing that he has a brain, and that the thinking process is connected with it, but if he is to direct thought processes in others he must know the nature of a thought process. “The teacher must not only gain life controls by his reactions upon subject- matter—he must also learn to test subject matter for its control values, and it is this added function which differentiates the subject matter courses of the teachers’ college from those of the liberal arts college. This, I take it, is the meaning of professionalized subject matter. The course in arithmetic, for instance, should not only aid to give the student control of arithmetical situations in life, it ought also to make him conscious of the specific values of arithmetical processes in controlling life situations. Io be more specific, the teacher ought not only to be able to use the multiplication table effectively—he ought also to know something of the nature of the table as an instrument, how it was evolved, and what function it serves in the process of computation. Again, the subject matter courses of the teachers’ college are differenti- ated in their specific content. Courses intended for elementary teachers cover the content of the elementary curriculum while courses intended for high-school teachers cover the content of the high-school curriculum but always on a plane adapted to the maturity and ability of the students, and always primarily aiming at the control of life values by the students. The reason that review courses as offered in normal school in the past were so abortive was because they did not yield intrinsic values. “They did not yield a broader outlook on life, more extended knowledge, habits and atti- tudes more adapted for the control of life situations. “They set up an artificial end, regarding subject matter as so much dead stuff to be accumu- lated and then doled out in small doses to children. It is the practice in some of our teachers’ colleges at the present time to make subject matter courses carry the extra load of specific technique all on a very meagre allotment of time. Such courses do not meet the needs of prospective teachers in gaining control of life values. They may be effective as methods courses but they can yield very little of other value. ‘These courses, when given exclusively, remind one of a certain characteriza- tion of Fletcherism, “It matters not what you eat, nor even whether you eat anything, so long as you chew it well.”It maters not what you know nor even whether you know anything so long as you can teach it by the latest method. 1084 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In summary, let me say that the teachers’ college is becoming conscious of itself as an independent institution having a full-sized job to perform. It ceases to be an enigma. It is neither a secondary school nor a liberal arts college, it is simply a teachers’ college. My sole purpose, in the short time allotted me, was to raise the question of the status of subject matter courses in the teachers’ college curriculum. Such courses seem to me to be absolutely indispensable. They are differ- entiated from somewhat similar courses offered in liberal arts colleges in two ways: (1) While their fundamental purpose is to yield life controls they should also yield the point of view of subject matter as a means of control, (2) In the kind and variety of courses offered by the liberal arts college the sky is the limit. The purpose of the teachers’ college is specific and restricted and subject matter courses should yield those life controls which all individuals should possess together with those more specific con- trols which are necessary for the particular class of service which the teacher will be called upon to render, always remembering that these con- trols should be acquired on the highest possible level. Courses which involve subject matter only from the point of view of method are totally inadequate to yield those life controls which “are an indispensable part of the teacher’s equipment. THE PRACTICAL NATURE OF AN EDUCATION FOR TEACHING JOHN L. ALGER, PRESIDENT OF RHODE ISLAND COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND An education designed for the training of teachers is of necessity practical. 1. It is based on mastery of the fundamentals—a mass of educative material usually accepted as the visible mark of an educated person, but too often neglected in the haste to enter new fields of learning. 2. It begins with an analysis of the process of learning. ‘The student of the art of teaching becomes proficient also in the art of learning. 3. It is more than a study about something. It carries with it at, all times the practical application of the study. Students must learn to do and to be as well as to think and to know. 4. Its subject matter has to do with the ideas and ideals of every-day life. 5. It develops initiative, resourcefulness, and leadership. 6. It gives an art that is essential in all professions. Whatever one wishes to accomplish with or through others, he is successful in securing the desired results in proportion as he knows how to teach. 7. It carries with it an assurance of success, not merely in the realm of study, but in making one’s way in the world. : 8. It gives a preparation for most significant usefulness in training the rising generation for citizenship, a profession that challenges the finest quali- ties of character and culture. No other calling offers greater opportunity for service to one’s own generation and to the generations of the future. Department of Physical Education SECRETARY’S MINUTES OFFICERS President—ETHEL Perrin, Assistant Director of Health Education.......... Detroit, Michigan Secretary—Witiiam Buroicx, M. D., Director of Public School Athletic DEO ey ane a stons ton use sabesodedes edcoencongee Don accucrbacenas Baltimore, Maryland FIRST SESSION—WeEpNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 5, 1922 RuraL Group ATHLETICS AND WHat 1r Means—Daniel Chase, Supervisor of Physical Education, State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. Tue PLace or PuysicaL EpucaTION IN THE COUNTRY SCHOOL PROoGRAM—E. W. Broome, Superintendent of Montgomery County Schools, Rockville, Md. Tue RELATION OF PuysicaL EpucaTion TO SociaAL HyciENE—Benjamin C. Gruen- berg, Assistant Director of Educational Work, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. Tue TEAcHER’s Part In ScHooL MepicaL INSPECTION BASED ON A JOINT EXPERI- MENTATION BY THE Detroir Pusiic SCHOOLS AND THE DETROIT DEPARTMENT OF HeattH—C. M. Elliott, Special Education Department, Detroit Teachers College, Detroit, Mich. SECOND SESSION—Tuurspay AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1922 Benavioristic Heirs ror PuysicaL Epucation—Dudley A. Sargent, President of the Sargent School of Physical Education, Cambridge, Mass. PURPOSES OF THE COMMITTEE ON WOMEN’S ATHLETICS OF THE AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND ITS PROGRESS UP TO THE PresENT—Cynthia M. Wesson, Instructor in Physical Education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. PuysicaL EDUCATION PROBLEMS IN THE INTERMEDIATE OR JUNIOR HicH ScHOOL— Bessie L. Barnes, Director of Physical Education, Brookline, Mass. RURAL GROUP ATHLETICS AND WHAT IT MEANS DANIEL CHASE, SUPERVISOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, NEW YORK The city problem in play and athletics is one of large groups and small spaces; the country problem, one of large spaces and small scattered groups. The up-to-date city has partly solved its problem by “intensive cultivation.” Its available play spaces are usually carefully graded and marked out for games, equipped with play apparatus, and supervised by trained leaders who know how to keep large numbers active and happy and know the social and educational value of play activities. The country has made little effort to solve its play problem, assuming that the country child, having the great out-of-doors to play in, needed nothing more. WVork has been frequently substituted in_ the life of the children and necessary play opportunity entirely neglected. Attempts to assemble country children and grown folks for general play and recreation have been undertaken spasmodically here and there by [1085] 1086 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION churches, schools, and community organizations, such as the County Y. M. C. A., Farm Bureau Agents, and the like. Where individual leaders have had the vision and the courage and have been willing to expend the energy needed to overcome the prevalent rural inertia, the Grange Field Day, the Sunday School Picnic, the School Play Day, the County Athletic Meet have come to be annual events looked forward to with eagerness by all the youth residing in these fortunate localities. Io have but one a year of such good times is a meager ration, yet many boys and girls in the open country are denied even this amount. New York State and many other States are trying to change this condi- tion through the schools. State Laws requiring physical education in all schools have been enacted, and rightly interpreted to include organization of play and games as well as formal gymnastics and instruction in the care of the body. Every school child is now having some time each week de- voted to supervised recreation as a part of his school training. A fourth “R”___Recreation—has been introduced into the education system of the “little, old, red school house” as well as in the new consolidated, township school. Frequent exhibitions and field days are held. Country people are slow to pay out money for “new fangled” notions in school work, or in any kind of community welfare or so-called “uplift” effort, until convinced that the proposition is of real benefit, and they need ~ in some sections to be further educated to the possibilities and values of this new training for their boys and girls before they will give it the necessary whole-hearted financial backing. They still need to be shown in many sections that physical training is not physical straining, and convinced that active play is a necessary part of normal growing and living. Workers are greatly needed to help teach the regular teachers how to do their part—the biggest part of the actual work—by teaching them the activities to be used, by explaining the way to a more abundant physical life. “They must show how games and play and athletic sports may help train the future rural citizens in the ability to work together, to live together as good neighbors, to have a richer, happier life, as well as a longer one. The power to codperate is most easily acquired during adolescence through team play. ‘This ability is frequently lacking in rural people, because the play training was left out of their education. The “back to the land” movement will also be bettered by this “stay on the land” effort. For a practical way to get young people to want to “stay in the country” is to give them a chance and show them how (and what) to “play in the country.” Whatever makes the social life of country boys and girls more satisfactory, will help offset the lure of the city. Young folks want to be where there is something going on. ‘The thing to do is to have more worthwhile, attractive things going on in the country, play activities suited to the needs and desires of country boys and girls, “indigenous to the soil,” as the specialist would say. Competition is im- portant but hard to secure when schools are of varied sizes and widely separated. The group athletic contest is one method of securing this valu- able competition. DEPARTMENT OF PuysIcAL EDUCATION 1087 What is a rural group athletic contest? It is an athletic contest which every rural school can enter, and in which the small school has the same show as the large. “Ts this possible?” you say. Certainly, and very easily explained. In the last two years several thousand rural schools in New York State have participated in this form of contest... We required in each school competing eighty per cent of the pupils over eight years of age to take part in three simple events testing their athletic ability, then scored the results on a percentage basis. “Then we divided the total scores made, by the number of contestants, and got the school score on a percentage basis also. A school with forty pupils over eight years of age, had thirty-two official contestants. The results of these thirty-two may have totaled sixteen hundred (1600) points which divided by thirty- two gives fifty (50), the score for the school. The school with ten pupils over eight, had eight official contestants who may have earned four hundred and forty (440) points. Four hundred and forty divided by eight equals fifty-five, the school score. ‘That is, the small school won from the large by having the highest percentage of physical ability, 55 to 50. “Yes, but what events did you use and how could you score on a percent- age basis?” The basic events tested running, jumping, climbing, and throwing ability! We adapted the events to meet conditions in the unequipped country school, a beanbag was the only absolutely essential piece of equipment outside of an ordinary watch with second hand, and a ladder or bar of some kind for chinning. Oh, yes, we did have to have a small piece of rope to tie across two trees for the ‘“‘toss and catch” test for girls and some- thing to measure distances in the jumps, but these things are within the reach of any teacher at almost no expense. You say, you can’t imagine what events were used? Here they are! For boys—(1) Fifty Yard Dash; (2) Standing Broad Jump; (3) Chinning the Bar. For girls—(1) Fifty Yard Dash; (2) Bean Bag Throw for Distance; (3) Toss, Run, and Catch. “How did we score points?” We established a minimum of performance and called it zero, then credited everything better than this mark up to a maximum record, which was one hundred (100) points. We had two divisions, pupils under the eleventh birthday were juniors, over the eleventh birthday, seniors. For example, a senior boy jumping ‘three feet eleven inches would score no points, but for every inch he jumped better than three feet eleven inches, he would make two (2) points, up to eight feet one inch or more, which record would give him one hundred points for the event. No one was allowed to score more than 100 points in any event. We had a scoring standard for each event. The junior standards being lower than the senior. For instance, in the broad jump, every inch over two feet five inches would scoretwo points for a junior boy. We encouraged individuals to do their best, because every effort added 1088 NationaL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION to the school’s score and we also awarded individual honors as follows: Any pupil winning or exceeding the honor standard, 50 points, in each and every event was recorded as having passed the test with honor (H). Any- one winning or exceeding 75 points in each and every event was given high honor (HH), and for 100 points highest honor (HHH). Local school made proper provision for announcing individual honors. Pupils who won honors had the privilege of wearing the State physical ability honor emblem, if they cared to purchase it. We gave no prizes except written certificates of award sent to schools with highest scores in each supervisory district and county. We divided the schools into sections according to number of teachers to make competition even more fair and gave awards in each section. Section 1 comprised school districts with not more than two teachers. Section 2 comprised school districts employing more than two teachers but having no academic department and no special teacher of physical education. Sec- tion 3 consisted of school districts maintaining an academic department but employing no special teacher of physical education. Section 4 consisted of school districts having more than two teachers and no academic department, but which employ teacher of physical education. Section 5 comprised dis- tricts with academic department and special teacher of physical education. The three winning school districts in each section were determined by the district superintendent, and championships announced for the district. The record of these schools was then forwarded to State Department of Education, and the county and State-wide championship determined and announced. By this plan it is possible to have dual athletic meets between widely separated schools, each conducting the events on the same day or during the same week, and exchanging results by mail or telephone. It arouses interest in the boys and girls, and among their parents as well. Every pupil likes to know how his strength or ability matches with someone else’s, and every parent, how his boy or girl stands in comparison with others. But this method shows also how the total ability compares with the total of some neighboring community. You see the possibilities at once. We may eventually have contests between States on a nation-wide basis. THE PLACE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE COUNTRY SCHOOL PROGRAM EDWIN W. BROOME, SUPERINTENDENT OF MONTGOMERY COUNTY SCHOOLS, ROCKVILLE, MARYLAND Life in the country provides for physical activities. Boys and girls are active. Country life is largely physical labor. Boys and girls find many “chores” to do. This is thought by many country folks to be sufficient physical training, thus making unnecessary any effort in the school. It is not so. Physical education includes values that cannot be built up through DEPARTMENT OF PuysicaL EpuCATION 1089 such uncontrolled and unorganized activity. Physical education, along with other values of education, must be developed in the spirit in which it will be used. ‘This places it in the country school program. Physical education must mean more than physical development. Un- directed physical perfection is not enough. It must be possessed for ends of service socially, otherwise its use will be controlled by standards of strategy—the basis of animal behavior—rather than standards of control that are ethical and a product of the cortex. Physical development is a choice individual possession. An educated individual must be adjusted socially and the more perfectly educated, the more perfectly adjusted socially. Physical perfection is not a possession outside this adjustment. It is within it and must serve its ends. The school being a democratic and social institution must find place for the development of physical education that shall be saturated with ideals of conduct and standards of physical behavior in keeping with the nature of the school as an institution. With- out this provision the physical may be perfected by some good fortune, but not brought within the safety zone for civilized society. ‘Physical is a means not an end.” Physical education as an accomplishment is built up as a direct physical change. It cannot be realized through knowledge about it. ‘The fresh air to benefit the body must get into the lungs, not the head. It is a by- product or result of certain right practices and habits of physical living. The school cannot stop with merely furnishing information, however neces- sary information may be to knowing the habits and practices needed to pro- duce the proper physical life. Habits and practices must be carried out, of course, as individual undertakings; in addition to this, they must be tied up in such situations as will impress, if possible, the social significance of physical education. Physical education is both an individual and a social benefit. It must be developed in an individual way and at the same time adjusted to serve not only the individual but society. Without a place in public education there can be no adequate assurances that these functions will be realized for country boys and girls. Ideals, attitudes, knowledge of facts, and practices must have a part in physical education. The country schools of Montgomery County, Maryland, have been provided with the services of a trained physician for the individual examina- tion of pupils and with a nurse for follow-up work. ‘The schools have stressed health chores and health habits among the pupils. Homes have been stimulated to codperate with the school in encouraging pupils to carry out the health habits. School programs have provided for recrea- tion and physical exercise with supervision in the school day. Appropriate games for the different grades have been inaugurated through the Public Athletic League. Inter-school contests have been provided for the various seasons. Hot lunches have been started in the rural schools. A county- wide athletic meet has been held each year, under the management of the Public Athletic League of the State. All of which follow well-established procedure in health education. The Gaithersburg High School in the county has conducted through the 1090 NationaL EpucATION ASSOCIATION high school pupils an annual athletic meet for the one- and two-room rural schools. The pupils of the high school have acted as coaches, visiting the local rural schools and directing the preparation for the meet. The schools have stressed the values to be realized through physical education. An annual Health Week has been designated by the Board of Education. ‘The principals of the schools in conference formulated a program of values in connection with the Health Week and Athletic Meet to include— 1. Health—(a) Tags for each pupil. ‘These tags should be distributed one to each pupil, on Monday and worn by the pupils during the entire week. The name, age, height, and pounds the pupil should weigh should be written on the card, as indicated by the spaces on the card. (b) Health chart for each room. The chart should contain the names of all the pupils of a room. It should be hung up on Monday. Each pupil should check each day during the week, under the various headings, ‘ the habits mentioned have been practiced for the day. At the end of the week each pupil will have checked as many times for each column as he has practiced the habit during the week. Each pupil should check each day the columns he is entitled to check and not wait to check for several days at a time. All charts are to be mailed to the office at the end of the week. Every emphasis possible should be put on “health habits” during the week. The hygiene classes should devote entire time to ‘health practices” during the week. ‘The athletic meet coming on Saturday should be used to stimulate the observances of the health habits in order to be in fit condition to do the best in the events. 2. Athletic meet—A. How may the schools build up the standards needed? The standards must be built up and accepted by the group of pupils through the regular teaching service factor of the school. Standards must be established before the time when they are to control conduct, for conduct not controlled by standards will most likely impress lessons through the penalities incurréd. History, civics, literature and other content sub- jects, and school activities, should be used in building the standards during the school life in all grades. After the group accepts a standard, the “pressure” from the group is the best incentive to any individual member to live up to the standard. The conduct in games and in the competition between representatives of different groups shows how the established standards are functioning. It is a sort of try-out occasion. It is what happens in conduct that is most important, not what is talked of and ends in words. Each group (or school) should evaluate its conduct, practiced during the contest, after it is over to see if there are any controls of conduct that need further emphasis and“attention, in order to make sure of the right sort of conduct in life. The habits of conduct formed will probably continue in the citizenship activities through life. Any irregularities noticed should first be called to the attention of the individual or group to make the correction or amends necessary, which they most likely should wish to do on their own initiative. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION 1091 It is as a last resort that the irregularity should be reported to the com- mittee, director, or referee in charge. When an irregularity is called to the attention of any one, it should be done in the spirit of helpfulness to the person practicing the irregularity and not in a spirit of condemnation of the person or group. It should also be accepted in the same spirit and highly appreciated. THE RELATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO SOCIAL HYGIENE BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR EDUCATIONAL WORK, UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE Physical education and social hygiene have a common origin in the con- flicts between the native impulses of the human organism and the require- ments of social living. Living in our highly complex civilization is not compatible with the automatic preservation of the health of the organism. Perhaps savagery is also incompatible with health, but neither we nor the savages are concerned about that. Our mode of living is so far out of harmony with the basic instincts and activities of the untrained organism that special steps have to be taken to satisfy the impulses and at the same time maintain the moving equilibrium of social relations. With relative security from the dangers which beset the primate in a state of nature, and with relative certainty of food supply, there are lacking both the opportunities and the stimuli for those activities of the chase and of escape from enemies which involve so large a part of the muscular and nervous mechanism. ‘The exercise which we do have may mean excessive overwork for some, with highly specialized activities that insure an un- balance. On the emotional side, the characteristic war neuroses showed how far we have advanced from dealing with dangers, whereas the typical anxiety neuroses of peace show the extent to which fear and worry are undermining our health and morale. The food which we eat, over-refined and predigested, contributes to the unbalance by modifying taste, dulling sensation and perhaps by withdrawing essential elements from the physical income. Our capacity to draw upon reserves without immediate discomfort or suffering makes possible gradual depletion and exhaustion through the over-stimulation to which we are exposed. Even rest and sleep must be taught. From every angle it may be shown that spontaneity is either impossible because directly obstructed, or disastrous because not suited to the artificial environment. A “natural” life is out of the question, since sociability is guite as inveterate as the other cravings of the species. Hence the necessity for “physical education” as a conscious attempt on the part of society so to condition or modify the conduct of its members as to insure a greater 1092 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION = degree of health than would otherwise result from unguided modes of conduct. The Mississippi State Code defines physical education as “Such super- vision and training of the children in physical and health activities as will jnsure progress toward maximum physical and mental efficiency, in a wholesome environment. Results of the work should be measured not by the brilliant accomplishments of a few but by the steady advancement of the entire body.” But when we attempt to define health, I wonder sometimes why we link it with physical education. For health means wholeness, and is a relative matter. It is the degree to which the func- tions and needs, the desires and activities and impulses and. satisfactions are unified, adjusted to one another, and adapted to the requirements of the environment. ‘There is no health in overdeveloped muscles that have no work to do; there is no health in the mastery of a difficult technique under compulsion, with no desire to use it. The object of health educa- tion should be the whole organism and all of its feelings and conduct. Moreover, it is coming to be generally recognized that the aims of phys- ‘cal and health education are basically social, notwithstanding that our efforts concern the individual. In its pamphlet on health and physical edu- cation the U. S. Chamber of Commerce promulgates the idea that “physical education presents the greatest opportunity the Nation has of developing National power.” ‘To what end that power is to be used is not discussed ; but that the processes of physical education have a social significance cannot be questioned. Now social hygiene also rests on a recognized incongruity, and is an effort to discover a mode of life that will reconcile the nature of the organ- ‘sm with the nature of society. On the side of sex as on the side of hunger and self-seeking, being “natural” is incompatible with being a member of the group; and the group cannot be escaped for it derives from equally “natural” impulses and needs. In all education we seek to discover such substitutes for spontaneous activities, which are manifestations of native impulses, that are both satis- tying to the individual and acceptable to the community. In physical edu- cation we started out to exercise the muscles whose neglect had begun to show deleterious effects in industrial, commercial, and professional occupa- tion groups. It would undoubtedly be possible to work out a set of formal calisthenics and gymnastics that would give every muscle in the body an adequate and balanced amount of exercise, from the view-point of physiological need. But such a program we already know would be futile, since it would disregard an equally essential element of that wholeness— namely, the emotions. Indeed, we have already begun to develop a technique that takes the primitive impulses into account; and the increasing use of games as against gymnastics points to the further utilization of the emotions in the health program. We are finding substitutes for those activities which would normally and spontaneously satisfy the. fighting impulses, as in athletic contests and DEPARTMENT OF PHysiICAL EDUCATION 1093 organized games. ‘Through the same instruments we are finding substitute satisfactions for the desire to receive recognition. We utilize rhythm in dances and drills. We construct solid foundations in concrete experience for the ideals of loyalty, codperation, service. These are coming to be the commonplace principles of physical education. We find that a great many of the impulses which we thus exploit and educate into socially acceptable forms of expression are also constituents of the sex life. The desire to be noticed, for example, is quite as much a part of the sex complex as it is of the ego development, and it becomes particu- larly conspicuous during adolescence. It is probably in its origins related to the courtship activities of our ancestors. We may use it in physical educa- tion as a part of the motivation in establishing training-regimen and other regulations that are presumably conducive to efficiency in athletic display. The element of combat is also found in sex interest and sex rivalry; and this too may be satisfied while being integrated with the other impulses into socially usable standards and ideals, such as fair play, chivalry, loyalty, honor, on which the physical education program already lays increasing emphasis. If the view is sound that education consists of establishing as substitutes for primitive modes of action and expression such artificial or cultivated forms as are satisfying to the individual and acceptable if not always posi- tively useful to the community, then we should be finding such substitutes through other than athletic or physical prowess. And indeed many of the elemental impulses and emotions related to sex are already finding educative expression through music, art, oratory, dramatics, and so on. One of the difficulties of any health education program comes from the fact that whereas health implies an integration or unifying of the functions and desires and interests and activities, our educational work is carried on by highly specialized individuals, each of whom is required to fix his attention upon his own element in the organism’s life without much regard to what others are doing. And this partial outlook is not confined to academic teachers, specialists in mathematics or history or chemistry. Thus, in the codperative attempt to formulate the aim of the “Physical Development and Majntenance” curriculum for the Los Angeles High School, Dr. Bobbitt has adopted tentatively a set of general assumptions and principles among which we find the following: (1) Physical development and training will be the center of interest of the physical training department. Social training will be incidental. (8) The entire thirty hours of the pupil’s week at the school’s plant should be utilized as physical training opportunity. (9) The total program of this school should be utilized as fully as practicable for physical training purposes. What is implied in numbers eight and nine?’ The physical conditions of the school plant should as a matter of course be in complete accord with the health requirements of the pupils and teachers—the ventilation, the lighting, the adjustment of seats and desks, the cleanliness, the sanitary 1094 NatIioNnaAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION arrangements, the temperature and moisture controls, the sequence of sub- jects and activities must all be planned with respect to the health of all. Moreover, the pupil’s contacts with the plant and its operations should be such as to impress him with both the need for attention to the physical factors in health and the standards in these respects which our science has established for us. Beyond this is implied a conscious and continuous co- operation of all the teachers in the observation of standard practice with respect to posture—sitting, standing, walking—with respect to breathing, personal cleanliness, avoiding possibly infectious contacts, maintaining emotional poise and control, and other routine elements of the day’s work that can affect the physical and emotional well-being of the pupils. All who are interested in health or physical education would welcome intelligent and wholehearted codperation of teachers and janitors in the ways suggested. But what is implied in number one of the assumptions? “That every teacher has his specialty; and that whatever emerges from the educative process beyond that specialty is a matter of relative indifference to him. Perhaps that is too extreme an interpretation. ‘The teacher of mathematics who considers his contribution to moral education incidental is probably not indifferent to his moral influence. But the point I wish to emphasize is the need for more deliberate and more systematic cooperation among the specialized teachers, because both for the sake of the individual and for the interests of the community the integration of the varied experiences to which the child is exposed is one of the most urgently needed aids that schools and teachers can give. From this point of view it becomes necessary for the physical education teacher whose relations to the pupils and whose appeals are both more direct and more fundamental than are those of most other teachers, to take into account the various aspects of the pupil’s nature and development, and the social conditions to which his life must be adjusted. In other words, the social side of health, the integrity of the social body, becomes a legitimate, an urgent concern of the health teacher. We have already assimilated into our teaching the elements of bacteriology and their practical application in the prevention of communicable diseases. Instruction regarding the vene- real diseases cannot longer be evaded. But social hygiene has more to accomplish than combating these diseases. If we should tomorrow find a sure cure for gonorrhea and for syphilis, and if we should the next day discover certain prophylaxis through vaccination-or other treatment, we should still have with us the problems of utilizing the sex impulses in life without bringing about the disasters and social ill-health represented by prostitution, by illegitimacy, by broken homes, by sexual perversions, by rakes and prudes, and by many infantile fixations and transfers to unhappy and anti-social forms of conduct. Just as we expect the whole of the school program to contribute to the personal health and adjustment of the individual, we must expect the physical education department to contribute to the emotional health and social adjustment of the pupils. DEPARTMENT OF PHysICAL EDUCATION 1095 PURPOSES OF THE COMMITTEE ON WOMEN’S ATH- LETICS OF THE AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND ITS PROGRESS UP TO THE PRESENT CYNTHIA M. WESSON, INSTRUCTOR IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WISCONSIN As I understand it, I am here not to present to you a pet theory, or even the working out of a problem. Our problems are most of them still before us and still to be worked out. But I am here rather to bring before you the facts regarding the development of the work of the Committee ‘on Women’s Athletics of the American Physical Education Association, a development in both past and future which is of vital interest to all those who are connected with work in physical education for women. As regards the history of the committee: the original committee was appointed several years before the war. Under the chairmanship of Miss Elizabeth Burchenal sub-committees on basket ball and field hockey were organized. During the war, since so many members of the committee left their regular occupations for government service of one kind or another, the work of the committee came practically to a standstill. At the time of reorganizing the committee Miss Blanche M. Trilling, Director of Physical Education for Women at the University of Wisconsin, was made general chairman, and she has brought together a committee of men and women prominent in physical education, representing colleges, schools, and normal schools in many sections of the country. Under her two new sub- committees have been organized: one for swimming with Miss Eleanor Demming, Director of Camp Miramichi as chairman, the other for Field and Track Athletics with Miss Katherine Sibley, director of physical education for women at the University of Syracuse, as chairman. At the national convention of the American Physical Education Asso- ciation at Detroit the first week in May, 1922, Saturday morning was given over to the section meetings on men’s athletics and women’s athletics, and the situation in regard to women’s athletics was presented by Miss Trilling and her sub-committee chairmen to nearly 500 people interested in this particular field. Miss Trilling opened the meeting and brought out the general situation. At this time she made it quite clear that the committee realized that women’s work in athletics lagged far behind men’s work— that the women, however, were moving slowly advisedly, being determined if possible to avoid the difficulties which have developed in men’s competi- tive and spectacular events. The committee’s aims as outlined by her, are to set up standards, compile records, and to be a general clearing-house for the various questions that confront those dealing with girls’ athletics. But underlying all this is a great desire of the committee to be a central body working always along educational lines, and considering the interests of the mass of students, rather than the pride of college, school, or nation in the accomplishments of a few. 1096 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The rest of the Detroit meeting was given to the different sub-committees and it seems logical to present the information brought out at that time under the four sub-headings of field hockey, swimming, basket ball, and track athletics. The chairman of the sub-committee on field hockey summed up the development of the hockey situation. The main points being the co- operation of this committee with the newly formed United States Field Hockey Association. One set of rules is being published jointly by this committee and the national association ; so that the difficulties which have arisen in basket ball may be avoided in hockey. Our committee cannot claim any credit for the other work of the United States Field Hockey Asso- ciation, but for those who are interested in the development of the game, I want to give a moment to them. ‘The formation of the national association was the direct outcome of the increased interest in hockey created by the visit of the English team last autumn. This association has as active members, local hockey associations which are made up of at least three clubs—Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Michigan being already organized. Besides this the association has allied members in the form of school and college athletic associations. By keeping these associations and their members in touch with the general situation, it is hoped to help carry over the habit of playing the game after school or college into ordinary life, since the way in which most of our girls drop much of their athletic activity the moment they leave college is one of the weakest points in our athletics for women. One more activity of the U. S. FH, A.’ seems worthy of comment, and that is their committee on coaches. “This com- mittee has arranged with the English Association for a number of English coaches, who are to come to America this autumn without pay, but whose expenses will be met by the places where they coach. By means of this committee, colleges, schools, and clubs can procure an English coach for one week or more—which would be quite impossible without a central committee arranging details. The plans regarding getting out a swimming guide were presented by Miss Eleanor Demming, chairman of the sub-committee on swimming. It was decided to include the work already done by the Association of Camp Directors on swimming standards and life-saving work. Various other things were also decided upon to be included in the guide, such as the standards for different age groups, valuation of the different parts of dives for judging competitions, and the development of endurance in swimming. The section on basket ball was led by Miss Helen Frost, of Teachers College, New York, since Miss Florence Alden the chairman could not be present. In_ this section particular rules and changes were discussed. There is always a desire among a minority for developing a game of basket ball which will be less limited by restrictions. ‘This minority could not help feeling that it was having a fair hearing at this meeting and that if the time was ever ripe a more liberal game would develop. At the present time when so many high school teams are coached by men instead of women, there is a real danger of removing restrictions and one feels that the com- mittee is working along safe and sane lines for the benefit of the majority. DEPARTMENT OF PHystcaL EDUCATION 1097 When we come to the situation on field and track athletics, there is by no means fair sailing. In the first days of the general committee there was a desire on the part of some members of the committee for a sub- committee on track athletics. To quote Miss Trilling at Detroit: “No sub-committee on track athletics was appointed because it was recognized that track was not an event which made as wide an appeal to girls and women in general as the other activities did and because it was felt that group activities were better.’ The result of not having a sub-committee on track appointed, was the formation by Dr. Stewart, of New Haven, of the National Women’s Track Athletics Committee, which has never had any connection with the committee of the American Physical Education Association. Not long before the Detroit convention, word came that the Amateur Athletic Union had been requested to consider taking over the control of women’s track athletics and that they were sending out a reprint from the New York Herald of April 9, reporting a meeting to discuss this plan. At the same time the constitution of the Federation Sportive Femi- nine Internationale came to view and also plans for taking a team of American women to compete in an international track meet to be held in Paris this August. The problems arising from these developments seemed most serious to the committee and the following resolutions were passed not only by the committee itself, but were later submitted to the section meeting and unanimously passed by it. The first deals with the control of women’s track athletics by the Amateur Athletic Union and is as follows: Since the Women’s Committee on Athletics of the American Physical Education - Association is convinced that the American Physical Education Association is the only logical organization to direct the policies in women’s athletics, it goes on record as disapproving of any afhliation wth the Amateur Athletic Union with relation to athletics for women. The second is in regard to the proposal to take a track team to Paris this August, and reads: The Committee on Athletics for Women appointed by the American Physical Education Association, representing the entire country, feels very strongly against participation by American women in the Field and Track Meet in Paris to be held during August, 1922. We feel that Field and Track for Women is in its infancy in this country, that it is so little organized, that no team can be properly chosen as representative of the United States. These two resolutions reflect quite clearly the general attitude of the committee. Its aims are not to develop spectacular contests and inter- national meets, so much as to encourage the mass of girls throughout the country to take part in sports for the real benefit which may be gained from them as recreative and health-building activities. We think that probably the A. A. U. having discovered a good deal of opposition to their control of women’s track athletics will let the matter drop. Whether our committee can adequately handle the situation depends, as Miss Sibley the chairman made quite clear, on the codperation of everyone working with women’s track athletics. In regard to the Paris meet, it seems that in all probability a team will go over to compete. We are entertained more 1098 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and more frequently by photographs in our Sunday papers, entitled “Hur- dling in perfect form, in try-outs for the international meet’’ or something to that effect. We wonder if the public is growing bored with ordinary athletic pictures and must now have the added interest in the contestants being women. ‘The latest development, and I bring it up only to make the situation quite clear, is the circulation of the ‘Constitution of the National Women’s Track Athletics Association” giving physical directors an oppor- tunity to join for their respective institutions. Under ‘‘objects’’ we read: 1. To codperate with the Women’s Athletic Committee of the American Physical Education Association, College Athletic Associations, the proposed Athletic Federa- tion, and other similar bodies to encourage, standardize, and control track athletics for women in the United States. 2. To demonstrate the value of intra-mural and inter-school competition under strict control; by sectional meets, telegraphic meets, etc., emphasizing the educa- tional and competitive values rather than the spectacular. 3. To codperate with the Federation Sportive Feminine Internationale in the study, standardization, and participation of track athletics for women throughout the world. Since the second and third objects are directly opposed to the aims of the committee of the American Physical Education Association it seems hard to see how the first can be sincere. We are finally confronted with the question: “Can we keep our athletics for women really for the good of the mass of girls and women, or are the few to furnish entertainment for the crowds in the grandstands? It is only by the help and support of all those who have the best interests of physical education at heart that we can even attempt to do this. Department of Rural Education SEGRETARY’S MINUTES * CuHicaco MEETING OFFICERS President—ERNEST BurNHAM, Normal School..........seeeeeeeeeeees Kalamazoo, Michigan Vice-President—J. C. Murrman, Bureau of Education........-+..++++++- Washington, D. C. Secretary—MazeEt Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University............ New York City FIRST SESSION—Monpbay AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 27, 1922 Leadership and Achievement in Rural Education PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS—RESOURCES IN RuRAL EpucaTion—Ernest Burnham, Director of Rural Education, Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. SomE UNSOLVED PROBLEMS OF RuRAL EDUCATION FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF SocloLoGy— E. C. Lindeman, State College, Greensboro, N. C. LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT IN RurAL EDUCATION AND COUNTRY Lire—Charl O. Williams, Superintendent of Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. ANNOUNCEMENTS AND PRELIMINARY BUSINESS. SECOND SESSION—Tuespay AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 28, 1922 The Rural High School THe OBJECTIVES OF PusLic EpucaTIoN IN AMERICA—Thomas H. Briggs, Depart- ment of Secondary Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New VOLK Newey Tur SMALL Community HicH ScHoor—E. M. Phillips, State Inspector of High Schools and Director of Vocational Education, St. Paul, Minn. PRoBLEMS AND METHODS IN THE ORGANIZATION OF RURAL CoMMUNITY HIGH ScHoots—F. P. OBrien, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. THIRD SESSION—Tuvespay EvENING, FEBRUARY 28, 1922 The Rural School of Tomorrow’ CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS OF THE MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS, AND PLAINS OF COLORADO— C. G. Sargent, College of Agriculture, Fort Collins, Colo. EpucaTion IN 1Ts Proper EnviroNMENT—Mary E. Sabin, Principal of the Con- solidated Rural School, Chazy, N. Y. A RuraL Tracuers’ PLatrssurc—A. O. Thomas, State Superintendent of Schools, Augusta, Maine. FOURTH SESSION—Tuurspay AFTERNOON, Marcu 2, 1922 This session was held in conjunction with the County Superintendents’ Section of the Department of Superintendence with E. J. Tobin, Superintendent of Cook County Schools, Chicago, IIl., presiding. all proper additions and corrections and record the 1[The proceedings here given include ( t L Rural Education exactly as it was rendered at this official program of the Department of meeting. 2 ; 2Fach of the following discussions was jllustrated with motion-picture films. [1099] 1100 NatTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION SoME CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE NEW YorK STATE Rurav ScHooL SurveY—J. E. Butter- worth, Professor of Rural Education, Cornell College of Agriculture, Ithaca, ING VG QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION. GENERAL BUSINESS MEETING AND ELECTION OF OFFICERS. SECTION MEETINGS On Wednesday afternoon, March 1, five sections of the Department of Rural Education met simultaneously and presented the following programs, each of which were followed by business meetings. Section I—State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools Chairman, J. Virgil Chapman, Department of Education, Frankfort, Ky. Secretary, Annie Reynolds, Department of Education, Madison, Wis. Tur IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SERVIC: (4) Through Teachers’ Institutes— Georgina Lommen, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; (b) Through Supervision—James R. Grant, State Supervisor of Rural Schools, Little Rock, Ark. A STATE PROGRAM FOR SUPERVISING INSTRUCTION IN RURAL ScHooLts—John M. Foote, State Supervisor of Rural Schools, Baton Rouge, La. TRAINING SUPERVISORS FOR RuRAL ScHoots—W. S. Dakin, Regional Supervisor, Hartford, Conn. Section I11—County Superintendents and Rural School Supervisors Chairman, N. R. Baker, Superintendent of Jefferson County Schools, Birmingham, Ala. Secretary, Amalia M. Bengtson, Superintendent of Renyille County Schools, Olivia, Minn. Tur Use or Tests AND MEASUREMENTS IN RuRAL ScHoors—L. J. Bennett, Superin- tendent of Miami County Schools, Troy, Ohio. REAL SUPERVISION FOR RuRAL ScHoors—J. S. Hoffman, Superintendent of Hunterdon County Schools, Flemington, N. J. THe CURSE AND CURE OF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENCY—Ellen B. McDonald, Oconto, Wis. Tur County Unit PLan or HicH-ScHooL ConsotipaTion—A. L. Harman, Super- intendent of Montgomery County Schools, Montgomery, Ala. Section I1I—Rural Normal Directors Chairman, H. A. Bone, Illinois Normal University, Normal, II. Secretary, Etta Christensen, Normal School, Kutztown, Pa. Tue OurpuT or NorMAL ScHOOL GRADUATES ENTERING THE FIELD OF RURAL TEACH- Inc—Charles EB. Benson, Southeast Missouri State Teachers College, Cape Girardeau, Mo. REPORT OF THE SECTION COMMITTEE ON THE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS—The chairman or a member of the Committee. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE NEW YORK RuRAL SCHOOL SURVEY ON THE STATUS AND PREPARATION OF RuRAL TEACHERS—W. C. Bagley, Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. CONTENT AND CHARACTER OF THE Course IN RuRAL SocIoOLOGY FOR RURAL NORMAL StupEeNTs—H. W. Foght, Principal of the Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, S. Dak. BusINEss MEETING. Section IV—V ocational Directors and Rural Extension Workers Chairman, C. V. Williams, Professor of Vocational Education, State Agricultura! College, Manhattan, Kans. Secretary, Maud Sheridan, College of Agriculture, Fort Collins, Colo. DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EDUCATION 1101 Junior Extension Work Junior Extension Work As DEVELOPED THROUGH THE PUBLIC ScHOOLs—W. J. Wright, State Leader for Boys, Cornell College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. JUNIoR EXTENSION Work As DEVELOPED INDEPENDENT OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS— dgsephine Arnquist, State Leader for Girls, College of Agriculture, Ames, owa. SS ae PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF Junior Extension Work—George E. Farrell, Assistant in Boys’ and Girls’ Club Work, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. — GENERAL Discussion—Led by E. G. Kelly, State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans.; Z. M. Smith, State Club Leader, La Fayette, Ind.; Amalia M. Bengtson, Superintendent of Renville County Schools, Olivia, Minn. Business MEETING. Section V—Village and Consolidated School Principals Chairman, C. C. Swain, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa Secretary, Thomas J. Smart, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THE INTERNAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF VILLAGE AND CONSOLIDATED ScHooLs—George A. Selke, Rural School Inspector, Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn. A CONCRETE PRESENTATION OF WHAT THESE SCHOOLS ARE ACCOMPLISHINGC—W. H. Ray, Superintendent of the Tipton Consolidated School, ‘Tipton, Iowa. THE PROVISION OF ADEQUATE HIGH-SCHOOL FACILITIES IN VILLAGES AND RURAL DIs- TRICTS FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF A PATRON AND ‘TAxpAyeR—L. L. McShane, Shawnee Mission Rural High School District, Merriam, Kans. THE FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED HicH ScHoots—A. K. Loomis, Superintendent of Schools, Hiawatha, Kans. GENERAL BUSINESS MEETING OF THE DEPARTMENT At the general business meeting on Thursday afternoon the following action was taken: (1) A Committee on Constitution under the chairmanship of Amalia M. Bengtson, of Minnesota, proposed several minor changes in the by-laws which were readily accepted by the members present and made a part of the governing rules of the department. The most important of these revisions increased the Executive Com- mittee by the addition of “enough members-at-large to equal the number of section chairman” and provided further that these members-at-large should hold office for three years, one third of the number retiring each year. (2) The Committee on Constructive Studies under the chairmanship of Norman Frost, Peabody College, Nashville, Tennessee, recommended three topics for in- vestigation by the general department—namely, A comparison of instruction in one-teacher and consolidated rural schools, rural school attendance, and the rural- school curriculum. Committees on these subjects were authorized and have since been appointed and started to work. (3) Resolutions for the department were presented by M. S. Pittman, Ypsilanti, Michigan, and finally approved and adopted. It was also voted to accept the offer of Mrs. Katherine M. Cook and have these resolutions multigraphed and distributed by the U. S. Bureau of Education. This has since been done. (4) The report of the Secretary as presented at this time traced the rapid devlopment of this new department, set forth its most urgent problems, and em- phasized the necessity of codperation and employed service in meeting these prob- lems. Fnancially the department came out even this year for the first time in its history with a small balance in reserve. ; (5) A special report on the Journal of Rural Education was then made by the business manager, H. W. Foght, Aberdeen, S. D., and pledges for securing about five hundred new subscriptions were advanced by the various members present. . . (6) The report of the Committee on Nominations was next received resulting in the election of the following officers: for president, C. G. Sargent, Agricultural 1102 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION College, “Fort Collins, Colo.; for vice-president, Amalia M. Bengtson, Superin- tendent of Schools, Renville County, Olivia, Minn.; for secretary, Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York; for treasurer, William Mc- Kinley Robinson, Junior-Senior High School, Orleans, Vt. © The following members-at-large of the Executive Committee were then elected and the meeting adjourned: EXECUTIVE Commirrer—M embers-at-Large—Ernest Burnham, Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich.; Charl O. Williams, Superintendent of Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn.; Lee L. Driver, Department of Education, Harrisburg, Pa.; Katherine M. Cook, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. Cecand Hee. Foght, Normal School, Aberdeen, S. D. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS—RESOURCES IN RURAL EDUCATION ERNEST BURNHAM, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION, WESTERN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KALAMAZOO, MICHIGAN Resources in education are money, organization, technique, personnel, and social control. Rural education is not, comparably with urban edu- cation, well capitalized in any of these resources, therefore the inquiry which this discussion presents. National, State, and local financial resources have been successfully united in a Nation-wide progressive program for the rebuilding of the country roads. In my State $14,500,000 will be available for roads in 1922. Of this amount the Nation pays $4,000,000, the State $8,500,000 and the counties $2,000,000. Rural education has greatly benefited by the codperation of the Nation and the States in a fairly adequate financing of adult and industrial edu- cation through the extension work, the experiment stations, and the land grant colleges. For some years now this combined aid by State and Fed- eral money has percolated into many high schools in support of certain vocational subjects, and assistance has reached some of the younger children in the boys’ and girls’ club work. “The public is beginning to realize that to urge higher education as more fundamental than universal elementary education is to deny the funda- mental principles of democracy” (Bagley). And that, “It is equally sub- versive of these principles to provide educational opportunity for the older children and to ignore the needs of the younger ones” (Vandewalker). Vocational and industrial education did not become a conscious necessity along with special professional preparation, and it is well that the public support of special education for the worker, so long withheld, should now be made up in good measure. Is it not equally just to ask that the long standing obviously inadequate financing of elementary education, especially in the country, should be made up by a great generous, codperative participation by the Nation, the States, and the counties in an attempt to solve our problem, formerly alto- gether too greatly localized ? DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1103 The adequate financing of rural elementary and secondary education is a National as well as a State and a local necessity. Any effort to super- impose vocational education upon inefficient elementary and secondary schooling must prove abortive. In order to insure maximum returns from investments of public money in vocational and college education more money must be secured from every available National, State, and local resource and spent with the greatest possible effectiveness, proportionally to the places which need it. The money problem in rural education is commended to the considera- tion of our great administrative and business statesmen in the hope that they may make proof soon of sufficient power in thought and capacity in legislative leadership to integrate the total possible budget that America has for all education. Leaders in research in rural education and certain special efforts for rural advancement have available the funds of the great foundations, notably the money administered by the General Education Board and the American Council on Education. ‘These funds constitute a large supplementary financial resource which will be used to the great advantage of rural education. The General Education Board beginning twenty years ago has already made an investment of more than $3,000,000 in the improvement of the knowledge and the practice of farming and related activities, largely in the South. Projects of research, experimenta- tion, and demonstration in rural education are given due consideration by the administrators of these funds. The service rendered by the National Red Cross, more than half of which is in small communities; by several bureaus of the Federal Govern- ment in health, child welfare, and other educational propaganda; and by endowed and tax supported independent and State institutions of higher learning, part of whose effort bears directly on rural life—all of these edu- cational services direct and indirect must be accounted in any attempt to get at the financial resource in rural education. The problem of getting a square deal for rural education in the public money appropriated for State Normal Schools and for University Schools of Education calls urgently for solution. Boards of control and the exec- utive administrators of these State institutions of higher education who allow State funds which have been assessed on all taxable property of the State and paid by all the people for a State-wide purpose, to be dispropor- tionately absorbed in use to the greater advantage of either city or country, though not intentionally unfair, are certainly weakly dishonest. This problem has become only gradually defined in public opinion, but outstanding National, State, and institutional leaders see it clearly now and are reiterating it in plainer terms. The past should be appreciated and any wrong in it must be forgiven, but let no man think, whatever the security of his present position and power, that he will ultimately escape that consensus of public disapproval which descends on weakness in public service. The money resource for rural education should have the full bearable 1104 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION share, which local economic conditions will permit, paid locally in order that local proprietorship, initiative, and satisfaction may be enlisted and conserved. ‘The States should bear their necessary supplementary share, and devise schemes to distribute it to serve the special and emergency, as well as the general needs of localities. "Ihe Nation should come soon to acknowledge the righteousness and the necessity of bearing a proportionate share in the financial support of all public education. The discrimination shown in extending National aid to certain backward fields of education will lose the justification of necessity, but the necessity for National financial participation in general public education is present and will be permanent. Organization as a resource of strength and economy in education, always obviously important, has been raised to the significance of an endowment in the past twenty-five years by the work in research and in authorship of groups of students and leaders. Their working method is critical analysis, and their constructive sug- gestions call for differentiation of needs and agencies in order that the whole situation in any unit of control may all come into conscious view. Whether this total view has been gained in National, State, institutional, or more local educational situations, the vision carries a challenge to intelli- gence and to patriotism to which both laymen and professional leaders, who have any spunk, respond. Since 1911 there has been a Division of Rural Education in the Federal Bureau of Education, and gradually such a differentiation of function has grown up in most of the State departments. This official evolution plainly ‘ndicates a division of rural education in the National Executive Depart- ment of Education, which is forthcoming. Under date of March, 1921, the Federal Bureau of Education classified twenty-one States as having the county unit, and recognized four or five others as having made some beginning with this form of school organiza- tion. The Bureau said that Alabama, Delaware, Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Wisconsin, New Mexico, North Carolina, Tennessee, Missouri, Utah, and four counties in Georgia have the county unit in the stronger form. In this form county school authorities constitute the dominating school administrative agencies; the county is a considerable contributor to public-school support; the county board of education is given power to arrange district boundary lines, to select the county super- intendent, and to exercise control directly or indirectly in the matter of selecting teachers. The Bureau enumerates the following States as having the weaker form of county organization: Arizona, Arkansas, California, Georgia, Mississippi, Ohio, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia, and Washington. ‘This weaker form of county unit organizations is characterized by the continuance of the district system to such an extent that the district authorities predominate, but some important functions partaking of the nature of county organization are given to county authorities. Montana, Nebraska, and Oregon have provided for county organization in modified form and have made the DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1105 application of the law a matter of local option. In some other States be- ginnings have been made where county boards are provided for one or two functions. The Missouri County Unit Law was signed by the Governor in March, 1921. ‘The gist of it is given here as an illustration of many of the best present ideas on the subject. ” Providing for county-unit organization of rural schools, creating a county board of education of six elective members; empowering said board to appoint county superintendent of schools and necessary assistants, to contract with teachers after their selection from eligible lists by local district boards, to have supervision over school property within county school district, to change boundary lines of local districts and combine such districts, to maintain high schools, to prepare annual budget, to control annual levy of forty cents on the hundred dollars in the county school district which levy may be increased by the voters, to borrow money and issue bonds as provided by law, to make rules for the government of district schools, to furnish needed supplies, to select textbooks and at its option furnish free textbooks, and to discharge existing indebtedness of local districts; exempting from the operation of this act all districts maintaining high schools of the first- class; requiring county boards to report annually to State superintendent; reg- ulating State aid to independent districts and county school districts; providing that on July 1, 1922, the title to school property within county schoo! district shall pass to and be vested in said county district, except sixteenth sections and funds derived therefrom; authorizing independent district, by vote of its qualified electors, to become part of county district, and authorizing part of a county district by like procedure, to become part of an independent district with consent of voters of said independent district and of county board of education; providing that local school districts and district boards shall retain all existing privileges and powers except such as are specifically given in this Act to county school districts and county boards. This brings into the service of rural education a form of organization which will presently develop an informed lay control and a trained adminis- trative and professional leadership. Such informed laymen and prepared school men are not now to any considerable extent available for this work, but it is one of the primary functions of reorganization in education to make possible that length of tenure, that breadth of responsibility and the salary necessary to enlist and retain the services of educated and ambitious men. Time does not permit adequate reference to the States not heretofore mentioned. In New England the town form of school organization in- cludes the relatively small percentage of rural population with the urban or suburban groups to a great extent, and strongly centralized State con- trol has also been operative. In the States having the local district system and the township district many progressive districts have been developed by local citizens, by township and county officials, and through consolidation. Consolidation introduces large new items of expenditure for transporta- tion and for high-school service. The local districts, except in the most prosperous and wealthy communities, cannot bear the greatly increased tax rate involved and must be liberally aided from State appropriations. This is being done through the States sharing in the transportation expenses and in the budgets for buildings and teachers’ salaries. In spite of many obstacles to be overcome, consolidation offers a defined and a tested objective 1106 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION for progressive organization. It constitutes the best expression of that necessary larger unit in public-service function, of which the rural public is rapidly becoming aware. Organization in rural education is gradually shifting from a pre- dominantly political to a professional service basis. In the meantime, the best things have been achieved and are likely to be by taking advantage of both the politics and the school needs in State and local cases. The immediate future offers as many political as professional victories in rural education, and the victors are equally honorable. In either case strategy ‘5 not a sin and to win is not wrong. In the words of C. J. Galpin, “The wise man sees the present but he perceives and believes in the future. The present he yields to, but he will not yield to the point of surrendering the future.” Accrediting the contributions to progress which organization in education has already made identifies it not only as a great resource in itself, but be- cause together with the money resource it opens the way for the utilization of two other great sources of progress: technique and personnel. Technique in education is derived slowly and expensively through de- creasingly uncritical experience, until the inertia of ignorance is overcome to such an extent that supervised, analyzed, and experimental experience ‘s here and there set up. Rural education has not seemed to present, until very recent years, any adequate challenge to the technician, probably because education everywhere was largely a rule-of-thumb undertaking, and no- where more so than in the country. Isolated workers have from the beginning solved many of the technical problems of the multigraded rural school, but no effective aggregation of their achievements has been recorded. However, there is a study now in progress under the guidance of the State Department of Education in Illinois, which has sufficient scope, ideas, and clarity of record to give promise of valuable results. "The experiment in Porter District, Kirksville, Missouri, is standing the test of time, and in technique of both school and community work makes a real contribution. These and similar efforts constitute a great National service. : A future resource in rural education will be in adapting the best ideas in administraion, psychology, supervision, and teaching derived from experi- ence, experiments, and reflective research in any field of education to use in this field. That the pioneering in this work is already well under way in many counties, in State departments of education, and in a slowly but definitely increasing number of State institutions of higher learning is shown by the following facts and ideas: Representative county superintendents throughout the Nation responding to the inquiry ‘“What are the best things you are doing now?” answered: 1. Having all school buildings put in a sanitary condition and kept that way. 2. Organizing local play days in codperation with larger communities. 3. Introducing standard tests particularly in reasoning and comprehension. 4. Holding group meetings of teachers to present methods and new ideas DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1107 and to stimulate study classes among teachers. 5. Pushing consolidation and rural high schools, with 250 more country than city children in high school, although my county seat has 4000 more people than the rest of the country. 6. A county program calling for effective community work. The school must try to reach each patron and perform some service. 7. Prompt and careful attention to correspondence and visitors as to infor- mation sought. Systematic filing system and keeping of records in the office. 8. Put the high-school work formerly done in eight schools into three with three full-time Smith-Hughes men, also have three part-time men teaching agriculture in the smaller Junior high schools. 9. Construct- tive supervision by tests, score cards, notes of visits and group round-table teachers’ meetings. 10. Codperating with the county Red Cross in intro- ducing hot lunch, the study of dietetics, and a health program. Rural education agents in many of the best State departments are bring- ing current progressive ideas into use. Three replies to the question: “What are the best things you are doing?” are quoted: First reply—‘‘In- augurating and executing a definite program for supervising instruction in rural schools by (1) demonstration teaching, (2) showing how to teach pupils to study, and (3) using educational and mental tests to (a) measure the progress of pupils, (b) establish objective standards of attainment, (c) make comparisons with other schools, (d) diagnose individual and class needs and inaugurate remedial teaching.” Second reply: “Pushing standardization by State aid, now have 6181 standardized schools; paying for transportation of pupils from schools too small to be effective; aiding districts that have high tax levy and low assessed valuation; stimulating education by offering additional aid to superior schools; offering unusually liberal building and transportation aid to consolidated schools; assisting isolated children to attend school by individual aid of $50, paying the tuition of non-resident high-school pupils, thus aiding the village high schools and providing secondary schooling for every rural child; enforcing a uniform standard of elementary-school completion by State examination.” Third reply: “First—Training county superintendents in service by (1) helping them to carry out a two-year program of supervision; (2) encourag- ing them to emphasize with teachers one phase of school work for a year— for the first year, reading; second year, language, this to be done through frequent group teachers’ meetings, circular letters on the subject empha- sized, and the use of language scales and reading tests; (3) getting them to realize that the improvement of instruction is their first and biggest responsibility; (4) getting them to keep the needs of the schools before the public through newspaper publicity and frequent community meetings, and (5) helping them to establish a rural demonstration school in every county. Second—Speaking, whenever possible, in community gatherings on the needs of schools, local, county, State, and Nation.” Answers to questions of content of course of study and various technical problems in rural education are being sought and taught in 128 of 144 State normal schools reporting from forty-four States. Sixty-two of these 1108 NaTIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION schools have distinct departments of rural education, and seventy-five State Normal Schools have rural demonstration and training schools. Nine- teen of the twenty-nine State universities answering had courses in rural education, with the bulk of their enrolment in summer terms, but eight have established courses running throughout the year. Three independently endowed colleges of education reported work in rural education. In Chicago University 32 students were enrolled in two courses last summer. Not much is being done in the regular year. No graduate students are preparing theses in rural education. In George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee, a four years’ course in rural education is provided under the direction of a trained specialist in this field, and there are five faculty members teaching college and grad- uate courses in rural education. In Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, 254 different students were enrolled last year, including the sum- mer term, in courses in rural education. Eight doctors’ dissertations in rural education have been completed there in the past fifteen years, and four such dissertations are being written this year. The general and special, local and National educational journals are presenting much excellent material about rural education, likewise the daily newspapers and the weekly periodicals; and during the last three years the popular magazines published 465 titles about rural education and closely related subjects. Leading publishing houses are asking for books of real merit in this field, and a few such books are appearing. In Cornell University and in the State Universities of North Carolina, Wisconsin, and other States some illuminating researches in rural sociology are being pub- lished. The Journal of Rural Education published by this department bids fair to bear comparison with any of the technical journals in special fields of education. The survey presented in the foregoing paragraphs is sufficiently itemized and inclusive to yield adequate evidence of the derivation, refinement, and application of a rapidly improving technique in rural education. There are in round numbers 360,000 persons now engaged in professional work in rural education, and approximately 100,000 laymen are directly involved in it to some extent. Probably quality is more significant than quantity in any attempt to evaluate personnel as a resource in education, but in spite of the irregular academic and professional standards which obtain for the 350,000 of the rank and file of country and village teachers, they possess in large measure the potentialities of youth and growth with which to make response to the many means coming into use for their general growth and technical preparation. County superintendents of rural schools; teachers of rural teachers work- ing in local and State normal schools and as helping teachers in counties; extension teachers working as county farm agents or home demonstration agents, and as club leaders; official and professional National and State agents of rural education; and persons teaching college courses in rural sociology and rural life (a mailing list of 414 such persons is available) DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EpucaATION 1109 make up an aggregate approximating 10,000 persons who constitute the leadership in rural education. Is it too much to ask that this great field in education, which has an active National personnel of 360,000; 10,000 of whom have character maturity, and experience or other preparation to justify them in places of leadership and power, should become self-conscious and take account of itself? This differentiating self-consciousness is not to make rural edu- cation a provincialism and a side-show, it is rather to lift it into intelli- gently vivid public appreciation in order that it may be reincorporated in honest proportion and true perspective in great State and National pro- grams of democratic education. To take advantage of personnel as a resource in rural education the entrance for both the rank and file and the leadership must be made more attractive by being made more difficult. As the intellectual and professional levels for work in every field of rural education are raised, self-respect and satisfaction will increase, until leadership capacity will be identified earlier and more fully developed. ‘The present potential leadership is doubtless far greater than the paltry three per cent whom position identifies; through money, organization, and evolution in technique a far greater number of places, in which an enriched experience and stimulating personal contacts which nourish growth, will be derived. With the elimination of the competition of the unfit, the superficial character of the fitting of the so-called fit will come into closer scrutiny and be improved, until presently in the ranks of both lay and professional workers that positive confidence which sustains itself in thought and action in comparison with the best workers in all human enterprise will be demon- strated. [his will inspire every individual in the fellowship and in the leadership of rural education with distinctness, clarity, and grip of purpose ; then a great thing will happen, natively endowed men and women will rise from our ranks by experience and severely critical preparation to real intellectual distinction and to invincible moral stamina. Such a fellowship and such a leadership have been lacking, and they are today greatly needed as resources in rural education. Principles underlying and determining the selection of the content of curricula will then be made plain; theses stating control ideas in teaching, supervision, and administration will then be intelligibly written; and appreciations so intimate and sincere that a novice may feel them will be achieved. [hen money, organization, and technique will get their true identity as means to an end, and they will be united to advance this end by the human control of an adequate leadership. Such a leadership will successively invoke the richest resource which rural education or any other great public enterprise can have in a democracy—social control. Social control is that thing which Kipling meant when in writing about the sinking of the Lusitania he said, ‘“‘A force invincible received that blow.” It is to this same invincible force that ‘rural education must make its final appeal. 1110 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Child-welfare clinics and enforcing the use of milk from tuberculin- tested herds makes not only parents but the public as well, aware of and ready to demand fundamental health requisites. A great war emergency forces a quickened public intelligence about seductive social diseases, and these diseases become legal disabilities which disgrace and socially ostracise their victims with the relentless severity of a consensus of disapproval. Likewise the searchlight of present-day scientific itemization of facts and conditions in education with increased facility in putting the whole situation vividly in public review, are resulting in a much more direct and compelling appeal for social control in education. In turning to social control as its greatest resource rural education has an undoubted advantage in that for educational purposes the rural situation has all the potentialities of superiority. The small community was the type- maker of our American democracy and it is today the chief conservator of that type. In the simple but fundamentally inclusive life of smaller groups of people, children and youths slowly but surely elaborate their lives into something like a total possession of humanity. Their lives are nourished by Nature, by parental and other adult companionships, and by an intuitive perception of an infinite plan as it constantly evolves before their eyes. Their danger, and oftentimes their doom, is that isolated contemplation blights them with inertia. ‘Thus their lives may stop at the perceptual level and a great conceptual understanding of life be denied them. Public inertia is the chief obstacle in rural education. Social control is slowly but surely changing this characteristic from rest or slow advance into accelerating progress. Eight million country children from their lo- cation of natural educational advantages, escaping that inertia which has caught and held back many, hail with delight a new day. In this new day more money, better organization, truer technique, a worthier personnel, and the invincible force of a social control which unites all these resources for maximum service is saving for them their richest American birthright, the wealth of a free and an adequate education. SOME UNSOLVED PROBLEMS OF RURAL EDUCATION FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF SOCIOLOGY E. C. LINDEMAN, PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY AT THE NORTH CAROLINA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, GREENSBORO, N. C., AND EXECUTIVE SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN COUNTRY LIFE ASSOCIATION I perceive in this gathering and in the subject which I have chosen to discuss a most wholesome sign of the future. When we come to the final analysis of a social problem, it invariably becomes evident that the ultimate solution lies in some form of enlightenment or education. By the same token, when we arrive at the terminal interpretation of the process of education we stand face to face with the problem which is foremost in the mind of the constructive sociologist. The logic of this circumstance points DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION Littl unmistakably to the future fellowship of the social science specialist and the educationist. It is my most earnest hope that this coalescing of mutual interests will dominate the future progress of rural education so that, hand in hand, the sociologist of rural persuasion and the educationist of rural vision will devote themselves with spiritual as well as scientific zeal to the task of elevating the educational opportunities of those who live on the land. My discussion deals with problems, problems which some of you may have solved to your satisfaction, but problems which nevertheless demand careful statement and painstaking analysis if progress is to be rational and sure. I do not, myself, presume to have arrived at conclusions which are completely satisfactory. In regard to most of the issues which are here raised, I think that I might say in paraphrase: I still see through a glass darkly, but, thank Heaven, I see. The five problems which I desire to bring to your attention may be epitomized in the following terms: 1. Should there be a vocational concept in the curriculum of the ele- mentary grades of the rural school ? 2. Should the rural school teacher perform community services? 3. Can equalization of educational opportunities proceed in such manner as to prevent pauperization? 4. Does the consolidated school enforce new community alignments which consciously or unconsciously overlook the social advantages of old neighborhood or community groupings? 5. Is there a relationship between rural migration and intelligence? My purpose in discussing these issues from the sociological point of view is, not to point to a new approach, but rather to combine various approaches in order to form a social whole; in short, to indicate the social significance of questions which have already received your continued and earnest thought. 1. What place should the vocational concept hold in rural education?— The answer to this query hinges upon two primary concepts—namely, the function of education in general, and the relation between agricultural practice and rural life. Rural education must be interpreted as indicating elementary education. Secondary education is, up to this time, so largely centered in cities and towns that it has little environmental rural sig- nificance. Hence, rural education means general education from the first to the eighth grades. Disregarding for the moment the fact that secondary schools attract so small a portion of the pupils who have completed ele- mentary education, and assuming that secondary education is within the reach of the majority of pupils who have the mental capacity to perform its tasks, what is the function of rural education? The two schools of thought representing varying answers to this question may be designated as: (1) Those who hold that education must fit the pupil for life; and (2) Those who hold that education must fit the pupil for a particular kind of life interpreted vocationally. “The former insist 1412 NationaL Epucation AssociATION upon an educational content which performs five definite services: Cavalt equips the pupil with the tools of communication such as reading, writing, and numbers. (0) It acquaints the pupil with the history of the human race, its trials, failures, and its successes ; (c) It interprets the pupil’s place in social organization through local, State, National, and international forms of social control; (d) It acquaints the pupil with the economic processes and resources which combine to form his material or physical existence; (e) It interprets the pupil’s possibilities of usefulness and enjoy- ment in life in terms of his bodily freedom, lack of disease, participation in healthful and zestful activities, and physical adaptation to a changing mode of life. With an equipment of this sort, the pupil is theoretically prepared to cope with the problems of life. Reading, writing, and arithmetic furnish him with the tools wherewith he may secure intercourse and communication with his fellowman. Literature, history, and the industrial arts furnish him with the ideals, motives, forces, ideas, and aspirations which have brought the human race to its present status. Civics and current events throw light upon the pupil’s significance as a member of social groups. Geography, in its broadest sense, interprets for the pupil the physical or material basis of life and man’s relation to the material universe. Hygiene, physical education and recreation bring the pupil’s body into relationship with the wholesome life process. An education of this type is essential to all children, whether they happen to have been born in cities or in the open country. Beyond this point, variations in educational content depend upon: (a) The extent of the influence of natural economic laws in determining vocational choices; (b) The opportunities for choosing vocations prevalent in the community where the school is located; (c) The extent of the economic pressure be- hind the students, which determines how much further time may be utilized in education before wage-earning must begin; (d) The extent of private industrial enterprises in providing training in vocations; (e) The rapidity with which occupations evolve into standardized forms regulated by auto- matic machines; (f) The theory of the prevailing political philosophy in regard to the state’s right and compulsion to enter the field of preparing skilled workers for private enterprises. In short, if natural economic laws work toward an equilibrium in voca- tions, if the community produces more children than can be absorbed in its own industries, if pupils can enjoy no more education beyond the ele- mentary grades, if private industries are not furnishing adequate training for their demands, skilled vocations are likely to be more or less permanent and not automatic, and if the political philosophy of the day sanctions to the State’s interference in the affairs of private industrial enterprise—if all of these conditions exist, then vocational education may begin with a thoroughgoing sanction. Many of these conditions do prevail in certain areas, and vocational education beyond the primary grades has produced positive and measurable results. DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EDUCATION 1113 The advocates for vocational contest in the rural-school curriculum, even in the elementary grades, rest their case on such arguments as: (a) Children form their vocational choices or, at least, prejudices before they reach the high school; (b) The secondary schools are now, and are destined to be, largely city institutions; hence, their influence upon students will be in the direction of city life; (c) Through the study of agricultural processes and practices, the pupil will be led to appreciate the worth of agriculture as a profession; hence, he or she will be more likely to choose an agricultural vocation; (d) Country populations are obviously being de- pleted ; one of the chief causes for the migration from country to city is the city-minded teacher, the city-minded textbook, or, in short, the rural school with no direct or distinct rural appeal or emphasis; and (e) The materials for agricultural education are round about the rural school; since this is sound pedagogic theory, the school should make use of these materials. The numerous other reasons for this standpoint in rural education need not be mentioned before an audience made up of rural education specialists. To answer the initial query in sociological terms involves a series of con- clusions which shall be enumerated in categorical fashion: (1) The vocational concept in general does have a place in the program of rural education. That place is to indicate to the pupil the necessity of tools of communication as means of enhancing one’s earning capacity; to indicate to the pupil the inexorable law of producing in order to live; to indicate to the pupil the relation between human progress and man’s productive energies; and to enable the pupil to accumulate such informa- tion concerning vocations as will enable him to make a wise choice for the highest use of his own capacities. (2) The vocational concept interpreted to mean that the rural school should include in its curriculum courses of study dealing with the science_ and practice of agriculture is, sociologically, unsound. Neither the family nor the State should exercise prejudice or force in determining the child’s choice of work in the world. The choice of a life work, as well-as the choice of a lifemate, are matters of too grave import to place in the hands of leaders who guide the thoughts of impressionable youths. As modifications and elaborations of the above dogmas, permit me to point out several other considerations with which the sociologist is deeply concerned : (a) The vocational concept should be clearly distinguished from the environmental concept in education. ‘To use the environment of the countryside as a background, as a setting, as a basis for interpreting the several branches of general education, is not only good pedagogics, but also good common sense, and good social theory. The mathematics of the home and the farm are excellent points of departure for the study of mathe- matics in general; but they should be used as points of departure and not as ends in themselves. (6) There is a distinction between agriculture as a vocation and country life as a mode of living; this distinction should have deep significance to 1114 NatioNaL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION the rural educationist. There is no reason for doubting that agriculture. like all other industries, will continue to be more and more dominated by the machine. The grain harvester which now cuts, bundles, threshes, and bags the wheat is a forerunner of what may happen when agricultural practices are more fully mechanized. This process will come about in- evitably when the food needs of the world make it necessary. On the other hand, living in the country is likely to continue long after machines do most of the work on the farm. What the farmer of the future needs is an education which will enable him to live a full life in the country. In the past, the farmer who has been most successful in a material sense has not been inclined to remain in the country to enrich his community’s life. As soon as he is possessed with the purchasing capacity, his social wants begin to expand; in order to satisfy these wants the successful farmer has invaribly migrated to the city where social needs are being met. [In this connection, may I suggest the study of Korzybski’s theory of the incon- gruity between the rate of application of the physical and the social sciences as explained in his book called The Manhood of Humanity. If the student is able to divest himself of the questionable mathematical pretensions of this reference, he will be immeasurably benefited. His statement in barest con- densation is this: That the physical sciences proceed according to geometric progression while the social sciences proceed according to arithmetical pro- gression. Hence our wars, revolutions, and halting progress.] The future farmer will need to be a manager or enterpriser of capital; in addition, if he is to reside in the country and promote a high type of family and com- munity life, he will need to be fully endowed with those higher and non- vocational attributes which go to make up culture. The eight grades of the common school are none too long for laying such a foundation. And, what is more, the rural boy and the rural girl will have in such an equip- ment a foundation for a satisfactory life in any occupational situation in which the future finds him or her. (c) The country-life problem of the United States is not likely to find its solution in any form of paternalistic occupationalism. That problem is not now, nor has it ever been, acute because of shortage of population. What the rural areas of America need is not increased numbers but in- creased quality of the inevitably decreasing numbers. Additional informa- tion in regard to the science and practice of agriculture will be needed. This should be supplied by reason of the farmer’s demands through estab- lished agencies of education of a secondary or higher nature. 2. Is the rural school teacher to be regarded as a specialist in education with certain community functions imposed upon him or her, or is the rural school teacher to be regarded as a promoter and organizer of community affairs with education as only one of his or her functions?—This inquiry does not adequately express the nature of the problem here involved. Per- haps it can be clarified by separating the query into several constituent parts: (1) Is there to be a decrease of emphasis upon the teacher’s function as a specialist in education? . DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1115 (2) Is there to be an increased emphasis upon the teacher’s function as a community organizer? (3) Is the teacher to combine both functions in an equal degree? (4) Or, will it be necessary in the future to increase the specialization of the teacher and bring into existence another official to be known as the community organizer or secretary? (5) Or, in the event of consolidation of rural schools, is it likely that such schools will have on their staffs a person specially trained to promote and organize community activities? (6) Or, shall the rural school be designated as the institution for train- ing local, resident leadership for the promotion and organization of com- munity activities? ; The first approach to this inquiry, sociologically, must be made in terms of the law of the division of labor. The past teaches us that this law has well-nigh universal implications. In every sphere of life in which progress can be measured it will be observed that individuals and institutions have diminished the number of their functions and have become more adept in a narrower field. ‘There seems to be no reason to doubt that this law is applicable in the sphere of education. In fact, it may not be too daring to state that in a modern, progressive community any institution which attempts to increase the number of its functions is almost sure to be in the first stages of pathology. But, this query cannot be dismissed by merely stating an abstract law or principle. ‘There is, as everyone connected with rural schools well knows, an insistent demand that the rural school engage upon certain community tasks which are only secondarily educative in nature; or, if educative in nature, these projects are intended to educate the adult and not the child. This demand comes from many quarters—from agencies with rural pro- grams to promote, from officials of county, State, and Federal governments, from commercial institutions, from school authorities, and, last and least of all, from farm folk themselves. It is a demand so insistent and so persistent that it must be answered in terms of both principle and practice. Nor can the question be evaded by the citation of the so-called “excep- tional teacher in the exceptional school located in the exceptional com- munity.” Contrary to the well-known maxim, exceptions do not prove rules; they merely indicate the immaturity or the incompleteness of the rule. In the case of the one-room rural school there can be little argument. Until such schools receive adequate support to employ a highly-trained teacher to teach the children in a well-equipped school, it is absurd to insist upon the school performing additional community functions. Not one third of the one-room rural schools of the present are able to provide sufficient time and attention to teach the fundamental subjects of education adequately. When this function, which no one will deny is the fundamental and primary one, is adequately performed, it may be time to begin discussing the ways and means whereby the teacher may be trained and expected to render 1116 NationaL EpucaTIon AssociATION community services. And, when communities have reached the stage when such provisions are made, such communities will obviously have reached the plane of willingness to provide leadership for the more general com- munity activities. The consolidated rural school may employ specialist teachers. In a community which employs from five to fifteen teachers, provisions may be made for employing at least one teacher whose subject matter and whose community services are compatible. Three general principles may be in- duced from the foregoing: (1) The law of the division of labor, if applicable to the sphere of edu- cation, indicates that the rural teacher of the future will inevitably become increasingly a specialist in education and decreasingly a community organ- izer or promoter. [This statement must not be interpreted to mean that the educational specialist is also to be an individualist in approach or in method. On the contrary, the best specialist is he who knows how to integrate his speciality with the social process. ‘To the wise teacher, the school group presents a phase of social process ; the entire teaching process may and should be a social one. ] 6 (2) The nearest that the one-room rural school may come to fulfilling the office of a community center is to permit the use of the school property for community purposes, to encourage and stimulate all community projects, to contribute to the general welfare of the community, and to extend edu- cational opportunities to those whose education has been handicapped. All of this, the school may best achieve by becoming the highest type of educa- tional agency possible. (3) The consolidated rural school or the rural high school may perform community services provided adequate provision is made first for the dis- pensing of its educational function. These services will succeed best if a special teacher with special training is employed, such teacher to have ample time for the special activities. 3. Can equalization of educational opportunities proceed in such manner as to prevent pauperization?—Theoretically, and from the standpoint of National economy, it appears that equalization of educational opportunity -is a sound policy. In addition, National economy and the current theory regarding the distribution of income makes it appear that elementary edu- cation at least should be supported by funds coming from local, county, State, and Federal sources. Equalization of educational opportunity im- plies that a community, a county, or a State with inferior economic resources may rightfully expect assistance from the larger unit of which it is a political part; such assistance is usually gauged in terms of the standard of educa- tion prevailing in the best areas or the average standard. A review of the literature on rural education covering the past four or five years reveals the fact that this sort of equalization has been supported by the leaders. In fact, it seems to me that a good case may be made out for the statement that the movement looking toward educational equaliza- tion originated among the rural educational groups. Inasmuch as there is DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION ay now ample precedent for such equalization, both insofar as individual com- monwealths and the National Government are concerned, it seems probable that this end may also be achieved. From the viewpoint of social theory, the following questions need to be raised in connection with this issue: 1. Is there any evidence to indicate that Federal and State aid to local units has tended to keep those local units from exercising their highest efforts in meeting their own obligations or in raising their own standards? In other words, does aid from the outside stimulate the local community to higher efforts on its own part, or does aid from the outside lower the community’s will to improve itself? . There are evidences on both sides. I have in mind one community whose educational needs were endowed by one of its wealthy citizens at a time when it seemed entirely unlikely that this community would ever ap- proximate metropolitan proportions. However, the rapid industrial ex- pansion of the early part of this century affected this community so strik- ingly that its size went beyond all preconceived bounds. ‘The endowed educational system was found to be inadequate. The citizens were sud- denly confronted with the new experience of paying taxes for school pur- poses. ‘They resented the implication, and the past ten years have been years of bitter struggle between the few leaders of this community and its population—still antagonistic toward school taxation. On the other hand, Federal aid for States establishing colleges of agricul- ture and the mechanic arts appears to have stimulated this form of educa- tion in a most unusual degree. Good social theory has come to the point of insisting that philanthrophy which does for the individual what he might have done for himself is degrading. Is it possible to determine what a community might do for itself? What are the factors involved in such determination? First of all, there is a psychological factor. A community which has once been in poverty, or which has a poverty heritage may go on thinking itself too poor to provide adequate education long after it has become affluent. We have such an example in one of our commonwealths. For well-nigh fifty years this State was in actual want for adequate economic reserves; it was continually on the borderline of poverty. Political cam- paigns usually hinged on the issue of taxation. Slowly, in fact, so slowly that the phenomenon was imperceptible to most of the citizens, this State became wealthy. ‘There were only three or four other States in the union whose incomes exceeded those of this once “poverty” State. In the mean- time, while this State was among the first five States in the Union in economic income, it was also among the lowest five States in the Union in educational opportunity offered to its children. What did this State need? Obviously, an educational campaign which would indicate unmistakably and forcefully the correlation between eco- nomic resources and education. Such a campaign is now going in this State with results which, to the older inhabitants, are amazing. In one 1118 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION - year this State appropriated more money for educational purposes than in the entire one hundred and twenty-five years of its previous corporate existence. Without burdening you with too much detail, permit me to suggest that there is a possibility of devising formulae whereby educational equali- zation may proceed with a far greater degree of scientific justice than present proposals warrant. Such formulae should include: (a) A coérdination between Federal and State aid and the per capita wealth of the local area; (b) In rural territories there needs to be a coordination between educational opportunity and the status of agricultural practice; (c) Land-owning and home-owning factors may also be subject to integration in these formulae. In brief, it should be possible to devise a plan of Federal and State aid for the equalization of educational opportunity which would operate on a rising or diminishing scale in ratio to the indices mentioned above; if this can be done, there can be no doubt concerning the ultimate social benefits to be derived from equalized education. 4. Granting the one and two-room rural schools can in a majority of cases be eliminated because they have passed beyond their period of adapta- bility to modern demands and, further, that the consolidated school is the ideal for the future, what are the sociological implications of the consolida- tion process?—Consolidation of two or more traditional school districts in one larger or consolidated area is a process which involves such factors as: (a) The factor of communication or transportation of pupils to and from the school, including roads, climate, et cetera; (b) the factor of tax- able property, or ability to provide adequate economic support for the newer and larger plant; (c) the location of the school in relation to existing political units; (d) the location of the school in relation to geographic and topographic conditions; and (e) the social factor which is concerned with traditional neighborhood or community groups in which the school as a social or cultural institution has in the past played an important role. Only one of these factors will be isolated for consideration—namely, the last mentioned. Before proceeding to this, however, may I presume to suggest that it may be possible to devise a non-rigid formula including the above factors in such manner as to throw light on the desirability, the possi- bility, and the location of a consolidated school? For purposes of dis- cussion, I should suggest that the following formula might serve as a point of departure: c== desirability, possibility and location of consolidated school. a == communication, with numerical weight of 25. == taxable resources, with numerical weight of 40. c == politico-geographic factor, with numerical weight of 10. d =social factor, with numerical weight of 25. The formula then would appear to be: C—=a-+b-+cttd. This is, of course, a crude way of stating what is as yet a crudely-formed proposal to add scientific weight to the consolidated school movement. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1119 What effect does consolidation have upon old and established neighbor-. hood or community groups? Are these groups broken down after consoli- dation? Do they re-assimilate in smaller groups, or do they re-assimilate in the larger group with the new school as the center? In cases where this larger type of assimilation is observable, are there also certain back-eddies of separatist groups which refuse to be assimilated ? These queries deserve attention. There are evidences that the consoli- dated school has, in the past, given too much weight to a single factor— namely, the desirability of the improved educational facilities for the children. I grant that this is the most important factor, but there should be means of discovering how the other factors may be coérdinated in such manner as to insure better social integration, assimilation, and, hence, progress subsequent to consolidation. I must leave the inquiry with the hope that some method will be devised in the near future which will make it possible to conduct certain studies which will cast light upon these prob- lems. 5. What is the rural social significance of the factor of intelligence as measured by current tests?—I doubt whether there is now available suf- ficient data upon which to base any conclusions in answer to this inquiry? I do believe, however, that it would be a worthwhile effort to study such material as is available with a view toward continued observation and study. This implies something far more significant than current mental! tests which reveal certain superficial mental reactions; the word ‘intelli- gence’ is here used to describe something far more important about the human mind than the mental-age tabulations with their beguiling appear- ance of mathematical precision. It appears to me that there is, for example, reason to expect that such studies would reveal a distinct relationship between intelligence and rural migration. Size of family, family limitation, economic status, occupational tendencies of rural migrants—these and numerous other factors might be illuminated if we could have scientific data based upon intelligence norms. Do the least intelligent remain in the country? Or, do the most intelli- gent migrate? Does the prevailing status of agricultural practice present an intellectual challenge sufficiently strong to compete with other challenges which come to the alert and intelligent? Some have assumed that the teaching of agriculture in the rural school would tend to keep boys and girls on the farm. We now know that the increased utilization of the machine will make it unnecessary to retain the old ratio between rural and urban populations; we next want to know what force will keep the most intelligent on the farm to lay the basis for the future rural culture. To state this question is tantamount to asking for the central and the crucial touchstone of the philosophy of modern life. ‘There is, of course, no single force which will keep the most intelligent on the farm; a satis- factory social structure will, however, present a balance of forces. Agriculture will lose its drudgery aspects in proportion as its practices lift man from direct hand-contact with the soil, or, in other words, in pro- 1120 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION —— portion to the application of machinery to agricultural production. During the first stages of this mechanization of farm practice, many will be intrigued by its fascinations. But, curiously enough, and here is the paradox against which we all must be warned, as machinery comes to be more and more perfect and automatic, the brains of man receive less and less challerge. The operator of an automatic machine does not need rational or thinking capacity. Obviously, farm practice will never become quite so automatic as industrial or manufacturing practice, and yet we must look forward to a close approximation. No, the future intellectual challenge of the country cannot be safely left to the machine. But here I must depart from scientific principles and accept the role of the prophet, dangerous as that may seem. My faith in the future is not a faith in “things” but rather a faith in the spirit of man. To me it appears, as clearly as such a far-off event can appear in an hour of cyni- cism such as we now live in, that the future intellectual challenge of the world is to be looked for in man’s expression of his expanding social regard in a democratic environment. The kingdom of heaven on earth is to be a social process in which the aristocracy of the intellect and of the spirit shall transcend the petty rewards of our present mechanical inventions and exploitations. May the country people be the first to grasp this vision and to lead us out of this morass of materialism onward into the promised ‘“inbrothering of man.” The next and last problem of rural education which has been of par- ticular interest to me is related to the newly-awakened consciousness among American farm women. It appears to me that there are distinct evidences of a veritable revolution in sentiment among the women of the country- side. Farm women are speaking in a new tongue, and their words have the ring of a new conviction and a new determination. A portion of this new consciousness may be accounted for as a belated expression of the general awakening of women everywhere during the past decade. What- ever its causes, it seems to me that the fact is discernible and ought to have significance to rural educators. How may the newly-released aspirations of the farm women be turned into the channel of rural school progress? I do not presume to suggest to you, who are experienced in the task of relating public sentiment and opinion to educational promotion, how this shall be done; I merely point to the existence of a new and a powerful force which is at your disposal. If this force can be appreciated and utilized it will do more for rural educational progress in the next decade than all of the other forces combined. For, the heart of the rural mother is centered in her children. Through them she is destined to express the vision and the worth of her citizenship. Although this has been an essay dealing with problems to be solved, I cannot bring it toa close without expressing to you my hopes for the future of rural education. Among the hopeful signs are: The splendid character of the leaders of the movement; the expanding interest in rural education manifested by such rural organizations as the American Country Life DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION IVA Association ; the high grade of investigation and educational experimentation now going forward in rural areas; and, finally, the fact that those of us interested in this inspiring problem are broad enough to disagree without bitterness, to codperate without thought of personal glory, and to perceive in diversification of theory the living pulse of progress. ‘“‘Where people laugh and agree, progress weeps.” With us progress must be sure since we do disagree, but we do laugh. = OBJECTIVES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION THOMAS H. BRIGGS, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK Education has been so generally accepted in the United States as a neces- sity that the public is more likely to approve anything bearing the label, especially if traditional, than to realize the basis of its justification and to demand results in terms of its purposes. “The only reason why school taxes are levied on parents and non-parents alike, why education is offered free of charge, why children from six to fourteen are compelled by law to attend school is that in some way each individual may be made better able and more inclined to contribute to the welfare of society. Education, then, is an investment, not a generous gratuity. And as with any other investment, returns should be expected and demanded both by those who furnish the raw material, that is, the children, and also by those who pay the cost of operation. In our organization the cost of the school is paid wholly or in the largest part by the local school district. It follows as a matter of course that the school should make returns first of all to the betterment of the local community and only after this obligation is satisfied to the State. The interests of the local and the larger units of interested society fortunately have much in common, but at the same time there are differ- ences, and failure to recognize these differences often results in a contri- bution by the weaker community to the stronger, a contribution that still further weakens the former while making still stronger the latter, which has paid little or nothing for the preparation of its assets of new citizenry. Instances are numerous of rural and semi-rural communities heroically taxing themselves to furnish an education which sends their youth away to the larger cities. It may be cogently argued that the major cost of educa- tion should be borne by the State or even by the Federal Government, but at present it is not. ‘The result of the present general practice of the schools is that many communities have generously taxed themselves with consequent impoverishment of the local society. The remedy is not that schools should be less liberally supported, but rather that they should be so organized as to return profit primarily to the community that pays the major cost of the investment. Objection to this proposed emphasis is likely to come from parents who have a desire that their children shall be prepared for life in the larger world, a desire that 1122 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION may be creditable to parental affection and ambition. But it is hardly rea- sonable for them to demand or even expect that their neighbors shall make a heavy contribution to this end when it assuredly will result in making the local community a worse place in which to make a living and to enjoy life. Differences between the purpose and the practice of elementary and secondary schools have not been clear in the history of education in the United States, noreis there evidence that we have in the past been greatly concerned in the matter. Though largely influenced in early times by undemocratic practices in European schools, our present organization and much of our subject-matter are the result of compromise rather than of conscious development on accepted definitions and principles. It is now proposed that education in the United States has three clearly conceived phases: elementary, intermediate, and higher, each with its own functions and purposes, all consistent with the obligations to return profit to the State through the development of the individual. The elementary grades shall furnish the common training necessary for all children in a democracy “regardless of sex, social status, or future vocation,” and by means of this training shall bind together future citizens by common knowledge, prejudices, ideals, and aspirations. With the longer school year, better buildings and equipment, trained teachers, and supervision, modern schools can accomplish these two ends in six years better than the older ones with traditional means and indefinite purpose could in eight or nine. Doubtless schools could contribute even more in a longer time, but before the law permits children to withdraw and the investment of educa- tion to cease it is desirable to attempt other aims, which are characteristic of the intermediate period. For this intermediate period junior high schools, accepting children from approximately twelve to fifteen years of age, have been instituted and are being widely adopted both in urban and in rural communities. ‘The five major purposes of the junior high school are: First, to continue, and so far as it may seem wise and possible, and in a gradually diminishing degree, common, integrating education; second, to ascertain and reasonably to satisfy pupils’ important immediate and assured future needs; third, to explore by means of material in itself worth while the interests, aptitudes, and capacities of pupils; fourth, to reveal to them, by material otherwise justifiable, the possibilities in the major fields of learning; and, fifth, to start each pupil on the career which, as a result of the exploratory courses, he, his parents, and the school are convinced is most likely to be of profit to him and to the State.” The last unit of local education is the senior high school, which shall furnish increasingly differentiated education always promising returns to the community and suitable to the capacities, interests, and most probable needs of the groups of pupils attending. “The Commission on the Reorgani- zation of Secondary Education, appointed by the National Education 1 Briggs: The Junior High School, page 26. DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EpucATION 1123 Association, recommends that “‘secondary schools admit, and provide suit- able instruction for, all pupils who are in any respect so mature that they would derive more benefit from the secondary school than from the ele- mentary school.” The Commission also recommends that the following be considered the main objectives of education: Health, command of the fundamental proc- esses, worthy home-membership, vocational effectiveness, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character. Although these objectives should be sought by all educational units, the high school has a peculiar opportunity and obligation because of.the maturity of its pupils as compared with those in the elementary grades and of their number as compared with those in the colleges. Some of the objectives, particularly the command of funda- mental processes, have long been emphasized by all schools; but reflection will show that acceptance of the seven as the chief objectives greatly widens the conception of education and imposes obligations on every subject to seek each of them consciously and consistently so far as it is possible. The recent report of the Committee on Science Teaching * to the Commission reveals to an extent how the several sciences can accomplish far more of the desir- able ends of education than they are accustomed to do. In a general sense the objectives of secondary education are identical in junior and senior high schools, whether urban or rural; but specifically they vary as local conditions differ. Pupils in all communities must know and conform to the fundamental laws of health, for instance, but food, sanitation, human contacts, and physical exercise may differ much in two localities and in consequence necessitate wisely differentiated courses of study. In the past the rural and village school has too commonly adopted educational plans prepared by city schoolmen for urban conditions, thus unconsciously but no less surely contributing to the migratory urge and weakening the communities that sought through education to strengthen themselves. A safe guide for any school that desires to justify itself is first of all after ascertaining what are the desirable activities in its community, to help the people to do them better; and second, to reveal to them higher types of activities of all kinds—in health, in home membership, in the worthy use of leisure, and so forth—and to make these so desired that they will be sought after. Along with being directed by these aims the school should so far as possible organize every course so that it is profitable to the extent to which it is pursued. One month of mathematics should be worthwhile, even if the pupils pursue the subject no further; one lesson in science approximately one-fortieth as valuable as forty lessons. ‘These principles courageously and consistently sought can be applied far more frequently than one would at first thought suspect; indeed, they are already common in such subjects as physical exercise, English literature, expression, civics, and general science. A most revealing and stimulating program is in- evitable if one, for the moment disregarding traditional practice, makes an 1U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1920, No. 26. 1124 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION inventory of the activities desirable and possible in his community, whether they are commonly practiced or not. This program will contain many elements of the traditional courses of study, but it will not only make those that are retained more meaningful but it will also introduce new elements which common sense shows are of equal if not of greater importance. Great emphasis has during the past decade very properly been placed on vocational training, for the old school had largely neglected this phase of education. What the State needs is not bookish men with poor health, not men skilled in vocations but weak in a sense of civic responsibility, not men trained to enjoy leisure but lacking in ethical ideals; what the State needs is a citizenry prepared as far as possible for full, rounded life of service and happiness. A consideration of the current tendency of education, especially of that for rural schools, raises a strong inquiry as to whether the emphasis should not now be placed more on preparation for home membership, civic responsi- bilities, and the wise use of leisure time. Without in any way detracting from the obvious need of a mastery of facts and processes, of vocational efficiency, or even of health, it may reasonably be urged that none of these matters is of great moment unless it makes possible and makes probable the happiness of the ‘ndividual and the happiness of those about him. Nothing has here been said of ethical character as an independent objective, for what is ethical character but the inevitable result of the other objectives attained and coérdinated ? It must not be assumed that these paragraphs are presented without an appreciation of the valiant and laudable efforts that have been made here and there to improve rural education, to adapt it to community needs, and to justify it as a wise public investment. It is not in ignorance of these efforts but because of them that one gains a vision of the education of a not far distant future. Emboldened by results already accomplished and guided by simply stated principles justified by common sense, the adminis- trators and teachers of rural schools have before them an opportunity as extensive as its satisfaction is assured. THE SMALL COMMUNITY HIGH SCHOOL E. M. PHILLIPS, STATE HIGH SCHOOL INSPECTOR, ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA 1. The need for it: (1) Keeps rural community children in school until eighteen years of age. (2) And thereby enables them to secure the training and the knowl- edge necessary if they are to hold their own in the competition between rural and urban communities. (3) Prevents the development of a peasant caste in America (4) Assists and is the chief agency available in creating for the small community desirable standards—intellectual, zsthetic, ethical and spiritual. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1125 es (5) Provides the training needed for intelligent participation in pub- lic affairs—i. e., good citizenship. 2. Desirable characteristics of the small high school: (1) Modern building as to heat, light, ventilation, seating, toilets, attractive site and grounds, play ground equipment. (2) Modern equipment, including gymnasium, auditorium, labora- tories, moving picture apparatus, piano, works of art. (3) A school head, elected by a school board that knows enough to let him run the school until he is dismissed for inefficiency. (4) A school curriculum free from slavish imitation of the city school. (5) The best teachers that good salaries will attract. (6) A school year of at least nine months. (7) Auto bus transportation for every child living more than one mile from the school. 3. Extra-curriculum activities: (1) Music— (3) Public speaking— a. Glee club. a. Declamation. b. Orchestra. b. Oratory. c. School band. c. Debate. (2) Athletics— (4) Club work. a. Foot-ball. (5) Community improvement— b. Basket-ball. a. Roads and bridges. c. Base-ball. b. Parks. d. Field and track. c. Landscape gardening. e. Tennis. d. Law and order. e. Farm and home projects. 4. Extended use of school facilities by the entire community: (1) The auditorium and gymnasium. (2) The laboratories. (3) The library. 5. All publicly supported schools have one, and only one legitimate aim— to make good American citizens. 6. The sources of maintenance funds for the small high school: (1) The burden too heavy for the small community to bear alone. (2) The strain of a property valuation tax on farm lands is excessive and unreasonable. (3) The remedy to be found in— a. Large State support. b. The substitution of an income tax for the prevalent prop- erty tax. 1126 NatIoNAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION PROBLEMS AND METHODS IN THE ORGANIZATION OF RURAL COMMUNITY HIGH SCHOOLS F. P. OBRIEN, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANSAS In dealing with this subject a definite and specific treatment of methods in rural high-school organization has been requested by the committee making the assignment. Accordingly I shall make no further apology for discussing actual situations within the range of my own contact and experience in the organization of rural high schools in Kansas. It will be necessary, first, however, to present certain facts and situations as a back- ground for the treatment of problems very real and definite with reference to the rural community high school. The central theme of this talk will deal with the desirability and feasibility of using a combination of demo- cratic procedure and scientific direction such as differ quite markedly from the prevailing methods employed to accomplish the organization of this type of high school. First, let me remind you that the rural community with its distinctive problems of the social and educational type predominates in Kansas as in the neighboring States of the Middle West. The State of Kansas has an essentially rural population. ‘There are no large cities within its borders. In order to credit the State with a fair number of cities Kansas has formu- lated its own definition of a city. Any town having a population of 250 people is called a city of the third class. If its population reaches 2000 it becomes a city of the second class. A population of 15,000 makes the city one of the first class. The State has eleven of these cities. But less than one fourth of its people live in communities as large as 10,000. If rural population is defined as by the U. S. Census Bureau so as to include those residing in towns of less than 2500 population, then 65 per cent of the State’s population is in the rural class. Here, as elsewhere in this country, during the past two or three decades, the very remarkable extension of opportunities for secondary education has been evident. Kansas has made several attempts to provide high-school advantages for the rural boy and girl. ‘These efforts have found expression in the legislative form and, as often happens, some of them have been of importance only as temporary or transitional measures. The county high- school law in Kansas was based on the idea of taxing all property in the county for a county high school which should be open to all high-school students in the county. The township high-school law represented the application of a similar idea to the township as a unit. The Barnes high- school law was a still further attempt to provide county aid under certain restrictions for any high schools giving instruction to students outside of the high-school district. : These movements culminated in the rural high-school law of 1917, by which it is possible for any group of contiguous school districts or parts of districts to organize for high-school purposes regardless of county, township, or district lines, and thus form a rural high-school district. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1127 The popularity of this plan for providing equal opportunity in secondary education for those living in rural districts is evident from the fact that the rural high-school type of organization has spread over the State almost like a contagion. During the period of less than four years in which the law has been in actual operation more than 200 rural high schools have been established. But there has been no general direction or counsel in the organization of this type of school throughout the State, and many of these schools should never have been organized in the way they have been. As a consequence of this rapid multiplication in numbers and the lack of competent direction in its development, the rural high school in Kansas has been the victim of mistakes, numerous and serious. A majority of the districts have organized with a valuation far too small to support an adequate high school without feeling too much the weight of the resulting tax burden. A large number of these schools have an enrolment so small that the social contacts and influences expected of secondary education are impossible. Another result of the small enrolment in these schools, 25 per cent of which have less than 25 pupils and 65 per cent less than 50 pupils, is that the per capita cost of instruction is high, even exceeding $400 a year per pupil in some schools. ‘The usual instruction difficulties that characterize the small high school are all present. The job does not attract and hold the better teacher or principal. There is not much variety of instruction offered in these small schools. Extra-curricular activities are often negligible. Up to a recent date, with approximately 200 rural high schools organized, not any had been classified by the State Department as of “A” grade; and only five per cent of them were as high as “B” grade. The “DY; grade of school and those which are in the unapproved class still include the larger number of the rural high schools in that State. In short, many of these schools handicapped by their smallness of enrolment and restriction of opportunity are giving an inferior grade of instruction at an excessive cost. These communities are paying for what they do not get, and the time may not be far distant when the people will ask, “Where has the educa- tional leadership of the State been hiding?” While the high-school buildings in which these schools are housed are almost uniformly new, their lack of adaptation for the functions for which they are intended usually disclose what the school board and the architect did not know about the standards and functions of such a building. Often a tremendous and permanent price in loss of educational facilities has been paid for the saving of five or ten thousand dollars in the original cost of one of these buildings. Recently when a Senior in architectural engi- neering at the University asked me to direct him to a first-class rural high school building in the State that he might study it, I was compelled to say that I knew of none truly answering that description that had yet been built in the State. These buildings most often are planned and constructed without advice or counsel of anyone competent to judge the adequacy of the provisions in 1128 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION terms of present and future educational needs of the district and the accept- able standards of modern school construction. Since these buildings are relatively permanent structures and since the errors of construction are sometimes as permanently fixed as are the buildings, the most serious feature of the situation is the fact that future generations of boys and girls will be the victims and pay the price of the shortsightedness and short function- ing of such construction. The problem then is twofold, first to provide direction for insuring a better type of organization, and secondly, to dis- count as far as possible, the mistakes already made. But how shall this be done? How indeed shall we lay hold of the principles of democracy and give them direction so as to make them function in the development of the rural community high school? The prevailing method of organizing the rural high school district fol- lows the line of present expediency and early accomplishment. The people of some town probably select the site which they desire and determine how much of the nearby farming population they can outvote. The proposed boundaries of the new district are then drawn so as to include and exclude territory in keeping with that idea. Forty per cent of the enumerated voters must sign a petition for such a district. A majority of the votes cast will carry the proposition. ‘The farmers say, with considerable justi- fication, that they are “railroaded” into the new district to help support the town school. They are not made to feel that it is their school and their school problem. ‘The are not asked to do any thinking. They are asked to accept. No time is spent on community education with respect to the project that concerns these people so directly. There is more of feeling than understanding involved on either side. A study of such principles as the advantages of a larger district, how the functioning of a high school is related to the size of its enrolment, the right selection of location, the probable demands ten years hence, the attributes that characterize a better erade of high school, how the type of building will condition the school’s activities and the highly essential matter of securing community codperation and unity of effort in the project, receives no consideration or attention. Such a study should from its very nature be regarded as fundamental before the community is persuaded to invest its money in any high-school organi- zation. : A procedure so opposed to democracy in method and spirit as is the pre- vailing practice certainly implies (1) that the proposition treated in this manner does not possess enough merit to recommend it very strongly; (2) that the people to whom it is addressed do not possess such intelligent or reasonable attitude, as will enable them to understand or accept the facts when presented; or (3) that the promoters do not have much confidence in their own ability to present the facts with clearness and force. Of course, it may sometimes indicate a lack of confidence in the practical service of that more democratic and perhaps slower procedure of community dis- cussion and education, which should be preceded by a competent investiga- tion of all the factors involved. There seem to be many who are willing DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1129 = eee EE an to make the end justify the means. It is evident however that there is a growing sentiment against making the end justify the means in organizing a district of this sort. ‘The latest session of the State legislature has made it possible to disorganize a district and at the same time it provided the procedure for accomplishing that end. Assuming that in any community a high school is to be organized, then the all-important question to be considered is what kind of high school it shall be and by what method organized? At this point the process should take precedence. It may determine how great will be the usefulness of the organization when it has been accomplished. It will often be the part of wisdom to delay the final organization at least a year or two and even longer if necessary in order to be more assured of getting what is really a community high school rather than something imposed upon the community without its first being made ready to accept and use it. This will mean the greater expenditure of energy in getting the community to want the best available school and to prize right standards. The community may require such an arousing and unifying of purpose that in certain respects it becomes an altogether different community. The chief agencies to ac- complish such change should generally be sought in the community itself with others working more successfully through these agencies. Let us now face the question whether such methods are subject to practical application. The general situation in the State with reference to the rural high school was as described, when certain school districts in Johnson County, located near Kansas City and the Missouri State Line, applied through the county superintendent of schools to the Bureau of School Service at the University of Kansas, to aid them in their attempts to provide high-school facilities for their boys and girls. It was found that from 14 districts in that part of the county 140 students were attending six different high schools. ‘The territory includes four small towns, two of which rank as Kansas cities of the third class. Both of these were maintaining high schools ranked in the lowest class that is approved for doing four years of work. ‘They were small and expensive as well as inferior. One of these small towns which supported its own high school and received students from the surrounding districts was carrying a tax levy of 25 mills—due mainly to the expense of their high school and the smallness of the district. The other high school was offering less and costing less. It will be noted that the expressed desire for assistance arose primarily from the pressure of taxes rather than from any dissatisfaction with the inferior schooling offered. It should also be stated here that these 14 school districts had little in common except contiguity of territory and the lack of good high-school facilities. I would not have you think that it was a homogenous population where unity and community already existed. Many rivalries, suspicions, and dissentions were found there. The farmers were avowedly suspicious of the motives of the small townspeople. Many Kansas City commuters having little contact with the local resident pop- ulation lived in a portion of this territory. Keen rivalries and jealousies 1130 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION existed between some of the small towns. The Catholic and Protestant elements of one district were in active opposition, even going so far as nominating rival tickets in their local elections. The color line prejudice also was present. Some of the districts had a considerable number of colored residents, thus causing other districts to express opposition to any closer association between the districts. Added to these factors of division one found the influence of the substantial farmer type—sometimes un- married—who feels no special need of good schools and who believes most heartily in that sort of educational organization which costs the least to operate. The Bureau of School Service was authorized at a joint meeting of the School Board representatives from these 14 districts to make a survey of the high-school needs in that territory and present recommendations to that group of representatives. The approval of this plan by the representa- tives present was mainly a formality with some of the members. Indeed, there were some members present who had decided without investigation what should be done and they were inflexibly disposed toward any other solution of the problem. But the attitude of the majority prevailed, and the survey was authorized. In making this study of the high-school needs, Mr. Smart, professor of rural education, at the University of Kansas, and myself visited all ele- mentary and high schools in the territory and secured the necessary informa- tion first hand from these schools or from the official records of the county. The county superintendent of schools was invited to accompany us on all visits. She gave codperation and assistance at every stage of the work, and performed an important part at some critical points. The making of this study involved among other considerations an inquiry into the high-school needs of these districts, the high-school population— both present and prospective, the right size of high-school district for the community, the kind of high school needed, the ability of the territory to support such a high school, the distribution of students and the best location for the high-school building, the size and cost of building required, the courses of study, and the teaching staff. The data gathered soon made it clearly evident that one central high school was the best way of providing for the high-school needs of these districts. It was found that the whole territory would form a desirable high-school unit. The total valuation of this territory was more than ten and one half million dollars. The total school enrolment, including high school, was approximately 900 pupils. The greatest length of such a high- school district would be about 10 miles. The current school levy varied in these districts from .6 of a mill to 25 mills, showing how unequal was the educational task to be met in the different districts. While the actual high-school attendance in these districts was 140, the upper elementary school classes had enrolments from 75 to 90 pupils. With the prospect that perhaps sixty of these pupils would each year finish eighth grade and enter a first-class modern high school rightly located, it seemed plain that . DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1131 the central high school would soon have an enrolment of at least 200 students without taking into account how a superior high school would attract more people to the community. ‘There is a strong probability that the population of the locality will increase considerably in the next ten years because the commuting distance from Kansas City makes much of the territory desirable for homes for commuters. A carefully prepared map showing the territorial distribution of the high-school students and another one for the elementary-school pupils showed that the population centers for both groups were almost identical. This center was also very near one of the two electric lines which cross these districts, but it was more than a mile from the limits of the nearest town. This information and other tabulated data were all presented by means of large wall charts in making the report of this investigation to the school- board members and school patrons. Mimeographed copies of the charts were also distributed. It was the chief purpose of this report to give the school-board members and others the feeling of a self-discovery of the facts as they studied these statements. That it was successful seems certain from the kind of responses secured. As an illustration, the correct location of a central high-school building was never seriously brought into question after the center of school population was clearly shown on a map of the territory—and this in spite of the fact that the representatives of one of the districts were opposed to any site outside of their own town. The economic advantages of this location for a rural high school were also observed in the fact that the concentration of population would come within the three-mile zone. As the transportation charges are not paid by the high-school district within the three-mile zone such charges would not be imposed on the high-school district for more than 25 per cent of the pupils if the building were located at the territorial center of the school population. With reference to the type of high school to be recommended, the inquiry was made to include (1) the occupations of the pupils’ fathers, (2) the pupils’ expressed choice of life work. The resulting tabulations showed the diversity in kinds of vocational interests found in those districts and the varied instruction demanded for the pupils in order to provide a fair degree of equality with respect to educational opportunity. It was dis- covered that in this particular rural community only 25 per cent of the pupils have fathers who are farmers, dairymen, or gardeners. An analysis of the vocational choices of 748 pupils in the elementary school showed that 16 per cent wanted to be farmers or dairymen ; 2 per cent more wanted to raise flowers, poultry, or live stock; 12 per cent voted for a business career ; 13 per cent had selected callings that demand mechanical training; 15 per cent preferred professional lines; many girls mentioned homemaking and teaching; and others did not express a choice of life work. While there is nothing final about these percentages they do indicate clearly the amount and kind of diversity of vocational interest represented. 1132 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION It is also significant that 91 per cent of these elementary-school pupils said ‘“‘yes” they were going to high school if possible; 5 per cent were not sure; 4 per cent said “‘no.’”’ Unless such evidence is entirely disregarded the high school which makes adequate provision for these pupils must offer several different courses of instruction, including business, agricultural, general or scientific, homemaking, and teacher-training courses. “lo these would certainly be added physical training. A rural high school offering these courses would require a teaching staff of at least twelve teachers and a principal to care for approximately 200 students. These conclusions were presented to the members of the school boards at a joint meeting held about three months after the meeting at which the survey was authorized. An analysis of the building provisions that would be demanded for that kind of a high school, an estimate of the construction cost of such a building, and the probable operating costs were also presented. The estimates showed that the school for 200 students could be operated - as recommended and also a building costing $150,000 paid for in ten years on a levy of 3.5 mills if such a rural high-school district were organized. This is less than the average levy paid for the rural high schools now found in the State. All effort was centered on giving the people a good school for high-school purposes. Reduced expense or cheaper provisions were not recommended at the expense of quality. No high-school building in the county nor very many in the State could reach the standards of the building recommended here. ‘Teachers’ salaries were estimated higher than the average paid anywhere outside of the larger cities of the State. Only an “A” grade of high school was ever admitted to consideration with reference to this project. The larger valuation of the larger district made all these things available for a moderate tax levy. The possibilities of the larger high-school district quickly appealed to a majority of the people. The organization recommended to the school board representatives was without a near rival in the State, among rural high schools, with reference either to size of the district valuation or the size of high-school enrolment. Few, if any, were in the same class with reference to grade of school, size and character of teaching staff, or adequacy of building provisions. The idea of basing the organization on a careful study of the whole situation also marked a departure from what had previously happened in determining this type of school. When the report of this survey had been presented to the school-board members meeting in joint session it was referred by them to the separate districts for the purpose of hearing and discussing it. One or both of the authors of the report and the county superintendent of schools visited dis- trict meetings in each of the fourteen districts, upon invitation. Not all of these audiences were sympathetic. But the proposition for a central rural high school seemed to gain strength and support as the people came to un- derstand it and to feel that it was their responsibility to decide what kind of high-school opportunities they wanted for their boys and girls. It was truly a campaign of education of the people. All views were given a hear- DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1133 ing and discussed. These meetings often lasted until late in the evening. Soon the elements of opposition asserted themselves, led by those who knew what they wanted long before the survey was made. ‘They proposed a division of the territory into two or more high-school districts. A petition hastily prepared and signed by approximately 600 names was presented to the county superintendent asking approval for the organization of a smaller district of this sort. It was quickly discovered that the promoters of the movement had managed to include two thirds of the total valuation and one third of the high-school pupils of the proposed large high-school dis- trict. A protest signed by more than 900 names was promptly sent to the county superintendent stating that the boundaries proposed in the petition would forever preclude their children from securing the advantages of a first-class rural high school and asking the privilege of a public hearing. Here is exemplified a faith in democratic method. ‘They asked only a fair hearing. These people had already begun to think in terms of quality of instruction and the kind of opportunity offered by a high school. Their request for a hearing was granted. This meeting was held in the court-house at the County Seat, twenty miles distant, but the court-house was filled for the hearing by people who opposed the limitations and unfairness of the smaller district. Forty of the original signers of the petition for the small district had already asked to have their names stricken from the petition. The merits of the whole proposition were fully presented and discussed. The interests of the larger high-school district were represented by a committee of three citizens. In her decision the county superintendent refused to approve the petition for the smaller district because it was so manifestly unfair in its boundaries. In this decision she stated plainly that she would be disposed to approve any rural high-school district within this territory which provided educational opportunities that were fair and equitable for the boys and girls; and that this condition would demand: 1. A fair division of educational responsibility (according to the school population). 2. A fair and equitable distribution of the valuation in proportion to the responsibility assumed. 3. Encouragement of the highest type of school that it is reasonable to expect. 4. Provision for the most likely future needs and development. The people had become aroused and they had been definitely informed so that they knew the high-school needs were real ones based upon an actual study of the situation. Following this’ demonstration of interest by the community and the decision rendered by the county superintendent a unity of purpose was apparent among these people to secure the kind of high school recommended for the young people of that community. The petition for the organization of all the territory into a rural high- school district was duly signed and approved. The committee in charge prepared a twelve-page booklet of questions and answers relative to the 1134 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION i organization proposed. It was a fair and convincing presentation of the needs, location, kind, and cost of such a school. A double-page map of the district was included and the advantages of the larger district were made plain. ‘This booklet of information was mailed to every home in the territory before the date for the election on the organization of the new district. Two propositions came up for decision at the special election held in September, one on the organization of the rural high-school district, the other on the issuing of bonds for the new high-school building needed. Both propositions were approved at the election. More than 2000 of the 2800 registered voters recorded their votes at this election. ‘This happened in spite of the fact that many of the commuters to Kansas City were not able to vote because the polls were closed at six o’clock, before they could reach the voting places on returning home. Here was a striking demonstra- tion that the people respond when they are really informed and led to feel both that the responsibility is theirs and that its importance is great. The new district was given the name of the Shawnee-Mission Rural High School because of the fact that the territory is located chiefly in Shawnee and Mission townships of Johnson County. ‘The three mem- bers of the school board of the new district were elected at an election called for the purpose in November. The authorized bonds were then sold. Without delay this Board purchased twelve acres of land near the center of high-school population as a site for the new building. Architects were employed and set to work. Their plans were subjected to the criticism of the men who made both the survey and the recommendations for the build- ing. ‘The county superintendent also was consulted. This building prom- ises to be a model of its kind among school buildings of the State. The educational features of the building have received as careful consideration as have the architectural features. This is indeed a new departure in the planning of small town and rural school buildings. The architects have been much concerned about how they could make the building better serve its educational functions. The board has sought this kind of service. Other efforts have been made by the opposing minority to arrest or pre- vent the organization of the Shawnee-Mission Rural High School, but the gratifying fact is that the community has been so well informed by the program of community education that it knows what kind of high-school provision it wants for its boys and girls and it will not easily be led from its determination. This distinctive rural community high school in the State is an evidence that the application of democratic procedure in the development of better high schools is not a visionary theory, but if rightly directed, it is a practical method of getting desirable results in rural high- school organization. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1135 CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS OF THE MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS, AND PLAINS OF COLORADO C. G. SARGENT, COLORADO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, FORT COLLINS, COLORADO Since all of our schools are not like those described in this address, we reluctantly admit that in Colorado we are still struggling with the ‘“Dis- trict”? system, adopted by our State a half century ago and changed in no important respect since its adoption. Each rural district is clothed with just enough power and authority to have as poor a school as it pleases. Each is as jealous of its “inalienable” rights as if it were a sovereign State instead of a fragment of a township. Each is as ready to fight to perpetuate its imagined “independence” with all the defects of its organization as one of the so-called republics of Central America. And instead of being one of our most democratic institutions, as it has long been called, it is very un- democratic, and if carried to its logical conclusion, as has been done in many instances, it becomes individualistic. We still have 2000 weak and inefficient rural schools, for the most part of the one-room variety, and with buildings of the traditional type, suited only to pioneer conditions such as are suggested by the spinning wheel, the ox-cart, the cradle, and the flail, implements unused since the days of our grandparents. Many of these are still taught by young and untrained, or poorly trained teachers, and 60,000 country boys and girls, children whose parents are citizens of the United States, live in these dis- tricts. Many of ‘these do not even complete the eight-year elementary course, poor as it is, while but few of these who do graduate from the eighth grade ever find their way to some town or city high school, for the entrance of which they have not been prepared, there to get their first ex- perience in a real school, and to get at least a little inspiration to start them on their long and difficult struggle for an education. Now with this frank admission no one should accuse me of trying to give the impression that all of our rural schools are as fine as those we are soon to describe, although most of them might and could be. Our State-wide campaign for rural-school improvement is scarcely ten years old, yet within the brief span of a single decade we have abolished some 500 weak and otherwise inefficient rural schools, and have already replaced them by 168 good consolidated schools that provide a graded elementary and most of them a strong four-year high school. These new schools are found in forty out of our sixty-three counties and are well distributed over the State. Some forty of them are found in the non-irrigated portion of eastern Colorado, sometimes referred to as the Great Plains section. Eighty or more are found in the fertile irrigated valleys of the South Platte and Arkansas river basins and their tributaries along the foothills. Some are in the high mountain valleys in the southern and extreme western part of the State and some of our best ones are located at an elevation of 7600 feet above sea level, one reaching approximately 1136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION “EOS ne PE eee 8000 feet! One is near the base of Mt. Blanca where the railroad and the auto road cross the Sangre De Cristo range of mountains, named and made famous by the early explorations of the Spaniards. Another is securely tucked away in the mountains, “Out on top,’ where the surface of the land is rough and broken and where the roads are merely mountain trails, where the families that live farthest away are compelled to move into their own winter cabins erected on the school grounds of forty acres acquired for that purpose just before the deep snows block the roads for the winter, while children who live nearer break trails and come on horseback and still others go on skiis over four feet of snow. ‘This school is miles from a railroad, surrounded by the most difficult natural obstacles of any consolidated school the writer has ever seen, where only stouthearted and the most courageous scions of the original pioneers would even attempt to live, to say nothing of attempting to build and operate a consolidated school, to erect a substantial and modern teacherage, and establish a real community center with electric lights, moving pictures, wholesome entertainments, secure for themselves a United States Post Office, install a telephone exchange, and create a community out of a few scattered cattle ranches on land that but a few years ago supported nothing but sage brush and scrub oaks. Still another is found in the canon of the Arkansas River, just above Royal Gorge, only a few miles from three noted mountain peaks, “Har- vard, “Princeton,” and “Yale,” that are a part of the Great Continental Divide. This is certainly the last place on earth where one would expect to find a consolidated school. Some counties have made wonderful progress in the reorganization of their rural schools by the consolidation of districts. Weld County leads the list with twenty-five fine consolidated schools already established and has equally good opportunities for a dozen more. El Paso County comes second with seventeen located along the mountain divide that separates the waters of the South Platte and Arkansas rivers and in the plains portion of the eastern part of the county. Logan County is third in numbers with fifteen, nine of which serve as branches of the Logan County High School. Rio Grande County surpasses all others in the per cent of its children that attend consolidated schools. This county has consolidated all of its rural schools, except two with a combined enrolment of thirty, into four of our largest and finest consolidated schools. Approximately 99 per cent of all the children in Rio Grande County attend completely graded con- solidated schools with four-year accredited high schools—a record that perhaps cannot be equaled by any other county in the United States. These are a few examples of the wonderful results already achieved by our consolidation campaign. The rest of my time will be taken in showing three reels of moving pictures of some of our finest consolidated schools. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1187 EDUCATION IN ITS PROPER ENVIRONMENT MARY E. SABIN, PRINCIPAL OF THE CHAZY CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOL, CHAZY,.NEW YORK In the extreme northeastern part of New York State, only a few miles from the Canadian border, in the broad valley of Lake Champlain, is the little village of Chazy. Here in this remote region is located, through the generosity of a big-hearted man, probably the most wonderful rural school in America. ‘This school is the expression of an ideal which grew in this man’s mind for many years—an ideal of service, of self-sacrifice, of untiring effort, of steadfast purpose to provide for the country children of this locality educational opportunities equal to those enjoyed by their more fortunate brothers and sisters in the city. He saw clearly and has never allowed himself to forget that the only hope for America’s future is in the education of its young people and that over half of these are country boys and girls. Americans are often criticised as seeking only wealth and industrial and commercial efficiency. But when wealth is poured out to secure for every child in America the educational advantages that should be his, and when all the wonders wrought by modern science in its applications to the mechanisms of life are drawn upon to surround young people with oppor- tunities and experiences, are not these material appliances filled with a deeper meaning and is not matter really transmuted into mind and soul? All this has happened in Chazy. The building and equipment are the best that thoughtful care and painstaking attention to detail can make them. Expense has not been a primary consideration. “The growth of the school has not been hampered by restrictions imposed by reluctant taxpayers or by calculating board members with political ends in view. If the future sta- bility of the country depends upon education, then it also depends upon the multiplication of schools like this in every countryside. There are few men like the one mentioned, willing and eager to devote time and money, to make personal sacrifice in order to give this great boon to their commu- nities, but there are in most places—even in rural sections—two or three men, or a group of men, who working together could make such a gift if once they could be induced to see the wonderful results possible from such an investment and if they could be given a taste of the deep and satisfying pleasure that comes from the happy gratitude of little children. Such a eift, unrestricted in its use, added to the amount regularly raised by taxa- tion in a consolidated district, would secure the building and equipment, not equal to that in Chazy perhaps, but infinitely superior to what is now offered in the little one-room country schools. Two things are necessary to make a school a success. When buildings have been built and equipped in the best manner that the contributory community can afford, the work is only half done. Now must be secured and welded into a unity, the group of well-trained, earnest, devoted teach- ers, who are to make use of what has been provided. There are thirty- 1138 NATIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION iene aS FN UE two teachers in the corps of the Chazy School, an enthusiastic, codperative group. ‘Those who visit the school and comment on one or another feature of it are always told that what is being done there is possible anywhere else. All that is needed is a clear vision of the ideal school, a willingness to sink self in service and a generous spirit of codperation. What seem like miracles are possible when people work together to make an ideal come true, without thought of self-aggrandizement, with joy in the work because it is worthwhile, and with some little realization of the fact that if such opportunities could be made the heritage of every child the whole world would be revolutionized. In the past, experienced teachers have been reluctant to take rural posi- tions. ‘This is true no longer in consolidated schools like the one at Chazy. With excellent salaries comparing favorably with those offered in large cities, with a well-organized and progressive school system where codpera- tion and harmony are the rule, with opportunities for professional and cultural advancement offered under the auspices of the school, and last, but not least, a place to live which is both comfortable and homelike, with an opportunity for congenial social life, teachers are eager to secure positions in the school and anxious to retain them. Much could be said about the building with its period rooms; its audi- torium seating one thousand people and containing a pipe organ, a Simplex motion-picture machine, and a well-equipped stage; the two swimming pools, the suite of rooms devoted to Health Service, the laboratories, the music room, the library, and the laundry. All afford much interest to the visitor and are worthy of description, but perhaps a better idea of them can be obtained from the school film than it is possible to give in words. Certain activities should be mentioned, however, which it is difficult to portray by means of pictures. The school was organized at first on the usual 8-4 plan. That is being gradually changed into the more modern and. satisfactory 6-3-3 arrange- ment. ‘The elementary course of study is enriched in many ways. Music, drawing and hand work, project work in agriculture, elementary science, poem and picture study, swimming and gymnasium floor work, shop and household arts—all find a place in its elastic plan. In Junior and Senior High School the most important courses offered, since this is a rural neigh- borhood, are the Agricultural, the Industrial Arts, and the Household Arts Courses. The school film will make plain the emphasis placed on these subjects. Every means is used to render this work attractive and profitable and to impress its practical value upon young people, most of whom will spend their lives in the country. Many people assert that the work of the rural school should be kept distinctly vocational in character; that country children should be trained specifically to be farmers and home makers. It may be recalled that in a set of resolutions formulated by the Department of Rural Education at the Atlantic City meeting, this sentence occurs: “We stress the importance of a rural-school curriculum, broad in its social content, rich in its cultural DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1139 ” resources . . . . The Chazy School is a hearty endorsement of that statement. Music is one of the most cultural subjects, and much attention is given to it throughout the elementary and the high school. Another vital cultural influence is found in ‘the school library. Every child has a library period once each week. A love of books is inculcated and books to love are placed within easy reach. Will not rural life be freed from its loneliness and isolation when books and music are an intimate part of the life of each family? The evenings have ceased to be empty in the little country homes since the Chazy School opened. Here is the son with his ’cello or flute, the young daughter with her school violin, and perhaps, as is the case in several families, an older sister who is taking piano lessons in the school studio and can accompany the others; around the table are the younger children with books brought from the school library, which even grandmother is reported to enjoy. The children are fresh and rosy with health for they have been in the school pool today and have had a hot and nourishing lunch in the school dining-room. The father is interested in the report brought back from the school on the milk sample submitted for testing. The making over of a dress for some member of the family is made easier by the advice given by the Household Arts teacher. Even the little one whose weight is below normal is being helped by the nutrition work carried on by the school nurse. There are evenings when all the family go in one of the big school busses, which is driven at night free of cost by the bus driver as his community service, to the school auditorium to listen to the big organ, to see motion pictures, to attend evening classes, or, as was done a week ago, to hear the recital given by the senior orchestra, composed of fifty young people ranging from the fifth grade through high school. More than nine hundred fathers, mothers, and interested friends filled the auditorium while their children gave a program of which any adult orchestra might be proud. The little one-room country school cannot disappear for many years, if it ever entirely does, but that fact should not prevent our earnestly striving to give to as many country children as possible the greater advantages of consolidated schools like the one at Chazy. That every child shall receive these benefits is but simple justice. Fortunate indeed will be the country child who adds to all that he inherits of those God-given gifts, fresh air, health, the beauties of nature, the greatest gift that man can bestow, a good education. You do not need to be converted to this belief. The people back home are the ones. ‘This picture will convince them of the desirability of such a school. Facts and figures will convince them of its possibility. A vigor- ous campaign conducted by enthusiastic and courageous teachers supple- mented by the showing of such a film as this must arouse any doubting community to believe that education in its proper environment is the her- itage of every American child. Surely that community will be animated by a spirit of emulation to aid you to make the Chazy Central Rural School a dream come true in every. section of this land. 1140 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION a A RURAL TEACHERS’ PLATTSBURG AUGUSTUS 0. THOMAS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, MAINE Unless we can solve the rural-schoo! problems within the next ten years and give the boys and girls of the farm a square deal in education, we had about as well turn over the food producing resources of America to a peasantry content to live without educational facilities, culture, and refine- ment. ‘The farm is the greatest surety bond of the nation. Today a young man and his wife will not go into the country willingly for a career, knowing if they bring up a family they shall not be able to give their children the right sort of educational advantages. When we can make our country schools as good as the city schools, we shall be able to conserve the best life of the Nation. In the early days of our country there were a number of pioneers, the log cabin, the ox team, the scythe, and the little old neighborhood school. The log cabin has given place to the modern homes which dot our land. The ox team has given place to the automobile and airplane. ‘The scythe has given place to modern machinery, but the fourth pioneer is still with us. There are communities which have begun to solve in reasonably satis- factory measure this difficult problem, but there is no reason why it may not be solved universally. Consolidated schools, standardization with properly trained teachers will revolutionize rural school interests in most localities. If we make the country school as good as the city school we must have a new type of building, we must have gymnasiums, libraries, agricultural museums, art rooms, music rooms, shops, laboratories, and diversified courses of study. In the consolidated school the welfare of the children must be conserved by adequate facilities for transportation. Maine is undertaking to solve the problem. Our initial effect is with the teacher. The legislature has given us a special fund which enables the commissioner of education to select one hundred outstanding teachers who meet the standards set up and place them in special training for rural leadership. ‘Three classes have already been trained. “They know country life conditions, they know the language of the farm, they know the progress of rural school improvement. ‘These teachers have all of their expenses of transportation and board paid while in training. “They are hired by the towns to teach the school, and at the end of thé year the State gives them a bonus of 25 per cent of the salary they have earned during the year. We have teachers who are drawing $1700 a year for country school teaching. They are revolutionizing sentiment and working miracles in their localities. We can solve the rural problem, but we need the elixir of life. Maine needs five million dollars to build her country schools and the rest of the states a proportionate amount. That amount judiciously expended for equipment would make the country schools as good as the city. But the time will come when we shall spend as much money for a schoolhouse as DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EDUCATION 1141 for a machine gun, as much for a teacher’s salary as it costs to discharge one, as much for a school system as it costs to build a battle ship. THE TEACHERS’ INSTITUTE AS AN AGENCY FOR TRAINING TEACHERS IN SERVICE GEORGINA LOMMEN, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA Historical sketch—The Teachers’ Institute as an organized agency for training teachers in service is distinctly an American institution. It was founded by the early advocate of educational democracy, Henry Barnard, who has aptly been called the Nestor of American Education. As a train- ing agency its appearance was simultaneous with that of the first normal schools of the Nation. Mr. Barnard had implicit confidence in the worth of the institute and counted no professional or personal sacrifice too great for the success of his experiment, even to the extent of personally financing the organization in its early history when the legislature failed to respond to his requests for appropriations for its maintenance and extension. Stated in Mr. Barnard’s own words, quoted from his delightful educa- tional journals, the original purpose of the institute was to provide oppor- tunity for review of the common subjects, to give acquaintance with successful methods of teaching and school management, and to stimulate teachers to self-improvement. In its concept, then, the teachers’ institute aimed to serve the individual teachers as abbreviated professional training courses. Mr. Barnard’s successful efforts in Connecticut prompted Horace Mann to establish the institute in the commonwealth of Massachusetts, and later Mr. Barnard carried the plan to Rhode Island when he became the chief educational administrator of that State. Two unique features stand out in the Rhode Island plan. Mr. William G. Baker, a successful teacher, was employed by Mr. Barnard to conduct a demonstration school for the institutes of the State, which he accomplished by moving his school of twelve pupils about from place to place in a covered wagon. From this incident it appears that demonstration teaching and supervised observation are the professional innovations of another gen- eration than our own. Mr. Barnard planned, moreover, to disseminate educational publicity through the joint meeting of citizens and teachers at the evening sessions of the institutes. Educational tracts and essays in- tended to rouse the public mind to the necessity for State-supported school systems, as opposed to the rapidly developing system of parochial and private schools, were distributed and discussed at these meetings. “There is an ele- ment of democracy in this early practice of taking the public into the confi- dence of teachers and administrators which is full of possibilities for this day when we are asking ways and means of further democratizing the cause of public education. During the present decade general dissatisfaction has been expressed with 1142 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the purpose, the conduct, and-the lack of practical bearing upon results in classroom practice on the part of the teachers’ institutes. It is urged by those who express this dissatisfaction that the agency is ‘an anachronism which has been displaced by the more adequate professional training pro- vided by normal schools and later by expert supervision in the several States. However, with one half of the Nation’s teachers equipped with less than a four-year high-school course, one tenth of the rural teachers having nothing more than the completion of the eighth grade, but two per cent of them normal school graduates, and only one tenth of one per cent with special training for rural teaching, this*argument against the necessity for the continuance of the institute is not valid at this time. It is true that in many sections of the country county and local adminis- trators accept the limited possibilities of training offered by any “short-cut” scheme as a substitute for the longer terms of more adequate training; it is true that many institute programs are haphazard, lacking in purpose, con- tent, and method; that too often it requires no responsibility for participa- tion on the part of the teachers in attendance; and that very often the content and method are stronger on the side of didactics, entertainment, and educational stimulation than in information of a truly professional char- acter. All of these criticisms are valid, but the responsibility for these weak- nesses should be placed upon unprogressive administration, not upon the institute per se. These well-deserved criticisms have succeeded to the extent of placing the teachers’ institute as an in-service training agency on the professional firing line. With these conditions in mind the following study of the institute was undertaken in the hope that its inadequacies might be revealed, its worths vindicated, and its real evaluation in terms of professional service might be determined. The study reported in this discussion is based on the information re- ceived in response to inquiries sent to the chief educational administrator in each State. [he response was unusually hearty, an indication that edu- cators are beginning to assume the responsibility for cooperative effort in attempts to evaluate educational practices. “This generosity in response makes the report as fairly representative as it is possible to make such a study, forty-seven States having kindly forwarded reports on the informa- tion requested. . THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE TEACHERS INSTITUTE Legal status—It is interesting to note at the outset that in spite of the rather wide-spread dissatisfaction with the agency as it now serves, the institute is still continued in some form in forty-four States. Of the entire number of States reporting, thirty report its maintenance by law, eight States recommend its support by law; four States are authorized by law to employ the institute in effort to improve the profession within the State; and three States no longer maintain the institute as a type of teacher-train- ing agency. DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EpuCATION 1143 Terms employed to designate the agency—In the form of inquiry sub- mitted to the States the following list of terms were suggested as covering the possible types of teachers’ organizations and meetings: ‘Teachers’ Insti- tute, Teachers’ Conference, Teachers’ Convention, Teachers’ Meeting, Teachers’ Short Course, and Teachers’ Training School. This list was intended to cover all forms of organization where elementary teachers, supervisors, and administrators convene for more than a day to consider questions of professional interest and to receive stimulus to professional advancement. ‘The replies indicate that twenty-eight States still utilize the original term as used by Henry Barnard and Horace Mann, Teachers’ Institute; six States reported a preference for Teachers’ Association; four use the term Teachers’ Meeting; and three States designate the organiza- tion as the Teachers’ Conference. One State, only, reported the term Teachers’ Convention. Units of administration—The county unit of organization and adminis- tration is the most common form, being employed in thirty-four States, three States employ township units for meeting and administration, five States maintain only the annual State convention of teachers, one State alternates district (or State) meetings in the odd-numbered years with the State-wide meeting in the even-numbered years, and one State employs the State sectional meeting. Attendance—Of the thirty States requiring institutes by law, twenty- six require attendance on the part of teachers, and of the eight States recom- mending the institute as a worthy agency, three require the attendance of all teachers for certification and renewal of certificates. In thirteen States teachers are permitted to exercise volition with regard to attendance. Character of programs—In a day of extreme specialization and depart- mentalization of the teaching practice it is to be expected that the character of work provided by the institute program will be of a differentiated nature if it is intended to serve as more than an opportunity for social integration, but the reports indicate that of the entire group only sixteen States provide differentiated programs for the trained and untrained attendants; in all other States only programs of a general character and interest prevail. It appears, then, that this practice justifies one of the current objections made to one phase of the institute conduct. It is ever difficult to enlist the sustained interest and attention of teachers to a prolonged meeting based on generalizations. ‘The educational field is so weighted with specific problems requiring attack that it would seem easy to meet one of the ob- jections commonly made to the character of the institute program by mak- ing provision for the consideration of problems of a more special nature for at least a half session each day. It may not, however, be amiss at this point to urge the greater democratization of elementary teaching through the joint meeting of grade and rural teachers in a coéperative deliberation of the problems common to the Nation’s elementary schools at large, re- gardless of urban versus rural situations. We need concerted effort to obliterate the social cleavages drawn even in the teaching profession; the 1144 NaTIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION bh nS SSS ss welfare of the profession depends now upon the elimination of lines of differentiation in professional as well as in social status. Maintenance of institutes—Among the various plans for financing these professional gatherings, eleven State departments maintain the entire ex- pense of their promotion; five States require the teachers of the State to defray the expense of instruction by payment of fees for this purpose and by the utilization of portions of certification fees; six States maintain the cost of these training agencies. by county board appropriations; eighteen States combine support from the State departments of education, county board appropriations, and teachers’ fees. Instructional staff—The corps of instructors are enlisted from all possible sources of professional talent; State universities and colleges, privately en- dowed colleges, State normal schools, high-school superintendents, local supervisors, and demonstration teachers. Of the entire number of States but eight require particular qualification and fitness for the service other than success in teaching. Five States report careful selection of instructors from the practical field, and eight States delegate the entire responsibility for choice of instructors to the initiative of the county superintendents. As a correlative agency engaged in the professional training of teachers, it was expected that a high degree of codperation would be shown between the State normal schools and the county superintendents in their contingent territory, but the replies show that just one half of the States make zo effort to coordinate the interests of the teachers in the field with those of the nearest institution engaged in the special task of creating teaching abil- ity. Herein lies a serious defect. No educational agency in the State should be so sensitive to the immediate needs of teachers in the service as should be the State normal schools. It is a serious criticism of any normal school to be so engrossed in its internal problems as to neglect its profes- sional opportunity to extend generously its best contributions to the com- munities which are ultimately to become its field of support and patronage. Place of the educational expert in the teachers’ institute—The annual local institute is an excellent opportunity for the educational expert’s con- tribution to the solution of practical educational and social problems. With reports, interpretation, and discussion of the current investigations in the field of educational science, the expert may find a fruitful field from which to enlist allies and -aides for the problems of experimentation and investigation. One of the most potent justifications for the annual local convention of teachers lies just in the opportunity which it provides to ac- quaint teachers in service with the year’s development in the field of educa- tional research and professional advancement. Much benefit may come from providing on each institute program a place for the stimulation of interest, even in the rural schools, in problems of experimentation and investigation as a result of sympathetic understanding of what the educa- tional experts are purposing and effecting. Preparation of corps for schedule—TYo the end that instruction in the institutes may be selective and of sufficient uniformity to integrate the out- DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1145 standing educational needs of the State, seven States maintain preliminary schools of instruction for the instructional staff preceding the opening of the institute sessions. At this time State policies are formulated, instruc- tional abilities of the staff are carefully organized, and they are assigned to best meet the assortment of local needs as indicated by county superin- tendents or teachers’ committees. This plan commends itself as an im- mediate facility for improving the quality of instruction afforded by the agency, and it is to be hoped that its merits may be extended to a large number of States. Conductors—Thirteen States report the local county superintendent of schools conductor of the county institute. ‘This presupposes the qualifica- tion of educational scholarship and power to provide professional stimula- tion; eighteen States report the employment of high-priced conductors not always chosen on merits of professional ability and real contribution to the service. Salaries There is much to be said in favor of the leadership of local administrators, supervisors, and successful teachers, as opposed to the em- ployment of silver-tongued enthusiasts from afar. The high salaries paid these officials could often be more wisely spent in the engagement of suc- cessful teachers and supervisors who are really making progress in par- ticular fields) Among the salaries reported for institute conductors the range lies between $10 and $60 per day, while the range for instructors lies between $50 and $100 per week; the discrepancy is manifestly unpro- fessional. Cost of institutes—The cost item of the institutes has been irregularly reported, and it is difficult to estimate even approximately. A few of the outstanding responses only can be included in this brief report. The State of Georgia employs five full-time supervisors at an annual salary of $3000 each, with five assistants at $1500 each, who devote their entire time to institute instruction and supervision ; Arizona appropriates $500 per county for defraying the institute costs ; Indiana estimates the aggregate annual cost of institutes to the State in instructional salaries and teachers’ wages while in attendance approximately $265,000, an expenditure that merits results in educational progress. Cook county, Illinois, has substituted com- munity educational campaigns for institutes of the older type, as a stimula- tion to teachers and the public. One hundred sixty-five community moon- light meetings were held the first week in October, 1920, with Pea: Claxton, F. G. Blair, and A. E. Winship in attendance for the entire cir- cuit of meetings. The estimated cost of this effort to provide impetus to the common schools was $84,600. Thirteen States reported amounts equal to and in excess of $10,000 an- nually expended for the promotion of teachers’ institutes. Any educational agency involving so large an expenditure of capital must assuredly render unmistakable returns on investment or properly be delegated to the profes- sional discard. Season of institutes—Twenty-two States confine their sessions to the fall 1146 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION season, from September to December; nine States have summer sessions usually provided for in connection with summer sessions of the normal schools; one State conducts spring and fall sessions; and one State conducts winter sessions in January and February. The most common length of session reported was from three to five days (twenty-eight States); five States maintain 10-20 day sessions; and eight States hold sessions of but one or two days. The months of August and September were reported as the most favorable time in which to secure expert representatives from the leading educational institutions and as the season least interfering with school attendance. State versus local direction—Twelve State departments report the formulation of the institute programs in the State office and their applica- tion uniformly throughout the State; twenty-one State departments solicit and prefer suggestions from county superintendents and supervisors as to local needs. Only four of the entire number reporting make provision for progressive units of work arranged on the rotation plan and covering several seasons. Intensive work on one or two subjects for one year, with a careful comparison and checking of results in the follow-up work, has much to commend its consideration and is a present deficiency of the insti- | tute work which needs constructive attack. “The three-year schedule of one State concentrated effort on geography, nature study, and their allied arts during the first year; the second year’s institutes spent their entire time on history, civics, and health; and the third year was given over to English and penmanship. ‘This plan effectively meets the criticism so often ad- vanced, lack of unity and singleness of purpose in the character of pro- grams provided for experienced teachers especially. Supervision of institute sessions—Sixteen State departments report some sort of supervision of work done in the institutes. Perhaps in this very lack of leadership and supervision lies one of the serious causes of the insti- tute’s failure to function in the classrooms. Intelligent and codperative supervision could do much to obviate the current criticisms of inadaptability of instruction, failure to meet local needs, lack of organization, and the absence of professional growth. DISTRIBUTION OF DEMAND For INSTITUTES In States In States In States Requiring Recommending Authorizing Total Institute Institute Institute by Law by Law by Law Deniand steady seen ee oe 12 1 2 15 Demand decreasing__________ 8 Z sy 10 Demand increasing__________ 8 5 2 15 It is most interesting to note after the above summary of facts the psychological frame of mind toward the institute on the part of those re- sponsible for the reports. Of the States requiring the institute by law, eight States report the demand increasing, and eight States report the de- DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1147 mand decreasing. In the group of States making the agency possible by law, one State reports the demand steady, five report the demand increas- ing, and two report the demand as decreasing. ‘These facts indicate the teachers’ institute as a training agency of steadily increasing serviceability, a very surprising report in the face of currently expressed criticisms. Teacher participation—In response to the inquiries as to the character and the degree of teacher initiative and participation in the conduct of the institute, the investigation bears out a justification for one of the most fundamental criticisms of the present institute work—namely, that teacher participation in the definition of aims, purposes, activities, and achievements has been of minor character. Eight States report participation on the part of local teachers in the consideration of time and place of meeting and in the suggestion of problems for attack. Seven States indicate that local teachers have opportunity to express a choice as to instructors and the nature of the problems to be considered; thirteen States report some form of committee activity of a sort, but no State specifies the organization of committees for the investigation of curriculum problems, the standardiza- tion of materials and methods, interpretation of standard test and measure- ment results or consideration of the professional problems. ‘The vital above problems makes’ them worthy of intensive consideration and the character of the above problems makes them worthy of intensive considera- tion by the teachers themselves as the agents most intimately concerned with their adoption and development. Obviously, the absence of teacher responsibility and participation in these respects has greatly affected the desultory application of the fundamental principles developed during the session, for from few sources did we receive commendable reports on the character and quality of follow-up results of the institute work. Twenty-five States reported some demonstration teaching in the institute by local teachers, which is a most encouraging type of local initiative. Teacher contributions to entertainment features of the program and to exhibitions of local school products were the most generally reported forms of participation. DISTRIBUTION OF FREQUENCIES IN TYPE OF TEACHER INITIATIVE AND PARTICIPATION IN INSTITUTE ACTIVITIES Assistance in preparation of program_---------------------------- 13 Choice of time and place of session-_----------------------------- 8 OT CeRE AGEL UIC LOLS eon ae ee a eg ee i 7 Discussion of problems involved in program_---~-~---------------- yh Demonstration teaching _------------------------------------- 25 Entry and exhibit of school work_------------------------------- 25 Entertainment of institute attendants_-_-___---------------------- 28 Committee organization [functions not specified ]_------------------ is Committee investigation and reports on curriculum and standardization. 0 The need for educational publicity was never greater than at the present time when new social policies are in the shaping. Yet the inquiry concern- 1148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ag NUP NN oS et ing the convention of school officers and parent associations in conjunction with the teachers’ institute brought a distinctly negative reply. Eleven States, only, provide for joint meetings of teachers, parents, and school officers once during the year, preferably at the time of the institute session ; thirty-four States have made no effort to this effect, but thirty-six States enthusiastically affirmed the feasibility and the possible advantages of such coéperative meeting annually. We need concerted good-will, sympathetic understanding, and joint action on the part of all the patrons and citizens interested in the welfare of the cause of common education in America. Functions of institute rated—The study made provision for securing a definition of the fundamental character of the work now being undertaken by the institutes. "The comparative ratings of the six most commonly accepted functions rated by forty State administrations arrange themselves in the following descending evaluations: (1) To give instructions in methods of teaching; (2) to inspire professional idealism; (3) to develop esprit de corps; (4) to provide local administrative and supervisory forces with opportunity to promote and unify local plans for the educational program of the year; (5) to acquaint the local teaching body with the progressive tendencies in elementary education as shown by the scientific investigation of educational leaders; and (6) to give instruction in subject matter. TasLe I1—Functional Distribution Scale | Mid- z 2M 3 4 5 6 score 1. Instruction in subject matter.............. Bu seis | Qe et aan eS 2. Instruction in special methods............ 1109) 5 3 5 1 ANY 3. Unification of administrative and super- | VISOTY GDL ANS: eps tages ah ois/epeenesonsuscotysleuenesuesia 7 5 7 Ge 4 Pee ot 4. Development of esprit de corps........... 6m) LOM or Ser om alomeeee eS 5. Acquainting teachers with results of scien- tific progress in education.............. On 5 4d) Gl ele i 4a 6. Inspiration of professional idealism....... AGES eer 6.)0 41s daly 250 It is interesting to observe that, with the exception of the emphasis given to instruction in special methods of teaching, the original functions of the institute—namely, of actual instruction in subject matter and stimulation to self-improvement, have given way to the more ephemeral functions of inspiring to idealism and development of esprit de corps. Granted that professional idealism and esprit de corps are prime essentials in any pro- gram for educational progress, the comparatively high value set upon their functional character clearly affords a justification for one of the most outstanding criticisms of the present organization of the teachers’ institute: its failure to function in practical results in the classroom. Constructive suggestions—Among the vital suggestions offered for the DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1149 improvement of the institute, none appear more important than one calling for the reorganization of the type from that of the Chautauqua to one more nearly resembling a school of investigation and study of local needs and problems. Corresponding to this suggestion for reorganization of type is that of making the occasion a time and place to federate professional and civic interests for the definition of local educational problems, discus- sions of possible solutions, and for practical standardization of results. The brevity of the present institute sessions, from three to five days in most of the States, and its inherent lack of organization for attack on real problems of local character, permit an attitude of non-participating passivity on the part of teachers which too often precludes the hope of productive returns from the session in actual schoolroom practice. Its present tendency to operate on a level of inspirational and emotional appeal does not guar- antee intensive follow-up attacks on problems of classroom instruction and management. The institute should assume the function of organizing local teacher initiative for more purposeful attention and effort on curriculum building, consideration of the more vitalized methods of teaching, such as the problem and project methods, and the extension of possibilities for professional growth through organization of local groups for study and the discussion of specific problems. In the concluding query as to whether the teachers’ institute as an in- service training agency is worthy of continuation and on the whole pro- fessionally justified, thirty-two State administrators responded affirmatively and seven responded negatively. ‘This proportion would indicate that the institution still maintains some element of service to the profession. “The heavy draft made upon the teaching force in the time of war has seriously delayed the day of higher standards of professional qualifications for rural and elementary teachers everywhere, and the necessity for continuation of the institute as a temporary in-service training agency, however inadequate, is evidenced above. A STATE PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION JOHN M. FOOTE, STATE SUPERVISOR RURAL AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FOR LOUISIANA, BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA Under the leadership of the State Department of Education, Louisiana is now inaugurating and executing a program of instructional supervision. The movement had its beginning several years ago, but only within the last three years has it made definite progress. The great majority of the supervisory officers and teachers are now taking part. A brief statement of the purposes of the program, the activities which it embraces, and the means by which results are being insured may be of service to those who are daily confronted with problems that arise out of supervision. ‘The importance 1150 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of formulating such a program for the guidance of supervisory officers and teachers cannot be too strongly emphasized. . ADMINISTRATIVE AND INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION DISTINGUISHED There are two kinds of supervision commonly practiced over the country; first, that which is primarily administrative in character, and second, that which has to do with instruction. ‘The first provides the facilities for education, exercises general control over the school system, and sees to it that the schools operate under reasonably favorable conditions. “The second is concerned directly with the teaching performance and the conditions af- fecting it. It deals with teachers, pupils, the course of study, and the activi- ties that grow out of the classroom work. ‘The purpose is to improve in- struction. Administrative supervision is as old as American education; instructional supervision is yet in its infancy. ‘The first has well-developed standards of excellence, while the second is still in the formative stage. Administrative supervision usually receives attention because it is more obvious, is easier to execute, and is more spectacular. Instructional super- vision is more specific, requires more intensive study, greater technical skill, and a more intimate knowledge of child life, of subject matter, and of instruction. INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION Purpose—It is recognized that the purpose of instructional supervision is to secure efficient results in the classroom. ‘The realization of this aim requires (1) the maintenance of standards of instruction on a level with the best prevailing practice; (2) such interpretation and application of the course of study as will insure to every pupil the opportunity of securing a well-balanced education; (3) directing the work of teachers so as to carry out the educational policies adopted by the school board and the superin- tendent; (4) providing opportunities for the further education and pro- fessional growth of teachers in service. Success in the attainment of these essentials depends upon the supervisor doing three things: (1) Becoming a thorough student of subject-matter, methods of teaching, and classroom requirements; (2) centering his work around the teaching performance; and (3) recognizing that he exists solely for the benefit of the teachers and pupils under his direction. The cooperation of teachers—The first important objective in instruc- tional supervision is the enlisting of the hearty codperation of the teaching staff. A sympathetic, intelligent, and helpful attitude is absolutely essential for success. Sympathetic understanding and wholesome cooperation must prevail on both sides. ‘Teachers should be led to realize at the outset that the supervisor visits the schools for the purpose of helping the teachers and that the interests both of teachers and supervisors are identical—namely, the improvement of classroom instruction. The supervisor makes his con- tribution to the education of the children mainly through the teachers and should enter freely and sympathetically into their daily problems so that the DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 151 combined efforts of teachers and supervisors will prove effective. The en- tering wedge that will secure the enthusiastic codperation of the coldest and most indifferent teacher is the actual teaching of the class, the giving of a test, or the engaging in some live schoolroom activity by the supervisor who will then invite the teacher, after the dismissal of the pupils, to enter into a discussion of the particular objects attempted in the classroom. When a spirit of mutual understanding and effective codperation has been established between supervisor and teacher in the instruction of children then, and only then, can substantial results in instructional supervision be accomplished. The course of study—Responsibility for interpreting and applying the course of study so as to satisfy the needs of the children being educated devolves upon the supervisor. He is to Some extent responsible for the organization of the course of study. Assuming that the course is a sound educational document, that it contains materials and methods of instruc- tion in keeping with the best thought and practice of modern authorities, and that the references for teachers and children are carefully selected, it be- comes at once a most valuable instrument for use as a basis for supervision. Supervision on an objective plane—Scientific studies in education have progressed far enough for supervision to be raised from the realm of opinion and casual observation to the plane of objective measurement. Instruc- tional supervision can at least be based on the results of educational and mental tests, supplemented by age-grade studies. The first factor de- termines the results of instruction in comparison with established standards, diagnoses class and individual needs, and may be used to determine the the value of particular methods of procedure; the second ascertains the mental age which may be used as a means of determining the promotion and classification of pupils; and the third shows the rate of progress of pupils through the grades in comparison with the expected progress. It is essential that supervisory officers measure the efficiency of their schools in terms of known standards. In doing this the results of the achievement tests and the age-grade data are the two most significant factors. The recitation period—The time-honored recitation characterized by multitudinous questions, brief or monosyllabic answers, and meager prepara- tion by the teacher must yield to the review-assignment-study-test recitation. This type of recitation places emphasis on very definite assignments, directed study, and testing to determine whether the lesson assigned has been mas- tered or not. The recitation period should be a learning period. Demonstration teaching—The supervisor is expected to become thoroughly familiar first, with the content and organization of the several subjects taught, and second, with the best prevailing practice in teaching these subjects. With this background he should proceed to give in the presence of teachers demonstration lessons. These lessons should illustrate the organization of the material and the best methods of presenting it. No other activity is so effective in developing in the teaching staff the teaching procedure desired by the supervisor. It is not necessary that such lessons P1152 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION be model or perfect, but they should be carefully planned and should demonstrate the use of well-organized material presented in accordance with the proper methods of teaching that apply to the subject taught. Teachers’ meetings—The county institute or group meeting of teachers is a means of improving teachers in service that has been commonly used for many years. Its effectiveness has been very much lessened because of the emphasis upon theoretical discussions too far removed from the actual teach- ing process. A marked change is taking place in the programs of the teachers’ meetings. ‘The “high brow’ academic, stilted type is being sup- planted by the kind that centers around the material to be taught and the best method of presenting it. For example, a two-day institute may devote practically all of its time to the subject of reading, another to super- vised or directed study, another to spelling, and so on, Such meetings are now the rule. Teachers fully approve programs of this kind, because they offer definite help in doing better teaching. ‘The teachers’ institute when so conducted becomes an effective means for improving instruction. Directed reading—The supervisor may make a valuable contribution to his primary purpose by directing the reading and study of his staff along the lines that bear directly on his program for supervision. ‘To do this successfully, requires more than a professional library in the superintendent’s office and carefully prepared bibliographies. “These are necessary, it is true, but the need of self-improvement through directed reading must be brought closer home to the teachers. Raise questions that must be answered. Create situations that require reading before they can be solved. Occasionally tell a teacher frankly her method or practice is erroneous and then tell her where to find a full treatment of the subject, or, better still, place a book or magazine directly in her hands giving the necessary information. Teachers will study and read when they are placed in situa- tions that demand help; otherwise, the majority will not. “The need of such activity by the teacher must arise from the work of the supervisor. Many of our supervisory officers are proceeding as here suggested with splendid results. Judging the teaching staff—Judging the members of the teaching staff is one of the difficult responsibilities devolving upon the supervisor. So far no emphasis has been placed upon any objective means of arriving at judgments. ‘Training, education, growth, personality, conduct, general teaching ability, et cetera, have been and are still the factors that govern in forming this judgment. Score cards and the measured results of in- struction have been used to a limited extent as a basis for judging teachers. While fully recognizing the merits of score cards and educational tests we must raise serious questions as to the advisability of using either or both for judging teachers. Any supervisor who does so systematically will have but little time for more urgent duties. Educational tests should be used to measure the achievement of pupils, teaching situations, and the like. Their use as a measure of teachers would interfere seriously with this primary purpose. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 158 These principles and activities constitute the State program of instruc- tional supervision adopted for guidance in 1919. Under the direction of the State Department of Education, these factors have been emphasized during this period. Fortunately, our school machinery is centralized in two units, the parish and the State. This is a condition that admits of the adoption and rapid execution of any educational program that may be agreed upon. Summary of accomplishments—Summarizing the accomplishments in terms of the activities employed, they may be pointed out as follows: 1. Teachers and supervisory officers codperate fully. 2. A new course of study has been prepared and is in use. In this work supervisors and many teachers took part according to their abilities. It represents an effort to place in the hands of teachers a document containing the best material, method, and bibliographies bearing upon the several subjects taught. 3. The effort to place supervision on an objective basis has progressed to such a point that supervisory officers hesitate to talk of the accomplish- ments of their schools in terms of personal judgment. Instead, they refer to the standing of their schools as measured by this or that test. “Tests are now commonly used over the State to measure classroom results. Ed- ucational and mental tests must be given high rank in our plan for super- vising schools. Nothing is quite so stimulating as an interpretation of the results of a test. It places the teacher and pupils in a situation where excuses are useless—as a result, they work zealously to meet the objective standard set. 4, No activity in the schools is bringing such pronounced results in the improvement of instruction as the demonstration of good teaching through demonstration lessons. Under the leadership of the members of the De- partment of Education, many of the supervisory officers over the State are now giving demonstration lessons in the presence of teachers. Such lessons are carefully planned and usually represent sound pedagogy and well- organized material. Our experience proves that the demonstration lesson is effective in breaking down the barriers of suspicion and prejudice often exhibited by teachers. It commands respect and attention, it wins sympathy and confidence. It invites the teachers to join in constructive criticisms ; it stimulates and directs them into a more thorough study of the problems they are constantly meeting. 5. The inspirational, theoretical, “‘salt-and-pepper” institute has been supplanted by the type whose programs are built around the materials and methods of the several subjects taught. 6. Under the stimulus of this program and the suggestion of selected bibliographies, supervisory officers are now readers of several of the best National journals and many of the best books of recent publication. Many teachers are following their lead. 7. Supervisory officers are not encouraged to use any objective method 1154 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in judging teachers. “The time may come later when methods of this kind can be recommended. Who are the supervisory officers and why can the educational forces of a whole State become actively engaged in the execution of a program in so short atime? First, the leadership of the State Superintendent is wise and forceful and his assistants are very active in field work over the entire State in carrying out the policies of the Department. Second, the parish super- intendents and supervisors, a competent, trained group of school people, have accepted the program and are energetically and enthusiastically en- gaged in its execution. Experience has demonstrated that organizing and presenting a program for the guidance of the school interests is essential to the success of instruc- tional supervision on a State-wide basis. A supervisor without a program has no point of departure and no destination. TRAINING SUPERVISORS FOR RURAL SGHOOLS W. S. DAKIN, REGIONAL SUPERVISOR, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT The history and present status of supervision training can be disposed of in a few words. A study of conditions and facilities in leading educa- tional training institutions throughout the country indicates that beyond a few elective courses in supervision no concerted effort to train for rural school work is being made. One school director even disputes the need for such training in view of the fact that the consolidated school is absorb- ing the one-room districts. Another director states that politically chosen county superintendents have no interest in special training. That there is no demand for this training must be admitted, but know- ing that there are 200,000 one-room schools it must be likewise admitted that not in one generation will their elimination be effected. “The problem facing us today is not that of discussing specific courses of training, but it is rather to adopt an entirely new policy in our campaigns for rural improve- ment. Far too long we have sent into the field leaderless squads of high- school girls. “These immature young persons we have urged to re-direct community life. We have told them that they must liberalize the rural mind; must discipline refractory youth; teach the farmers’ wives to cook and dance; initiate the men into the mystery of crop rotation, and, in general, revolutionize country life. Safely entrenched behind office desks or college walls we have cheered on these brave young teachers. When they failed, we have reinforced them with more bulletins and pamphlets, but nevertheless our long-distance paper barrage could never take the place of actual leadership in the field. This policy of absentee directorship has failed. We must train and put into the field leaders, women as well as men, who can devote their entire time to the field work. Supervision, service training of teachers, public DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION SS education meetings, and conferences must be carried on by properly trained and selected persons in direct contact with parents, teachers, and pupils. According to the best available statistics there are in our United States something over 400,000 rural and village school teachers. Nearly nine million children attend these schools—two million more than in the city. The most optimistic students of educational affairs dare not affirm that 25 per cent of these teachers are under expert educational supervision. When attempted, superyision in these schools is apt to be but a feeble replica of city organization with its plague of paper-work and super-official direction. At least 300,000 of these rural teachers then are under no supervision other than the financial and clerical oversight of county superintendents and district boards of laymen. The best city practice seems to require at least one supervising principal for every twenty or thirty-room building. Frequently he is reinforced by a group of special subject supervisors and an assistant superintendent. Imagine these same twenty or thirty rooms separated and isolated over some seventy-five square miles of open country, and one may have a fair idea of the difficulties of supervision in rural communities. Granting, however, that thirty teachers comprise a supervision unit, it will be seen that to direct these 300,000 rural teachers the services of 10,000 supervisors would be needed at once. To secure candidates and train them is the most urgent problem facing our State education leaders. Propaganda for consolidation, for the elimina- tion of small districts, for higher teachers’ salaries, for improvement of buildings, better health conditions, better attendance, must move slowly, if at all, until there is in the field an active force of trained, non-political educational leaders. Although the law of supply and demand is operative in public education and all other agencies for social improvement, it is sometimes forgotten that the demand frequently must be created. To say that the supply of supervisors will come when there is a demand, and then to sit back and wait will never bring about improvement. Parents and citizens will not realize that supervision increases a teacher’s efficiency twenty to thirty per cent, that it can raise the standard of scholar- ship and lower the retardation of pupils, that it can in a short time increase the general educational level of a community. Citizens will not believe these things until they are demonstrated, but when once convinced they become loyal supporters of supervision and insist upon having it for their schools. Our experience in New England has shown that the people are quick to appreciate skillful direction of schools after it has been tried in their own districts. A source of supervision candidates may be found in the rural teaching corps itself. Abundant material exists if the incentive and the means for training are offered. Supervision of schools by college-trained city men and women will seldom be successful. Such a personnel is never permanent. It has no background of experience. It is inclined toward reproduction of city plans. 1156 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The training of rural supervisors cannot be left to chance, or to the hit or miss possibilities of elective courses in colleges and summer schools; first, because such methods secure the wrong type of person; second, because such training as may be offered is usually unpractical since it is under conditions that preclude the right point of view and adequate practice. The training of public-school teachers is admittedly a function of the State. Just so, the training of public-school supervisors must be a function of the State. ‘The need is too imperative, the conditions too highly special- ized to be left to routine recruiting with no directed training of such officers. The way to start supervision is to begin. Briefly then, it is recommended that States having a large rural population—and what State has not ?— shall start at once an expansion of their rural-school departments and through rural-school inspectors, now usually attached to every State office, select promising candidates and organize courses in field training. When near a university or normal school, extension courses can be utilized and in all instances directed summer courses should be required of beginners. Commence with small groups of promising men and women candidates, grant them nominal salaries and traveling allowance. Working fields can be secured by offering free supervision to communities electing to accept it. Working agreements may be made through county superintendents or through voluntary associations of school district trustees. In this way small groups of contiguous districts can be secured for supervision practice. Dr. Pittman’s experience as described in his “Zone Plan of Supervision” well demonstrates the possibility of supervision under such conditions. Unless the demonstration of supervision is conducted on a plan to permit intensive work, its essential values will not be evident. Far better to have one or two examples of intensive supervision in a county than to have two men acting as assistants to the county superintendent and attempting to spread their services over some two or three hundred schools. As candidates prove capable, they can be certificated and efforts made to induce adjacent districts to form supervision units. State aid, where pos- sible—as in Massachusetts one half, and in Connecticut, Vermont, and New Hampshire the entire salary—will depend on circumstances. Experi- ence has shown that once a few of these districts have been successfully established and sufficient publicity given to the work many parts of the State will ask for supervision and will be willing to pay for it, thus starting a demand that will soon attract candidates and establish supervision as a constantly growing force for educational betterment. A further result has been the willingness of towns in supervised areas to seek and support larger and larger State aid appropriations. Aim to equalize rural and city conditions. Maine with its State-aided, summer trained leaders; New Hampshire with its full-time, State paid, rural supervisors; New Jersey with its full- time, State paid helping, teachers, not to mention centralized aid in other States, demonstrate the possibility of extending supervision through central management. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION taliy7, Instead of circular letters from the State superintendent, there can be in the field men who can hold meetings in every little schoolhouse and district. Instead of the annual inspection and inspirational tour of a county super- intendent or State inspector there can be house to house canvasses and way- side conferences throughout the year to create sentiment for better teachers, better equipment, and better schools. “Che rural supervisor in the field— his own field where-he is responsible—is the man to create the demand for better things. So much for the general plan. ‘The training of these supervisors must be almost entirely field work. We must assume, of course, as with teachers, a minimum of general education; let us say a full high-school course, and at least two years of college or two years of normal school, and two or three years experience as a teacher in elementary schools. In many places, the standard may be four years of college. During field training, it has been found desirable to have supervisors take advantage of extension courses at nearby university centers. These extension courses together with the summer training courses should preferably be devoted to: (1) General theory of education; (2) educational psychology including measurement ; and (3) economics and sociology. The field work must be organized and directed by the State department. The best agencies for reaching the supervisor are: (1) Frequent district conferences; (2) carefully prepared circulars dealing with the assigned exercises and prescribed field work, including (a) investigation, (4) meas- urement, and (c) reports on specific conditions; (3) courses of professional reading varied according to needs and abilities of individual men; and (4) best of all, personal visitation by the State inspector or his agents in which entire days can be spent with the supervisor visiting schools with him, attending his teachers’ meetings and committee meetings, planning and hold- ing with him educational rallies for parents and citizens. When possible, the supervisor should be given some responsibility from the very first. This can be done by assigning to him, under the direction of the inspector, the supervision of a small group of teachers for whom he must plan the meetings, make regular visitations, and write out notes of criticism and direction. The response of candidates to this training will vary with individuals. A man or woman educated in a rural school and not too far removed from its experience by age, will soon become useful and in a year’s time may take almost entire charge of a district. Even in such cases, direction of his work should continue for at least another year and then, with occasional inspections, he is able to handle a supervision district of from twenty-five to thirty-five teachers. Field training, however, must never be considered as completed. New problems are constantly arising and through conferences, professional read- ings, and assigned studies, with the advice and encouragement of the State department, the rural supervisor will find that his professional growth may continue indefinitely. 1158 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Training of this sort, furthermore, appeals to school patrons. “They realize that it is practical. ‘They have confidence in its responsibility since it is backed by the State department. Such a feeling makes it possible for the rural supervisor to put forward and carry out policies impossible under a plan of isolated, independent supervision where everyone is for himself and no concerted plan can be promoted over a large area. To conclude, first, supervision is the most effective method of starting permanent improvement in rural schools today. Second, its establishment must coincide with the promotion of a concrete program for school better- ment. School improvement is in the hands of the people themselves and only by showing them can they be convinced of its need and induced to incur the necessary expenditures to secure it. Third, the supervisor in the field is the best agency for selling to the people the idea and ideals that mean educational advance. Fourth, among the rural school teachers themselves can be found an adequate supply of candidates if the stimulus for training is offered. Such selection and stimulus would also react favorably on the entire teaching force by giving it a future now found only by going to the city. Fifth, the training of these supervisors must be a State function just as is now the training of teachers. Sixth, most States already have in their department of rural education the organization to start such training courses. Seventh, by small additional appropriations a beginning can be made. ‘The return to the State will be far in excess of the initial cost. A quicker educational return will come from such an appropriation for supervision than would come from an equal amount distributed in any other way. Eighth, this training, with a sound basis of academic prepara- tion, should be largely directed field work supplemented by professional reading and appropriate extension courses. Ninth, the success of a few districts in each State will establish centers from which the demand for supervision will readily spread so that ultimately all rural teachers can have expert direction. Again it must be emphasized that there is an imperative need today for a field force of trained, non-political, long-tenure educational leaders. “The training of these leaders must be carried on by the State. Parallel with this training there must be wide-spread demonstration of the results secured from expert supervision. THE USE OF TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS L. J. BENNETT, SUPERINTENDENT OF MIAMI COUNTY SCHOOLS, TROY, OHIO Miami County, Ohio, is twenty miles square, lies in the fertile Miami Valley in Western Ohio, Troy the county seat which lies in the center of the county, being twenty miles north of Dayton. Piqua and Troy are cities of fifteen and seven thousand, respectively, and are not a part of the system. ‘The county school system comprises three village units and thir- a DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1159 teen rural units, the villages in population being 2500, 2000, and 1600. ‘The largest of these villages has the distinction of being the smallest town of the world to qualify for a Rotary Club, and although a small town, is therefore more urban than rural. Six of the thirteen rural units, or town- ships, are centralized. “The other seven still have one-room schools, although three of them are erecting new centralized buildings. ‘The one- room schools, two of the centralized schools, and one of the villages are under the control of district or assistant county superintendents, devoting their entire time to supervision and administration. ‘The other two villages and four of the centralized schools have local superintendents whose duties are divided between teaching supervision and administration. ‘Thus the county superintendent in charge of these nine local superintendents is a school manager rather than a superintendent of schools. There are still a few folks in Ohio who think the county superintendent’s work is like that of the Irishman who said he had an easy job: Nothing to do but carry bricks up three ladders all day long, while another fellow on top of the wall did all the work. So much for the organization of the particular County used in this discussion. There is nothing new about testing and measuring school work. The pioneer teacher had his own standard of measurement which usually con- sisted of finding out when a pupil had finished a book and promoting him to the next higher one.. Thus we once had promotion by readers, a child being in the first reader, later in the second reader, and so on. With a fine gradation of work, this system was replaced by the old-fashioned examination and this finally supplemented by close supervision. The latest development is the coming of the standard test, which attempts to measure, scientifically, certain fields of activities as well as the original’ ability of the children. Standard tests, of course, are of two kinds: the intelligence test and the so-called educational test. ‘The intelligence test is more interesting but less useful and is certainly harder to give than the average edu- cational test. The intelligence test often serves as a basis of reclassifica- tion of pupils, but is generally dangerous to use in this way except in con- nection with other factors, which must be taken into consideration, such as not only a pupil’s ability to do his work but also his willingness to work and the stage of completion of the work he has been attempting to do. The intelligence test probably does not give very valuable informa- tion about the great group of average children, because these children are already fairly well understood by their teachers, especially those who have been in school two or more years. ‘The greatest value of this test is when given in a first or second grade. ‘The first-grade child is often badly mis- judged by his teacher. Brightness of tongue or backwardness of manner are the usual causes of such misjudgments. The difference in good or bad clothing will often cause the teacher also to make this error. For instance, a child in a grade recently tested was rated by his teacher as be- longing to the lowest quarter of the class. This intelligence test shows 1160 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION that he belongs in the highest quarter and was not far from the top. “The boy was poorly clad, came from a family of humble social standing, and had older brothers and sisters who could not learn. He also was bashful, naturally. When the intelligence test revealed his potentialities, the teacher immediately set out to develop him and at the close of the school year, he stood second in the class in his school work. Such a case is not likely to occur in the upper grades, since the relative brightness and dullness of children sooner or later show through external conditions, although such is not always the case. Primary teachers and teachers of high-school fresh- men, when not acquainted with those freshmen, are often badly deceived by the sociable child and the child who is inclined to volunteer to recite on all occasions. Such a child may be the brightest in the class and again may belong to as low as the second quarter of the class. The intelligence test is the check. Frequently, this kind of child, especially the high-school freshmen, is at first given high grades and a high rating. It is later dis- covered when the written work comes along that the child does not seem to be doing thorough work. Since the child is considered unusually brilliant, the teachers often have recourse to criticism and scolding when as a matter of fact, the child has lived up to his full mental ability. “There is no more discouraging failure than a high-school student who is led to believe he is much brighter than he really is and who finally discovered he cannot do the work which others thought him capable of. The intelligence test given in the eighth grade is the proper check against this sort of disaster. Another use of the intelligence test is in properly locating the extremes of the class. For example, a one-room rural teacher may have had some bright girl in her school for several years. She is well aware that the girl is the brightest in the class and probably brightest in her little school of fifteen or twenty children. She has done practically all the school work assigned. Nevertheless, this teacher does not know how this child is going to be able to carry the burdens of high school or do life’s work, because in so small a school, being the brightest in the class does not necessarily mean much. Intelligence tests often show such children to be more ordinary than they are supposed to be. On the other hand, a bright child in the class is occcasionally found to be more brilliant than anyone could imagine. I well recall the first intelligence test I ever gave. The teacher thought the brightest boy in the class might be promoted to the next grade in the middle of the year. After giving this boy a group intelligence test, and later a Binet-Simon test, we found that this pupil had a mental age prac- tically three years higher than the grade in which he was located. He was at once promoted into the next higher grade and after being there two months, he made the highest grades in the room on written tests. He would show up in the usual age and grade reports as an accelerated child. Asa matter of fact, he was still retarded two years behind his mental age. The intelligence test has revealed to us that we are usually less aware of our extreme cases in the upper end of the scale than in the lower end of the scale. No one knows how many of these geniuses have gone to waste DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EDUCATION 1161 in the past because they were allowed to develop habits of laziness and bad deportment, not having enough work to do to keep them busy. One of the great problems for psychologists and educational administrators is this prob- lem of the abnormally bright child. Merely advancing him in the grades does not offer a satisfactory solution, because in time he gets entirely out of adjustment socially. The dull child who has dropped behind his grade a year or so is generally spoken of as retarded. The intelligence test has shown many of these children to be accelerated when measured by their mental age instead of their physical age. ‘The special training of one or two per cent of humanity, who are the feeble-minded, has been worked out much more elaborately than the training of the other end of the curve—namely, the child of the real genius group. While we have given a number of tests in Miami County Schools for the purpose of diagnosis in troublesome schools, yet no county-wide intelli- gence survey has yet been made, although one is planned for this spring. ‘The tests, so far, made in villages and rural schools have not indicated any relative difference in brightness of children in town and country. Both town and country assume that their own group of people are brighter than the opposite group. When a county-wide intelligence test has been made, there will be some little evidence on this question, which, of course, will hold good only in the county which is surveyed. It is my opinion that the average will be found very nearly the same. Intelligence testing of one- room schools is a slow and difficult process, but the centralized and small town schools can be handled very nicely and the results obtained have been found accurate enough for practical purposes. Here, as in everything else, the centralized school proves its administrative merit. We feel that the intelligence test is necessary in the analysis before an accurate rating of a teacher’s ability from any year’s work can be made. A teacher who has thirteen failures in her grade may yet be a superior teacher who has been too conscientious to promote the subnormal children which she may have found on her hands. ‘Teachers too frequently are rated by the number of promotions and high markings given, or by the smoothness with which they can conduct class when the supervisor is present. We can never have an efficiency quotient for teaching until we are able to determine just how much a teacher can do with a group of pupils with a given mental age and a given intelligence quotient, and even then the rating will not be entirely scientific, because we have no standards for measuring the elements that go to make up character. Usually a good teacher in the intelligence sub- jects is a good character builder. Time will not permit a more extensive discussion of the intelligence tests. We have done much more elaborate work in educational testing and some valuable experience as well as useful information has been ob- tained. Shortly after becoming county superintendent, I tested a number of schools in Fundamentals in Arithmetic, using first Thompson’s Minimum Essentials and later Courtis Series B. All the children in the villages, in 1162 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION the grades from the third to the eighth, were tested, and we ran a selection of one-room rural schools, taking one school in six. All the testing was done by the county superintendent, the papers being graded by the office secretary. [his work involved a frightful amount of driving in the spring of the year and kept the secretary busy for nearly two months grading and tabulating. ‘This method of testing was carried on for three years. Our first discovery was that the county as a whole was considerably. below standard, the village schools, however, being somewhat better than the rural schools. This was a surprise, as the rural school had long borne the reputation of a high grade of efficiency in teaching the fundamental opera- tions and had seemed to be able to demonstrate this fact in the various ciphering matches. It was soon discovered, however, that those neighbor- hoods which attracted the most attention on account of the lightning cal- culators of their schools had uniformly low medians and scores in the fundamental operations. This we discovered to be due to the fact that the ciphering matches overtrained the expert and neglected the average student. The ciphering match in the history of rural education as well as the old spelling school had a virtue in pioneer times of placing emphasis upon a high degree of skill in these studies and showing the possibilities. In modern times, however, this form of contest has become a positive evil, because it almost uniformly neglects the masses and at the same time, camouflages this neglect by advertising its few experts. As a means of entertainment, it is permissible, but it is a poor educational device. We also discovered that there had been a great many promotions in one-room rural schools of children who had never been taught to subtract, but who in many cases ‘had climbed as high as the fifth grade. This gave us a point of contact in our efforts to reduce reckless promotion of children in this type of schools. The mass result of our testing of arithmetic was a gradual improvement, although the county schools, as a whole, never succeeded in reaching the Courtis Standards in speed in all the grades. “The improvement in the one- room schools was much more rapid than in the village schools, the latter apparently inspired with overconfidence as the result of the first test. A number of townships having one-room schools finally passed the Courtis standards successfully. Improvement made in arithmetic, however, was unsatisfactory. In the light of later experience, I believe the difficulty was that neither teacher nor local superintendents took a deep interest in the work. “They were not called upon to give or grade the tests and therefore were inclined to look upon it as a mere stunt on the part of the county superintendent. Consequently, there was not the close study of methods that there should have been in this field. At the time we were testing arithmetic, tests were also given in spelling, using word lists made from the Ayres scale. These tests were conducted by the local superintendents after receiving directions from the county superintendent. The papers were graded by the teacher and the results were: returned to the local superintendents. We soon found that spelling \ DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EDUCATION 1163 Was improving much more rapidly than number work and the schools, above the fourth grade, were soon above standard, while the third and fourth grades were close to it. We discovered some deficiency in our old- time spelling tests, but the best discovery of all was the enthusiasm and will- ingness to take part in this work on the part of the superintendents and teachers when once asked to do so. ‘These earlier testing problems have inspired several local superintendents to carry out tests of their own, which did not interfere with the county program. One school system has worked hard on spelling. ‘The superin- tendent made a syllabus on “Methods of Teaching Spelling” and placed it in the hands of the teachers. “There was little conference work in this school system but the syllabus was expected to be used. Within a single year this school brought its spelling from below standard to above the Ayres Standard. Another superintendent who at first was disgusted with the intelligence test as first used by the county superintendent was glad to see its great value in solving his problem of establishing semi-annual promotions. He has since tested his entire school system, high school and all, and has correlated his work with several tests given by the county super- intendent. ‘The correlations with the county superintendent were found to be quite high. We have several superintendents who have gone to summer school as a result of the showings made in the test, one man to study psychology, another to study measurements of intelligence testing, and a third to study methods of teaching reading. ‘The supervision of these men in particular has been improved in these special lines a hundred per cent. The most elaborate program of testing in the Miami County schools is the work we are now doing in reading. I came convinced that it would be wise to narrow the field to the testing of a single subject and selected silent reading for that purpose. The method of testing used was as fol- lows: Each local superintendent was requested to test his own school system with the tests being given in the same week throughout the county. The papers were to be graded by the teachers, the results tabulated and turned over to the local superintendent, who in turn forwarded a copy to me. This office has been kept quite busy tabulating and interpreting results and reducing them to the form of curves. The first county-wide reading test was given in March, 1920. We found just what we ex- pected, our schools somewhat below standard. Everyone went to work to improve silent reading. The next county-wide reading test was given in March, 1921, just fifty- four weeks after the first had been given. We were slightly below standard in 1920, but in March, 1921, we were much above the standard in every grade. Comparing our figures with some figures given by Kelly, whose test had been used, we found that the Miami County villages were above the first-class cities of Kansas in all grades, and our one-room schools were above a group of one-room schools in Kansas in all but one grade. ‘The general standard for the county, instead of being below as in the previous 1164 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION eS ee aa year, was much above the Kelly Standard in all grades but one and in that erade, the sixth, showed marked improvement and was above standard. The fourth grade of 1921 was 46 per cent better than the fourth grade of 1920. Of course, a different group of pupils were tested, but it was hardly possible that there would be much difference in intelligence in the fourth grades of two consecutive years when spread over the entire county. The third grade, which in each case was taking its first test in Silent Read- ing, showed 30 per cent improvement over the preceding year. “Che median improvement of all the grades was 225 per cent. Needless to say, these results were quite satisfactory. Remember that the effect of growth was not measured, because the score for the sixth grade in 1921 was made by the same group of children who made the score for the fifth grade in 1920. Their score was compared in 1921 with the sixth-grade score for the preceding year made by this group of children. Consequently, the im- * provement was due to superior teaching and this in turn to systematic super- vision of this particular subject. As the result of the reading tests and the supervision following, the lives of over 2700 children have been materially affected for the better. This is the kind of supervision that really pays. Reading is the fundamental subject. A 2214 per cent improvement in the teaching of reading helps all these hundreds of children in all of their other school work except in work which is purely drill. All the content studies and most of the arithmetic have been benefited. Each of the annual tests above described were made by the Kelly Reading Tests. Objection might be made that there is a good deal of carry over from one year to the next, but we believe that such is not the case. First, a repeated questioning seemed to demonstrate that the children did not recognize ever having seen the test before when it was given the second time. In the second place, and what is more important, the third grade in 1921, which had never been tested before, showed a greater improvement over the third grade of the preceding year than any other grade had made excepting the fourth. If there were much carry over, this would not have been true. In the fall and late spring of 1920 and 1921, two forms of the Monroe Reading Tests were also given. One object was to measure the improvement between October and May, due partly to growth, partly to teaching. ‘The Monroe spring test, however, will be used as the basis for comparison with the third form of the Monroe Test which will be given in April, 1922. Last spring Monroe Test was compared with a test given in the city of Pittsburgh at the same time, using the same form of Monroe. We found the Miami County schools to be above the Pittsburgh schools in reading in all grades as measured in comprehension, and in rate in all but two grades. “The Pittsburgh schools have been closely super- vised and are considered among the best cities. We account for this show- ing by the fact that Pittsburgh is testing several subjects annually, while we have narrowed our field to reading alone. Even at that, we feel that our showing is pretty good, for a system that still has a large number of rural one-room schools. A midyear Monroe ‘Test was also given in DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1165 ee Seema GAARA Ullal: POTS Fe eT January of this year. The purpose of this last test was to stimulate interest on the part of the teacher and superintendent, and secondly, to make a diagnosis of individual cases. "The January test found all the villages and part of the centralized schools above standard in the form used. Diagnosis will be placed upon a chart made to illustrate the relative posi- tions of each child in any given’ grade in a given school unit. The position of the child on this chart with reference to the standards for comprehension and rate will show at a glance whether this child is found below standard in rate or comprehension. It will also illustrate the position of those children who are so far above or below standard as to raise the question of reclassification. This chart is made on large cross section paper and hung on the wall of each schoolroom tested in reading. The chart in any given room or grade alone contains the figures of course for that grade or room, together with two primary axes representing standards. Judging from the results obtained in a few of the schools in Pittsburgh where such diagnostic charts were used, we are hoping to make this method a very effective one for the rapid improvement of some of the slower children in reading. So much for Miami County’s program for reading. We expect to keep up our testing at least until the law of diminishing returns shows we are not making any further gains and it may be wise to test annually even after that in order to avoid overconfidence.’ We are well aware that we are not the only people carrying on an extensive testing program. Some of the cities are well equipped in our State with a psychological department for the intelligence tests and with special supervisors for the educational tests. As county superintendent, I have made several discoveries which might be of value to others. First, we have definite proof that the consolidated schools can be made a more effective instrument than the one-room rural school even for the teaching of the traditional subjects. It is not always true that this is the case for it sometimes happens that the building of a new schoolhouse means the neglect of the academic features of the work. In our early testing, we found our centralized schools somewhat poorer than our one-room schools, alike in reading, arithmetic, and spelling. No sooner, however, was the emphasis placed on reading than the chances for close supervision in the centralized schools showed results. The percentage of improvement in the centralized schools from year to year is much greater than in the one- room rural schools. In the second place, our village schools are uniformly better than our rural schools. We have been assuming that this is due to their having been established longer, and hence being better organized. Some of the centralized schools, for example, have children in the upper grades who have spent most of their school life in the one-room rural school, and some of the weaknesses of their past schooling are now showing up. In the third place, I have noticed certain types of superintendents who are more effective in producing results than others. I believe two qualities 1166 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION ee are necessary for really effective supervision: persistence and insistence. Some men insist and make brilliant starts, but later forget all about it. The men who have made the best showings and who are above standards have made reading a subject of supervision in all teachers’ meetings and prepare syllabuses of methods and have made a study of the various silent readers and then put these in the hands of the teachers. - In the fourth place, two of my supervisors of one-room schools are quite different in their ability to supervise schools in this particular subject. One man has some splendid teaching of reading in his schools due to his own efforts. ‘The other man’s reading is not so good, but his showing in the tests seems to be about the same as the other man’s. At first, | was puzzled until I studied the retardation statistics and found that the mysteriously good showing was made by a superintendent who has retardation in his one-room rural schools of 42 per cent. The other man is an extremest in the other way, his retardation being only 20 per cent. With a 20 per cent retardation, it takes a good deal more effort on the part of the teacher and superintendent to make a showing in the standard tests than it does with a 42 per cent retardation. One result of this comparison has been that one superintendent has got busy to reduce his retardation while the other is looking around to see if he hasn’t been too liberal about some of his promotions. Retardation figures, however, must always be taken in con- nection with high-school attendance. A superintendent with the 20 per cent retardation figures sends one third more pupils to high school per capita than the one with the higher figures. Another significant result is in the high scores frequently made by seventh and eighth grades in one- room schools. ‘This is not due to any superior teaching, and is the simple and natural result of elimination of a large number of average children, due to the inefficiency of the one-room school in the lower grades. ‘The effect on the public has been wholesome. We have done a good deal of club work in the rural schools and have the average amount of athletics. We found when we began testing reading and talking about results in the press that many people were surprised to know that the modern schoolman paid any attention to anything so old-fashioned as reading. The result was renewed confidence in the schools. Various local superintendents whose results are above standard have published these results in the local papers. An effort has been made to demonstrate to the public by means of the standardized tests that the schools actually are improving in their academic work from year to year. In conclusion, a word of caution. Anyone who has never had any ex- perience with standard tests should not take them too seriously. “The in- telligence test score for instance, of any particular child tested by a group test may be wide of the mark. ‘This is especially true of low scores. No intelligence test should be given without the teacher’s estimate of the child, as a check against the major errors of this kind. ‘These misleading low scores are generally due to illness of the child. When the score is un- usually high, it is more reliable, as there is practically no chance at all DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1167 — of a pupil getting nearly everything by guesss. Where children are reclassified by the basis of the intelligence score, the extremes of the class should be checked by the original Binet-Simon test. If there is no time for this then there ought not be a great deal of re-classification. A superin- tendent sometimes rates teachers on the basis of an intelligence test, but this is often quite unfair. It makes a great deal of difference as to who gives an educational test, as to the condition of the atmosphere, of the school- . room, and in the third place, the relative intelligence of the child sometimes varies remarkably from one grade to another. If intelligence scores and educational scores in several subjects are compared, then some rating of the teacher might be possible, but even then the work of the preceding teacher must be taken into consideration. Another caution: A superintendent should not attempt too large a program or he will find himself so involved in red tape in competition that his results will not show at all in a school- room. Another caution: One should not assume too much about an in- telligence test. The brightest child will not necessarily be the biggest success, because character, good health, and future opportunity will all complicate the situation in the future. People who have had no experience in testing are likely to assume that some of us who do this work are freaks. As a matter of fact, scientific measurement has a tendency to make one cautious about making up his mind hastily about individual cases. Many persons perhaps ought not attempt to do testing if it will jar their peace of mind. ‘The test is a useful instrument only in the hands of that type of superintendent who first wants to know what is actually being done and in the second place, who wants some sort of proof that he is doing something in the academic field. If used by such a man with such a fundamental purpose, tests will be found to be invaluable aids in the super- vision and improvement of schools, whether urban or rural. REAL SUPERVISION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS J. S. HOFFMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF HUNTERDON COUNTY SCHOOLS, FLEMINGTON, N. J. The objective of real supervision is the training of teachers in service. To approximate this objective, helpful constructive supervision must reach each individual rural teacher in a very personal way so as to magnify in her own mind the importance of her opportunity for service, stimulate growth in the art of teaching, establish standards to measure her own growth through pupil accomplishment, evaluate her inner resources, and arouse such latent power as she may possess into a dynamic force whose influence may have an appreciable effect upon the children committed to her care. The one-teacher rural school offers the very finest field for teacher train- ing in service. ‘There is less rigidity and more opportunity for flexibility 1168 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in organization than can be found in the exacting machinery of a closely graded system. Herein lies a virgin field for experimentation that should attract the real supervisor who is imbued with the idea and spirit of pur- poseful activity. The opening of this field for the type of supervision suggested is largely an administrative problem, and is dependent upon professional organiza- tion, and the freedom of the supervisor from lay control. The average rural community is either indifferent to progress in educa- tional training or passively satisfied with inherited and established conditions and the good school keeper is as highly appreciated as the good school teacher. Rural teacher growth depends upon administration, supervision, and the individual teacher. All must codrdinate for best results, and each must recognize the presence and importance of the other two factors. Wise ad- ministrators and supervisors know that the ultimate result of their ideals and plans must reach the child through the teacher who is in intimate and constant contact with him. New Jersey’s system of real rural supervision had its. beginnings with the administration of the late Doctor Calvin N. Kendall as State Commis- sioner of Education. During the first five years, with the rural school and the rural child uppermost in mind, he created, organized, and put into operation, through democratic policies, a strong and effective organization and welded it into a unit by his striking personality and zeal. This was accomplished through numerous conferences of city and county superintendents, supervising principals, and by the publication of mono- graphs on elementary-school subjects embodying the very best method and practice of the day. He sent his elementary and high-school assistants throughout the entire State visiting schools, holding teachers’ conferences, and addressing community gatherings; magnified and dignified the office of the county superintendent ; made personal visitations with them to lonely isolated sections of the State; fixed the impress and magnetism of his stimu- lating personality and leadership upon pupil, teacher, and county superin- tendent. He was always a constructive critic—saw something good everywhere, but always left the impression “‘there is still more to be done.” He surrounded his appointees—assistant commissioner and county super- intendent—with conditions that make for growth. Then came the opportunity to attach this strong power to its load and with the same masterful leadership he welded the connecting link—real rural supervision under the title of Helping Teacher. The best test of a policy lies in the results it produces. When these can be seen they afford an easy and interesting way of judging its merits. Con- crete explanations of helping-teacher supervision and its results followed. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1169 THE CURSE AND CURE OF THE COUNTY SUPERIN TENDENCY ELLEN B. MCDONALD, OCONTO, WISCONSIN The curse of the county superintendency is threefold: It is not a profes- sion; it is the football of politics; its horizon is limited to one county. ‘The county superintendency is not a profession but a clerical job. The county superintendent still sits at his desk making reports to the State Department of Education, to the County Board of Supervisors, to the State Department of Health, to the Rural Planning Committee, to the Agri- cultural Committee, to the Committee on Common Schools, to many and varied other authorities. “The schools cry out for help, for inspiration, for guidance; the members of the school boards need a friendly word of advice or a suggestion for specific help, but the superintendent has no time to help or even to discover the need. A well-trained clerk could make far better reports in less time and set the superintendent free for the field work so sorely needed. As it is, he becomes a mere inspector of the schools; he “forms an opinion of the teacher’s work” instead of discovering the cause for her weakness and training her for better work while she is yet in the field. He has no time to study his field as a whole, nor to see its relation to, or difference from the work of the city schools, nor to the schools of the State or Nation. “Then because of his limited vision, his schools do not move forward, do not fit the boys and girls for the life they must lead. “Where thefe is no vision, the people perish.” The county superintendency is still the football of politics. “That the State and the county superintendent, the one at the head, the other at the bottom of the educational ladder, are still chained to the wheel of politics, is strange. No progressive city would for a moment think of permitting its educational head to be chosen at a general election, ‘They are too vitally concerned with the welfare of their children, and too wide-awake to the dangers of the system to even consider it again. Wisconsin recog- nized this danger but compromised by changing the time of election from the fall or general election, to the spring or municipal election—“taking it out of politics,” they said. We need not go into detail as to why a superintendent should not be chosen at a popular election. ‘The reasons are well known. If it is not well for the city, it is surely not well for the country where the majority of electors are not informed as to the needs of education—sometimes not even as to the need at all; nor has he the vision of what education may do for a rural community. He is concerned with wrestling a living from the soil and votes to “keep taxes down” if he is told which vote will do that. The superintendent who wants to hold his job has his ear to the ground for the voice of the elector. He makes no stir, asks for as little as possible for the schools—no texts, buildings, nor better-trained teachers; enforces no compulsory education laws; becomes a spineless creature rather than 1170 NatioNAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION one who walks erect with a vision of what the country school may be and do for the country boy and girl. Does the picture appeal to a live red- blooded American? Think you he will be attracted towards the office of county superintendent of schools? To win the election, stand not on a platform of, “Tet us do the best we can for the boys and girls of today, for they are the men and women of tomorrow.” Take rather, “What was good enough for our fathers is good enough for our children,” or better yet, “Millions for good roads but as little as possible for good schools.” Preach that tax economy begins at home with the schools where every vote can really count to lower taxes. Because the tax burden was heavy and the above policy followed, there was a turn-over in the county superintendency of Wisconsin alone, of 32 per cent last spring. ‘That is greater than the teacher turn-over, ap- palling as that was. Business is alarmed at a turn-over of far less than that, and would call in experts at once to find the cause. We know both the cause and the remedy. The third curse of the county superintendency is that the field of choice ‘5 limited to residents of the county. This shuts out desirable candidates who have had experience in other counties, and it results in putting in in- experienced men whenever a change is made. No matter how valuable nor how well-recognized the service a superintendent may have given in one county, if he loses out in election, he must give up that particular work ‘1 which he won such rich experience and enter some other form of educa- tional work. Think you that this blind door will attract or hold well prepared, experienced young educators? Add to this that under the elective system the salary cannot be increased while in office, but that the county board must increase the salary before an election, if at all, and you have a final reason why the county superintendency is filled with inexperienced ambitious young people who lose out after a term or two, or with the edu- cational politician who runs a farm or sells insurance or real estate between the making of reports. The cure? It is not far to seek. Provide a county board of education in every county. Give it power to appoint the county superintendent from an unlimited field, going wherever they must to get the man with breadth of vision, rich qualifications, and practical experience needed ; let them equip and organize the office for effective administration and supervision of the schools. In a word, let them hire, fire, and pay the county superin- tendent. Then unafraid and zealous for his work; calm in the assurance that if well done, it will be recognized; and believing that it is the most important educational field, the county superintendent works on building up the real bulwark of the Nation, the country school. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION ahve THE COUNTY UNIT OF HIGH SCHOOL CONSOLIDATION A. F. HARMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF MONTGOMERY COUNTY SCHOOLS, MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA If the progress of consolidation of schools in Montgomery County is interesting, it is due to a combination of circumstances, which cannot be set out in detail in this discussion. Suffice it to mention them cursorily. Those of you who come from sections of the country where a different order prevails, perhaps will be interested most in the fact that our progress has been accomplished with the county as the urlit of organization in the administration of public education in accordance with the laws of Alabama. The county being the unit of organization, our educational affairs are directed by a county board of education, consisting of five members elected by the people from the county at large. This board is an all-powerful body performing such functions as the election of their chief executive officer, known as the county superintendent of education, whom they may select from any place in the United States; selecting trustees of very limited powers, and fixing their terms of office; apportioning and expending State, county, and district funds; and initiating county and school district tax elections. Under this county unit plan, the county superintendent, according to the confidence he can command and the codperation he can obtain from his county board of education, becomes a more or less powerful official. The average Alabama superintendent will tell you that he is the storm center of all the ill educational winds that blow, or the harbor into which all good educational ships must some day sail. He formulates educational policies for the county; prepares and submits to his board for approval a building program for the county; nominates to the board his assistants, supervisors, clerical force, principals, teachers, transportation force, and janitors; selects textbooks when not in violation of the State Uniform Textbook Law; formulates courses of study, and performs many other functions of a similarly important nature. The County unit of organization was perfected with the adoption of the Alabama School Code in the year 1919. The consolidation of schools in Montgomery County may be interesting because of the rapidity with which the work has been done. With the exception of three suburban schools near the capital city, as recently as the year 1917, not one school of more than three teachers existed in the entire county. ‘There was not one brick structure for school purposes. More than fifty one and two-teacher schools, pitiable beggars, constituted the county’s establishment for the education of white children. School equip- ment was wofully lacking. Sanitation received little or no attention. The schools were absolutely without supervision. ‘These facts must be kept in mind to appreciate the progress of consolidation in Montgomery County, under the county unit of organization. 1172 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION The consolidation of schools in Montgomery County may be interesting because of the sparseness of the population, and consequently, because of the territory served and to be served by our consolidated schools. In the year 1920, in Montgomery County outside the city of Montgomery, a ter- ritory of approximately 781 square miles, there were but 4697 white persons over the age of 21 years or six persons per square mile. At the same time in the same territory, there were but 3020 white persons of school age, (minors over the age of six years) or four white persons of school age per square mile. ‘The uniqueness, if not the difficulty, of our problem may be understood by the fact that our largest high school with an enrolment of 246 pupils serves a territory of more than three hundred square miles, that another school: with an enrolment of 241 pupils serves a territory of two hundred square miles, and that none of the schools now in operation or to be put into operation in September of this year will serve a territory of less than one hundred square miles. Consolidation under the foregoing difficult conditions would have been a thing impossible in Montgomery County but for a magnificent system of public highways consisting of 750 miles of improved roads, 500 miles being graded and graveled and passable every day in the year regardless of the weather. The perfect harmony and unity of effort between the County Board of Revenue and the County Board of Education in the laying out, development, and upkeep of roads as a part of the county’s educational scheme is an interesting contribution to education under the county unit of organization. Consolidation in Montgomery County may be interesting because of the completeness of the job. In September of this year, fifteen schools will ‘provide ample accommodations for all the white children of the county and leave us a period of approximately five years for developing the schools from the more technical or professional point of view. Of these fifteen schools, three will be elementary schools (six grades) employing two teach- ers; four will be elementary schools (six grades) employing three teachers; five will be combination elementary and junior high schools employing from six to eleven teachers each; and three will be combination elementary, junior and senior high schools employing from twelve to sixteen teachers each. Commencing in the year 1917, with practically nothing but fine children and excellent roads we believe that the rapidity and the complete- ness with which our consolidations have been perfected would have been impossible but for the county unit of organization. Some figures may serve to illustrate and emphasize the importance of our undertaking. On July 1, 1920, there were in Montgomery County, three substantial consolidations, one a suburban property estimated to be worth $30,000; one a school in the open country representing an investment of more than $90,000; and one ‘a school in the open country representing an investment of $130,000. ‘These schools are monuments to the vision, energy, and effort of my distinguished predecessor, Honorable William F. Feagin. On May 10, 1921, the county being the unit of organization and DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EpucaTION tis the electors of the city of Montgomery participating, voted to issue bonds to the amount of $300,000 for the erection of rural, consolidated schools. The funds arising from this bond issue are now being used in the erection of five consolidated school buildings ranging in cost from $45,000 to $100,000, not including value of lands or equipment. But recently the County Board of Revenue has made an appropriation of $62,000 from the general treasury (not school treasury) of the county, $15,000 each for two small rural schools and $32,000 for an addition to a suburban school. In order to provide an adequate addition to this suburban school, representing an investment of $50,000, the County Board of Education has appropriated $20,000 from funds in its control. On October 31, 1921, the County Board of Education let the contract for an addition to one of the schools erected in the year 1918, this new addition representing an investment of $33,000. These buildings, including the smaller projects, occupy sites ranging from ten to eighty-three acres. During the scholastic year, October 1, 1921, to September 30, 1922, the Montgomery County Board of Education in coéperation with the Montgomery County Board of Reve- nue will have completed five major projects, two minor projects, and two substantial additions to present . buildings, which, including lands and equipment will represent an investment of $500,000, conservatively esti- mated. Based on. the entire school establishment for the county we have an investment of $250 for each person of school age. ‘To appreciate the significance of these figures, it must be further understood that the total assessed valuation of property in Montgomery County amounts to only $48,000,000 with assessments of approximately $17,000,000 against prop- erty lying in rural districts. ‘To assist in completing and perfecting the consolidated school organiza- tion in Montgomery County, the people of School District No. 2, consti- tuting all that part of the county not already voting the tax, voted on January third of this year to levy upon themselves a three-mill school tax in addition to all other school taxes then being levied. Considering that the bond election of May 10th prevailed at the very time that the Alabama Tax-Payers League was actively engaged in a campaign to reduce taxes and considering the critical time at which the election of January 3d was held, the depressing financial straits through which the people were passing and the impending $25,000,000 Alabama Road Bond election of January 30th, we believe we have demonstrated in Montgomery County the wisdom and the possibilities of consolidating schools under a county unit system. THE OUTPUT OF PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS FOR TEACH- ERS THAT ENTER THE RURAL SERVICE CHARLES E. BENSON, ACTING DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA, NORMAN, OKLAHOMA The professional schools for teachers have a specific work to perform, that of training teachers for all types of teaching service. Much has been 1174 NationaL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION said and more will be said about the splendid service being rendered by these institutions: of the earnest attempt to solve the problem of supply and demand: of the effort to place in each school and teaching position an efficient and well-trained teacher: but little has been said of the actual success of the institutions in meeting the demands made upon them. This paper has to do with the graduates of professional schools for teach- ers who had completed the two-year curricula beyond high-school gradua- tion before entering the rural field of teaching. The rural school as used in this report is the one-room, two-room, or consolidated school in the open country. The 1920 report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education has the fol- lowing statement: “The rural schools of the country comprise a vast organi- zation. Of the 20,853,516 children enrolled in the schools, 12,266,915 are in the rural schools, with an average daily attendance of 8,788,600, while the cities enroll only 8,586,601 and have an average daily attendance of 6,760,314.” This statement refers to schools in the open country. From these figures it can easily be seen that if there is to be an equity of educational oppor- tunity the rural children are entitled to at least one half of the output of teacher-training institutions. A careful study has been made of a selected group of typical schools that train teachers ‘and it was found that this group of schools graduated in 1910 a few more than 1600 students from the two- year curricula. Of these 9.7 per cent entered rural schools, 28.4 per cent entered village schools, and 41.8 per cent went into city schools. In 1915 nine per cent of the 2353 graduates from the two-year curricula entered the rural service; 36.4 per cent the village schools, and 42.7 per cent went into city schools. In 1920, of the 2079 graduates, only 6 per cent entered rural work, 29.1 per cent entered village schools, and 49.1 per cent went into city schools. These figures are for all types of rural service. At this point it must be noted that in 1920 only 84.6 per cent of the graduates entered any kind of teaching work. A further study was made of the proportion entering one-room rural schools. In 1920 it was found that only 5.2 per cent of the graduates of the selected group of schools entered this type of rural service. A sup- plementary investigation was made in 55 teacher-training institutions in all parts of the country to ascertain the number of graduates from the two-year curricula who entered one-room rural schools in the fall of 1920, the first year after graduation. ‘The 55 schools from which data were secured had 5524 graduates. Of these +44, or 8 per cent, entered one-room rural schools. It was found that the range for the institutions from which data were secured is from none entering this type of school to institutions send- ing more than one half of their graduates into the one-room schools of the open country. Of the male graduates from the two-year curricula in 1910, 19 per cent entered rural work, in 1915 this decreased to 17.2 per cent, and in 1920 only 4.3 per cent were willing to enter this kind of teaching service, and DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1175 the majority of these became either principals or manual-training instructors in consolidated schools. From a study of the proportion entering the rural service of the graduates of the 55 schools sending in data it is evident that some of the schools are able to send goodly proportions of their graduates from the two-year cur- ricula into the rural schools for at least their first teaching service. “These schools are by no means all located in States where by legal enactment teachers are required to have their first experience in rural or village schools. They are not all located in rural States where towns and cities are few, but many are located in the shadow of great cities, and are surrounded by towns and cities of considerable size. “The data secured from all parts of the country go to prove the statement that the location of a school training teachers rarely determines the number entering rural work. ‘The investiga- tion shows that the institutions with the greatest reputation for the training of rural teachers do not send the greatest number into this kind of service. The study gives the following data relative to a State in the Middie West located in the very heart of the agricultural section of the United States. This State has four institutions established for the specific purpose of train- ing teachers for the public schools. One institution located in the very centre of rural activities sent in 1920 two graduates or 1.2 per cent from the two-year curricula into rural schools. Another one of the institutions located nearly as well, in a part of the State where the best rural schools are located as far as boarding opportunities and salaries are concerned, succeeded in inducing 3.5 per cent in the same year to sacrifice themselves upon the altar of the rural school. ‘The third of the institutions located in a less favorable section of the State as far as rural schools are concerned, surrounded by cities of a population ranging from 5000 to 100,000 or more, and a large number of towns, sent into the rural service in 1920 more than 42 per cent of the graduates of the two-year curricula, The fourth school located in a part of the State where towns and cities are few, sent 51.9 per cent into one-room rural schools. These interesting data indicate that there must be some factor or factors at work in one of the institutions that is not present in at least two of the others. Perhaps it is best not to attempt to give the reasons for one of the institutions sending only 1.2 per cent of its graduates of the two-year curricula into rural schools while another less favorably located sends 42.1 per cent into this kind of teaching service. It must be remembered that this paper has to deal with the graduates of | the two-year level. Institutions doing little, if anything, for the rural schools on the graduate level of two years, may be doing a great deal below this level. The function of teacher-training institutions is to prepare teachers for all kinds of teaching service, but it has been found that many have become training schools for the cities of their districts. If this fact should become well-known among the rural population it might lead to rather disastrous 1176 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION results especially if the legislative bodies are composed of members from the rural communities. The investigation shows still further that the completion of a rural cur- riculum does not insure the teaching in a rural school. In one school studied 22 graduates completed the rural curriculum, and only seven entered rural work of any kind. This is not peculiar however to the graduates of rural departments of our professional schools, but is common in other branches of the teaching service. An illustration will serve to show that the rural departments are not the arch sinners in this respect. The following distribution of 52 graduates of one institution for one year with their special preparation indicates a rather common practice. Three graduates from the commercial curricula, three from the physical education, nine from the household arts, three from the manual training, - and one from drawing taught the first year after graduation in the primary grades. [wo graduates from the physical education curricula, seventeen from household arts, three from drawing, nine from manual training, and one from music taught in the intermediate grades. One graduate from the physical education taught in the kindergarten. One from the manual training taught in the grammar grades. These 52 graduates taught in fields for which they were not prepared, as against eight graduates of special curricula who went into fields for which they were prepared. It was found that only 1.8 per cent of those entering the rural work in 1920 from the two-year curricula had received specific training for the specific work they were to do. In 1920 of those entering primary teaching 37 per cent had received special training for the work. ‘Ten per cent of those entering intermediate grade work had specific training, and 16.9 per cent of those entering the grammar grades were specially prepared for their work. According to the Commissioner’s report of 1920 one half of the children of America are in the rural schools, and it can safely be estimated that the majority of the other half are to be found in the intermediate grades, then if the findings from a random sampling of the teacher-training schools of the country are valid, there is still left a tremendous step to be taken by the institutions before there is a perfect correlation between specific prepara- tion and specific work. It is believed that no one questions the statement that the rural child is entitled to as well a prepared teacher as are the children of the urban districts. When we compare the large per cent of the graduates of teacher- training institutions entering urban schools with the smal! number going into the rural field of teaching it is evident that the children of the rural communities do not receive a just proportion of the trained teachers. If this tendency continues for a few years longer at the rate of the past ten years the rural schools will be entirely without the professionally trained teachers—that is, those who have completed at least two years of study beyond high-school graduation. The results of the investigation show that a few of the normal schools DEPARTMENT OF RurRAL EpucaTION 77, and teachers colleges are sending a fair proportion of their graduates into the rural service and attempting to give an equity of educational opportunity to the children of the open country.* salto a_fuller discussion of the problems of teacher-training the reader is referred to the author’s Output of Professional Schools for Teaéhers. Warwick and York, Baltimore, Md. JUNIOR EXTENSION WORK AS DEVELOPED: THROUGH THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS W. J- WRIGHT, STATE CLUB LEADER, CORNELL COLLEGE OF AGRI- CULTURE, ITHACA, NEW YORK ‘The framers of the Smith-Lever, or Codperative Extension Act of 1914, wisely refrained from stipulating in detail the means or methods by which its provisions were to be carried into effect. The only definitions or refer- ences to method in the Act are contained in one paragraph as follows: “Co6perative agricultural extension work shall consist of the giving of instruction and practical demonstrations in agriculture and home economics to persons not attending or resident in the said colleges in the several com- munities, and imparting to such persons information on said subjects through field demonstrations, publications, and otherwise; and this work shall be carried on in such a manner as may be mutually agreed upon by the Secretary of Agriculture and the State agricultural college or colleges re- ceiving the benefits of this Act.” This has naturally led to a variety of plans based partly upon the ideas and ideals of those responsible for directing the work in the various States and partly upon the State statutes governing and defining the functions and activities of the State agricultural colleges or the departments of public instruction. ‘True there have been attempts to standardize the different types of extension work, a step which may have some justification on the basis of experience, but which carried too far will destroy initiative and must result in stagnation. “There seems to have been a greater variety of forms of organization in junior-extension work among the various States than in senior extension. ‘This is probably due to the fact that in dealing with boys and girls we are dealing with a group, the majority of whom are enrolled in the public schools and whose educational program in many States is placed by statute under the direction of the department of public instruction. It is doubtful if it will ever be possible to develop a uniform plan of organization for junior-extension work even if it were desirable to do so. Granted that junior-extension work was intended to be included in the scope of the codperative extension act by its framers, the question has been frequently raised as to whether the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the State Agricultural Colleges should be charged with the administration of a piece of educational work having to do with boys and girls of school age. ‘There are those who contend that the responsibility for all such iby NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION activities should rest solely with the authorities responsible for public edu- cation. It is not the purpose of this paper to re-open this controversy, but rather to discuss, at the request of your secretary, a cooperative plan now in effect in New York State in which the College of Agriculture and the U. S. Department of Agriculture, which it represents, share with the State Edu- cation Department the responsibility for the work so far as the children who aré enrolled in the public schools are concerned. Not only do they share the responsibilities, but each institution places at the disposal of those immediately responsible for the development of the work such machinery and agencies as may be of special assistance. Thus the College offers the services of its corps of specialists, its county agricultural and home demon- stration agents and provides rather liberally for the financial support of junior-extension work. ‘The State Education Department, on the other hand, directs that its superintendents of schools and its teachers shall assist in developing the work and also contributes to its financial support. Before going further it may be well to consider the purpose or object of junior-extension work. ‘There seem to be at least three popular concep- tions. One is that it is purely vocational, or in other words, its purpose is to prepare boys and girls for country life and to keep as many as possible on the farms. A second is a service or demonstration idea which, carried to its logical conclusion, would mean that certain few boys and girls in different communities would be selected because of superior advantages and trained to demonstrate cetain practices in the community. A third conception of the purpose of junior-extension work is that it should offer to all boys and girls not otherwise reached an opportunity for instruction along some line of agricultural or homemaking activity either by demonstra- tions, publications, or otherwise but always supplemented by carefully supervised home work, the project. It is not vocational in the sense that it is deliberately planned to make farmers and farm wives of all the young people enrolled. But the training should be practical rather than academic to the end that it may be economically useful. For example, the purpose of a potato club should be to give to its members a knowledge, based upon experience as well as on study and demonstrations, of the methods of select- ing and treating potato seed, and spraying, together with the benefits de- rived from such practices rather than a minute study of the potato plant or an exhaustive history of the potato plant’s development as a food. ‘The latter is interesting from an academic point of view but does not coincide with the fundamental object of all Federal subsidies for agricultural educa- tion from the original Land Grant Act to the Vocational Act, which object is the improvement of agriculture and farm life. It is this third conception of junior-extension work that prevails in New York and which I have taken the time to place before you in order to make clear the plan which I have been asked to describe. It must be clear that for the purpose of giving definite instruction in agriculture and homemak- ing to a large number of boys and girls we already have the necessary ma- re DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EDUCATION 1179 2 chinery, so far as boys and girls of public-school age are concerned, in the public-school system. Given the sanction and interest of the State Depart- ment, the codperation of the Superintendent and the help of the teacher, we have a machine and a personnel already in the field which it is well-nigh impossible to duplicate either financially“or otherwise. ‘True many of the teachers are not trained in agriculture and homemaking, but they are more ‘or less well-trained as teachers. It is comparatively easy for the college specialists to give to these teachers, in a few training schools, a fairly comprehensive training in the use of the college publications which will enable them to direct the pupil in his work. It is, however, frequently difficult to inspire teachers and superintendnts with a desire or inclination to conduct club work, especially if they have had no experience with it. This is shown by the fact that of the 15,064 boys and girls enrolled for junior-extension work in 44 counties in New York in 1921, over 70 per cent were in the 16 counties employing county club agents. On the other hand 831 out of a total of 941 local leaders were in these same 16 counties, a majority of them being public-school teachers. It is the county club agent who furnishes the inspiration and keeps the machinery moving. County organization—Specifically the plan for junior-extension work in New York State provides that it shall be directed locally by a county board for junior extension composed of a committee of the farm and home bureau and the district superintendents of schools, the number of representatives of the farm and home bureau being equal to the number of school superin- tendents in the county (from one to seven). ‘This initial membership of the Board may be augmented by representatives of other interested organiza- tions such as Banker’s Associations, Pomona Grange, Breeder’s Associations, Women’s Clubs, Parent Teacher’s Associations, and the like. ‘This Board codéperates with the State College of Agriculture which also represents the United States Department of Agriculture, and with the State Education Department in employing a County Club Agent and assistants, in mapping out a program of work, in preparing a budget, and is responsible for local financing. A total of $1200 of State and Federal aid is available to each county employing a county club agent. The county club agent—Under the above form of county organization, the county club agent becomes the joint representative of the College, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the State Education Department, and the local community as represented by the county board for junior extension. The county club agent is elected by the county board but must be approved by the Director of Extension and licensed by the Commissioner of Educa- tion. Certain minimum standards of training and experience are re- quired. The County Club Agent carried out the directions of the coéperating parties in a general memorandum of agreement. His principal function is to organize and direct the work within the county in accord- ance with a prescribed program, leaving the instruction and inspection largely in the hands of the teachers who become the local leaders. He 1180 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION arranges for training schools for-local leaders at which he either gives the instruction himself or relies on the subject-matter specialists from the College of Agriculture. In addition he may give individual or group demonstrations, make field inspections, himself act as local leader for certain groups who have no local leader, or whose leader asks for special help. A portion of the regular teachers conference is frequently utilized as a training school for teachers who conduct junior-extension work. In other cases special training conferences are arranged. The teacher as a local leader—Because of her interest and experience in dealing with boys and girls and because of her standing in the community the good teacher also becomes the good local leader for junior-extension work. This is particularly true if she happens to live in the community in which she teaches and is therefore able to continue her leadership through- out the summer months. This is particularly desirable in work with crops, the principal growing season of which is during the summer vacation. At present in New York State an increasing number of teachers live in the communities in which they teach. Frequently they are the parents of boys and girls who are themselves attending school. Such teachers with a natural interest in the community aside from their special school interest naturally make strong and efficient leaders. The vocational teacher as a local leader—A special arrangement with those in charge of vocational agriculture and homemaking (Smith-Hughes Schools) makes it possible for vocational teachers of agriculture and home- making to become local leaders of junior-extension work among the boys and girls in communities immediately surrounding the schools in which they teach and who are not regularly enrolled in vocational courses. “These vocational teachers assume the entire responsibility for the leadership of junior-extension work in certain prescribed areas under the general plan and program prescribed for the county. ‘They obtain the literature, record sheets, and other material from the county club agent and make regular reports to the county club agent. The County Board for Junior Extension in no way supplements the salary of these vocational teachers, but it may, and sometimes does, pay all or part of their travel expenses necessary in supervising junior-extension workers. Young people enrolled in vocational schools are not enrolled as junior-extension or club members. In counties employing no club agent, vocational teachers may, and do, conduct junior- extension work, reporting to the State club leader or through the super- vising official in the State Education Department. Records and reports—In the matter of records and reports teachers who act in the capacity of local leaders have a peculiar advantage over those having no school connection. ‘The interested, energetic teacher uses these records and reports as the basis of much of her schoolwork particularly in arithmetic and geography. For example, if a boy has a note due at the bank for a calf which he has purchased this note makes a splendid concrete ex- ample for a lesson in interest. If a New York boy grows potatoes which eventually sell in Virginia the transaction offers a splendid opportunity to 7 DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EDUCATION 1181 teach geography, and likewise the boy learns something about the channels for marketing his produce. While it is possible for local leaders not con- nected with the schools to bring out these same lessons, it is a far less natural procedure. In fact the virtue of junior-extension work is its ability to furnish concrete problems for school work; School fairs and achievement days—The school fair or achievement day is coming to be regarded as a regular feature of the school work in New York. It affords an opportunity for a community gathering when old and young congregate to see the exhibits and hear the members tell of their work. Incidentally it brings parents to the school who have scarcely set foot inside the school building in a generation. When there are enough workers in a district (five or more) the fair is held in the home district. Frequently it is necessary to combine districts. Occasionally township school fairs are held where all the schools in the township are dismissed for a day and all go to a central place where the exhibits and the program is held and a picnic lunch with games and songs is enjoyed. The boy out of school—It should not be inferred that junior-extension work, conducted as I have all too briefly outlined, is an additional burden on the hard-worked pupil. On the other hand it is quite the reverse. It gives him a new interest in the school and farm and in things around him. It frequently brings a welcome economic income and what is more, often brings to his’ father and to his mother a knowledge of better methods through the demonstrations he has made in carrying through his project. But it must be confessed that the elementary school is not always suc- cessful in reaching boys on the farm who have left school and who may be most in need of help and encouragement. It may be argued that they are the concern of the vocational teacher rather than the county club agent. Many of these boys are being reached by vocational teachers, not as vocational pupils but as junior-extension workers. Sometimes the county club agent makes personal contacts; sometimes it is possible to organize a club with some outstanding man or woman in the community as local leader. Again it may be possible for the club agent to guide them into extension schools or short courses and thus help them to obtain the assistance and en- couragement they need. No real extension agent will stand idly by and see young men and boys becoming discouraged because they do not know where to turn for help, nor will he pass them by because club work has no appeal for them. It is the business of the extension agent to help such boys and young men though they may not swell his enrolment, or make an ad- ditional club. In conclusion let me state that I do not offer the above plan as a perfect model applicable to all conditions. I have only sought to show how it is possible to have a full, happy, harmonious understanding and working agree- ment under which all agencies charged with “giving instruction in agri- culture and home economics” within a State may do so efficiently and without jealousy or discord. From our point of view, the public-school system, properly organized, provides the machinery and equipment neces- 1182 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION sary for effectively conducted junior-extension work among boys and girls ‘1 school. Such other machinery as is being developed is for the purpose of reaching boys and girls out of school. ‘There has been no attempt to bring older boys and girls into club membership when in the judgment of the club agent their needs will be better served by extension schools, short courses, or by attending vocational courses. JUNIOR EXTENSION WORK AS DEVELOPED THROUGH THE PUBLIC SCHOOL Z. M. SMITH, STATE CLUB LEADER, LAFAYETTE, INDIANA Interest in the farmer is universal. Why? Because agriculture is basic to all productive and non-productive activities. ‘This interest is wholly legitimate. Unfortunately it is not always intelligently directed and ap- plied. To the non-farmer agriculture and farm home life are so simple ‘n their character that even a fool need not err therein. ‘The non-farmer, believing as he does in the simplicity of rural-life problems and relation- ships, thinks improvement in rural conditions is easily accomplished and that he is capable of formulating a program of activity that will insure rural betterment. Consequently we have as many different programs as we have agencies working for rural improvement. The salvation of the farmer from utter bewilderment is placid indifference to the Babel of voices which with supplications and implications are smugly advising him they can lead him out of his: slough of ignorance and incompetency. Were the ruralite not a thoroughbred humorist and a perennial optimist, he would not toler- ate the maintenance of a great deal of the local, State, and Federal ma- chinery which is maintained presumably for his social and economic uplift. Too much is attempted for the farmer and not enough with him. We deplore the lack of rural leadership and yet persist in superimposing upon our rural population ideas and methods that stultify in embryo latent leader- ship qualities. Proportionately less effort should be made to render paternalistic aid to the farmer, and greater stress should be laid on the obli- gation and necessity of the farmer’s assuming his own responsibilities. Rural society will continue to suffer to the extent that rural leadership and an intelligent following of such leadership are lacking. An adequate program for rural improvement will be characterized by a solidarity that is noticeably wanting at present. Such a program will be constructed around and upon long-existing fundamental institutions. We are in error when we take the position that each separate activity included in the whole program requires a separate, unrelated organization for its execution. In the United States of America, the public school is the. foundation and center of public education. Junior-extension work may be and should be conducted as a phase of public education. ‘The successful prosecution of junior-extension activities should not require unnecessary ; DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EDUCATION 1183 workers and needless expenditures. Neither should the work require for its execution an organization disassociated from the public school, the one institution we have created and maintained for the education of our youth, We are indulging in mere platitude when we assert that the public school changes from time to time in its aims and methods and that it has not changed with sufficient rapidity to keep pace with the legitimate demands upon it. Without impairing their general education, boys and girls can connect their farm and home activities with their school work and thus provide a means by which to make practical: application of their school in- struction. Miss Marjorie Scholl, a high-school girl of Fayette County, Indiana, shows clearly in her club story for this year how the school and home work can be correlated through club work. This story is based on Marjorie’s experience in club work. She relates an incident in her ex- perience at the home of her young married cousin who is overburdened with household cares and. her babies. Herewith are given excerpts from her story which was submitted as part of her work in English composition. “Marjorie was as strong and capable as any girl of sixteen could be and she went to work willingly. She had been engaged in club work for four years and had gained experience that taught her the easiest and most satis- factory methods of doing housework. All day long she went about her tasks singing blithely, and when night came the washing was done, the house cleaned, and there was a delicious apple pie on the table for John’s supper. “Oh! I had almost forgotten that we are nearly out of bread. I’ll have to bake tomorrow,” said Jean as they were preparing supper. “Please, won’t you let me do the baking, Jean?” asked Marjorie. ‘I’ve been doing all of ours this summer. I’m in the baking club you know.” “All right,” consented the older girl, “you may start it this evening, if you wish.” The next morning Marjorie kneaded the bread while Jean was washing the dishes. “T do not understand why you like to bake bread so well. It’s always been a bugbear to me,” said Jean. “Well, you see, I make a game out of it. In the botany class in high school I studied all about yeast plants and how they grow. So I pretend that I am growing flowers in a garden. I make a rich, fine soil of the potatoes, sugar, and flour, and plant the young yeast plants in it.” “They grow very rapidly if properly cared for, and by morning they are ready for cultivation. It takes a great amount of cultivation, and the more the better. I use a spoon for a cultivator. As it takes a large amount of food for the plants, I add quantities of flour and some milk and butter to make the soil richer. When the plants in my garden have increased many fold, I cultivate again. This time I do it with my hands for it is such very particular work. After this second cultivation, which is really the kneading of the dough, my garden grows so rapidly that I have to make it into 1184 NationaL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION separate plots. Now the plants have reached the flowering stage (the bak- ing) and must be watched constantly and kept exceptionally warm. It is as much fun to watch these flowers develop as it is to watch four-o’clocks open. When they are full-bloom, they are a beautiful golden brown in color. You see they are so very different from any other flowers you ever saw that it makes them interesting.” “Now isn’t that a queer game to play? I know you think it’s silly, but it makes the work much easier and more interesting.” “J wish there had been club work in this county when I was of the eligible age,” said Jean, as she laughed at her cousin’s story. ‘““They say an old dog cannot be taught new tricks, but I’m not very old yet, and I’m going to learn to play your game.” Clifford Anderson, a high-school boy, of Morgan County, Indiana, began his club experience with poultry five years ago. He has continued his poultry work each year and has added pig and sow and litter projects. He ‘5 an annual successful exhibitor at both the State poultry show and the State swine show at the State Fair. He now has 500 Rose Comb White Leghorns, 100 ducks, and a registered sow and litter of the Spotted Poland China Breed. All of his club work has been done in connection with his school instruction and under the supervision of his agriculture teacher. Roy Magruder, while a pupil in the Technical High School in Indian- apolis, carried out garden and poultry projects under the supervision of his teacher of agriculture. ‘This June he will be graduated from the school of agriculture of Purdue University. Fred Thomas, inspired by his success as a corn and a pig club member, entered high school at the age of eighteen years. He continued his club work throughout his high school course and saved his money to pay his expenses in college. He is a leader in the Purdue University School of Agriculture, from which he will be graduated in June. Harrison, St. Joseph, Fountain, Delaware, and other counties in Indiana, have demonstrated the value of codrdinating junior-extension work with the public school. Following is given briefly the method ot procedure in Fountain County: The State club leader appeared before the county teachers’ institute and explained the nature and character of the club work that should be con- nected closely with the school work in agriculture and home economics. He then met with the county superintendent of schools, the county agri- cultural agent, and a group of teachers who would have classes in agriculture during the year, and assisted in outlining the club projects and the school exercises for the year. “These outlines were given to the teachers at the beginning of the school year by the county superintendent of schools, and their nature and purpose were explained. At each monthly teachers’ institute held during the year more detailed outlines were furnished for the work the following month and further explanations were given. Arrange- ments were made with the County Fair Board for club exhibits at the annual county fair. “Iwo pavilions, 100 x 40 feet, have been constructed DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1185 for club live-stock exhibits alone, and they are filled to capacity annually. As a result of the club and school work, farm dairy herds of quality have been developed, the production of pure bred hogs has been greatly increased, home poultry flocks have been improved, home orchards have been made productive, corn production has been increased, the landscaping of farm homes has been given careful attention, and the social life of the young people has been enriched. Many of the club members have developed into club and community leaders. Junior-extension work furnishes a most excellent medium through which pupils react in practical ways to the school instruction in agriculture and home economics. The normal child is active. He does things. The things the child does are not always conducive to the peace of mind of the teacher or parents, because his superabundant energy is not always directed along lines of activity born of plans thoughtfully wrought out. Too often the teacher’s plans call for nothing more than assigning lessons and hearing recitations from eight thirty o’clock in the morning until four o’clock in the afternoon. Such plans do not meet the needs fully of the normal child. Agriculture and home economics, as practical arts subjects, are a boon to teachers who use them as a means of intelligently directing the energies of the pupils. ‘The growing animal or plant appeals to boys and girls. Chil- dren prefer to work with things that are alive rather than read about them. Wide-awake teachers are quick to take advantage of this by having pupils do their agriculture and home economics work on a club-project basis. By this method the pupil deals with things with which he is to some extent familiar and in which he has a personal interest. The school authorities and the teachers need the codperation of active organizations such as the farmers’ federation, farmers’ institute, home economics association, parent-teacher association, grange, county fair board, live-stock breeders association, county bankers association. Representatives of these organizations should meet with the county superintendent of schools, the county agricultural agent, and the teachers, and discuss with them the club projects and school work, and cooperate with them in an active way in carrying out plans for codrdinating the important lines of community activity. From the beginning of school in the fall until the culmination of the project work in the exhibit a year later, the school authorities, the county agent, the teachers, the pupils and the codperating organizations must work together with a singleness of purpose. 1186 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SOME CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE NEW YORK RURAL SCHOOL SURVEY JULIAN E. BUTTERWORTH, MEMBER OF THE COMMITTEE OF 21; PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, NEW YORK The historical setting—The New York Rural School Survey of 1920-22 | is so directly an outcome of educational events and tendencies in the State during the last century or more that a brief presentation of educational history is desirable. Only in this way may those not familiar with the State understand the significance of the organization of the survey, its mode of operation, and some, at least, of its recommendations. The first permanent school law in New York State, that of 1812, pro- vided the framework upon which has been built the machinery responsible in large part for the survey referred to. On the one hand that law pro- vided for the district system that is still the most powerful influence in the control of education, On the other hand it provided for some State direc- tion; established the State superintendency ; gave State aid; and required local taxation. In 1821 the State superintendency was discontinued, and the secretary of State was designated as superintendent ex-oficio. This arrangement continued until 1854 when the State superintendency was reéstablished. As in other States the power of the State has been gradually extended. Among the powers given to the State educational organization may be men- tioned: the appointment of conductors and instructors for teacher institutes, the appointment of local boards for State normal schools, the apportion- ment of State funds, the enforcement of a compulsory education act, uni- form examinations for teachers’ certificates, standards for buildings, and supervision of higher education. This latter function was assumed by the State in 1787 on the creation of the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York. This board was endowed with’ power to charter colleges and incorporate academies and to exercise supervision over them. From 1812, when the State superintendency was established, there were, therefore, two agencies controlling education—the office of the State superintendent giving attention to the common schools, and the Board of Regents supervising the colleges and secondary schools. This division of the work led to such clashes between the two agencies, especially as regards the direction of secondary education, that in 1904 the so-called unification act provided the organization now in existence. Briefly, this organization consists of a Board of Regents of twelve, elected by the legislature, having general powers in the control of education; a commissioner of education elected by the Regents with certain powers specifically conferred by statute and others that may be delegated to him by the Regents ; and a large force of workers including a deputy commissioner, three assistant commissioners, and chiefs and assistants of divisions and bureaus dealing with the various important activities of the State’s work in education. Unquestionably it DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1187 is the most elaborate organization for the administration of a State school system to be found in the country. After this unification came a series of events that created the situation immediately responsible for the recent survey. Andrew S. Draper, first commissioner of education, believed strongly and preached widely the doctrine of State responsibility for education. Certain decisions of the courts established the doctrine that the school is a State, not a local, institu- tion. One of the most important of these decisions was that of 1897 growing out of a situation in the city of Watervliet. Members of the local board, due to internal dissension, failed to appoint the necessary teach- ers and school officers. An appeal was made to the State superintendent. He ordered the schools to be opened by a certain date. ‘This not being done, he sent a State official to act as superintendent temporarily. School was opened with about 1400 pupils. Citizens then made application to the Supreme Court for an injunction restricting the State superintendent from interfering with the local school system. ‘The request was denied and the action of the State superintendent upheld on the principle that “the mandate of the constitution [for an effective system of schools] cannot be modified at the will of any local board failing to discharge the duties im- posed upon it by law, but that the power exists to compel obedience to this requirement, and this power is lodged in the State superintendent of public instruction.” This principle most of us would accept as sound. Yet such a principle could readily be misunderstood by the average citizen when emphasized and especially when accompanied by legislation, good in itself, but looking to an increase in the power of the State. It would appear that there has been such a misunderstanding. From 1857 school commissioners had been provided as supervisors for the rural schools. "These were elected by the people. In 1912, the name was changed to district superintendent and the number greatly increased. There are now 208 of these officials in the 57 counties lying outside New York City. These superintendents are elected for a period of five years by a board that performs no other function. ‘There is no board compar- able to the county or the township boards of some states to represent the people of an intermediate unit in the formulation and execution of educa- tional policies. As a result the district superintendent is more nearly re- sponsible to the State Department than to the people themselves. The feeling of rural folks that this is so is increased by the fact that the district superintendent has certain powers on which the farmer is particularly sensitive—namely, the redefinition of district boundaries involving consoli- dation, and the condemnation of school buildings. One hears not in- frequently that the district superintendent should be selected by the people in order that the people may again control education. In 1916 the State Department issued an order that after September 1, 1918, all schools, with a few exceptions, would be required to provide a system of approved toilets. It would appear that little of a State-wide 1188 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION nature had been done to show rural people the desirability of such action. As a result a storm of protest was raised. While some followed the order others protested on one ground or another. The facts of the survey show a lamentable situation regarding outdoor toilets. In general there has been vast improvement where the approved toilets were installed. The difficulty therefore appears to be not with the soundness of the order itself but with the fact that the people were not made conscious of the seriousness of con- ditions and of the effectiveness of the remedy prescribed. In 1916 the agitation for preparedness for war led to the establishment of a compulsory system of physical education. This provided for physical training supervisors approximately half of whose salaries were to be paid by the local districts. This cost, combined with the farmer’s failure to understand the purpose of the act as shown by his belief that his children got sufficient exercise in home work, led to the virtual abandonment of physical education through the action of successive legislatures. In 1917 the township was made the unit of local administration and the century-old common school district control was discontinued. “The next year the law was repealed. Many thought that the consolidation of dis- tricts meant the consolidation of schools. To school consolidation the average New York farmer is at present bitterly opposed. “Then there was dissatisfaction with the readjusted tax burdens and with the redistributed control. In fact the difficulty would appear again to be lack of complete preparation for an entirely new unit of local administration. Thus we have, in a comparatively short period, three acts of the legis- lature and one ruling of the State Department looking toward a modifica- tion in the control of schools by the people in the common school district. Unprepared as most people seem to have been for these changes it was ‘nevitable that opposition should have been created. It was natural too that the agent of the State, the State Department of Education, should have been accused of exercising autocratic power and that any new educa- tional proposal should be scrutinized suspiciously to see if the State were seeking further authority at the expense of local control. As to whether such accusations and suspicions were justified is not our concern here. That many farmers feel as they do is almost as significant as if they had cause to so feel. Incidently, it may be said that while the Department probably neglected to develop the right sort of public sentiment for certain legislation and while it may be true that certain divisions have been arbi- trary in dealing with such an independent group as the farmer, it is un- deniably true that the chief officials of the Department desire more local control. One evidence of this is that these officials have stood consistently for some sort of intermediate unit able to assume more of the responsibilities of school control. The creation of the Committee of T wenty-one—The repeal of the town- ship act left, as may be expected, many of the more progressive citizens dissatisfied with existing school conditions. Such persons had realized the deficiencies of the rural schools and had seen an opportunity for the town- DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1189 ship organization to provide an equalization of educational opportunities and a larger group contact that would have meant better conditions and greater satisfaction after the inevitable rough spots due to new adjustments had worn off. The Department of Rural Education“of Cornell University at its 1920 annual conference held during Farmer’s Week took cognizance of this feel- ing. It organized its program about the question: ‘““What can New York do to Improve Its Rural Schools?’ ‘The discussions of this conference emphasized the obvious fact that the question could not be answered with- out data that were not available. As a consequence a resolution was adopted urging the appointment of a commission of representative lay and professional people to attack the problem. ‘The following day the Con- ference Board of Farm Organizations suggested the organization of a com- mittee with three representatives from each of these groups: State Grange; State Farm Bureau Federation; State Home Bureau Federation; Dairy- men’s League, State Teachers Association; State Department of Education ; State College of Agriculture. Each organization then appointed its repre- sentatives and the first meeting of the committee was held in May, 1920. At this meeting it was discovered that the State Department of Education had some time previously taken steps to obtain money from the Common- wealth Fund of New York for a survey of rural education in the State. Later when the money was made available to the State Board of Regents, that body placed in the hands of the Committee of Twenty-one the ad- ministration of the funds. An executive committee composed of George A. Works, Professor of Rural Education, Cornell University; George M. Wiley, Assistant Commissioner of Elementary Education for the State; and Mrs. A. E. Brigden, President of the Home Bureau Federation, was appointed. Professor Works was designated chairman of the Committee and director of the Survey. 1. Active control of the survey by a large representatve group of lay and professional people may therefore be given as the first interesting aspect of this piece of work. This control has not been perfunctory. From the be- ginning it was planned that there would be two reports—one for the profession that would include the detailed findings and the unmodified recommendations of the specialists in the various divisions; the other for the public, that would represent the decision of the Committee as to what was desirable and feasible under existing conditions. The procedure of the Committee is of interest. Several sessions were spent in discussing the work to be undertaken: the questions that ought to be answered; the general nature of the data to be collected; the sections into which the work might be divided. The Committee on Direction was then authorized to select the staff personnel. “This they did without inter- ference from the Committee. C. H. Judd, of the University of Chicago, was selected to head the Division of Administration and Supervision ; W. C. Bagley, Teachers College, Columbia University, the Curriculum and the Teaching Staff; Harlan Updegraff, University of Pennsylvania, Finance; 1190 NatIoNAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION M. C. Haggerty, University of Minnesota, Measurement ; Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, Community Relations; J. E. But- terworth, Cornell University, Buildings; E. R. Eastman, Editor of the Dairyman’s League News, Publicity. These heads selected their own as- sistants, some from outside the State, some from within the State. Among the groups thus utilized from New York State were district superintendents, members of the State Department of Education, village principals, city superintendents, teachers, normal-school instructors, and instructors from various college and universities. In all about 175 have shared in this work. Before the collection of facts was actually begun most of the division heads appeared before the Committee of 21 and described their tentative mode of procedure. This gave the Committee a general idea as to what would be done. Then from time to time reports of progress were made. In September, 1921, when the field work was almost completed, a confer- ence of all heads of divisions was called. After three days of discussion all met with the Committee of Twenty-one and a preliminary report was made in each field. In November sub-committees were appointed to report to the whole Committee on the work of each division. ‘This was done in various meetings held during November, December, January, and Febru- ary. The fundamental problems of the Survey dealt with administra- tion and finance. As an illustration of the care given the reports of the specialists in these fields, it may be mentioned that about three days were given by the sub-committee and three days by the whole Committee to the question of finance. “Two and one half days were spent by the sub-com- mittee on the administration report and two days by the whole Committee. Nearly every aspect of the various recommendations was discussed both as to its soundness and its practicability. “The Committee did not hesitate to make modifications of the recommendations of the specialists. Sometimes these modifications were in the direction of taking a shorter step toward the ideal, but illustrations are not lacking of the belief of the Committee that it was practicable to go further than the specialists advised. One result, therefore, that has come from this active control by the Com- mittee of Twenty-one is a healthful interaction between the two large groups involved in education—the layman and the professional man. In this connection an analysis of the personnel of the Committee is interesting. Of the twenty-one members twelve represent farm organizations and nine educational organizations. One Grange representative is a district superin- tendent, so that there are ten professional and eleven non-professional per- sons. Five of the group are women. ‘T'wo of the professional representa- tives live in the open country. One of the farm representatives lives in a village and one ina city. Of the professional group three are State adminis- trators, four are district superintendents, and three are university professors. It is thus seen that the group is about as representative of various rural interests as it could well be. From this interaction has come some worthwhile by-products. On the one hand, it has given the professional people a genuine appreciation of DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1191 what the farmer can contribute in the way of viewpoint and sound common sense. I doubt if there is a single professional member of the committee who will not gladly acknowledge a debt to the farmer representatives. They have shown an earnestness, an intellectual keenness, and a willing- ness to learn that promises much for an improved rural education when the majority of country folks are aroused. All of us professional people on the Committee are only too glad to acknowledge the influence that these months of contact have had on our professional development. On the other hand, the farmer acknowledges his obligations: a greater respect for the motives of the professional man, for his knowledge, and for his technique. A second result of this democratic type of control has been a greater confidence on the part of the farm’people toward the survey. ‘There have, of course, been critics but the number is probably small compared with what would have been had the committee been made up largely of non- farm people or had it failed to exercise active control. From the beginning of the work the Division of Publicity has been alert. Meetings have been held in order to inform the people of what was being planned and in order to get the farmer’s suggestions as to what he thought ought to be done. Such meetings have been held in every section of the State the attendance sometimes being as high as 400 to 500 from a half dozen neighboring counties. Lhe Division has sent out thousands of questionnaires to local granges, Home Bureau organizations, and individuals urging discussion of the questions raised and inviting suggestions. Now that the work is practically completed the nature of the public meetings is being changed. The groups being met are smaller—local and county gatherings of all sorts. Specific recommendations are being presented and the criticisms of the farm population secured. Critics are by no means lacking, but there is in practically every meeting evidence that the recommendations are being accepted as along the right line. The Conference Board of Farm Organi- zations has given its approval. ‘The State Grange has urged serious dis- cussion in its local chapters. ‘The task now is to develop sufficient senti- ment that will secure legislation and legislation that will remain upon the statute books. If this becomes impossible the obvious task of the Committee is to revise its recommendations, so as to suggest a program that is at- tainable. 2. The proposal of an administrative organization that looks toward a control of schools that is both democratic and effective is another interesting aspect of the Survey. At present the common school district has chief control of the schools. It raises the necessary funds, selects the teachers, looks after the building, furnishes the equipment and supplies, and selects the textbooks. All these powers are of course modified by State laws dealing with such matters as length of school term, minimum salaries for teachers, State aid and conse- quent requirements for receiving the aid. There are also State Department 1192 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION regulations regarding such matters as qualifications of teachers, courses of study, and the promotion of pupils. Dr. Judd and his assistants have shown a paradoxical situation in the control of education in the State. While the local district has authority in the most vital matters it has frequently failed to respond to its education responsibilities. It is often penurious; it has difficulty in finding a trustee, often choosing a person not present at the annual meeting; it frequently fails to support a trustee who attempts progressive measures ; it neglects the building and its equipment. On the other hand, the district is jealous of its power and resents, as has already been shown, any measures that appear to limit this authority. Three problems are involved in meeting such a situation: (1) A state- ment of principle governing the division of school control among the various types of units; (2) a local unit that will secure a larger group activity and so tend to-develop a more progressive attitude toward schools and a greater ability to assume responsibility for school control; (3) a unit intermediate between local and State units representative of local interests and able to assume some of the authority that must now, from the very nature of the organization, go to the State. At present the intermediate unit is weak and unsound. ‘There is no policy-making board; the district superintend- ent, while elected by a local group, is not responsible to this group except when the 5-year selection period approaches. He is primarily responsible to the State Department. The first problem was met by the Committee through the formulation of the general principle that no higher unit should exercise control that can be exercised satisfactorily by lesser units. In application this will mean considerable revision of activities of control in regard to such problems as the selection of teachers, the preparation of courses of study, and the pro- motion of pupils. In general the application of this principle will mean less control on the part of the local unit in some problems, less on the part of the State in some, and much more on the part of the intermediate unit. A corollary to this principle is that the higher units are responsible for the exercise of leadership that will enable the lesser units to do as much as possible in the way of control. Dr. Bobbitt, accepting this principle, has worked out in detail the distribution of responsibility for various types of problems. The second problem—a larger local unit—was met by the proposal of a community type of local organization that will be described later. The third problem—that of a more effective intermediate unit—was solved in the following manner. A number of community units are to be combined into a territory comparable in size to that of the present super- visory district. (usually three to five townships). Each community board of education is to elect one member of the intermediate board. Should this arrangement give a board of fewer than three members the problem is to be referred to a State Boundary Board, later described. ‘This inter- mediate board will select the superintendent (after the terms of the present DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1193 superintendents expire in 1926) ; raise funds for administrative, supervisory, and clerical assistance; pass upon boundary questions of the various com- munity units; approve plans for consolidation as submitted by the com- munity boards; and perform other functions, in codperation with the super- intendent, within its province, such as assisting in the selection of text- books, and in making curricula. At present all schools in communities under 4500 are under the jurisdic- tion of the district superintendent. In practice the district superintendent seldom concerns himself with the work of the village board and its prin- cipal. However, since one of the most important. objectives to be attained is the welding of a village and its outlying territory into a single educa- tional unit, it is clear that a close codperation is desirable between the dis- trict superintendent and the village principal. “To meet this problem it is therefore proposed that after 1926 the district superintendent be not only the superintendent of the intermediate board but of each community board as well. Actually it will mean that the principal of the village school is the local administrator but subject to the district superintendent. Since the superintendent will, with such assistance as may be provided as time goes on supervise the outlying schools and since he is also the chief executive officer of the village school, he is thus in a position, as time goes on, to bring the two groups into more complete codperation. 3. The recommendation of a larger local unit of control whose actual boundaries are based upon such factors as topography, social solidarity, and trade area is a third important outcome of the Survey. New York is a State of mountains, hills, valleys, lakes, and rivers of such a nature as to favor the development of rather definite areas of social and industrial contacts. In view of this situation it is planned to utilize community units for local control. Professor Works, of Cornell Uni- versity, who has for several years advocated some such unit, proposed its use in this survey and worked out the details of its application. The map on next page illustrates this proposed community unit for Delaware County, in southeastern New York. The community units here outlined were proposed after an intensive study of the situation. It will be noticed that the community is not co-terminous with the town which in the township law of 1917 had been made the local unit of administration. As may be expected in a State with long-established traditions the rural people hold to the school district. “That this is true was clearly demon- strated during the agitation that led to the repeal of the township act. ‘To meet, if possible, this attitude, the Committee has after canvassing various methods adopted a daring administrative proposal. It recommends that each present common school district be represented by its trustee upon the community board of education. The number of such districts will vary, but so far as can be determined the most frequent number will be about fifteen. The village that will usually be the center of this community district will be represented by its board of education. Should the village fear the domination of its schools by the surrounding districts it may elect 1194 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ry Um, 4 Soa FicureE 1. DELAWARE County, New York : Town (township) boundaries -- ———-— Location of villages /////// Suggested community boundaries Location of school houses indicated by dots to the board a number not exceeding the number of representatives from outlying districts. This obviously cumbersome board has something to commend it. For one thing it is clear to those in touch with the situation that provision must be made for representation of the common-school dis- tricts if any larger unit for local administration is to be secured. Then the coming together of these people will in itself be an influence tending to break down the present barriers of provincialism and suspicion. What will very likely happen after a time is that the whole board will delegate many of its functions to an executive committee. In fact it would seem that some are now ready for such an organization if we may judge by the reaction from several communities where the proposed scheme has been presented. Accordingly the committee suggests two alternative types of representation: (1) A small board of, say six, three from the village with DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1195 an equal number for the rural sections; (2) a small board of, say five or seven, elected at large. For making these community units the plan provides for the appointment by the Board of County Supervisors ofa County Boundary Board. ‘This will leave the definition of boundaries to local people. Where serious disputes arise or where adjustments must be made between counties, it is planned to submit the question to a State Commission made up of the Commissioner of Education and two persons, living under the rural educa- tion law, appointed by the Governor. “This State Commission will also have the power to determine the number of intermediate units in the State after 1926. Thus it will be seen that provision has been made for the development not only of a more intelligent interest in education but of an ability on the part of local people to perform effectively more of the functions of school control. 4. A system of finance utilizing fundamental and constant factors for equalizing educational burdens and stimulating educational progress is another contribution. At present New York as a State contributes about $32,000,000 to the support of public schools. “This is approximately 20 per cent of the entire cost. “The remainder is paid by the various districts. As is to be expected the burdens in these districts vary greatly. In 1070 common school districts Dr. Updegraff found variations from less than 1.0 mill to 38.25 mills, the median being 5.44 mills on the real valuation. In union free school districts the median real levy is 8.94 mills; in cities and village, 9.90 mills. The State funds are at present distributed largely upon district and teacher bases. While the intent has clearly been to aid according to need and effort, studies that have been made show that the methods employed fall far short of accomplishing the purpose desired. Students of educational administration are familiar with methods of dis- tributing State-school funds. Such students are coming to realize that though the attendance basis is better in general than the census; the teacher better than the attendance; the valuation basis better than the teacher, etc., none of these can accomplish fully what is wanted because the factors are not fundamental in indicating either the need or the effort of any com- munity and are not constant under varying conditions. Dr. Updegraff has presented a plan that is an important contribution to the problem of apportioning State funds. Briefly his scheme is this: He found the median real valuation back of each teacher in the State, rural, and city combined. This was about $290,000. Communities having a smaller valuation than this are therefore relatively in need of assistance. The extent to which any particular community is in need is dependent upon several factors: (1) The degree to which the per-teacher valuation of the community falls below $290,000; (2) the number of teachers employed (since the $290,000 is the valuation per teacher); (3) the amount of money it raises as indicated by the tax levy. The formula proposed by Dr. Updegraff for general aid is: ($290,000 minus the per-teacher valua- 1196 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tion) times the number of teachers times the rate in mills times .626. The .626 is a figure that shows the relationship between the present per-teacher cost of schools ($1054) and what a district with the median valuation ($290,000) could raise with the median tax rate of 5.8 mills. Under this plan a community that is relatively poor will be aided in proportion to its relative poverty and its willingness to raise money for schools. The plan will encourage better things in education because money spent for better teachers, equipment, more curricula, and the like will increase the local tax and hence the amount that the State will give. However no com- munity is to be aided beyond a local tax of 10 mills. If a community has a valuation over $290,000 per teacher a flat grant per teacher is made the grant varying with the wealth of the community. Thus a community with a per-teacher valuation of $300,000 to $399,000 will receive $40 per teacher while one with a valuation of $70,000 or over will be entitled to but $8 per teacher. In community districts in which the equalized valuation is less than $350,000 per teacher there is to be a distribution for high-school teachers on the same basis as is provided for the support of elementary schools, to apply to all districts with an equalized valuation of $350,000. Dr. Updegraff then provides special aid to supplement this general aid. Thus, assistance is to be given for the erection of buildings and for major repairs, the aid varying with the wealth of the community ; each expenditure of $1200 for transportation is to add an additional teacher to the total number for whom aid is to be given; each normal-trained teacher in the outlying schools is to receive a bonus of $20 per month. With such an equitable scheme of State distribution added to the plan of making the community unit, rather than the common school district, the unit for local taxation, one of the great obstacles to the development of rural education in New York will be swept aside. I have thus presented what seems to me to be the four most significant contributions of the New York Rural School Survey: (1) active control of the survey by a representative group of lay and professional people as a means of securing popular support; (2) the proposal of an administrative organization that looks toward a better distribution of authority in the control of schools; (3) a larger local unit of control based upon natural community boundaries; (4) a system of finance utilizing fundamental and constant factors in equalizing educational burdens and stimulating educa- tional progress. In evaluating the recommendations of the Committee of Twenty-one the reader should think of its proposals as providing not a perfected organism but a developing one. Some of the recommendations are not in accord with generally accepted administrative principles for the reason that the State is clearly not ready to accept those principles. However, the proposals do make provision for an organization that will tend to stimulate communities to overcome their own deficiencies. DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EpUCATION 1197 SECRETARY’S MINUTES Boston MEETING OFFICERS President—ERNEST BuRNHAM, Normal School............cceeeeceeececees Kalamazoo Mich. Vice-President—J. C. Muxrman, Bureau of Education.................. Washington, D. C. Secretary—MasEL Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University............ New York City Treasurer—Witi1aM M. Roszinson, Principal Junior-Senior High School........ Orleans, Vt. FIRST SESSION—Mownpay AFTERNOON, JULY 3, 1922 The Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association opened its sessions on Monday afternoon, July 3, at two o’clock in Jordan Hall of the Boston Conservatory of Music with the following program: Some Eastern Contributions to Rural Education THE HELPING TEACHER IN NEW JersEY—Rachel Anne Fuller, Helping Teacher for Morris County, N. J. MEASUREMENT As A MEANS OF SUPERVISION—Samuel S. Brooks, Union Superin- tendent of Schools, Winchester, N. H. RuRAL ScHOOL ATTENDANCE IN MaryLanp—John F. Hershner, Assistant Superin- tendent and Chief Attendance Officer, Baltimore County, Towson, Md. COMMUNITY LEAGUES AND THE COOPERATIVE EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF VIRGINIA— George W. Guy, Executive Secretary, Richmond, Va. FINANCING RuRAL ScHoots—Albert S. Cook, State Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. SECOND SESSION—WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 5, 1922 Some National Problems in Rural Education THE CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL ScHoots—Lee L. Driver, Department of Education Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Tue PLAcE OF THE ONE-TEACHER RuRAL ScHooL—Fannie W. Dunn, ‘Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. SprciaL NumBer—Presented by Rural Teachers from Shelby County, Tennessee, in honor of Charl O. Williams, President of the National Education Asso- Ciation. THE SUPERVISION OF RURAL SCHOOLS IN DELAWARE (ILLUSTRATED WITH MOTION PICTURES)—Ina G. Barnes, Rural School Supervisor, Wilmington, Del. Business MEETING. THIRD SESSION—Fripay AFTERNOON, JULY 7, 1922 Some Future Needs in Rural Education Tue NEEDS OF SMALL CHILDREN IN RuRAL CoMMuniITIES—Marion S. Hanckel, Su- pervisor of Kindergarten and Primary Grades, Richmond, Va. Tue Neep oF HicH ScHooL OpporRTUNITY FOR CouNTRY CHILDREN—William M. Robinson, Principal of the Junior-Senior High School, Orleans, Vt. Tue EXTENT AND CoNTROL OF RuRAL CuILp LAsor—Charles E. Gibbons, National Child Labor Committee, New York City. DESIRABLE FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN THE EDUCATION OF RURAL PEOPLE—Kenyon L. Butterfield, President State Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. Business MEETING At the business session on Wednesday afternoon the entire time was devoted to a consideration of the financial problems involved in the publication of the Journal of Rural Education. As a result of this discussion definite policies looking toward greater codperation and efficiency in the future management of the maga- zine were adopted. Plans for its continued publication were also approved and delegated to the Secretary for execution. 1198 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE HELPING TEACHER IN NEW JERSEY RACHEL ANNE FULLER, HELPING TEACHER, MORRIS COUNTY, DOVER, NEW JERSEY The helping teacher is New Jersey’s answer to the need of a plan for the supervision of rural schools. She is appointed by the Commissioner, her appointment is approved by the State Board of Education, and she is assigned to a county. Within the county her territory is selected by the county superintendent. It consists of those townships which are either too poor or too indifferent to secure supervision for their schools. She may thus be assigned to work in from three to seven or more townships and will direct from twenty-five to sixty teachers. The schools are largely of the one- and two-teacher type, with an increasing number of four- to six-teacher and even larger consolidated schools. In some counties there is one helping teacher, in others three or four. The county superintendent is the adminis- trative officer of the county, and all administrative work is performed by him or by the local school boards. The helping teacher’s job is specifically to improve classroom instruction and her work is expected to be purely supervisory. Entire charge of the classroom work and the pupil activity of the schools in her territory is in her hands. The main features of such supervisory work are: First—Her regular visits at intervals of from two weeks to two months; decided by (1) the geographical distribution of the schools; (2) the total number of teachers under her charge; (3) the possibility of doing a con- structive piece of work. Second—The monthly, bi-monthly, semi-yearly, or yearly, teachers’ meet- ings, conferences, and visiting days. Third—The hours and days spent by the supervisor at her own desk: thinking, planning, reading, studying, working out the solutions of the problems she will meet in the field. The visits are for observation, for the analysis of some situation brought out by the teacher or the supervisor or the trial of a solution of such a problem; or they may be for the purpose of giving special tests to measure the pupils’ progress according to a predetermined plan. ‘The visit may have been planned for the purpose of developing some activity, as: the play- ground side of physical training, or the hot lunch program, or the reor- ganization of the morning exercises to make of them a real social feature. A large proportion of the visits of the helping teacher are made with the definite aim of improving the teaching of some subject, as, geography, or hygiene, or spelling, or good citizenship. Then her work may be a dis- cussion of prepared topics with the teacher and the class. Or it may be that she will give a demonstration lesson. Or it may be that she will ‘out- line with the teacher a series of lessons or activities that will develop the subject in the manner desired. Always the visit will include friendly dis- cussion of the work observed, and always commendation of effort and progress. Generally there will be a touch of constructive criticism or sug- DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1199 gestion for betterment, but this feature is quite as likely to be the teacher’s criticism of her own work, as it is to be the supervisor’s observation. The supervisor rarely interrupts the regular program but makes herself an inconspicuous listener. Occasionally by previous arrangement she may take charge of a room to carry on;some detail of her work. There will always be a relation of preceding visits to the present one, and a looking forward to the next visit, with definite suggestions for the amount of work to be done, or progress to be made. Holding continuously in mind, as she does, the needs and abilities or each child and set of children, the single supervisor is able to direct the work of the whole school. She knows what are the best grade combina- tions to make, what organization of playground activities is best for the mixed groups of children. The helping teacher plan in operation in New Jersey is the best argument I know of against the proposal to try the advis- ability of having one supervisor to direct the primary grades, and another to guide the grammar grades. From the teacher’s standpoint think what it would mean to try to work with two or more supervisors. The organization of a one- or two-teacher school so as to benefit all pupils equally is a big task, when the teacher and the supervisor are putting their best efforts into it. Divide this task between supervisors urging the specific needs of different sections and the teacher will face an impossible situation. One supervisor will see the needs of the school as a whole, not the needs of one phase of the school’s activities. Much of her plan and policy is developed in group teachers’ meetings where by skillful leading the teachers are brought to contribute their experiences for the common good. If, as is done in New Jersey and in Delaware, the plan of one supervisor to one set of children, one supervisor to one teacher, is carried out, it becomes evident that thorough and sound training in supervision is essen- tial. No one realizes this more than does the supervisor who has worked as a helping teacher. She must not only have professional training, but she must have had a wide experience as a teacher. She must know from firsthand experience the actual schoolroom situations that arise, in each type of school. She must have faced and solved the infinite and amazing variety of problems that are the common lot of the rural teacher. She must work continuously for thorough scholarship. She must be consistent in demanding good citizenship on the part of the teachers and the children in that they shall perform thoroughly the work that is theirs to do. She must be expert in handling specific subject matter. And this must not be by any hit-or-miss method. Her experience and her training must have made her proficient in analysis, in remedial work, in applying her methods according to psychological principles. To successfully employ supervision in any line all administrative duties must be excluded. This principle was firmly entrenched in the plan which Dr. Kendall developed. Any experienced educational leader realizes that the clerical work, the school board relations, the community leadership, the thousand and one decisions of an administrator, simply clog the current of 1200 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION aS ie ee eee ee ee democratic supervision. In actual practice the helping teacher has found herself confronted by situation after situation where administrative work had to be performed by her if way was to be made clear for the progressive improvement of classroom instruction. One instance will suffice for illustration, as it is most typical of the helping teacher’s experience. No rural school has ever had an abundance of textbooks for reading. ‘The common rule is a single book for a grade. Few schools have supplementary texts. None have suitably chosen and graded books for independent reading. It became most imperative that the helping teacher set in motion machinery to get that situation changed. Neither she nor the classroom teacher could even begin to improve class- room instruction in this most fundamental subject until the administration had provided the tools. Her success in changing this condition to one in which it was possible to begin real supervisory work in the teaching of reading has led the helping teacher to undertake other administrative work. Bit by bit she has performed practically all the duties of an administrator. But she has never lost sight of the necessity for dropping such extraneous work the moment the proper authorities could be educated to see for them- selves the need of their performance. She has attended board meetings for the purpose of acquainting the officers with the conditions of their schools ; she has had to initiate programs for them and persuade the adoption of sound plans of procedure. She has been obliged to take the leadership in rousing the community from lethargy or animosity to intelligent co- cperative action in behalf of its own children. She has had to struggle to open the eyes of such an awakening community to its civic duty and privilege of electing to the school board men and women of good standing and real ability. The time for a gradual relaxing of this community work is beginning to appear in the growing strength of organizations like the home-school associations and mothers’ clubs. The helping teacher has been the prime mover and backer of such large movements for the public good as the employment of public health nurses and the elimination of the old-style medical inspector; of the establishment of the county traveling library ; of health programs on a county-wide basis; of county festivals and play days. New Jersey has reason to be proud of the splendid achievements of her most experienced helping teachers. But the helping teacher herself knows that she is but clearing her path of the bulk of administrative work that was “‘nobody’s’” business unless she made it hers. The hopeful factor is the growing recognition on the part of all educators that this type of work, wonderful and necessary as it is, is not supervision. Remarkable as have been the achievements of the body of helping teachers in the past six years they are looking forward to the time when they shall have “no administrative duties,” as was Dr. Kendall’s plan. The coming of that day will mark another goal in the progress of rural supervision. If the supervisor's policies are worth anything at all they are worth enthusiastic effort. No helping teacher but has suffered acute discourage- ment over the ineptitude of her teachers. She has large numbers of teachers DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1201 who through lack of personality, lack of scholarship, or some other reason, have no business in the schoolroom. She has others whose potentialities are great. From them she must secure, not passive acquiescence, but intel- ligent codperative performance. And this has been one of the crowning achievements of the helping teacher, She has developed a faculty for making friends, and the codperation which is inseparable from real friend- ship has followed. ‘This has made it possible for her to play a waiting game, but one in which the supervisor must inevitably win. Right here lies one of the greatest causes for discouragement and disappointment on the part of the supervisor. It is one of the best illustrations of the need for more thorough and intelligent administration. I refer to the teacher turn- over, which yearly sifts out, not the incompetent and the unfit, but the best of the rural teachers. To make friends with from twenty-five to sixty teachers is in itself no mean accomplishment. ‘To bring these diverse natures into agreement and harmony of action, and lay plans for another year’s growth is tremendous gain. How discouraging then to find that the new year presents a fifty per cent change of personnel, and all the delicate work of establishing the right relationship must be done over again. Not until the administration sees that it is an acute money loss to allow this situation to remain unchanged is it going to be cured. It is an administrative duty to see that salaries paid to good teachers are sufficient to hold these teachers year after year. It is the administrator’s work to provide right physical conditions and to supply sufficient and proper equipment. It is unquestionably the administrator’s duty to remove the inefficient teacher. An element that is beginning to present itself as a partial solution is the large number of splendid young people now coming up through the elemen- tary schools under helping teacher supervision. For the helping teachers who worked with Dr. Kendall, Mr. Scott, Mr. Pitkin, learned to clarify their own plans so that the ultimate aim was as clear as any past perform- ance could be. Day by day, week by week, year after year, they learned to eliminate non-essentials. They concentrated on essentials, and analyzed each essential into its parts. Step after step was made plain. Purpose, plan, method, procedure, was worked over and over. Unlimited patience went into the perfecting of technique, but under that was infinite care of the details of preparation. ‘Teachers have learned to know themselves and steadfastly adhere to a program of advancement. Pupils are beginning to see that their little tasks are a part of a whole, and that the perfection of the whole depends upon the sound construction of each tiny part. Teachers, patrons, pupils, have learned to look to the helping teacher for educational leadership, and to compel themselves to greater achievement along the lines of modern education. Some of these young people will be trained and ready before many years to take teaching positions. ‘Their advent into the ranks will mark another big step in the development of rural supervision by the helping teachers. For these young people are going to enter the work with a newly created respect for and loyalty to rural education. And they 1202 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION will be prompt and enthusiastic in their acceptance of all that wise super- vision can mean. This marks, I believe, the end of the first epoch of helping teacher super- vision. I venture to prophesy that the next big goal reached by the workers ‘n rural education in New Jersey will be a complete acceptance of the helping teacher’s role as the educational leader in her territory. Educa- tional plans and policies as applied to that territory will be adopted only after receiving her careful consideration and approval. The whole educa- tional scheme of rural communities under helping teacher supervision will be laid along broad lines, will be planned well into the future, will be sound in every detail. The foundation for this belief lies in one phrase of Dr. Kendall’s first report on the appointment of helping teachers in New Jersey, and has to do with helping teacher work as a profession. Dr. Kendall said: ‘“‘A condition of employment shall be attendance upon summer school.” An innocent requirement, but one fraught with the largest possibilities. Under the stimulation and inspiration of Dr. Kendall’s wise leadership the helping teacher has grown to be not only a superior teacher with undeveloped potentialities, but a woman of wide and sound experience, broadly educated, holding bachelor’s and master’s degrees in her chosen field. She has raised her own standards, and has deepened her respect for the field of rural work. Given the right freedom now the helping teacher form of supervision will spell for the rural children under it the real beginning of equal educational opportunity. I would not leave this subject without warning again that to permit rural supervisors, helping teachers, or whatever they may be called, to continue to do a large part of the work of the administrator, is to kill the best devel- opment of rural work. Each has its place and its part: the pupils, the » teacher, the supervisor, the administrator, the school board, and the com- munity and its organizations. The supervisor’s work must be allowed to widen and deepen its own channel, else this growth of alien work will dan- gerously disguise its course. The ways and means employed by the helping teacher and the tasks she has undertaken are so varied that a perusal of the yearly reports of that first group fascinates the reader. Her accomplishments have been great. Much of what she has done could be challenged as being not supervisory but legitimate administrative work. Yet the greatness of the need and the delays to the real work of the helping teacher if this administrative work were not performed, have in practically every instance justified the tem- porary employment of such means. All of the work of the first helping teachers, whether strictly supervisory or wholly administrative ; whether it belonged in the activities of the helping teacher, or was the duty of the administrator, the school board, or the community, if it has contributed, and is contributing, to the arousing of rural America from its educational somnolence, has been and is, sound policy. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1203 COMMUNITY LEAGUES OF VIRGINIA AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO RURAL EDUCATION GEORGE W. GUY, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, COOPERATIVE EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF VIRGINIA, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA The Coéperative Education Association of Virginia was organized in 1904 as a part of the great educational revival of the South. In 1905 it conducted the historic “May Campaign” during which time the State was covered with speakers in the interest of educational opportunities for the youth of the Old Dominion. It conducted the first two educational con- ferences held in Virginia, which conferences were participated in by the Department of Public Instruction and the State Teachers’ Association and have come now to be the great educational gathering of the forces of educa- tion in Virginia during Thanksgiving week. The Association is under the direction of the Governor of Virginia, the State departments, the higher institutions of learning and a group of citi- zens. ‘The State superintendent of public instruction is chairman of the Executive Committee. The Association organized the movement to interest our citizenship in public education and for this purpose it formed “School and Civic Leagues,” with the schoolhouse as a center of work. These Leagues have developed into community leagues—centers where is crystallized the sentiment which finds expression in better schools, better health, better churches, and Sunday schools, better recreation, better care of the poor and delinquent, better homes, beauty and cleanliness of the home town, and better community leadership. The plan is to help and inspire the people to help themselves and to get the unorganized communities organized for self-help. The grown people are organized into community leagues and the school children into junior community leagues and the organizations work to- gether. The leagues of each county are organized into a federation with a president in charge of the county work; the county federations are organized into districts, with a Chairman in charge, following the same plan as that used by the State Teachers’ Association. The local leagues meet once a month or oftener, the county federation at the time of the teachers’ insti- tutes in the fall and the district rally as a part of the district educational conference, usually in the spring. The State meeting is held as a part of the State Educational Conference Thanksgiving week. Over 600 citizens were present last year at the State meeting, in addition to hundreds of teachers who visited the exhibits of the Association and attended its sessions. These league delegates were given an opportunity to make report of work accomplished during the year, business sessions are held and plans for the coming year’s work discussed. Congressman Horace Mann Towner, co-author of the Towner-Sterling Bill, was our principal speaker last year and addressed our delegates on The Citizen’s Interest in Education, explaining in detail the creation of a Department of Education, with a Secretary in the President’s cabinet. 1204 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION The Association is a big citizens’ organization having for its prime pur- pose the betterment of the educational and civic needs of Virginia and the Nation. It is composed of men and women, boys and girls, officials and non-officials, all working together through the leagues with one aim, one hope, and one supreme faith for the development of the highest type of citi- zenship. The late Franklin K. Lane said that the thing that impressed him so favorably with the work was that it was so practical, that we did not waste our time with vague theories as wide as the world but got down to the one big job of the world—in making the home town and all its parts better to look at, live in, and work with. Dr. W. S. Learned, of the Carnegie Foundation, who studied our Association very closely, says: “The Cooperative Education Association is the most appropriate, comprehensive, and effective organization in bringing about community codperation with special reference to schools that is to be seen anywhere in the country and its vitality is particularly evident from its success in accomplishing so much with so little money.” The keystone of the Association is coéperation and where we have loyal, whole-hearted codperation it follows as night follows day, we must have progress. Our motto: “Every public school in Virginia a community center where the citizens may unite for the improvement of their educational, social, moral, physical, civic, and economic interests.” A broad program; yes, but it takes a broad program to enlist the citizenship of a State. Last year there were approximately 400,000 citizens who came together to dis- cuss and study the various phases of school and community work, under the auspices of the community leagues. As a result of these group meetings intelligent public sentiment was created for the improvement of schools which has resulted in the passage of several million dollars in bond issue for schools quite recently. Public opinion is fast crystallizing for a large bond issue for roads. The health meetings held in various communities, in co- operation with the State Board of Health, have reduced typhoid fever from 14,000 to less than 3000 cases, or a saving of $11,000,000, apart from the loss of life, suffering, and suspense. Monthly programs are sent to the local leagues, emphasizing each month some particular phase of work to be done. Each State department head sends a special letter to the leagues calling attention to the needs along their particular line. The leagues are asked to do definite work and the sug- gestions are given them in a very concrete manner. For instance, take this month—July. A Citizenship Day Celebration has been planned for them and a copy of the program, with appropriate readings, music, pageant, etc., sent to each organization. The Governor of Virginia wrote a special mes- sage to our workers, calling upon them to set aside the fourth of July in celebration of CITIZENSHIP, its opportunities and responsibilities. The mayor of Philadelphia sent a beautiful photograph of the Liberty Bell for reproduction in our paper, ‘“The Community League News,” and the Com- munity Service, Inc., supplied a pageant which we printed and distributed. Special request was made for honoring the new voters of the State—the DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EDUCATION 1205 young men and young women who have acquired the right to vote within the past year, bringing to their attention the questions of vital interest to our citizens at this time. The reports that come to our office show this year 116 definite objectives, including every activity from cleaning the schoolhouse to the erection of buildings and teacherages. The leagues assisted in equipping schools wth adequate laboratories and libraries, playground and athletic equipment, supplemented salaries of the teachers, principals, and janitors, purchased pianos and phonographs, and moving-picture machines, enter- tained the teachers at institutes and at the beginning of the school session. Nearly two hundred thousand dollars was raised by 891 leagues that reported to the central office last year and the small beginning started by these leagues grew into a considerable amount as a community project. Three leagues that I have in mind raised less than $17,000 in actual money, yet their plants aggregate nearly two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Many times the league will raise the first hundred or thousand dollars and as the interest in the work is increased the sum grows by leaps and bounds until a new building, a teacherage, an auditorium, or ample equipment has been secured. Many times I have seen a few books grow into a community library, a few bricks into a modern consolidated school and large, uninviting fields to attractive playgrounds with rollicking, romping children enjoying life to its fullest extent. “The magic touch of the league animated by the com- munity spirit has wrought a wonderful work among our rural schools. The biggest thing we have after all is not the development of the commer- cial and industrial activities, the size of our bank accounts or the expanse and extent of our territorial domain, the biggest thing that we have is that community spirit. “That is the cement that binds our society together and has made America the leader of nations. If America is to continue to be great and be the Good Samaritan among the peoples of the earth she must still rely upon that community spirit which has given us our place of power, influence, and prestige. Advantages of community effort—1. The leagues will become recruiting stations. They will discover men and women of initiative and directive power that might otherwise escape notice. ‘They will set free the energy in the mass of our people as well as in the advantaged man. All the people, if united, in a noble purpose can accomplish far more than the most tran- scendent genius, even Napoleon himself if he attempts it single handed. The spirit of the whole educational movement condenses itself into the one word, cooperation. 2. The people on the spot know better the needs of the neighborhood than the leaders at a distance. If States differ, communities vary. 3. Through the leagues you enlist the constructive interest of all the citizens. The distinctive thing about the present educational revival is the part played by the citizens as distinguished from the teachers and officials. In seeking to energize democracy in the South, the school is merely a means 1206 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to an end. To stir the interest of citizens, to enlist their resources, to vitalize every neighborhood is the object of the leagues. 4. The local leagues give vitality to a community’s will. What the brain is to the body that organization is to the community. Too long in the South the neighborhood has lacked a nucleating center for social prog- ress which the school is admirably adapted to supply. 5. The whole program of the South is found in miniature in the neigh- borhood. ‘The reclamation of exhausted soils, the improvement of roads, the development of industries, the betterment of the home, the growth of public libraries, the frank discussion of every public issue—all these aspects of Southern life lead up in the local league, which through the school tries to give efficiency to the community’s will in the interest of progress. “Thus the scope of the school is far wider than what we ordinarily mean by the term education. ‘The school is to be the agency through which the eco- nomic, social, intellectual, political, and religious conditions in the neighbor- hood are to be transformed according to the spirit of order, progress, and national well-being. The Rural Life Conference held in Richmond, May, 1921, the first State Conference of its kind held south of the Potomac River, was called through the suggestion of the Association. In this conference every State depart- ment having to do with rural life codperated, and as a result citizens from every section of Virginia were in attendance during the two-days’ conference. A permanent committee of 25, with Congressman R. Walton Moore as its Chairman, was formed for the purpose of conducting a State-wide cam- paign, holding group meetings in every school district in the State, using local, State, and National speakers for the purpose of stimulating a more definite and vigorous interest in the rural life conditions and to knit more closely together the agricultural, educational, religious, and all organiza- tions having a common purpose. ‘The campaign has just been conducted most successfully; over five hundred speakers volunteered their services; county directors were appointed and throughout all sections of the State group meetings were held that people might get together and discuss their own problems in their own way. This simultaneous effort has brought forth most enthusiastic and inspiring ‘reports; many definite things have been accomplished and the campaign will be of tremendous value to our rural folk. At a meeting held recently in our State the band played “America” and the audience stood and sang the familiar words. As the last strains of the song died away, one of the men present, with tears of patriotic delight trickling down his cheeks, turned to his neighbor and said, “Oh, that I could die for my country.’ My friends, there is a patriotism of peace as well as war and history tells us that where one government has been de- stroyed by wars and pestilence and all other calamities combined, corrup- tion in time of peace has undermined a score. ‘There is just as much patriotism in giving one’s time to the betterment of civic conditions, in getting good people into office as in baring one’s breast to the bullets of the enemy in time of war. In every sphere of life the right, the true, the - DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1207 law, education must always be fought for; the wrong, the lawless, the igno- rant must always be fought against. It is not enough to be merely against wrong; you must be actively against it for your influence to count. The farmer must not only sow the useful grain, but he must care for it and mature it, while the briars and thistles sown by accident and cared for by chance will flourish anywhere. So a field neglected will not grow up in useful grain, but in briars and thistles. A child neglected will not become educated or a good citizen of its own accord, but he will become bad and ignorant and to make that child good and to educate him takes the activity, the energy, and the best thought of the community. There is a story of an Eastern King who caused a great palace to be erected as the abode of majesty and power. Stone by stone the structure grew and the heart of the king swelled with pride. One morning the palace was in ruins. ‘What great treason hath been accomplished here!”’ the king exclaimed. But a wise man of the court thus admonished the king: “There has been no treason here, thy house that was great and mighty has fallen, because the builders used mortar without sand, hence their work has come to ruin.” So with the State; external grandeur counts for nothing. We may calculate our wealth as the sands of the sea, we may build the domes of our capitals and the spires of our churches until they pierce the clouds and glitter among the stars; all must fall and crumble away unless it be welded and strengthened by those principles of Christian education that constitute the groundwork of an enlightened citizenship. THE CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS LEE L. DRIVER, DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF RURAL EDUCATION, DEPART- MENT OF EDUCATION, HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA It might not be profitable to go into the history of consolidation very much, but I believe it would be of interest to trace in a brief way some or the high spots in the depelopment of this class of school. Consolidated schools have not arisen like mushrooms; they are the result of a gradual growth. Mr. W. S. Booth and Mr. U. J. Hoffman in the Illinois Bulletin on Consolidation of Schools, 1921, in answer to the ques- tion—““When and where did the idea of consolidation originate ?”—gave this answer: In 1853 a law was passed in New York permitting consolidation. ‘This law was amended in 1864 but not much progress was made. Massachusetts claims to be the pioneer in this work. In 1869 Massachusetts passed a law permitting both consolidation and transportation. Not much progress was made in this State until 1890 when the movement gained much headway. The movement was not taken up in other States until 1889 when the Connecticut legislature first authorized the consolidation of districts and in a few years pro- vided for transportation. Maine, Rhode Island, and Vermont soon followed with laws authorizing consolidation of schools. Pennsylvania authorized the expenditure of school money for transportation in 1897 and the consolidation of schools in 1991. Ohio started the work in 1894 and made the law State-wide in 1898, and made an additional advance in 1914. Indiana first authorized consolidation and trans- portation in 1889. Perhaps the greatest development of the plan has been in 1208 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Ce a Ee Indiana, Ohio, and Iowa. Minnesota has also made great progress in consolida- tion. The movement has gained headway in the southern and western States. In fact, the plan seems to be a Nation-wide movement. Mr. Burr F. Jones, Agent for Elementary Education in the Massachu- setts Bulletin of 1920, says: It would be difficult to say when and where the first consolidation of schools occurred in Massachusetts. In the larger towns centralization of schools occurred at a very early date. The Latin grammar schools of the seventeenth century were centralized schools, each school being established for the benefit of the whole town, and the pupils being required to know how to read before admission was granted. For the purpose of supplying this elementary knowledge of reading, dame schools had been established by many towns before the Revolutionary War. By 1850, a third division, the intermediate school, had become common. In 1847 Boston instituted the graded school with separate classrooms, a type which was widely and speedily copied in the larger towns of the State. In the rural communities progress was not so rapid. By 1869, however, enough centralization had been effected to bring about the passage of an act to authorize towns to raise and appropriate money for conveying pupils to and from the public schools, the monev so raised to be expended by the school committee at its discre- tion. Towns immediately took advantage of this provision, both to convey remotely situated pupils to the high schools, and to convey elementary-school pupils from small districts to larger ones. In his annual report of 1880, to the Massachusetts Board of Education, Secretary John W. Dickinson recommended “that the towns unite their very small schools, if they happen to have any, into larger ones. If neces- sary, a small appropriation may be made for the transportation of those pupils who would otherwise be obliged to walk a long distance. This plan is already adopted in many towns, and wherever it has been faithfully tried it has proved eminently satisfactory.” An Iowa Bulletin states, ‘““The first consolidated school in lowa was organized at Buffalo Center, Winnebago County. ‘Transportation of pupils was begun in 1897, and by 1899 the new system was well estab- lished. ‘The second consolidated school in the State was established at Terrill in 1901, the third at Marathon, 1902, and the fourth in Lake Township, Clay County, 1903.” In The Story of Rural School Consolidation in Indiana we find the following: Caleb Mills, a pioneer educator of Indiana, probably was the father of the con- solidated school idea. As far back as 1856, when he was the State superintendent of public instruction, Mr. Mills put forward some suggestions looking to the abandonment of the one-room, one-teacher district school. He favored the larger units and drew the fire of much opposition. In his report for 1856 he presented his views. ; The superior wisdom and economy of the large over the small districts, said he, become apparent on a fair exhibit and impartial comparison of their legitimate results. A township of thirty-six square miles may be divided into districts of two miles square, as many of them really are. Thus carved, it presents nine cozy, quasi corporations with a corresponding number of children, often so small as to forbid the establishment of a school, or, if established, so insignificant as to belittle the enterprise and leave an unfavorable impression of its real character and consequence on the public mind. These nine schools, enfeebled by their numerical poverty, languish, droop and become so attenuated that it is difficult to ascertain whether there is any literary life and activity in either teachers or taught. It is a very natural conclusion that is often reached and acted on by trustees, that the schools are too small to justify the employment of first-class DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1209 teachers and therefore an inferior grade is sought and installed in these centers of literature and science to engineer their charge through the sublime mysteries of their own ignorance, put in the time and obtain a certified claim to a portion of the public funds. A more legitimate conclusion from given premises was never reached than that small districts insure small and ill-furnished structures, short terms, incompetent teachers and corresponding instruction, lifeless schools, and unawakened intellects. a p Eqyally interesting information could be had from various parts of America. It will be seen, however, that the idea of consolidation seems to have originated in Massachusetts, at least it was first practiced there. Mr. Mills, however, seems to have been the first one west of the Appalachians to advocate this policy. There is no movement before the rural-school people today of greater importance than the consolidation of its schools and there certainly is no problem that is receiving greater attention on the part of school adminis- trators in all the States. The little red schoolhouse of song and story has ceased to function commensurate with the demands made upon society. Of course, there are those who harken back to the time “when we were boys” and view with a great deal of alarm that the institutions so near and dear to them are to be superseded by modern institutions. A school administrator is constantly coming into contact with those who are opposed to this system and who offer all sorts of reasons, excuses, and suggestions as to why the new school should not be instituted. In other words, their policy is more of opposition than of construction. Back of the objection is the objector and before his position can be fully understood, his real motive must be known. ‘The mere assignment of a reason does not necessarily carry with it any weight. For example, we have on file in our Department this objection to the consolidated school, “The condition of our roads.” One community objects to it because their roads are all improved, while another community objects to it because none of their roads are improved. ‘The first states that it is unwise to travel on an improved road with children; the second that it is impossible to travel with children on an unimproved road. Of course, back of this is the real reason for their not wanting the school. Right here let us note that practically every objection, where consolidation is feasible, can be removed by proper administration. Before consolidation is attempted in a community a thorough survey of that community should be made. ‘This should be done by the county superintendent, at least it should be county-wide so that the entire county may be covered in the program and that no obscure community may be left hopelessly stranded. ‘This survey should include the topography, the number, location, and condition of the public highways, the number and location of residences; the centers of population; the trade, civic, church, and political centers; assessed valuations ; the possibilities of growth and improvement of the general character of the people. No pains should be spared to educate the people of a community to the needs of such a school. The people should be prepared to go with the movement as much as it is possible although the time has never been, and 1210 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION probably will never be, that one could wait until all the people were favor- able to the project. Majorities are not always right and oftentimes the weight of an intelligent minority in a community should be considered rather than the majority of people. I like to think that the determining factor should be the majority of the intelligence of a community rather than a majority of number. This school should be established with the view of meeting the neetls of the life of the people of the community. We do not need to discuss here that the course of study should appeal to the people. Every child is entitled to be educated for the life he is to live, and he should be given opportunity in his elementary school, as well as in high school to help form a basis for determining what his work is to be. The fundamentals should be given, and in addition to that music, drawing, commercial work, and vocational work should be offered. Every consolidated school should, as far as pos- sible, consist of both elementary and high school. If the full four-year high school cannot be established then as much of it as is feasible should be. ‘The school building should be large enough to more than meet the needs of the community. We presume that more mistakes have been made, often- times with the full knowledge of the administrators, in erecting buildings too small than in any other one thing. The pioneer in this movement especially found it impossible to have auditoriums, gymnasiums, and labora- tories. The location of the building is important. Generally speaking it should be located to give the greatest opportunity to the greatest number of chil- dren with the least amount of transportation. “This is often modified, however, by the topography and condition of the roads. In conducting a campaign for consolidated schools, we have generally found that it is best to permit the question of the particular location to go unconsidered until all other necessary problems have been solved. People will quarrel more upon this point than upon any, or probably, all other points put together. But when a school is once established, its success is only partially assured. Among the greatest problems of administration is that of transportation. A careful study should be made of the school community. ‘Transportation routes should be established that will require a minimum amount of dis- tance and time. ‘The transportation vehicle should be placed in charge of a thoroughly responsible driver. Ordinarily, the vehicle should be owned by the school district, but whether it is or is not owned by the district the directors should insist that it is sanitary, warm, safe, and comfortable for the children. ‘Too much attention and care cannot be paid to the selection of the driver. If people in the community are to do the work, we have found it ordinarily best to employ the man whose children are the first on the wagon and the last to leave it. This places the responsibility for the time of leaving, where objection is most apt to be raised. Many States have adopted the plan of the teachers driving the school conveyances. ‘This has been done with a great deal of success, especially in those places where the teachers live in a teacherage, or near the school DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1211 building. There should be a definite route established with a definite schedule and an insistence upon the vehicle maintaining this schedule. The driver should be placed under bond as well as contract for the efficient ren- dition of his work. A copy of a contract that has been found acceptable in many communities will be found at the end of this article. In most States, the wagon driver has by law been given the full power of control as well as responsibility of the children while in the conveyance to and from school. This is as it should be. The county superintendent, as well as the school directors, should always investigate any legitimate objections, or complaints, that arise. When this is done they will be in a much better position to suggest a remedy. A garage, or suitable shelter, should be provided at the school building for the housing of the school vehicle. Teacherages should be built wherever possible in connection with the consolidated school. Many States have authorized the building of these homes out of public funds. So far as we know all States which have estab- lished teacherages are convinced that it is a wise thing to do. A consolidated school should be so administered that it becomes the logical center for all community activities and if it does not become such a center, it isn’t functioning as it should. Public sentiment, as well as community character, can be formed and shaped in the consolidated school. The school soon reflects the real spirit of the community. The school builds the com- munity as well as the community builds the school. The consolidated school gives school directors an opportunity to expend public money in the most efficient way. It gives them the opportunity to apply the fundamental principle that schools should be administered on the policy of not how little, or how cheap they can be maintained, but how well, and how much can be efficiently expended. The taxpayer’s interest must, of course, be considered, but this is best considered when his money is expended to the best interest of the child. School taxes should be regarded as an investment, and the school should give the investor return for his money. ‘This return, of course, will come in character, a high-grade citizenship, and a community stability that is worthwhile. The period of the little red one-room school wherever it can be elimi- nated is past. Conditions no longer warrant such a wasteful expenditure of public funds, or, far worse, the lack of opportunity for boys and girls. Children are not chattels, although they are so regarded in some places; they are beings entrusted to the care of the schools, and the schools can only perform that obligation best when they have given to these children the best that is possible to obtain. In every State in the Union and in practically every community in which consolidation has been given a fair trial, consolidated schools have fully established their superiority over the ungraded school. We gave in the opening of this paper a sketch of the beginning of this movement. But today we are not so much interested as to who had the first consolidated school as we are in knowing who has the last consolidated school, and you can easily find out who has the last consolidated school in any given com- munity by asking its superintendent. 1212 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TRANSPORTATION CONTRACT Route N Osisheasiis) it ca ae eer Ceorekenstts tata COUDtY <2 or cielas see rae ‘Township This agreement entered into this ........ daysot frei. a 19.., by and between tHe os seeiets eats 3a School) District Ot mo. -ie ore County, by its Board of School Directors, party of the first part, and ............ OL eee ss , party of the second part. ; The party of the first part hereto hereby contracts with the party of the second part for the transportation to the ................ School of all of the children of school age which reside along or adjacent to the route hereinafter scheduled dur- ing the school year 19..-19.. upon the terms and conditions hereinafter specified. 1. The party of the first part shall pay to the party of the second part the sum OP gh cits cake sesoes dollars per day for every day he transports said children, said payments to be made at the end of each school month unless otherwise specified. 2 Thetparty/ of the Sx uratrnee part shall furnish the conveyance to be used and maintain the same in good order and repair. 3. The expense of operating said conveyance, if it be horse drawn, shall be borne by the party of the second part. He shall furnish, keep and feed all horses, supply and maintain all harness and other incidental equipment necessary. The party of the first part shall supply at its own cost all gasoline, oil, grease, tires, and other necessary equipment if said conveyance be motor driven. The party of the second part shall keep said conveyance in a clean and sanitary condition and shall wash it sufficiently to maintain the paint and metal parts in good appearance. 4. The conveyance herein provided for shall be operated on the following schedule, a copy of which shall be supplied to the person in charge or control of the children to be transported. Beginning at: | ‘Time Returning to Time we ele Wee 60 0 6 04 le 6 0 0 0 Wieis 06 0 sie s)||| 6.0 6 07s lspele.6|liegu ele jel senile 616.9) /5,16) 4.6 6 ie thas (6 \e esl ahale: bee \e nn eladelate Ce eee oe erecercc nen cereere ree eelovresseecelesecerecre eo eee weseresscwescenrieceseceso Oe fel Che epale..e a, 6e eleke, 6 eels s 0.0/6 0.6 0) ¢ elle cole ase! 6/0) « | 016, 0] «(ate 6s)e (aisle ens) eleleic siepele ie; eeiare i suels oX0e) 6be.s Cees ecce cece eee e608 00 Oe 6 tee ele 0 00 6 © © 00] 0.00 « 610 6 606 0s) eles © 016 6 910 ss) ee 0 © |e ep) seks hele 5. The party of the second part is expected to wait a reasonable length of time for the children along his route and shall not leave any point on his schedule before two minutes after the time designated thereon, unless all children to be transported from said point are on board the conveyance. The said party of the second part shall have control of all children while they are being transported by him and shall maintain discipline while said children are in his charge or control. He shall treat all children in a gentlemanly and civil manner and shall care for and safeguard them to the best of his ability. He shall not use tobacco or permit it to be used by anyone in said conveyance while children are being transported. He shall cause the conveyance to come to a full stop before crossing any steam or electric railway and ascertain positively that it is safe to cross said railway before attempting to do so. He shall take such other care and precautions as the law or good judgment may require to safeguard those in his charge. 6. This contract shall not be transferred or assigned without the written consent of the party of the first part endorsed on the reverse side hereof. No temporary substitute may undertake the duties of the party of the second part without the consent of the party of the first part. 7. The party of the second part further agrees to give reports and information to the party of the first part or its designated representative, upon request, concern- ing the conduct of the children, the condition of the conveyance, maintenance of schedule, or other matters connected with this contract. 8. Any violation of the terms of this contract may, at the option of the party of the first part, operate as a forfeiture thereof. } 9. The party of the first part shall adjust all matters arising out of this contract not specifically provided for therein. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION LAS In witness whereof the parties above named have hereto set their hands and seals the day and year aforesaid. rd (School District) By ae cortare tne ioe fy ctois, Savane c.0Ke arene ee oN MA President. ai Ce y Secretary. [SEAL. | Bond Know all men by these presents, that we ...............s0s0 as Principal, and Merete ie esve rere aussie. crs ass Aste sans as surety or sureties are held and firmly bound Linttor themey ci. e. eas School/District “of Te: ete. leee ee fe Awe oa. ee County, Penna., its successors or assigns, in the sum of .............. ; to which payment well and truly to be made, we do bind ourselves, our heirs, executors, and administrators, and every of them, firmly by these presents; sealed with our seal, "and dated the 2.s/02 4). . 3. daylot RUMI ee... A. D. one thousand nine hundred and twenty. The condition of this obligation is such, that if the above bounden ............ SPER TO ERIOT SOE , his heirs, executors, administrators, or any of them, shall and do well and truly comply with all of the conditions and undertakings in the fore- going contract to the best of their ability and do fulfill all the terms thereof unless duly released therefrom and particularly do at all times exercise special care and caution for the welfare of the children transported under the foregoing contract, and provided that the said principal or sureties shall reimburse the district for all loss incurred by reason of the non-performance or mis-performance of the duties specified in said contract, then this obligation shall be void and of none effect, but otherwise it shall remain in full force and virtue. Assignment For value received the party of the second part hereto hereby transfers, sets over, AMGMASSI OMS CO) Relves eeelogsioncle’: teers all of his right, title, and interest in and to the foregoing contract which said assignment, to be valid, shall be approved by party of the first part. DMopranyel WI cagesoageoce day7 OLfebeisaicet cries «e byatdeast doe be oe pra: School District. Pe ee 1214 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE NEED OF HIGH SCHOOL OPPORTUNITY FOR COUNTRY CHILDREN WILLIAM M. ROBINSON, PRINCIPAL OF THE JUNIOR-SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, ORLEANS, VERMONT President Harding is quoted as saying, “The opportunity for country boys and girls to have high-school education is all too slight;, <4 2 —aNG owe it to the childhood of the nation and the childhood of the agricultural districts of our land, to place at its disposal the utmost in educational facili- ties.’ The need for more rural high schools is imperative. Government reports in 1910 show that 85 per cent of the high schools in the United States are rural, i. e., high schools supported by communities with popu- lations of less than 2500. ‘These enroll 40 per cent of all high-school students. This means, assuming that the numbers of urban and rural pupils of high school age are equal, that the urban child has a 50 per cent better chance than the rural child to be in high school. A study made by the supervising teachers of the State of Wisconsin, which does not count the number failing or dropping out of school, shows that 54 per cent of the pupils who graduated from the 8th grade in the rural schools in June, 1920, went on to high school. Another study of twenty-five counties shows that out of 3187 children in the 8th grade in rural schools in June, 1921, 2026 received diplomas and only 1052 of these went on to high school. ‘These figures do not include the 33 per cent who drop out before reaching the seventh grade, or the mortality between the grades and the high school would be considerably higher. A partial study made by the Bureau of Education in 1918, indicates that but 5 per cent of all rural pupils graduate from high school as compared to 29 per cent of all urban pupils. “This means in terms of high school graduation, that the city child has almost six times the opportunity of the country child. Does this seem fair to the rural child who has already been handicapped in the elementary school by a 40 per cent less per capita expendi- ture per year, by a school year shorter by over two months, and by an average daily attendance nearly 20 per cent poorer than that of the urban child? ‘This handicap is not lessened by the fact that he is being trained by rural teachers, one third of whom have never completed even a high school course and hence are likely to give him a training less broad and of poorer quality than that received by the urban child. The one-room school is not, except under rarest circumstances, a good school for rural children between 12 and 16 years of age. Except where consolidated schools exist, little or no adequate provision is made for the continued general education of rural young people between these ages. Many of the rural high schools as they now exist are futile agencies for the continued cultural and civic education of those of their pupils who are not planning to meet college entrance requirements. And college authorities inform us that even this 5 per cent or less are very poorly trained. How may we meet the urgent need of high-school opportunity for country DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1205 children? ‘he solution lies first, in arousing the rural folk to a recogni- tion of their need of educational equality, second, in providing school organizations and courses of study suited to their needs, third, in securing rural-minded teachers, professionally trained for these schools. I shall discuss each of these briefly. ; Publicity is one of the most frequently recommended methods of reform in rural school conditions. Sentiment must be aroused by press editorials, school notes, school demonstrations and exhibits of work, community meet- ings and parent-teachers’ associations, and the enthusiasm of the teachers. The people must be aroused from their lethargic attitude toward the tradi- tional rural schools with their inferior educational facilities. An apprecia- tion of the rural school must be developed. People must get the vision that its aim is not to prepare for soft snaps nor white collar jobs, but for real citizenship. They must become acquainted with the new demands made on the school and its changes to meet these demands. “They must be helped to see that a high school education is an investment fitting pupils to their places in society and paying dividends to the community, the State, and the Nation. School trustees must be led to see that their primary function is not to supervise nor administer the work of the school, but to employ one for that purpose who is specially trained in these lines and hold him strictly accountable for results. To those who may object to educational progress on the basis of higher taxes involved we may add that it is probable that by the time the rural folk may be aroused to their need, that sufficient Federal and State funds will be available for distribution among those districts unable to support an adequate program of education to give them equality in educational opportunities. But interest alone is not enough to enroll and to hold pupils in the rural high school. Its type of organization and offerings should appeal to rural pupils. In this day of propaganda, of destructionists, fusionists, and advo- cates of the game, we must cautiously choose our way. Occasionally, however, a movement is set on foot that seems sufficiently in accord with experience and with common sense to give some promise of permanence and hence to justify serious consideration. I refer to the rural junior high-school movement which I have had the opportunity to observe at work for the past three years. In the last six or seven years in Vermont these schools have grown in number from five to fifty. Briefly stated the Vermont junior high school includes the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth grades. Some of the advantages of this organization are, first, it facilitates de- parture from the antiquated traditional methods and subject matter since patrons and teachers alike are unaccustomed to it, and changes may be made with little outside objection. Second, it recognizes the principle of individual difference, those of adolescence being given special attention. Third, it affords social, moral, intellectual, and physical environment better adapted to the seventh and eighth grades than older organizations. Fourth, according to reports from various parts of the country, it has greater hold- 1216 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION ing power on the pupils, due to more interesting material, better organiza- tion, and more effective administration. In my own school before the high school included the seventh and eighth grades, an average of only 82 per cent of the pupils promoted from the eighth grade, entered high school, whereas during the last three years an average of 96 per cent entered the high school. The junior-senior high school organization involves more than depart- mental instruction and the mere inclusion of the seventh and eighth grades in the high school. It means a reorganization, and in some cases elimina- tion, of the present subject matter which is traditional and the result of compromise rather than conscious development in the light of recent dis- coveries. Its subject matter must be suited to the needs of the majority rather than to the small number preparing for normal school and college. Its courses must use the rural environment as their background or setting to intrepret the various studies—but they will not emphasize the science and practice of agriculture as a vocation at the expense of any other vocation and thus cause prejudice or undue force in determining any child’s choice of life work. The junior high school in addition to continuing much of the common training begun in the lower grades, tending to integrate society, shall offer in so far as possible short course of exploratory material well worth while in itself to reveal the possibilities in the various major fields of learning and thus assist the pupils in their choice of studies in the senior high school which will contribute to the general fields of their liking. What subject matter shall be included in its course depends upor: tts relative contribution to the objectives of education, namely, health, com- mand of fundamental processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citi- zenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character, as announced by the Committee on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. And I am inclined to think that emphasis in the rural school should be placed on the objectives of home membership, health, citizenship, and the wise use of leisure. The rural pupil who chooses to be a farmer, needs an education that will enable him to live a full life in the country. If he chooses to enter any other vocation such a foundation will equip him for a satisfactory life in that vocation. I shall now pass to my third point without mentioning any of the new subject-matter or courses that will contribute largely to these latter objectives since much of it is now known to most of you. You must have rural-minded teachers, professionally trained for the rural high school. ‘Teaching in rural schools is in all ways exacting and exhausting. It calls into play the teacher’s every gift and power, with the obvious result that it makes great demands upon health, spirits, and courage. All of these are necessary in a high degree to its success. “The teacher is quite often the only personal point of contact with the world living outside the community. His relation to the pupil must be peculiarly personal and sympathetic. Teaching so personal, variable, and subtle, above all other teaching should not be left to a young urban college graduate without DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1217 professional training or a low-salaried unprogressive teacher. We must have inspirational teachers. The best rural teachers are such because they are filled with the spirit of rural life and have an understanding of rural conditions. Rural teaching is not a commonplace thing, but a commonplace _ teacher can make it seem so. The theory held in unprogressive) quarters that any one can teach any subject, should be exploded. ‘Teachers should be selected with particular consideration of their personal fitness and their special training in the sub- ject. In hiring, the leaders for the extra-curricular activities should be kept in mind and distributed -as evenly as possible among the teachers. Because of the teacher’s responsibilities in these activities and other com- munity interests, he needs must spend most of his week ends in the com- munity of his employment. The rural teacher must not, however, be so overloaded that he is pushed to the verge of nervous exhaustion, since that will result in either the early breakdown of the conscientious teacher who loves the work, or the spirit of indifference bred by the impossibility of doing effective work. And lastly, we must have longer tenure for teachers, for without it the teacher cannot assist the principal in developing a growing curricula fitting the needs of the community in which the school is located. And the cur- ricula can only adequately fit the community in the degree that the teachers become acquainted with the pupils, the parents, and the community. THE EXTENT AND CONTROL OF RURAL CHILD LABOR CHARLES E. GIBBONS, SPECIAL AGENT, NATIONAL CHILD LABOR COMMITTEE, NEW YORK CITY There are many kinds of rural child labor and varied conditions under which it has developed, just as is the case in the industrial field. I wish to consider the subject under two sets of agricultural conditions—namely, general farming and one-crop farming. Under the heading of general farming are included the raising of such crops as corn, the small grains—wheat, oats, barley, rye, and the like—hay and forage crops, truck gardening and fruit culture for home consumption. This form of agriculture may be divided into the two sub-types, general grain farming and live stock farming, depending on which the emphasis is placed. Under general farming conditions, land ownership is the rule, at least it is an attainable goal, by reason of tenancy being a normal stepping-stone. Laborers and tenants have a reasonable chance of becoming land owners. Likewise the family either owns the tools or enjoys a great measure of freedom in their use. There is little, if any, class feeling between the three groups of workers. The size of the farm is near that required to maintain the highest production commensurate with the highest return. There are, of course, exceptions on this point as in the great corn and 1218 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION wheat-growing belts of the Middle West where large acreages are given over to the cultivation of these crops, but because they have other character- istics in common with their cultivation elsewhere, I leave them in this classification. For the most part these crops are cultivated by the labor of the single family. Parents and children work together. The character of this lahor has changed greatly in the last fifty years, due to the influence of machinery. Hand labor has been greatly decreased. ‘The scythe and the cradle have given way to the mower and binder, the flail to the thresher, and the single plow to the riding cultivator and the tractor. “This has made work on the farms for both children and adults easier and of shorter duration. The use of machinery has decidedly tended to decrease the need for child laborers, especially the younger ones. “The expense and complication of much of it has made it profitable to have adults, or older children at least, to handle it. But, despite a favorable economic system and the aid of modern machinery, our investigations show that a great many children under rural farming conditions are required to work. Children were found working long hours and doing tasks that undoubtedly were far beyond their strength. ‘That is the experience of those who have come up through it and it is a condition that exists at the present time. Numerous investigations show that work is given as an excuse for the non-attendance at school of a great many country children. In West Virginia, we found, of approximately 150 families who kept their children home from school, nearly one half said they considered work of more importance than school. ‘This is not an extreme illustration. Country parents have developed a work complex. “There was a day per- haps when it was necessary for the children to help make the living, but that day has largely passed. “That attitude of mind, however, on the part of the parents still exists. “Too many still feel that they must keep their children at work so as to keep them out of mischief. The constructive value of play is almost unknown. With this attitude of mind, it is not surprising that we should find premature work, overwork, unhealthful work, uneducational work, yes, sometimes unproductive work, being done by country children. Work is not necessarily inimical to the best interests of childhood ; in fact, it is necessary to the highest development of children, and no child should grow up without experiencing the discipline that alone can come from work. Children have a right to childhood and all that childhood implies. “They have an inalienable right to health, education, and recreation. Whatever interferes with these things is to be con- demned. Children’s work should be developmental, educative, and have in it the element of training, but work for mere work’s sake is wrong. Too much of the work of rural children is mere drudgery, because too many parents are unable to differentiate between children’s work and child labor. The parents have never learned to think of childhood in terms of health, education, recreation. ‘They, themselves, had little schooling when they were children, so why should they be overzealous in seeing that their children get so much schooling. To their minds, health is a matter of DEPARTMENT OF RuRAL EpucATION 1219 getting better after illness overtakes them. As children they had no time for play, so why should their children waste their time in play. This attitude of mind is not intentional exploitation—exploitation seldom enters into it—it is simply the result of not knowing what childhood is. Hence child labor indirectly has become an important factor in the count against country life, and it is an evil that must be removed. There is a wide divergence of opinion as to how this may be done. Per- sonally, I am not at all convinced that for the children living under general farming conditions, the hope lies in prohibitory child labor legislation. It might be well to have a child labor law, simply to handle those who can be handled in no other way, but in my mind, the problem is primarily one of education, not legislation. Experience is showing this to be true of all forms of social progress. Children will have a better chance in. getting the protection that is due them, by getting the parents to understand what they need, than by merely telling the parents what they cannot do. The elimination of the evils of child labor is not the job of a single agency, but of every agency and every person interested in country life, and the first requisite is knowledge of country people and their problems. There has been too much of a tendency on the part of social agencies, in- cluding the schools, to develop their programs of work without a clear understanding of the problems to be met. ‘The school can be the greatest factor in solving the child labor problem in general farming areas. It is the biggest socializing agency at work in the country today. It is one of the oldest and comes nearer touching every community than any other one. It has back of it vast resources, in money, personnel, and equipment. Yet, until very recently, it has but dimly recognized its obligation. ‘There has been no real leadership in the field of rural education. ‘The kind of train- ing was and in many localities is yet poor. ‘The teachers are underpaid and inadequately trained, the equipment poor and the curriculum illy adapted. Country children have not been taught in terms of their own lives, and have had practically no vocational training. I do not want to be unduly critical—progress has been made and I am not unmindful of the almost insurmountable difficulties to be overcome, but we must solve these problems—we must search deeper and understand more fully the why of the organizations we represent. We must write anew the aims and pur- poses ; we must understand more intelligently the needs. In doing this, we may be compelled to scrap a lot of our pet theories. If necessary let us do it and do it fearlessly. Let us profit by the experience of other groups. As social workers and as school people we can get a valuable lesson from a careful study of the work of the county and home demonstration agents. In their limited fields, they have done more to enrich, and make wholesome and happy country life, than any other group. ‘The boys’ and girls’ club work is more rapidly eliminating child labor and turning it into children’s work than any other movement. ‘The development is not negative, but positive. The education and training the club leaders are giving is not what parents and children ought not to do, but what they should do. This is the only rational solution. 1220 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Thus far child labor has been considered under general farming condi- tions. I wish now to consider it under one-crop conditions. The most important single-crops are cotton, tobacco, sugar beets, beans, onions, celery, asparagus and other vegetables, fruits, berries, and grapes. The cultivation of these crops has taken on many of the aspects of industry. We frequently hear the term “industrialized agriculture.” For the most part the growth of these crops is peculiarly favored by soil or climatic con- ditions, or both. The return per acre is large, hence the price of land is high. A high degree of managerial ability is needed for their successful cultivation, especially the vegetable crops. ‘There is a great deal of large acreage holdings and absentee ownership, particularly in cotton and tobacco sections. Tenancy is high. One-crop farming has had its most detrimental effect upon the tenants. In fact, one-crop farming is not generally practiced by owner operators. Diversifications in these areas is not as widely practiced as in general farming areas, but whatever diversification there is, is carried on by the owner operators, and the single-crops left for the tenants to cul- tivate. There are, of course, exceptions to this statement, for both owners and tenants. In the cotton and tobacco sections of the South, the tenant is known as a cropper. Asa rule he has no tools or equipment, and of course owns no land. The number of acres he may cultivate is determined by the number of work hands in his family. His wife and his children from twelve years up are considered field hands. He pays for half the fertilizer, does all the labor, and receives half the crop. He is subjected to the pernicious credit system. He seldom has enough money to carry himself and family through the year, but must depend on the supply merchant. Oftentime the owner operates a commissary. The credit price varies from 20 to 40 per cent above the cash price. Some may raise enough tobacco or cotton to pay out in the fall, but many of them have never been out of debt. He is always seeking a place where he can do better and move nearly every year, although it may be no farther than from one house to another on the same farm. The labor is hard and the hours long. It is nearly all hand labor. Tobacco must be planted, hoed, weeded, suckered, wormed, topped, gathered, and prepared for curing and for markets all by hand, and the operations for cotton are not much less—this means child labor. It is said that it takes thirteen months to make a crop of tobacco, and that required for cotton is almost as long. Child labor here is found in its most pernicious form. Children as young as five years of age can be found working in the cotton or tobacco patch all day long. Partly because of ignorance and partly because of the press of other work, he does not raise his own garden sup- plies. Many do not keep a cow and hence have no milk for the children. Many of these communities are hot-beds of illiteracy. Because of their ignorance, the parents have little, if any, interest in schools, and child labor under this economic system is inevitable. It is both cause and effect. In so far as it is cause, child labor legislation will help to remedy the situa- tion but to the degree that it is the result of the system, other phases call DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION 1221 for consideration. I believe initial consideration should be given toward righting the economic system. The cotton and tobacco tenantry is largely the product of the system. In many communities sharp class feeling has developed. “Tenants and land-owners do not mingle in a social way. More and more land-owners are sending their children to town schools, leaving the tenant children to the mercy of ‘the poorly trained one-room school teacher. Here tenancy is a social status and the tenants have become almost hopeless and helpless, in so far as their own effort is concerned. ‘Their condition is little better than that of peonage, in the old-world meaning of that word. They have that satisfaction that comes from a realization of the uselessness of fighting and struggling against such heavy odds. Social efforts and social legislation can have small chance of success against con- ditions like these, because the very fundamental of human welfare is not right. Many of the families do not have a living income, and for others the margin above that required for mere existence is too low. ‘This must be made right first. The problem is of national concern and is calling for the best minds to help solve it. In the sugar beet, vegetable, and fruit areas, the workers, for the most part, are called laborers. Most of them are migrant families who go out for the season from urban centers. Occasionally the families come from rural centers, as in Ohio the onion workers come from the mountains of Kentucky. ‘There are, however, a great many single men and single women who also follow the seasonal agricultural work. Many of the families are of foreign decent. The majority of them own their own homes. In Lincoln, Nebraska, from which go between 300 and 400 so-called Russian-German families, annually to the beet fields, every one owns their own home and has it paid for. They live in a good section of the city and their homes are well kept, clean and tidy, but that cannot be said about the homes in which they live in the community where they work during the summer. Many of the homes are mere shacks and overcrowd- ing is frequent. Many of them have no toilet facilities and the water supply is unprotected. In the cherry and other small fruit sections, the workers are usually carried back and forth daily to the fields by the farmer. Mother and children, or frequently the children alone, do most of this work. In the strawberry sections, the workers are often housed in camps. Decent moral and sanitary conditions are hard to maintain. ‘These camp followers work together in the fields where the local children are working and undoubtedly have a bad influence upon them. For beet workers the maximum length of the season will probably not exceed seven months. Beet work seriously interferes with school at- tendance. ‘The family leaves the city about the first of May. The beet fields are outside the jurisdiction of the city. In the country the rural school is out or soon will be. In the fall the rural school has not started or else the family will soon be going back to the city, and hence the children do not start to school. Furthermore, in many localities the country people maintain that since their families are here only temporarily and pay no 1222 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION taxes, they ought not to be compelled to school their children. The fact remains the children are not getting the schooling to which they are entitled. Small fruit picking, onions, celery, and other vegetables, do not, on the whole, seriously interfere with school attendance. Most of the work comes during the vacation period. There is no compulsory regulation whatever as to hours. During cer- tain operations, especially in beet culture, they are long. Where the laborers work in gangs as in the onion, celery, and small fruit-picking sections, the hours are usually limited to ten per day, but climatic conditions may fre- quently upset this schedule. In the cherry and other small fruit sections, no special means are taken to prevent children from falling out of the trees or off the ladders. In the onion, celery, and beet fields, the children crawl along on their hands and knees and infections are frequent. ‘The ill effects of a stooping posture are given little or no consideration. Child labor under these conditions must be remedied by legislation. It matters not whether the children work with their parents, or in gangs under a foreman; they are confronted by almost the same situation that children in factories face. “Chey are paid on a piecework or daily wage basis. Chil- dren must be protected from exploitation, and education will help, but it will not do what it can for the children under general farming conditions. There the children are flesh and blood of those who own the land, tools and means of production. In the country child welfare, once understood, will receive primary consideration. In the city profits are placed first. A strict enforcement of the compulsory education laws will greatly help, but more is needed. The protection of health and an opportunity for wholesome play must be given more consideration, thereby safeguarding the unalienable rights of childhood. Department of School Administration SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS PF OSMCNI—URA Dh USE cea clot sto ctl ole oe ia eater ERle sets oe Rearend ats Charlestown, W. Va. Secretary—W1tii1aM C. Bruce, Editor of the American School Board Journal. .Milwaukee, Wis. The first session of the Department was called to order by President I. B. Bush in Gardner Auditorium, State House, Boston, Mass., at 2:30 o’clock, July 3, 1922. The following addresses were heard: j COOPERATION BETWEEN CIVIC ORGANIZATION AND ScHOOL AUTHORITIES—Karl F., Adams, Principal Lincoln High School, Seattle, Wash. ACTIVITIES OF BENSON POLYTECHNIC HiGH ScHooL—Honorable George B. Thomas, Member of the School Board, Portland, Ore. (Read by Mr. E. H. Whitney, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Portland.) CoNSOLIDATION OF RuraL ScHooLts—J. Buell Snyder, Board of Education, Perry- opolis, Pa. ACTIVITIES IN THE SCHOOLS OF EuropE—Mrs. Edith McClure Patterson, Dayton, O. The meeting adjourned at 4:30 o’clock. The second session of the Department was held on Wednesday, July 5, at 2:30 o’clock. Papers, illustrated with lantern slides, were heard as follows: RuraL ScHooL BuILpDINGs OF THE SouTH—S. L. Smith, General Field Agent for Rural Schools, The Julius Rosenwald Fund, Nashville, Tenn. PLANNING THE Mopern HicH ScHoor—Dwight H. Perkins; Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton, Chicago, Ill. GYMNASIUMS AND THEIR ACCESSORIES FOR MopEeRN ScHOoLS—Clarence D. Kingsley, State Supervisor of Secondary Education, Boston, Mass. Tue Scuoot BuitpiInc or New York Ciry—C. B. J. Snyder, Architect, Board of Education, New York, N. Y. ScHOOLHOUSE PLANNING AS A SCIENCE—Frank I. Cooper, Architect, Chairman of the N. E. A. Committee on Schoolhouse Planning, Boston, Mass. Upon motion the Department unanimously reélected for president, I. B. Bush, and for secretary, William C. Bruce. Mr. Dwight H. Perkins moved that the Department hold its future meetings in connection with the Department of Superintendence and that the officials take the proper steps to make this possible. The motion was carried. Mtr. Frank Irving Cooper, of Boston, then moved that the chair appoint a com- mittee to study the problem of preparing a constitution and by-laws for the De- partment and report at the February meeting. The president appointed Frank Irving Cooper, Boston, Mass.; S. O. Hartwell, St. Paul, Minn.; William C. Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis.; Frank Cody, Detroit, Mich. ; and J. Buell Snyder, Perryopolis, Pa. The meeting adjourned at 4:20 o’clock. The third session of the Department took place at 2 o’clock, Thursday, July 6. Addresses were made as follows: ACADEMIC, VOCATIONAL, AND PERSONAL GUIDANCE OF Boys AND GIRLS IN THE HIGH ScHooLs—H. E. Stone, Boys’ Counselor, Central High School, Erie, Pa. FINANCING STATE AND CiTy ScHooL SystEMs—Thomas E. Finegan, State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. . RELATION OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS TO BOARDS OF EpucATION—George D. Strayer, Professor of Educational Administration, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, New York, N. Y. KEEPING ABREAST OF SCHOOL Procress—A Mopern Scuoon SysteM—A. E. Winship, Editor of the Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. A motion was made and seconded that the chair appoint a committee to study [1223] 1224 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the problem of the relations of school boards and superintendents and report to the department a statement of principles. The meeting adjourned at 4:15 o’clock. Wiuu1aM C. Bruce, Secretary. CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS J. BUELL SNYDER, BOARD OF EDUCATION, PERRYOPOLIS, PENNSYLVANIA, AND SECRETARY LEGISLATIVE COMMITTEE, PENNSYLVANIA STATE SCHOOL DIRECTORS ASSOCIATION I count it a privilege to discuss any problem relating to the schools before the Department of Administration of the National Education Association. The business of public education is the biggest business in the United States. A business that employs 620,000 people and spends $800,000,000 a year is a big business. The people of the United States believe in this business ; they believe in public education. As I see it, the two great problems confronting the American people today are The Consolidation of Rural Schools and How to Guide and Direct the Energies and Activities of the People when They are not Working or Sleeping. Your Committee has assigned me a place on your program to discuss the former problem The Consolidation of Rural Schools. This problem has many sides and it would take volumes to touch even slightly on each of the factors involved. I shall confine my remarks in the major to the economic and social phases of consolidated rural schools leaving the curriculum to the instructional forces of our schools. One would naturally think that the rural population is always anxious to have the best come to them if it is the cheapest. Such is not the case. When it comes to tampering with the little red schoolhouse by the roadside where father and grandfather went to school, the younger generation ques- tions the advisability, even though you can prove to them that they can save from 20 to 50 per cent in the running of the schools and get a similar per cent more educational equipment for their children. It is only through a space of years of constant effort that the consolidated school is welcomed in such a community. It took years to convince the farmer that he would be financially ahead of the game if he would buy modern farm implements. It took years to convince him that it meant big money to him to have good roads. It also took years to make him see that financially he was ahead if he paid three times the road tax and had good roads instead of bad ones. It will take years to have some communities appreciate the advantages of consolidated rural schools. From the time the first consolidated school was established in Montague, Massachusetts, in 1884, every district that makes a move to consolidate finds groups of patrons objecting. In analyzing their objections, we find that they usually concentrate on transportation and economy. ‘They contend that transportation will be impossible in their community for various DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 1225 reasons. ‘They say that it will be a financial burden on the community— that it is all right for some certain places to have consolidated rural schools, but their district is not ready for it. The President of the National Education Association, Miss Williams, has demonstrated in her county in Tennessee what can be accomplished in consolidating rural schools. The farmers, industrial heads, political bosses, and in fact every organization is back of her in perfecting her project. They see the economy and the wisdom in the movement. ‘They see the social and the educational advantages that not only the boys and the girls of their county are receiving, but they themselves are socially benefited. Taking the United States as a whole, we have made much progress in the consolidation of rural schools during the last ten years. During the last three years about 14 per cent of the one-room rural schools in the United States have been closed. Last year we closed 6 per cent of the one-room schools in the State of Pennsylvania or at the rate of 18 per cent for three years. “The next ten years will see rapid progress being made in con- solidation and by 1935 more than 80 per cent of the one-room schools now in existence will have been closed. From now on, our normal schools, colleges, and training schools for teachers will train teachers to be boosters of consolidated rural schools just as we trained the teachers in the past generation to be boosters of hygiene and the evil effects of alcohol. The instructional forces must be in sym- pathy with consolidation. They must have a vision of the future consoli- dated school. The advantages of consolidated rural schools must be one of the chief subjects taught in our teachers’ training schools. At present our colleges and normal schools devote more time to teaching How and Why Cesar Crossed the Rubicon than they do to the Advantage of Con- solidated Rural Schools. Along every line the sun is shining on the future consolidated school project. The future consolidated school will be built on a plot of ground containing twenty acres or more and located where the railroads and lines of transportation make the school accessible. The eastern part of the United States is likely to be last in completing the consolidation project because of long established customs and prejudices. “The method of con- solidating rural schools will be perfected rapidly during the next few years. We will have commissions empowered to lay off a county or a State in units, such as we are planning in Fayette County, Pennsylvania. In Fayette County we are planning to have a joint meeting of the county commissioners, county road supervisors, county school directors, county superintendent, and county surveyors, and at this meeting select a commis- sion to plot the county as nearly as possible for future road building and the building of consolidated schools of the future. This plan will enable school districts to build their future schools at the proper crossroads and the farmer or home-builder will build his home so as to be on the future improved road. Most communities now realize that the consolidated school is the social center of the district. They realize that it is the best place to adjust the 1226 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION social activities of the boys and the girls and give them’ the greatest possible equipment to be efficient bread and butter winners when they get out in life’s school. The future consolidated schools will have courses in home making, prac- tical gardening, industrial farm work, marketing, stock raising, manual training, electricity, mechanics of farm implements, and many similar courses including the academic. The same schoos will also be equipped with auditorium, with modern motion-picture apparatus, gymnasium with swimming pools and all modern appliances, play rooms—one for boys, one for girls, one for parents—modern equipped chemistry laboratory, modern equipped physics laboratory, athletic field that will contain basket ball, baseball, tennis, volley ball, and all other community games. The future consolidated rural school and rural community will be in accord with each other. The rural school center will be getting its proper share from the school. The Community will be giving to the school the helpful and codperative financial support necessary to make the school efficient in all its phases. The future consolidated rural school will have adjacent to it a splendidly equipped home or apartment house for the super- intendent, principal, and teachers. The best and most beautiful room will be “The Democracy Room.” ‘This room will be equipped with substantial tapestry, pictures, carpets, and furniture. It will be open 364 days in the year for committee and conference work of the patrons, and on the 365th day, ““The Democracy Room” will be used as the Voting Room for the entire district. I have long contended that the Voting Room should be the most beautiful room in the community so that when one steps in to exercise his duties as a voter he will be impressed with the importance of the duty he is about to perform. It was only after the boys and the girls, who studied hygiene and the evil effects of intoxicants grew to be voters, that the National Prohibition Law was put upon our Statute Books. It will be after the boys and the girls who are now in our public schools reach the voting age that you will find 80 or 90 per cent of all the one-room rural schools consolidated. There will always be some one-room school buildings because of the topography of the different communities. In every community the citizens will point you to General So and So or Attorney So and So or Banker So and So who was educated out there in the one-room school. We must convince this class of citizens that it was in spite of the one-room school instead of because of it that these men made good. The evening school, the morning school, the all-day Saturday school that Dad and Mother taught out on the farm or in the home had more to do with the educational equipment that made it possible for these men to make good than the instruction they received in that one-room rural school. The realization of the need of a well-organized community center for both the old and the young has taken on much impetus during the last few years. Among the factors that have contributed to this awakening in the DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 1227 rural community are better roads, rural delivery, and automobiles. The young people of the country are now able to gather in social groups instead of isolated pairs. The American people now realize that the Nation needs its rural life stimulated, that Nations survive only when the rural life of the Nation is made and kept efficient. It is well that every citizen should know that every Nation that has come upon the stage and acted its part and passed into oblivion or become a nation of lesser rank passes through three ages: (1) The Age of Peasantry, or the Crude Age. (2) The Age of Agriculture, or the Age of Prosperity. (3) The Commercial Age, or the Age of Decay. I like to think of the United States as living in the second age, the Age of Agriculture or Prosperity, but since the efficiency of the rural population has to do with the greatness of a state or a nation, I beg leave to call your attention to the social shifting of our population toward urban cen- ters. When Washington was President, 3 per cent of the people lived in the city and 97 per cent lived in the country. When Jackson was Presi- dent, 20 per cent lived in the city and 80 per cent in the country. When Lincoln was President, 37 per cent lived in the city and 63 per cent lived in the country. When McKinley was President, 45 per cent lived in the city and 55 per cent lived in the country. And now, we find that approxi- mately 60 per cent of the people live in the cities and 40 per cent live in the country. In other words, when Jackson was President there were 80 people living on the farm to produce food to feed 100. While now we find 40 people on the farm to produce food to feed 100. Or still another way of putting it is that in 1836 four fifths, or 80 per cent, of all our people lived in the rural districts, while now, two fifths, or only 40 per cent, live in the rural districts. Many factors stimulate the march of our population to the city, but the greatest factor is the poor and inadequate rural and village school. In the last half century we have improved everything in rural life except the rural © school. We educate the children in the country to go to the city. The city newspapers come to the country and tell of the good things and the big things they are doing in the city schools, and of course, it is only natural for the fathers and mothers to pull up and go to the city where their chil- dren can get a practical education. Most of them would be willing to stay on the farm if the schools were at all near the equal of the city schools. Every State in the Union now has on its statute books laws favorable to consolidation of rural schools, and future law-making bodies will frame binding laws on the consolidation of rural schools, and appropriate money enough to put these laws into effect. I have gathered data on the consolidation of schools from thirty States in the Union and find that the average cost of operating such schools is as follows: Average cost of one-room rural school per month per pupil................ $6.48 Average cost of consolidated rural schools per month per pupil............. $5.55 Average cost of consolidated village schools per month per pupil........... $5.18 1228 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The social advantages of the consolidated rural school briefly are as follows: (1) The pupils enjoy the advantages of that interest and enthu- siasm and confidence which numbers bring. (2) Pupils can be better classified and graded. (3) Tardiness and irregular attendance are re- duced to the minimum. (4) No quarreling, improper conduct, or improper language so common among children on their way to and from school. (5) No wet feet or wet clothing, nor colds resulting therefrom. (6) Pupils have the advantage of better school rooms, better lighted, better heated, better ventilated. (7) This plan is sure to result in fewer and better teachers, better paid. (8) It makes possible a high school education for country boys and girls without breaking home ties in obtaining that educa- tion. (9) It provides means of recreation and entertainment in community games and sports, lectures, musicals, etc., which gives country life a variety and a charm that is absolutely impossible in the rural community without the consolidated school. In summing up the factors involved in this the biggest problem con- fronting the American people, we find that there are no well established basic arguments against the project. Every move in favor of consolida- tion is a move toward social, economic, and moral betterment. Every move toward consolidation is a move toward better government. Every move toward consolidation is a move toward lowering the cost of living. It is my belief that if we consolidate our rural schools the following hundred-year old prediction of McCauley’s will never come true. “Be- fore the end of the twentieth century, either some class or nobility will seize the reins of government with a strong hand, or your republic will be pillaged and laid waste by barbarians in the twentieth century as the Roman Empire was in the fifth, with this difference, that the Huns and Vandals who ravaged Rome came from without her borders, while your Huns and Vandals will be engendered within your own country and be the product of your own institutions.” It is my belief that if we keep our garden and farm products in quality and quantity proportionate to the city and industrial demands, that we will always have a happy and contented people. The rural people will be happy because they have a market, the city people will be happy because they have a rich supply of rural products. We must encourage the tiller of the soil to own the soil he tills. We must educate all the children of all the people to appreciate and conserve our national resources. The one best place to give them this knowledge is in the consolidated rural schools. We must save our rural schools if we are to save the Nation. To save our rural schools we must build and maintain at appropriate places through our country thousands of con- solidated, democratic school plants, and place in them highly trained teachers, teachers that fear God and keep His Commandments. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 1229 THE RELATION OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS TO BOARDS OF EDUCATION GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA "UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY A board of education in American cities is the regularly constituted agent of the State, responsible for the maintenance of the public-school system. Whether elected at large by the people or appointed by the mayor, the board of education is charged with the responsibility of carrying out not only the requirements as expressed in the law of the State, but also the will of the people to whom they are locally responsible in the determination of the policies which lie outside of and beyond the legal requirements. School boards have been maintained either as independent corporations or as a branch of the city government, because we desire, insofar as it is possible, to separate our schools from the partisan political administration characteristic of American cities. Even with the development of the Com- mission form of government our cities have maintained, and it seems to me most wisely, their boards of education. ‘That this has been done seems to me not to be accidental. ‘The distinction between the legislative function of the lay board of education and the executive function of the superin- tendent of schools, as commonly maintained, would of necessity be found wanting were the board of education abolished under the commission or managerial type of municipal government. A commissioner of education will, though he be a layman, come to exercise administrative functions, and the superintendent of schools will almost certainly become his assistant. The result can scarcely make for efficiency in administration or for profes- sional insight or wisdom in the development of the school system. There was a time early in the history of the development of our public schools when laymen were the only advisory or administrative officers. In the early days when the control and administration of a single school, often with only one teacher, rested in the hands of one or more laymen, any well educated man might reasonably have been expected to discharge the dual function of board and superintendent. In our modern school systems with many teachers in each of a large number of buildings, with courses of instruction from the kindergarten through the college, with millions of dollars invested in plant and equipment, with the development of the science of education and the technique of educational administration, no well advised layman would propose to exercise the executive function. It is worthwhile to note in passing that school executives are chosen throughout the United States upon the basis of their successful experience. By far the larger number of superintendents of schools in American cities have served an apprenticeship in teaching and in the supervision and ad- ministration of single schools, or small school systems, before being elected to places of larger responsibility. In like manner, the school superin- tendent is the only type of public servant in the United States who is 1230 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION commonly moved from locality to locality and from State to State across the continent because of his proved ability as an executive. We have, as a matter of fact, developed the idea of professional service in the administration of public education in the United States, but even with this accomplishment much remains to be done in defining clearly the relationship which should exist between boards of education and their chief executive officer. It would be well if this definition were made so clear and so commonly accepted by members of the profession that no competent man would be willing to accept the position of superintendent of schools without having it understood that the board of education accepted the relationship as defined by the profession. The effect of such action would be most salutary. It is unfortunate that as the situation is at present a board that usurps the function of the executive, and whoever on that account forces him out of his position may confidently expect to find other competent men willing and anxious to accept the position so vacated. To discuss the distinction between the function of the board and their executive officer is not to belittle the place of the board of education. No man who serves as a member of the board of control of a railroad company, or a bank, or a manufacturing enterprise, thinks less of himself, or of his colleagues by virtue of the fact that they entrust the execution of the policies decided upon to their executive staff. No bank, railroad, or in- dustry is more complex in its organization, or requires a higher type of professional executive than does the public-school system. Members of the board of education may best represent their constituency by selecting the highest type of executive to be found. Having rendered this service they are under the obligation to require of him from time to time a record of the work done and proposals for the development of the school system placed in their charge. “The executive, if he be competent, must present his case to the board of education, must be able to demonstrate the wisdom of the policies which he advocates, must be ready to defend in terms of a measurable achievement his own administration. Every board of education should in the course of a given calendar year pass upon the budget proposed for the ensuing school year. In many cases this will involve the rate of tax to be levied. In every case it will require the best judgment of every member of the board with respect to the cost of the service as at present maintained, and the possible extension of the work undertaken. The executive officer may propose to the board of education a single salary schedule based upon the proposition that men and women equally well qualified should be equally paid wherever they teach in the school system. ‘This policy is contrary to the common practice in American school systems. The superintendent of schools proposing it should be ready to defend it and failing to carry conviction with a board of education should accept their determination of the question without feeling that they have in any sense usurped the executive function. In like manner, the superintendent of schools must from time to time propose changes in the organization of the school system, building pro- DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 1231 grams, changes in courses of study, and the like. If he is able either from the evidence available locally or by virtue of evidence accumulated in other communities to make his case clear he has a right to hope that the members of his board of education will act in accordance with his recommendation. If in advocating the establishment of junior high schools, for example, he can show the real advantage to the boys and girls of the seventh, eighth, and ninth school years, if he has defined the new type of organization in terms of the educational opportunities to be provided, and if the members of his board believe that the additional cost is justified by the evidence of service to be rendered to the boys and girls of the community, he may reasonably hope to see his recommendations adopted. No superintendent of schools, however, has a right to propose ex- penditure of money or to insist upon changes in organization, or in the subject matter to be taught, merely because some other school system has made a similar change, nor because of popular demand. He may, how- ever, propose an experiment with the distinct understanding that he and the board will be governed as to future action by the results. A good board of education will insist, from time to time, upon having brought before them evidence of the progress and the efficiency of the school system. “The members of the board have a right to propose that the schools, if adequately supported, become increasingly efficient from year to year. Measures of the progress of children through the school system, of achievements in the fields of study commonly taught, or the regularity of school attendance, of economies that have been effected in the maintenance and operation of the plant, and the like, should be presented frequently as evidence of good administration. If the superintendent of schools is to be held responsible for results by the board of education, he must be recognized as their chief executive officer. “The creation of the codrdinate executive office of business manager cannot result in the highest degree of efficiency in the administration of the schools. Business transactions are significant only as they contribute to the realization of the educational program adopted. ‘The officer who devotes himself to this field should be designated as assistant superintendent in charge of business affairs. “The superintendent of schools must be given the authority to nominate, not only his immediate assistants, but the teach- ers who constitute the staff of the school system. It is folly to propose that any man can carry forward a program adopted by a board of education if he is handicapped by surrounding him with those who are out of sympathy with him and with the work which he is trying to do. Nothing can be more fatal to the proper relationship of board and super- intendent of schools than the desire upon the part of any member of the board to place in the school system a person of his own choice. A good executive, and he is the only type of man who should be retained by the board of education, will seek constantly to surround himself with able associates. He will strive earnestly to secure the best teachers that can be had for the salaries paid. With this responsibility and authority one 1232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION may reasonably hope for a maximum coéperation between the chief exec- utive and his staff. Without it one has no right to expect that the staff will work in hearty accord with the superintendent. , It is important that the board of education consider the program and policies proposed by the superintendent of schools as a board and not in separate committees who report to the general body. “There may be times when a special committee of the board will prove useful in reviewing care- fully with the executive officer or his associates some problem requiring care- ful study from the layman’s point of view. In such cases special committees should be appointed and their report should be considered along with the recommendation of the superintendent. Standing committees seem to me to be worse than useless. The chairman of a standing committee quite commonly comes to believe that he has some peculiar fitness or ability in the field represented by his committee and infrequently he will tend to assume the function of the executive. When standing committees make reports which are accepted by boards of education as a matter of senatorial courtesy one gets little careful consideration of the major issues to be passed upon by the board. The superintendent of schools has a right to assume that policies and programs which have been accepted by the board of education will con- tinue to be supported by them during the period necessary for proving their soundness. Nothing can be more disconcerting and surely nothing is more foolish than for the board of education to pass upon a policy and then because of popular clamor or personal spite to adopt a different policy before there has been a chance to establish the adequacy of the proposal. It is obvious that we need on boards of education men of good judg- ment, of wide experience, and of sound common sense. “They can and should check the executive officer who may become too enthusiastic or who would carry too heavy a load of experimentation in any given period. It is just as certain that they should, when convinced of the wisdom of the policy proposed, stand for it not only in board meetings, but before the community at large. A policy once adopted, they should consider it their policy as well as that of the superintendent of schools. The right relationship between boards of education and superintendents of schools will come to exist when boards of education cease to think of their function as having anything to do with the execution of the policies which they adopt; when they scrutinize carefully each proposal brought to them by the superintendent of schools, and having passed upon it stand fast; when men who sit upon boards of education seek as earnestly to dis- cover the best man available for the job of superintendent of schools as they would were they searching for a president of a corporation in which they are interested. In order that the type of relationship described may be maintained it is of the utmost importance that boards of education be elected or appointed without reference to political affiliation. ‘They must, if continuity in policy is to be the rule, serve for a relatively long term. It will be necessary DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 1233 as well, to provide that not more than one or two members leave the board at any one election or appointment period. In order that the board may act constructively as a board it will be best that not more than from five to nine members sit around the table at which the policies for the school system are decided. A In order that the relationship between boards of education and super- intendents of schools be acknowledged by both parties and to some degree . standarized, I would like to propose that a committee made up of members from both groups prepare, in terms of a code or set of rules, a statement of the relationship of the school executive to the board of education. I should like to present for the consideration of this committee the following proposals : 1. That the most important duty of the board of education is to select its chief executive officer, and to appoint him for an indefinite term. 2. That the board of education recognize the fact that its chief executive officer should nominate all associate or assistant superintendents, super- visors, directors, principals, and teachers, and all other employees, and that appointments to all of these positions be made only upon the nomination of the superintendent of schools. This provision is to be interpreted as opposed to the establishment of the codrdinate executive office of business manager, and to require that such officer be designated as assistant super- intendent in charge of business affairs. It is also to be interpreted as opposed to the organization of a board of superintendents with powers coordinate with that of the chief executive. 3. That the board provide, by its own rules, that the adoption of text- books and of courses of study be on the recommendation of the super- intendent of schools, and that it require that he indicate in making his recommendations the degree of codperation which he has received from his assistants and associates of the administrative, supervisory, and teaching staff. 4. That the board require that the superintendent of schools report from time to time concerning the achievements and progress of the school system in terms of (a) the adequacy of the attendance service; (>) the progress of children in the school system, involving studies of retardation and elimination; (c) the adequacy of the adjustment of the school system to the needs of children in terms of the school organization, the classification of pupils, the courses of study, the organization of special classes, and the like. 5. That the board require the superintendent of schools to submit annually a budget showing the estimated revenue available, or to be made available, where the tax rate is fixed by the board of education, together with the program of work to be accomplished and the estimated costs by divisions and activities of the school system; that such budgetary estimates be based upon an analysis of costs by divisions of the school system, and by units of the school organization for one or more previous years; that such budgetary estimates include a salary schedule based upon principles which 1234 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION can be applied uniformly throughout the school system, and that such esti- mates include as a special item a report on the present condition of the school plant with reference to the need for repairs, reconstruction, or re- placement of equipment. 6. That the board of education require that the superintendent of schools direct a continuing study of the need for new school sites and buildings based upon an assembling of data showing trends in population for the whole community and shifts in population and in public school enrolment by convenient areas and by grades or other divisions of the school system ; and that it pass upon the needs of financing such additions to the plant as may be necessary or expedient. 7. That the board pass upon the plans for new buildings approved by the chief executive officer and his staff and that the superintendent of schools indicate in the case of each plan so presented the necessity for the accom- modations to be provided in terms of present or prospective enrolments not otherwise adequately provided for, and in terms of the relationship of the facilities to be provided in the new structure to the courses of study to be taught therein. 8. That the board act as a committee of the whole in considering and passing upon the program and particular recommendations of the superin- tendent of schools, and that all standing committees be abolished. 9. That the board of education adopt a set of rules governing its own procedure in which is established the position of the superintendent of schools as the chief executive officer of the board of education, and indi- cating his responsibility and relationship to the board as has been suggested above; that these rules define the qualifications of all of the employees of the board of education, and that they include a consideration of such other matters of uniform procedure as may be essential to the proper conduct of a system of schools. 10. ‘That superintendents of schools formulate the qualifications required for members in good standing in their profession and that such qualifications include a certain minimum of education and of specialized professional training (or in lieu thereof for those now in office, successful experience as school superintendents in positions in which the individual devotes his whole time to administrative and supervisory duties), and that they pro- vide through State departments of education, or through their own volun- tary organizations for the certification of those who would enter their profession. 11. That it be considered unethical for any member of the profession to accept appointment to the office of superintendent of schools except as the conditions specified above are accepted by the board of education seek- ing to employ him. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 1235 ACADEMIC, VOCATIONAL, AND PERSONAL GUIDANCE OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN OUR HIGH SCHOOLS H. E. STONE, BOYS COUNSELOR, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, ERIE, PENNSYLVANIA I do not come before you this afternoon as an expert. An expert is an ordinary fellow a long way from home. I am an ordinary fellow, but Erie is not so far from Boston after all. Neither do I pose as a high brow. You know a high brow is one who tells you what you already know in language you can’t understand. I need waste no time in tracing for this group the origin and develop- ment of the guidance movement. Yesterday, you devoted, and I am sure, profitably, an entire afternoon to the discussion of school house planning. It has always seemed strange to me that so many school boards wise enough to hire architects to plan for their buildings, should be foolish enough to fail to hire specialists to plan the lives of their boys and girls. Plato asserted that it is the business of education to discover what each person is good for and to train him to master that mode of excellence. After all the centuries, the guidance movement has begun to make some progress. England, Germany, and other foreign lands have made begin- nings. In our own country, private institutions, our public-school systems, great universities, and even the Federal Government through its Junior Employment Service, have begun to realize their responsibility. I know about the splendid work some of you have been doing in this field. It is, however, the exchange of ideas and experiences that makes the National Educational Association of value to all of us. During the past three years in Erie, Pennsylvania, it has been my privi- lege to be one of six people to devote full time to the work of educational, vocational, and personal guidance. It has been my further privilege and opportunity to work under an educational executive who understood, ap- proved, and did not attempt to smother those faint glimmerings of initia- tive that appeared among those of us who worked in the ranks. With your pardon, therefore, I shall outline briefly the nature and scope of our activi- ties. It seems to me very fitting that the Department of School Admin- istration should give guidance a place on its program, because guidance | considers the future employment throughout a large part of the school life of the child. In the first place, a complete guidance program demands that the public- school system recognize its responsibility in helping boys and girls to dis- cover their aptitudes. It demands also that provision be made by the public schools for the development of varying aptitudes when found. In Erie we have considered it essential also that the subjects in the high school courses be largely elective. I am frequently asked what guidance is, and what it does. I answer: It is personnel administration in the schools, and by the schools, and for the benefit of the pupils of the schools. It is inspiring, because it deals 1236 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION with the building of human lives. It concerns itself with the positive side of the training of young people. To form character, to fix ideals, to awaken ambitions. . . . What work could be more inspiring? It is a scientific attack upon the problem of conserving human energy and pre- venting human waste. Its business is helping boys and girls in their per- sonal and educational problems, and helping them to choose, prepare for and make progress in occupations for which they are by inclination and ability best adapted. It does not mean selecting occupations, schools, or subjects for study for them, but rather, helping them to gain the facts on which they, with the help of their parents and friends, can make intelligent choices. Is guidance by specialists necessary? I need only call attention to the complexity of modern life, the maze of occupations, the modern recognition of the doctrine of individual differences, and to the number of young people for whom at present the world of work is ‘a dark continent’? when they leave school. I need only remind you of the large number who flounder about for years after they leave school. Help there was, but they did not receive it. Not long ago I offended the president of a liberal arts college by making the statement that colleges, as well as high schools, have been criminally negligent in not having “shipping departments’’—in not looking after the product after it has left the plant. I protested also against the annual “slaughter of the innocents” that takes place in both high school and col- lege. Industry has recognized that the hire-and-fire policy is wasteful, unjust, and unsafe. Workers in industry are today transferred whenever possible and not fired. May not we in education draw a lesson? Is not our turnover too great? Guidance reduces turnover and prolongs school attendance. - At the outset I wish to register a protest against those who go about promulgating the dangerous doctrine, so pleasing to many teachers, that “every teacher is a counselor,’ and that there is no such thing as expert service in the field of educational, occupational, and personal guidance. The making of job-analyses is difficult. Occupational life is complex. Classroom teachers are busy and generally have more occupational opinions and prejudices than facts. Yet the facts about occupations exist, and, with a well organized department of Guidance, will be made available for use. It is possible to present to every high-school boy the promotional line from bank messenger to bank president, and also from inspector or straw boss to plant superintendent. It is possible to present the facts about apprenticeship opportunities, colleges, home, extension, and correspondence study. It is to be deplored that the slogan “every teacher a counselor” has, in some commonwealths, been used as a boomerang by local opponents of full time specialists in the field of educational, vocational, and personal guidance. We began in Erie by outlining our aims. We began with a plan—with definite objectives. “They were as follows: DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 1237 1. Establishing of filing systems with records of students. (a) Personal history of student. (b) Educational history of student. (c) Family history. Parent’s ambition. (d) Teachers’ estimates of pupil’s characteristics. 2. Survey of vocational opportunities of Erie. (a) Analysis of conditions, advantages, and disadvantages in shops, stores, and offices. (b) Study of local apprenticeship. (c) Study of Erie occupations. 3. Conferences with parents and pupils for the purpose of: (a) Keeping pupils in school. (6) Assisting those who must leave to find work for which they are fitted. (c) Removing the causes of failure in school work. (d) Assisting pupils in their choice of studies and courses, and in the adjusting of their programs. (e) Improving the personal habits of pupils. (f) Giving information about higher educational institutions. 4. Establishing in each school suitable libraries containing inspirational books on occupations, college catalogues, etc. 5. Following the careers of those who have left the Erie schools, and encouraging them to continue their education: (a) By returning to school. (b) By availing themselves of night-school opportunities. (c) Through correspondence schools, business colleges, etc. 6. The investigation of all applications for school exemption and employment certificates with a view to reducing the number who leave school unnecessarily. 7. The creating of widespread and intelligent interest in the guidance of Erie boys and girls. Six years ago, or three years before counselors were appointed, a system of cumulative record cards was inaugurated. "These, as you know, go with the child when he is transferred, and go with him when he is promoted to the six-year high school. They record occupational experience, teachers’ judgments concerning the child, health records, attendance, academic marks, etc. They are, of course, filled out by the teachers. Three years ago the six full-time counselors began their new work after special training for it. They soon found that the needs of the different high schools varied. Their work has therefore varied somewhat to meet these needs. When the six-six plan was substituted for the antiquated eight-four system, life career classes were begun with seventh and eighth grade pupils. Local business and professional men codperated by permitting us to make “little journeys” into the industrial, commercial, and professional homes of Erie. In the junior high schools were established also prevocational courses followed by various trade courses. Sheets of facts on occupations, colleges, and apprenticeship courses were prepared and distributed by the thousands, giving both the students and their parents needed information. In the preparation of this material help was received from the various national engineering associations, and from many specialists both in the great universities and in practical life. In the mechanical work the commercial department-of the high school cooperated. Recognizing the social disapproval of innovations, many articles were prepared on various phases of guidance and printed in the Erie daily news- 1238 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION papers. We realized the necessity of selling our guidance program and of keeping it sold. Thousands of college catalogues were assembled, classified, and made available for use by interested students. Books of views of American col- leges and universities were used as a part of an experiment in creative educational salesmanship. Books on occupations were also secured for the use of our students. The science department demonstrated its interest in the movement by preparing and distributing a special bulletin explaining the nature and value of such subjects as biology, chemistry, and physics. Teachers in the English department assigned oral and written composi- tions on various vocations with much enthusiasm on the part of students. A beginning was made in following up and assisting graduates. Not long ago one young man who left our high school before guidance was established and later was graduated from a liberal arts college where he had no occupational guidance, wrote me. He had determined to study medicine but had had no chemistry or biology in college. He wanted me to help him with his plans. Another high-school graduate who had not entered an engineering school because he thought he did not have enough mathematics, was overjoyed when he found that there were good schools which he could enter without difficulty. Only recently I received a letter from a graduate of a nearby high school. His friends (?) had about con- vinced him that “if he became an architect he could not get a job for love nor money.” He wrote to ask about advantages and disadvantages in this field. He decided not to follow the pseudo-guidance of his pseudo-friends. Tests and measurements have also been used, with due caution, as a part of our plan, one of the counselors specializing this work. Some of our most satisfying “cases” involve service in personal guidance. I shall never forget the keen-eyed fiery youth who came into my office one day and proceeded to pay his compliments to certain teachers and to assert vigorously that even at home he did not receive a square deal. With much satisfaction he displayed a lake-carriers card. He was going to get away from it all by leaving school and home and going on the Great Lakes. A brief interview, and a home visit, followed by an opportunity to “talk it over,’ led him to tear up the card and remain in school. Not long ago I had the pleasure of recommending this young man for a position in the advertising department of a great corporation. In closing I wish to appeal for the establishment of a department of guidance in every large city, with an educator in charge who is both trained and experienced; for full time counselors, wherever possible, in every high school, and for part-time specialists where full-time workers are not possible. I wish to urge also for every community in the land a careful study of the entire problem as to what our boys and girls shall do with their lives. It is our duty to awaken an intelligent interest in the various problems relating to educational, vocational, and personal guidance. - Department of Science Instruction SECRETARY’S MINUTES ) OFFICERS President—GiLBErt H. Trarrton, State Teachers College..............e00005 Mankat i Secretary—ZELMA GoLpswortHy, West High School.................20. Sitaneapolie’ Ming: Owing to the absence of both the President, Mr. Gilbert H. Trafton, and the Secretary, Miss Zelma Goldsworthy, the first meeting of the department was called to order at 2:15 Pp. M. at the Franklin Union, by Mr. C. H. Stone, President of the New England Association of Chemistry Teachers. There were 75 people present. The first speaker of the afternoon was Mr. William G. Vinal, Rhode Island College of Education, Providence, R. I., who spoke on THE ScrENCE OF OUTDOOR RECREATION emphasizing work that he and his colleagues were doing by camps and recreation centers. Miss Gertrude Weeks, Boston Normal School, Boston, Mass., gave a most interesting and enthusiastic talk on the much discussed subject of today—namely, HYGIENE AS A ParT OF BIOLOGY. The third speaker of the session was Mr. Morris Meister, Teachers College, who discussed in detail “Methods of Managing a Science Club.” Mr. Meister was as brilliant as ever and gave numerous phases of the work necessary in order to have a real Science Club. His main point was a Club with one workable interest. He illustrated all his points with personal experiences in this line of work. The last speaker was Mr. J. Richard Lunt, English High School, Boston, Mass., whose topic was VIVIFYING THE TEACHING OF GENERAL SCIENCE. It is impossible to describe the class exercise which Mr. Lunt put us all through. He used as the demonstration experiment the Electrolysis of Water. The members and friends present were treated to the most energetic teaching of a class that had been witnessed for some time. After the demonstration Mr. Lunt advocated the using of larger pieces of apparatus for demonstration work. He showed a number of pieces that had just been prepared by L. E. Knott Apparatus Co. After a discussion in which many present took part the meeting adjourned at 2350) P.M. The second session of the Department of Science Instruction was called to order in the Lecture Hall of Franklin Union by Mr. Irving H. Upton, president of the New England Association of Physics Teachers, at 2:15 P. M. The first speaker for the afternoon was Mr. C. H. Stone, president of the New England Association of Chemistry Teachers and Chemistry Instructor at the English High School, Boston, Mass. His subject was TEACHING CHEMISTRY IN THE Hicu ScHoot. Mr. Stone treated this broad subject in a masterly fashion. He made especially strong the part played by Americans in the development of present-day chemistry. Mr. Stone discussed in detail the problems involving the use of 22.4 liters. Puysics FoR GIRLS was the subject discussed by Mr. Walter G. Whitman, of the Massachusetts State Normal School, Salem, Mass. Mr. Whitman was familiar with his subject and gave many points of value that the teachers could well use. Mr. Packard, of the Brookline, Mass., High School, also spoke on this subject as did several others present. Mr. Allen C. Hutchinson, South Side High School, Newark, N. J., spoke on Puysics For Boys. This topic was well handled. In the course of Mr. Hutchin- son’s talk he gave a well-outlined course adaptable for non-college preparatory courses. After the papers the annual election of officers was held. On motion of Mr. Stone, Leslie O. Johnson, head of the Chemistry Department of the New Haven High School, New Haven, Conn., was nominated for President. On motion of Mr. Packard nominations were closed and Mr. Johnson was declared elected. [1239] 1240 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Mr. Packard nominated Mr. A. C. Hutchinson, head of the Science Department, South Side High School, Newark, N. J.,. for vice-president. He was unanimously elected. : Mr. Stone nominated Mr. Arthur H. French, head of the Science Department in the Francis W. Parker School, San Diego, Calif., who was also unanimously elected. After a brief reception the meeting adjourned at 5 Pp. M. after voting the meet- ing a grand success and the officers predicting an even better meeting in 1923 if the science teachers of the country respond as. generously with suggestions as they have in the past. Lestig O. JOHNSON, Secretary pro tem. HYGIENE AS A PART OF BIOLOGY GERTRUDE WEEKS, BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS An eminent physician in Boston has haid, “Hygiene is the yellow dog among the studies of the curriculum,” and I have not heard of any one’s disputing this statement. If it is true that the teaching of hygiene in most of our schools is a farce—‘“the least taught and the worst taught of all the branches of the curriculum’’—what is the cause of it? Is it because the public is not alive to the importance of personal and community hygiene? The State certainly wants healthy citizens. Francis Bacon said, “Public health is the foundation on which reposes . . . the power of the community.” ‘The student of today must be viewed as the raw material of a new State; the school as the nursery of the Nation. ‘To conserve this material is as logical a function of the State as to conserve the National resources of coal, iron, and water power.’’ ‘The only effective way to do this is through the public schools. Most of the States require hygiene teaching. Some States give special licences through examinations for teachers of hygiene; and specify the purpose, content, and method of instruction. However, the startling failure to meet health standards found in the examination of men of military age during the recruiting for the war, showed conclusively that the public, by and large, had not acquired proper health habits. This knowledge should have reacted in a lively enforcement of health regulations and higher health standards in general ; and in particular, a careful inspection of the high-school teaching of hygiene to the youth of today. But it has not done so up to the present. Is the poor hygiene teaching of today due to the fact that the subject itself is removed from the interest and experience of youth? Certainly not, for health concerns every moment of daily life from birth to death. There can hardly be a more important thing for a person to do than to study the question—and answer it—of making his body as smoothly running and effectively working a machine as it is humanly possible. As the individual is, so is the community. Is the present dissatisfaction with the hygiene teaching due to the fact that it is poorly taught or not really taught at all? One who did not know the school situation might expect specialists in hygiene as teachers of DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1241 the subject in the high school. “That sounds reasonable—hygiene teachers for the teaching of hygiene. But what are the facts? Perhaps the sub- ject is quite overlooked by the principal of the school in making out the school program for the year. I have known that to happen. Or perhaps the principal does remember, but he is not especially interested. It is a State requirement; of course any good teacher can teach hygiene. Very often, the subject is given to the teacher whose teaching program needs an extra period or so. ‘There is no question of his qualification for the work or his interest in the subject. Of course he may teach the subject very well, but the chances are that the type of work is a recitation from assigned reading on anatomy and physiology, a dead handling of a live subject, which can not function in any vital way. Even if it is credited to the biology department, as is generally done, the head of the department is powerless to change the situation and better the teaching, when program-hours is the only guide in choosing the teacher of hygiene. If the principal gives the subject to a biology teacher, many times he must take the work with large classes, where the lecture method is the only possible one. Of course a skeleton, charts, models, etc., can make the teaching of the bone, muscular, nervous, and digestive systems academically interesting, but at best, such teaching is impersonal, unmotivated and does not react in higher standards of personal hygiene on the part of the students—in better health habits. There is no ‘‘follow-up”’ possible on the part of the teacher. : Again, perhaps the subject is assigned to a very able and effective teacher of biology. ‘This does sometimes happen. A biology teacher with a grow- ing knowledge of the value and importance of hygiene and a delight in the subject itself can do very much. But isn’t he, because of his special train- ing, inclinded to emphasize with these adolescents the study of biological systems and their functions, of bacteria and their reactions, rather than the forming of health habits? There are other arrangements for the teaching of hygiene in the high school. Let me cite the situation in a city of fifteen high schools. In six of these, the teaching is done by the science department, but this does not mean, necessarily, a specialist in hygiene; in four by program-fitters ; in two by physicians; in two by physical-education teachers; in one by a trained nurse. All of these courses are credited to science, biology section, whether or not the science head has any supervision or “‘say-so”’ as to the content or type of teaching. This is an encouraging situation only as it may be indicative of an unstableness that will ultimately find its true equilibrium. Should hygiene be a part of biology? Before we can answer this question let us ask a few. First, what type of hygiene instruction will be most purposeful for high-school students? High-school students are adolescents, which means that their own bodies are undergoing a period of stress and storm when, as Stanley Hall says, 1242 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION “Qld moorings are broken and higher levels are attained. When the annual rate of growth in height and strength is increased and often doubled or more, when the range of individual differences and average errors in all physical measurements and all psychic tests increases.” High-school stu- dents are at an age to have special body consciousness. Mentally, exaggeration is a marked trait; so is romance. It is a period of tenseness, eagerness, and dominance. Socially intimate companions are sought; hero-worship is common; social clubs are formed, and “societies” flourish; religious interests run high. This is the material which the high-school teacher of hygiene must meet and satisfy. What does this high-school pupil want of hygiene? He may not be especially interested in the subject itself, but he does want power to do work, to get results, to enjoy life without the handicap of a disturbing physical body. He wants to be able to do with his body what the best of them can do. What shall be taught? How? Who is best qualified to teach this? What shall be taught? First of all, correct health habits. Secondly, in so far as the pupils are mentally able to assimilate and are in- terested, the biological reasons for these habits. Thirdly, the carrying over into their homes and communities the health habits and facts acquired. As to habits, I recognize that psychologically this is not the habit-forming age. But if good health habits are not established of what avail is all our hygiene teaching? How shall this be done? The method of teaching must be adapted to the moral, mental, and social stage of the adolescent. Make use of his new awakenings, his love of out-of-doors, and reading, his exaggerations, his eagerness, his social aspirations, his hero-worship, in leading him to form correct health habits. Praise him when he does achieve a real goal on the way and constantly encourage him in the right habits until they become as automatic as is possible. The study of the science underlying the value of these health habits of posture, proper breathing, and diet, sleep, fresh air, and cleanliness of person and surroundings—of building up a power of resistance to disease in his body—will follow the mastery of the ele- mentary skills and processes necessary in forming these habits. The interest in the feeling of increased power over his body and his physical surroundings will carry over, under the sympathetic attitude of the teacher, into the home and community. In O’Shea and Kellog’s Health Problems are excellent suggestions for the manner in which this can be done. ‘This book contains lists of suggestive questions—projects for the student to carry out—which will awaken a practical attitude toward hygiene. And now for the question as to who is best qualified to teach to high- school pupils a hygiene which will function. If health habits are the vital thing, as I believe, then (1) the hygiene teacher must be an exponent of correct health habits; (2) he must have had the opportunity to see his students in a not too formal way where they are individually get-at-able so that he may advise and correct their habit-formations; (3) he must have DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1243 basic scientific training in the subjects of science and hygiene and (4) he must be one that participates in community health-betterment enterprises. Who best exemplifies these qualifications ? The physician is usually too much interested in disease and its cure and the more technical aspects of his subject to be the most desirable. This is true to a less degree of the trained nurse. In both physician and nurse the dominant interest is prevention and cure of disease rather than the fostering of an already good condition of health. ‘Their service is de- manded by sick péople, not well people, and their biology is largely patho- logical. “The nurse usually has community service as an asset above the doctor but neither doctor nor nurse seem to me the best teacher of high- school hygiene. For the program-fitter—the teacher who is chosen because his program can stand another period or so—as a teacher of hygiene I offer no plea, nor would he take it kindly if I did. The biology teacher, from the scientific point of view, is the logical candidate and pretty universally the accepted one. Yet if you inquire of a biology teacher, you will find that many have less interest and preparation for hygiene teaching than for the teaching of plant and animal science. At college, specialization in biology does not require nor include courses in hygiene. A teacher of high-school biology seldom has special training in hygiene. Yet at present, from the science point of view, which is often- est the uppermost one, the biology teacher seems the logical candidate for the teaching of hygiene, as I said before. If good health habits is the chief aim, does the biology teacher have a good opportunity to make the teaching really function? It seems to me that the requirements for the best teaching of hygiene in the high school are most adequately met by the teacher of physical train- ing who holds the State certificate of health instruction or its equivalent in biological preparation. I am told that training schools for teachers of physical education require such foundation study of physiology and hygiene tor the diploma. Such a teacher directs his students in gymnastics, first-aid emergencies, drill, games, and dancing, ali requiring coérdination of mind and muscle and quick mental and physical reactions. As handmaids to these subjects, he shows the necessity of fresh air, proper temperature, good ventilation, deep breathing, and good posture; balanced diet; cleanliness of person and surroundings. It must be part of his work to note the reaction of indi- vidual students in each of these matters and to follow up cases requiring better hygienic conditions of sleep, diet, better proportion of rest and work, fresh air, and the like. He is often a direct participator in community health betterment programs. Unless we can have a specialist in hygiene in the high schools, a man who has certain of the qualifications of doctor, nurse, biologist, and physical- education teacher combined, plus a certain special preparation and con- secration, the physical education teacher, who can of all high-school teachers 1244 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION best see and direct proper health habits, seems to me the best solution of our problem. To put my topic, “Hygiene as a Part of Biology,” in the form of a question, “Is Hygiene a part of Biology?”, I would say, “No, not neces- sarily, either academically or pedagogically.” A biologist, just because he is a biologist, is not a hygiene specialist, and may not even be much inter- ested in that phase of the science which concerns specialists in human biology. This is no criticism of the biologist. Why should he be a hygiene specialist? Hygiene, as at present taught, as ‘a part of biology, does not function to the satisfaction of the State, the teacher, nor the pupil. There seems to me no good and sufficient reason to go on assuming that the biologist, just because he is a biologist, is best fitted to teach hygiene in the high schools. THE SCIENCE OF OUTDOOR RECREATION WILLIAM G. VINAL, RHODE ISLAND COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND Every animal but the human gets its training for the life struggle through recreation. “The human animal teaches about everything in school but simple outdoor living. What our children know about the great out-of- doors is in spite of our educational system. ‘The indications are that the movement is not merely supplementing education but that it will transform it. There are many agencies taking up this missing link in our curriculum. 1. The private camp—There was a time when all our schools were private. We are passing through the same period in camping. ‘There are now about 700 private camps which charge a tuition fee of $200 or more for about two months in the summer. About 95 per cent of these are in New England and New York and 75 per cent are in the White Mountain region. Each camp enrolls 50 to 200 boys or girls. The main business of these camps is to teach the enjoyment of simple outdoor living. Harvard University is about to give its first Ph. D. to a student in the profession of camping. 2. Institutional camps—By institutional camp is meant those of the Boy Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, Y. M. C. A., and charitable organizations. There are about 5000 of these camps which charge a maintenance fee for two-week periods during the summer. ‘These camps are usually located within the outskirts of large cities. In 1920 there were 364,000 boy scouts and 82,000 girl scouts in the United States. Scoutcraft supplements existing educational courses. Within the last few years, however, certain colleges have been giving courses with credit toward a degree, for Scout leaders. Scout-training courses are also fully organized in some junior high schools. It is solving the dress problem in many secondary schools. 3. State parks—Seventeen new State parks were organized last year. ‘There are 2,000,000 acres of park land in New York State alone. The DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1245 most remarkable park is the one started at Bear Mountain in 1899 by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, then Governor of New York. It is esti- mated that 50,000 people enjoyed its privileges in the summer of 1921 and that in five years’ time it will be 250,000. This park has 40,000 acres. For the summer of 1922 there are forty-seven organizations that are run- ning camps in the park. “The camps have a capacity for 6600 campers at one time. ‘These camps are very cosmopolitan. On Twin Lake one may see the following camps in the order named: Catholic Charity, Y. M. H. A., R. H. Macy Co. of New York City, Y. M. C. A. of Orange County, Jewish Settlement, Y. W. C. A. colored, and Negro Fresh Air colored. Over $12,600,000 has been appropriated so far. Balanced meals are delivered hot and at cost to the various camps. “The system has several portable saw mills, quarries, a steamboat line, a large inn and restaurant, and a large working staff. Winter camping is becoming as popular as summer camping. 4. Colleges—The only college that I know of that prepares in this line is Syracuse University. It has a Professor of Forest Recreation. In his department are taught camp engineering, camp sanitation, camp trails, and the landscape phase of camping. 5. Schools—The Country Day School is a movement in the direction of simple outdoor living but generally does not go as far as the camp in the fulfillment of the aims. The city of Detroit in the summer of 1921 made an appropriation from its community fund for camping. Nine hundred girls were taken care of in a camp on Lake Michigan. ‘This is the nearest approach to a public responsibility for this phase of education. 6. Business firms—The business man is realizing the advantages of out- door recreation. An example of this is the General Electric Company which maintains a camp on Lake George for its girl employees. Outdoor recreation teaches a great deal that pertains to science. ‘The method is entirely different. In camp one may learn to cook before a fire ‘by means of a reflector oven. He learns that certain objects reflect better than others. He discovers that if biscuits are to be well baked that he must reflect heat to the bottom of the pan as well as to the top. He learns that he gets better heat if the reflector is at an angle of 45 degrees. And through all this experience he never hears of the angles of incidence nor of the different aximuths of the plane of reflection. Science in the school must get more of the flavor of practice and less of the rule. One learns to swim by swimming and not by studying principles. In outdoor living there are many opportunities or shall I say the necessities for application of the principles of science. 1246 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MANAGING 4 SCIENCE CLUB MORRIS MEISTER, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY After-school or extra-curricular activities have recently been receiving a great deal of attention from educators, administrators, and teachers. From the point of view of time spent, effort exerted, interest and thought stimu- lated, what our pupils do after school hours compares very favorably with what they do for us in the classroom. Science teachers in particular are affected by after-school activities of all kinds. All sorts of apparatus under the name of boys is being sold to boys of all ages. Meccano, chemcraft, experiments with magnetism, light, elec- tricity, the surveyor’s outfit, the mineralogy outfit, and countless other sets and ‘‘inventor’s” outfits, not to mention the recent radio innovation, are monopolizing more and more of the boy’s play time, in activity which makes an intense appeal to the inherent manipulative instincts of boys of this age. To guide and control this activity which at the present time is rather promiscuous and subject to all sorts of advertising propaganda of the various boy manufacturers, a Science Club under the direction of the science teacher becomes a necessity. A successful science club for the junior high school boy 1. Must be a general science club rather than a club devoted to a specific purpose, such as chemistry, photography, etc. Only by means of activities of wide and general scope can the interests of the majority of individuals be held, and their various capacities given an outlet for development. 2. Must have a definite and simple organization, involving a constitu- tion drawn up by the boys themselves, which will definitely specify the officers, their duties, types of meetings, payment of dues, admissions, im- peachments, prizes, awards, etc. 3. Must have a definite program of activities. Five types of programs. are found to be effective as follows: (a) The lecture (by member, director, or outsider) ; (4) the trip or excursion; (c) the assembly program; (d) the experiment program, and (e) the demonstration program. The activities of the club and the awards are based upon the Club Point System, which consists of a list of fifty definite things a boy can do to score points of merit. For example, for presenting an invention, 25 to 50 points; for reading a science book, 15 points; for knowing the names and accom- plishments of 10 great scientists, 10 points; for presenting and operating a meccano, erector, etc., construction, etc., 10 points. The Science Club is designed as a vehicle on which to carry after-school science activities, in order to guide, control, and utilize them for enhancing the interest in curricular science in such a way as to introduce into the classroom work some of the free vital spirit so common to out-of-school projects and often so sadly lacking in school work. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1247 THE TEACHING OF HIGH-SCHOOL CHEMISTRY C. H. STONE, PRESIDENT OF THE ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS Probably every teacher here present has built’up from his own experience a definite system of teaching, incorporating therein those principles and methods which he has found by repeated trial to be most effective. While such principles and methods may not always be successfully transplanted from the schoolroom of one teacher to that of another, they should, never- theless, be of interest to teachers in general. It may not, therefore, be inappropriate if the following remarks embody the experience of a good many years in my chemistry classroom. One of the first questions asked about a teacher is with regard to dis- cipline. If there is any one subject in the high-school curriculum which so holds the interest and attention of students as to make discipline easy, that subject is chemistry. If properly taught, no other study makes so strong an appeal to all the senses, no other brings the student into closer touch with things and principles, no other except physics throws more light upon the environment of youth and none better satisfies natural curiosity. Unen- thusiastic and uninspiring must that teacher be who cannot hold the atten- tion of a class to such a subject during the recitation, and in the laboratory the natural desire of young people “to do something and see what will happen,” if properly guided, makes discipline less of a bugbear than it is in other subjects. Teachers who are not alert, energetic, and enthusiastic may find discipline difficult and endeavor to enforce it by martinet rules, but where real work is being done and boys and girls are absorbed in the progress of an experiment or a demonstration, there will be little need for such methods. Instructors who find difficulty with discipline may well examine themselves to see if they are not somehow out of touch with the viewpoint and ideas of youth. Lack of sympathy with young people, inability to appreciate their immature attitude of mind toward the responsi- bilities of school life and work are frequent causes of disciplinary troubles. So far as possible, swaviter in modo may be the teacher’s motto, but pupils should not be allowed to conclude that fortiter in re is not also a part of that motto. The earnest, sympathetic teacher with personality will have little difficulty in maintaining order, but do not permit your personality to stifle or override that of a pupil. Teach chemistry as a live, interesting subject; teach it whole-heartedly and enthusiastically; put sympathetic personality and knowledge into your teaching and your pupils will follow where you will. And remember that you may teach chemistry from what you know but you shall build character by what you are. The recitation—Teachers should never forget that the study of science introduces the student into a new field. Everything is different from what he has been accustomed to. Unfamiliar apparatus, strange substances with peculiar colors and odors, and new words like those of a foreign language confront him at every turn when beginning chemistry. Hence at first 1248 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the teacher must go slow. New concepts are not quickly grasped. It is well to draw upon ideas already developed in previous science study and in chemistry we may draw largely from the study of physics which, in most schools, the pupil will already have had. Fortunately very much of chem- istry depends upon physical principles so that development along these lines seems logical. Gradually the student will arrive at clearer concepts of purely chemical factors as he acquires familiarity with his new environment of material and of chemical transformations. Then, too, it must not be forgotten that science calls for a different mental attitude than does most of the student’s previous work. He has been accustomed to accept from the hand of authority facts and principles to be assimilated without opportunity for investigation or verification. In science the position is changed. “The pupil may now become to a degree a judge of the facts that pass under his inspection ; he may employ his powers of observation and of reasoning in ways untried before. He should achieve an independence of thought and judgment, an ability to arrive at correct conclusions from a consideration of presented facts. This mental attitude is reached slowly and the teacher must not attempt to force the development too rapidly. Every recitation period should center about one main idea. The dem- onstration, the blackboard exercise, the recitations by the pupils, all should contribute something toward building up and strengthening in the minds of the class a series of related concepts centering about one principal idea. Some recitation periods are like the stream that flows into the desert until its waters are lost in the dry sands; like the stream, the recitation never emerges anywhere. Stick to the main theme and keep the class to it. An occasional excursion of thought may be justified if it can be made to con- tribute some additional knowledge bearing upon the main theme, but never go far from the central thought. It is often well to close the period with a summary, upon the blackboard perhaps, of the recitation just ended; this summary may be made the basis of review in the first part of the next day’s recitation. Since the beginner in chemistry is introduced into a strange world, it is fundamentally important that he should understand the nomenclature of that world. Personal experience has shown that failure to understand the meaning of a technical word or two in some paragraph has completely neutralized the pupil’s effort in study. Therefore, point out in the advance lesson such words as need especial attention and give for each a definition in simple but accurate language. Some definitions in our texts do not seem perfectly accurate. Thus an acid is often defined as a “substance which gives hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.” This is true but not wholly satisfactory. Does not an acid salt, say sodium hydrogen sulphate, also give hydrogen ions in water solution? Would not a more accurate definition of an acid state that it is ‘‘a substance which gives hydrogen ions in water solution, and no other positive ions’? When a satisfactory definition has been chosen, insist that it be learned as given and further insist that it be used over and over in the classroom until it becomes per- DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1249 fectly familiar. ‘The importance of repetition cannot be overemphasized. All that has just been said regarding definitions applies with equal force to laws. And not only should pupils be held to correct statements of definitions and laws, but they should be required to give suitable examples illustrating the meaning of the definition or the application of the law. Insist continually upon accurate definition and accurate statement of laws and make repetition of these so frequent that from force of habit they are given correctly. Most texts in chemistry, and many teachers, do not sufficiently emphasize the importance of the type reaction. ‘The general principle underlying a whole series of chemical changes is vastly more important than any single case can possibly be. For example, most chemistry texts state that ammonia gas may be prepared by heating a mixture of ammonium chloride and cal- cium hydroxide. ‘This is true but it is not the whole truth. You can demonstrate to your class in half a dozen ways that any ammonium salt treated with a base will liberate ammonia gas. Prove this yourself before the class, or let individual students try it, each using a different combina- tion, until the truth is evident and the general principle established. Given five ammonium salts and four bases, let the class write equations for twenty ways to make ammonia. ‘Then it will be time to consider with them why the text gives ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide as the usual materials. Other cases that come to mind are: the preparation of chlorine by oxida- tion of hydrochloric acid, other oxidizing agents than manganese dioxide to be used; the preparation of the halogens from their “ide” salts; the action of heat on nitrates of metals of valence two or more; and the general method for preparing the common acids. Any live teacher will think of, or can work out, other cases in which a general principle applies, such as that in which sand is heated with carbonates and phosphates in furnace reactions Probably no topic in chemistry has caused more debate than the question: “When shall we teach valence?” My own belief is that valence should be taught before formulas and equations. It is hard to see how students can understand formulas without a knowledge of valence; it seems to me more a feat of memory than the result of real knowledge. In my own school. we teach first a simple table of the common elements and radicals arranged as positive and negative factors under their respective valences. Elements with variable valence may be omitted, or only the more important valence given. ‘The structure of radicals, and later of formulas, is made clear by graphic forms. Arranged as plus and minus factors in this way, the likeli- hood that students will write some of the impossible combinations sometimes seen in test papers is much minimized. No reference to ions is made at this time, but when this topic is taken up the student finds that he already has a fairly complete list of plus and minus ions. ‘Taught thus the valence table serves two purposes. Much drill follows the study of this table until the pupils are able to write simple formulas and then more difficult ones with a minimum of error. After formulas, equations follow logically. In 1250 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION all equations pupils are trained to indicate as diatomic molecules such ele- ments as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and chlorine; they are also trained to indicate the decomposition products in such unstable substances as am- monium hydroxide and carbonic acid. The arrow, pointing up or down, indicates the gas or precipitate produced in the reaction. : There are various ways of teaching equations. One way may be con- sidered here. ‘Take the action of sulphuric acid on zinc. Hydrogen is liberated and zinc sulphate is formed. ‘The hydrogen atoms surrender two valences to the one atom of zinc which goes into solution. —Zn + Het S Og — Zntt SOuas + He T Again, take the action of sulphurous acid on potassium permanganate solution. Each molecule of the acid can take up one oxygen atom thereby changing the valence of the sulphur from four to six. The potassium atoms in the permanganate can undergo no valence change, but the manganese atoms pass from a valence of seven to a valence of two since manganese sul- phate is formed. The manganese atom thereby loses five valences which are taken up by the sulphur, through the addition of oxygen. But each oxygen adds two valences so it is necessary to have at least two molecules of the permanganate thus making ten valences to be transferred to the sul- phur. Five sulphur atoms can therefore be oxidized and the equation is —2KtMn Of +5 H2t S O;-- > Ke S O,-~ +2 Mnt*tS$ OQ, __ +2H.t S O,-~ + 3 He O. One type of problem may be mentioned here. It is often desired to find the volume of gas obtained from a given weight of material. “This may be done by the use of 22.4 liters, as follows. Given 50 grams ammonium sulphate; to find volume of ammonia gas obtainable. = (N Ha)e S O, + Ca (OH)2— Ca S O., + 2H, O+ 2N Hs; y 132 44.8 (22.4 x 2) 50 xX : Since two molecular weights of the gas are liberated, the volume of ammonia obtained from 132 grams of the ammonium salt will be 44.8 liters. From 50 grams, of course, a corresponding volume will be obtained. ‘This method has the advantage of giving the volume directly without first find- ing the weight of the gas. We have found that a few simple generalizations from the Periodic Table are very helpful. ‘The general properties of an element, its valence, its activity compared with other elements in same column are the chief points brought out. Some time is spent in drill on the table but not too much detail should be given in regard to it. ; In the same way, the displacement series is made the basis of a whole list of important ideas. “This table shows not only the order in which the metals displace each other, but it shows also the relative activity, the probability of a given metal occurring free, the probable method to be used in extracting from its oxide, its probable tendency to rust, its probable action on water, and its probable action on acids are some of the points dwelt upon. The amount of ground covered in the average high school will vary DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Zou much, the length of periods and the number of actual school weeks being determining factors. But the teacher who has given a thorough treatment of the non-metals with the accompanying laws and theories, ionic theory especially, need not feel that the course is inadequate because ‘the metals have not been studied. If a few typical metals, sodium, calcium, iron, and copper or lead, are studied, the others may be omitted. Here again we must fall back upon our general principles, and with the aid of the periodic table and the displacement series endeavor to give certain fundamental ideas which will apply to any of the metals. ‘The general methods for preparing metal compounds may be taken in the same way. It is better not to cover too much ground. Better do less in extent and do it well than to under- take too extensive a program and not succeed in making it yield a satis- factory result. With regard to methods of conducting recitations a word may be said. A cut-and-dried form of recitation may become wearisome with daily use. The teacher should use a variety of methods. Oral recitations may be varied by using the topic method or the rapid-fire method. Sometimes send a pupil to the board to write out some process or build up a series of equations while at the same time discuss orally what he is writing. If conditions are favorable it is often a good plan to assign in advance to one pupil a certain topic to be presented by him before the class on a certain day. Let him then set up his apparatus, carry out the experiment, discuss it fully, and be prepared to answer any relevant questions the class may ask. With classes of forty or more it has been found a good plan to give frequent short written tests, allowing five.minutes in which to write a description of some process, to draw and letter some pieces of apparatus, to write five definitions, to solve some problem, or to answer some question in descriptive chemistry. Longer tests requiring the whole period are given once a month. Drawings of apparatus with detailed description are some- times called for to be handed in at the next recitation. The teacher must use every effort to keep the whole class on the alert. No pupil, after reciting, should be allowed to sink back with the idea that he is done and nothing more will be expected from him until the next recitation. Too often high-school students are inclined to think that unless they are actually reciting they are exempt from the necessity of mental activity. This attitude must be discouraged in every possible way. The teacher must keep watch over the class, having his finger on its pulse so to speak, and be quick to detect any general flagging of interest or individual inattention. The live teacher will make a good many demonstrations, small and large, during the course. ‘These should not be duplicates of experiments to be done later in the laboratory by the students, except that in the early weeks of the course such procedure may be advisable in order to give the pupils correct ideas as to the setting up of apparatus and its proper manipulation. But the demonstration of itself is of little value. Pupils are inclined to regard it as simply an exhibition of something amusing or temporarily inter- esting; few pupils will look below the surface for the important meaning 1252 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION which the demonstration holds. Every demonstration should be accom- panied or followed by a thorough quiz on the points which the teacher intends to show, with careful attention to detail. Tell the class nothing which they can observe for themselves or find out by process of reasoning, and do not leave the demonstration until the last bit of information, the last point of teaching value has been wrung from it; otherwise it will fall short of accomplishing its full purpose. While demonstrations may be made powerful instruments for teaching, the lecture method is almost worthless for high-school students. It falls short in efficiency, because it does not impose sufficient responsibility upon the student, because it does not demand real mental activity from him. Unless he is held responsible and unless he is devoting mental effort he will not get much from the exercise. The lecture is too much like the moving picture ; it moves too rapidly to leave a lasting imprint upon the mind. Of course, an occasional five minutes may profitably be devoted to some inter- esting bit of biography or the details of some recent advance in science, but on the whole avoid the lecture method. As a rule teachers talk too much; make your pupils do the talking. Where it is possible, a study should be correlated with the other subjects which are being taken with it, or have been taken in previous years. Knowl- edge is one, not a series of unrelated units. Whatever the student has already learned or is learning should be brought to bear upon his present problem. Chemistry should especially be correlated with English and with physics. While it is not the function of the chemistry teacher to teach English, an effort can at least be made to require good English in both | oral and written work, to call attention to misspelled words, such as in- soluble, preparation, and filtrate, to insist on neatness and reasonable ar- rangement of work: these are no more English than they are chemistry. Constantly call to pupils’ attention the necessity of using the knowledge previously gained in their physics course; use the same formulas in solving problems under Boyle’s and Charles’ Law and in thermometer conversions that were used in the physics course. The breaking of thick glass bottles when heated, the contraction of gases when heat is removed from them, and other incidents in the laboratory afford opportunity to emphasize to the student the importance of using the knowledge supposed to have been acquired in his previous work. History and modern languages may be correlated to a less extent while drawing should be required of all students taking science. There is also the correlation of chemistry with the environment of the student. Without at all abandoning the emphasis on the importance of general principles, the bearing of chemistry upon the daily life of the world should not be neglected. Such topics, as the automobile with its three factors of steel, rubber, and gasoline, the principles of photography, fire- works and explosives are suggested. “The chemistry of the home and the chemistry of fertilizers, sprays, milk, and the soil are topics which should receive especial treatment in the rural high school. There is need in our high schools for a well-planned four-year course in DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1253 science. Four-year courses already exist in English, History, Mathematics, Latin, and consecutive courses in other subjects. Science, however, has not universally received the same consideration. Somewhere in the four years there comes a break. While we may not maintain with Spencer that science contains that knowledge which is of sole value in life, it is at least of suffi- cient value to warrant an equal consideration as to length and continuity of course with other subjects in the curriculum. Both physics and chemistry, usually given in the last two years of the high school, would profit by this arrangement. ‘The steady development of observational and reasoning power in scientific work is seriously interfered with where a break occurs during the second year. ‘Time does not permit more than mention of such topics as “Assigned readings,’ “Essays,” “Industrial excursions,” ‘Problems’; but I want to speak of one topic more fully. It seems to me the time has come when we may justly dwell upon the word American in our chemistry teaching. During the past ten years this country has shown that it has chemists second to none; it has shown that there is an American chemistry. Mention of only a few lines of endeavor, such as optical glass, dye stuffs, war gases, explosives, and nitrogen fixation will show that today we stand upon a chemical level with any of the nations. “The names of American chemists should be as freely used in our class work as those of European chemists. Let us give to America and to American chemists the credit which is their just due. And the lesson taught us by the Great War must not be for- gotten. Not again must our country be so dependent upon foreign chem- ical industries. We must train our own chemists here. The laboratory—lIf the recitation room is the place in which the student thinks out answers to questions from the teacher, the laboratory is the place in which he thinks out the answers to quéstions of his own. — It is the one spot in which his ability to initiate and to correlate are put to the test. No laboratory directions should be so detailed as to leave the student no oppor- tunity to exert his powers of constructive ability, observation, and reasoning. The teacher should pass from student to student, inspecting, criticizing, questioning, suggesting, but telling as little as possible. “Too much telling is bad. One fact or principle discovered by the pupil is worth half a dozen told to him by the teacher. Telling does not create independence of thought; that comes best through the pupil’s own efforts. In the laboratory the pupil may work out small research problems. Let him, for example, find out for himself why sulphuric acid does not work well on marble when making carbon dioxide; why heat is needed in making nitric acid by the general rule but is not needed in making hydrochloric acid by the same rule; whether any oxide can be used with HC1 in making chlorine; why the oxygen delivery tube should be removed from the water in the trough when all the bottles are filled while the hydrogen delivery tube need not be removed. ‘These are simple points not beyond the power of the average student who is willing to make mental effort. In the laboratory the special interests of individual students may be allowed chance for expression. For some years in my own school we have 1254 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION given boys who were interested and ambitious special work along the line of their choice after the regular work was completed. ‘The preparation of simple salts seems to appeal to them more than any other of the lines open, although experiments in the chemistry of textiles, of foods, and of agricul- ture are available. Specimens of this work and of note books used are on exhibition here. So far as possible the course in chemistry, both in lecture room and laboratory, should be kept as humanistic as possible. The colleges have almost forced upon us much academic work, but such work is of less interest to the young student. ‘The chemistry of the automobile, of photography, and the like makes a stronger appeal than the chemistry of substances for which the student can see little use. Where such procedure is possible, some separation of non-college preparatory students from the others seems desirable. For such students the course can be much modified and more of the chemistry that deals directly with their life interests and environment could be made use of. Throughout the whole course, training in the ability to observe, to see relationships, to correlate facts and to draw from observed facts correct conclusions is the aim of chemistry teaching; the accumulation of much information is important but of less real value. Observe and think is our “Open Sesame.” Before closing, a brief mention of some conditions which handicap our teaching should be made. The first of these is the abnormal size of classes. To give proper and efficient instruction to classes of forty or more is val task to try the skill and patience of the very best teachers. With half divisions in the laboratory this gives twenty for a single teacher. Fifteen is as many beginners as can be efficiently handled in the laboratory unless an assistant is provided. I am aware that school officials are often in the position of King Leodogran when he entertained the Queen of Orkney and her sons, “not as he would but as he could.” Nevertheless large classes militate against the best teaching. A shortened recitation period is another handicap. With a given amount of ground to be covered, the maximum of time should be granted for recita- tions. Less than forty minutes with a class of forty seems inadequate. No period should be less than forty-five minutes. I plead also for the recognition and adoption of the principle that every science teacher should have one period a day free from every official assign- ment. ‘This time is absolutely necessary for setting up and testing dem- onstration apparatus, for repairing broken apparatus and constructing new ; for trying out new experiments; for making solutions; and for the hundred things which must be done on the teacher’s own time if the free period is not granted. I cannot speak here of such topics as: lack of home codperation, of the too evident outside activities of students, of jazz and moving pictures and the automobile which take so much time that should be given to study. These are all factors which affect the quality of the work we are trying to do or rather the quality of the product we turn out, DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION $255 When we look into the future and realize the great part which chemistry is destined to play in this country, a strong feeling of responsibility comes over us. ‘There are great problems waiting to be solved by the chemists of the near future, and these chemists are now our students. Upon them will fall in the coming years the solving of the problems of waste, of conserva- tion, of new fuels and new sources of power. If they are to do well their part then, we must do well our part now. To lay the broad and deep foundations of chemical knowledge on which others may raise the superstructure, to cultivate in youth those powers of observation and of reasoning which lead to the best results, to waken in them a realization of what chemistry means to the country now and in the future, and to stir in them an ambition to contribute something to the science which has done so much to make our modern civilization possible by promoting the safety, comfort, health, and material wealth of our people, this, O Fellow Teachers, is your task and mine. CONTENTS OF A COURSE IN PHYSICS FOR GIRLS WALTER G. WHITMAN, SALEM STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SALEM MASSACHUSETTS In these days of liberal educational thought, we can hardly expect a widespread agreement of educators upon any definite list of topics in physics which may be proposed as essential to the proper education of girls. When we are hearing so much about the purposeful activity of the pupil as the essence of real education, one hesitates to propose any list of topics under the title of content of a course. In any such list there will probably be some topic which will so appeal to some girl that she will feel an “inner urge” to undertake its study. There are some of you present who remember the time when one course in physics was proclaimed as a foundation course for all pupils, boys and girls, college preparing and non-college preparing students. It was a panacea, a universal course without which no further progress and no understanding of the applications of physics were possible. Many pupils could see nothing worth while in many of the topics but they were led or dragged through that course by the thousands and few there are who look back upon those days of the old physics with gratitude. Times have changed since then. Now we find some schools with physics courses for students going to college and other courses for those not going to college and in the college preparatory course there is considerable lati- tude for variation of the course. We find some schools offering courses which they think are particularly adapted to boys and those especially fitting for girls. Fourteen years ago I had the pleasure of starting a class in physics for girls in the Ethical Culture School in New York.’ Possibly 1 See “School Science and Mathematics,” p. 146, February, 19¢9, and p. 494, June, rgto. 1256 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION courses with material selected for girls had been given before that time, but surely since then many schools have developed special courses for girls. There are now available two textbooks in household physics. “These were written for the use of students of household science and therefore primarily for girls. The organization of these books is along lines of a scientific classification of the subject matter and for that reason a bare out- line of the main topics gives an altogether inadequate idea of the value of the material contained in them. In order to suggest the content of a course in physics for girls it seems necessary to name units based upon an alto- gether different system of organization. It was for a long time a custom in our textbooks to make a study of the scientific principles and then to add a few practical applications, apparently as a reward to the faithful plodders who had waded through a maze of (to them) purposeless figures, formulas, and experiments. Would it not be better to have the purpose of the work fixed in the student’s mind at the start, and would not a course built up of a series of worth while projects—definite units of study— which have a direct appeal to the student, produce in the student’s mind a readiness for work which would bring satisfaction in the accomplishment ? Believing this is so I have dared to depart from the customary practice of outlining courses and suggest a list of project-problems. What principle of selection of material should guide us in deciding the content of this course? First of all it must be of educational value; it must help in the girls’ development in some way. Beyond this I have found it extremely difficult to define a standard of required conditions which must be fulfilled by any subject matter to be entitled to become a part of this course. However, it is probably true that a subject meeting any one of the following conditions may be included in the list from which selection of class work may be made. Subject matter shall be included if it helps one: (1) To understand the construction and proper use of any household device, as a study of the kitchen range. (2) To improve one’s method of doing a thing, as methods of dustless cleaning. (3) To feel satisfaction in having accomplished a thing of interest, as learning how to use the camera properly. (4) To understand common things of nature, as atmospheric pressure, its relation to storms as well as to vacuum appliances. (5) To know about things of general interest, as the difference between an airship and an airplane. (6) To develop a scientific attitude of mind and to use the scientific method in everyday life, as an investigation to find the best conditions for baking a custard. Any one of the large projects or problems which are given in the following list may be subdivided into smaller problems and projects. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1257 LIST OF PROJ ECT-PROBLEMS FOR A GIRLS’ COURSE IN PHYSICS 1. What are the things which are essential to our existence? This question involves a discussion of matter, the different forms of energy and the ether. 2. How are we dependent upon heat? This question calls for a survey of the different useful applications of heat in keeping us warm, the production of food, the cooking of food, providing means of travel and, in various industries, producing important materials essential to modern civilization. Incidentally will be discussed the nature and theory of heat. 3. What common effects of heat can we utilize? Change in temperature for our comfort, cooking and industries. Change in size utilized in the thermometer, in heating by convection, and the cause of winds. 3 Change in state—water frozen and stored as ice for refrigeration. Water vaporized and the stored heat used for warmth and power. Change in composition—important chemical changes brought about by heat— cooking, baking, production of illuminating gas, iron and other products. 4. What does the thermometer tell us about heat? How does it do it? Principles used in temperature measurement. Special thermometers used in the household. How the thermometer is made. 5. How is heat carried to all parts of the room? A discussion of conduction, convection and radiation. 6. How is our weather a resultant of heat conditions? Moisture in the air, formation of clouds; winds; storms. 7. How is heat in our bodies regulated? Source of heat. Normal body temperature. Heat losses. Sensitiveness to cold; taking colds; proper clothing. 8. How is a house heated? What does it mean to warm a room? How is heat lost? 9. How may the house be heated by warm air? A comparison of the stove and warm air furnace. How to manage devices for control of heat. 10. What are the advantages of heating by hot water and steam? A comparison of heating by these two methods and advantages of each. 11. What is the need of ventilation and how may it be secured? Fresh air, vitiated air, effects of temperature, humidity and circulation. Methods of ventilation. 12. How is heat produced and used in the kitchen? This involves a study of the construction and operation of the coal and gas ranges and hot water supply equipment. 13. What uses do we make of boiling temperatures? Low temperatures of boiling in vacuum used in food production. Normal boil- ing temperatures and the cooking and preserving of foods. Cooking and preserv- ing food and sterilization by increasing the temperature with the pressure cooker. 14. How do meters measure the gas and electricity used? Structure of meters; how they work. The dials and how to read them. 15. What supplementary uses of heat are there? Simple electric, oil and gas heaters and cookers; their value in conserving the use of larger units. 16. How can food be cooked without fire? Principles of fireless cooking and usable applications. Use of thermos bottle. 1258 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION 17. Is electrical heating desirable and advisable? How heating is produced by electricity. Devices in which it is readily used. Advantages and cost. ; 18. How may we use refrigeration to the best advantage? Refrigerator, efficiency, cold storage, artificial ice. 19. How can we help reduce the annual fire loss in our community? Causes of fires and means of extinguishing. 20. How can we make heat work for.us? Types of engines; different ways in which heat is used for power. Important application of power in the automobile. 21. What simple science principles are involved in our everyday uses of light? Explanation of how light is transmitted, absorbed, reflected, refracted and measured. 22. How can we make the best use of natural light? Sunlight and skylight in our house. Relation to health. Colors from sunlight. 23. What kinds of artificial light are desirable? Compare early and present day methods of artificial lighting. 24. How can we secure proper lighting? How we see. The eye. Light needed. Measure of illumination. Types of lighting. 25. How do our common optical devices work? Principles of reading glass, telescope, field and opera glasses, binoculars and eye-glasses. 26. How may we obtain a home water supply? Water in nature. Pumps. Gravity distribution and city water supply. 27. What principles underly the use of machines in the home? Simple machines. Efficiency of machines. Washing, sweeping and sewing machines. 28. What measurements are important in the household? Units of weight and volume. How measurements are made. Kitchen units. Need of checking up groceries, fuel and ice purchased. Measurement of time. 29. What appliances are useful in the removal of waste from the home? Pipe systems. Traps. Flush tanks. Sewers. Cesspools. Septic tanks. 30. Can we protect ourselves and our property from lightning? Character of electrical charges and discharges. Lightning. Protection against lightning. X-rays. 31. How is electricity produced and set to work? Electric cells. Magnets. Electromagnets. Generators. Electric bell and motor. 32. How may electricity be obtained in a country home? Small electric generators for gas engines or water power. Work; horse power; water power. 33. In what ways are we dependent upon sound? _ How we make sound. How we hear. Music and musical instruments. Opera- tion of the telephone. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1259 In this discussion and outline it is probably evident to you that I am advocating the project-problem method of treatment. I do most thor- oughly believe in project teaching but I am aware of its many difficulties and I believe that many of us, unless we misapply the term “project,” must continue some formal teaching. An alert teacher will readily find an occa- sion where both the individual and group project may be undertaken and carried on to a successful conclusion. The working out of these project-problems will require laboratory work, observation and investigation. It is a kind of work that involves the scien- tific method and if the attitude of mind required in this study can only be carried over into the actual household problems in real life we may look for a more rapid increase in household efficiency. The late Secretary Lane, of the Department of the Interior, is responsible for the statement that there are two and one half million domestic natural gas consumers who waste over eighty per cent of the gas received. If this is true, it is also probably true that there are as many more users of artificial gas who waste thirty to fifty per cent of the gas they pay for. But wasted material is not the most vital waste we find in the American home. If you could go into the homes you would be astonished at the lighting con- ditions under which some of your pupils study. You would also learn something of the heating and ventilation as well. Conditions frequently exist where not only the eyes are being ruined but their health is being sacrificed because of ignorance of the proper conditions and how to obtain them. And the loss of life from fire in the home can be greatly decreased by greater knowledge of fire and fire making and the proper care of in- flammable liquids, fuels, and devices using them. Household science problems are becoming increasingly important. The scarcity of domestic help makes it necessary for more housewives to do their own household work. ‘This scarcity creates a demand for more labor-saving devices in the home. ‘These labor-saving devices are really scientific apparatus adapted to practical uses. In the complex life of our large communities it is not merely the scientific problems of the home but the science problems which grow out of our living crowded together amid such artificial surroundings. Not only our comfort but our health demands appliances which are not needed under more natural conditions. One cannot run a modern home with its multitude of com- fort-producing and labor-saving devices, efficiently, without a practical working knowledge of the more common principles of heat, light, mechanics, and electricity. Every housekeeper ought also to absorb some- thing of the scientific spirit of research. By applying scientific methods to household problems better results and a saving of material and labor can be obtained and, best of all, we may help in the conservation of health- ful human beings. 1260 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PHYSICS FOR BOYS ALLEN C. HUTCHINSON, SOUTH SIDE HIGH SCHOOL, NEWARK, NEW JERSEY The average course in high-school physics through its development for preparing boys for college is naturally better adapted to boys than to girls. In spite of this fact, girls in mixed classes often seem to do as well as boys. There is also required of the boys an extra mental effort to master much of the matter which is offered them. So it seems to me that in order to improve the method of presenting the subject of high school physics to boys, we must eliminate as much as possible the cause of this extra mental effort. This does not imply that the path should be “‘strewn with roses,” but it does mean that the path will be more pleasant to travel. Most of this extra mental effort is a waste of energy, which would better be applied in a more useful way. Some of us fail to realize how strange and difficult this subject of physics seems to the average pupil. So it is our duty as teachers of physics to approach the subject in a simple and natural manner, and employ suitable means for the cultivation and retention of interest on the part of our pupils. You cannot make over the boy but you can adapt the subject to the boy. It is my province to suggest some means by which this subject of physics may be presented to boys with the hope of better results. It is not my intention to lay out any special course for boys, but to suggest methods by which any teacher can work for improvement. Most of us are continually working for the betterment of our work. If we are wide-awake, we read and visit and talk and listen in hopes of securing something which will help us. Most important of all is the personality of the teacher. It is through this personality that the pupil may receive inspiration to master his subject by the cultivation and retention of interest in it, for “interest is the natural basis of effort.” The stronger the interest, the greater the effort. Of course this implies personal contact between teacher and pupil. We must not neglect the human side. ‘The more individual attention the better. By this means we learn what the boy likes. What does the boy need? Can they be made to coincide? It is for us to show the boy that very often what he likes is concealed in what he really needs. We all realize the difficulties involved in doing ideal work under unfavor- able conditions. We are hampered by the size of our classes and the char- acter of their members, by the facilities offered, and the time at our disposal. And sometimes we are too closely bound by a syllabus. As Professor Woodhull said at the close of his last talk to the New York Physics Club: “T do not see how you do so well considering the conditions under which you have to work.” In planning what we shall endeavor to do to make this course better for boys, let us consider what the ideal course should seek to accomplish. ‘The primary object of all science is to ‘“‘ascertain the established relation of things, or the tendency of certain events to be uniformly followed by cer- DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1261 tain other events.” The object is to ascertain facts and to tract their relations to one another. ‘The powers which regulate these relations are mostly hidden from us. So the real science we teach will be that by which our pupils come to realize the relations that certain physical events bear to one another. ‘These relationships we call laws or principles. Although we hope that our pupils will be able to make accurate statements of these laws, principles, and definitions our endeavor should be that they acquire a real knowledge of them first. “These concise statements are very difficult for high school pupils on account of lack of practice in making statements of that kind. If we are going to demand of our pupils this ability to state accurately a large number of laws, principles, and definitions—especially the last—then we shall have to devote an extra amount of time and labor in perfecting them in this direction. In this connection we should always demand good illustrations or applications of their statements to emphasize real knowledge rather than mere words. ‘This might suggest a closer relation or cooperation between the science and English departments of our schools, for the spoken and written work of our science lessons is often good subject matter for practice in concise English. So the boy should acquire some of this knowledge of science by knowing some of these relationships of the physical world in which he lives. Cer- _tain of these should be selected for special study; others he may or may not acquire. If he is a wide-awake boy, he will learn many unawares, although he may not be able to make accurate statements of all of them. He should be able to concentrate his mind, for without this ability he will be unable to attack the problems of life. He should be able to group the salient factors of a problem and to grasp their meaning, and the ability to organize them into a clear statement. In other words, he should learn to think clearly and express himself clearly.. We would hope for him to acquire to a greater or less degree the ability to initiate wise action. We wish him to learn to concentrate, to analyze, and to organize. If he acquires all these, he will have developed character and built the founda- tion of good citizenship. “An acquaintance with the facts and principles and processes of natural phenomena furnish him with some understanding of the elementary laws of nature, which are necessary for healthy, intelligent, and efficient living.” This knowledge will give him a better use for his leisure moments. The interest of boys of all ages in radio is a good illustration of this. In discussing the subject matter for this course of physics for boys it is not my intention to offer a syllabus for such a course. Each teacher or group of teachers will probably plan out a course and continue to adapt it to conditions and improve it from time to time. I would abbreviate the ordinary syllabus to some extent, for I think there is not enough time to cover the whole ground in a proper manner. I would sacrifice much of the work under sound and light to give more time to mechanics, heat, and electricity, and if I found it advisable, I would eliminate much of the mathematics involved, especially that in acceleration. It is simply a matter of quality rather than quantity. Experience will tell us whether our pupils 1262 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION are really learning physics. In regard to laboratory work there are hun- dreds of possible exercises, the limits being only the facilities within our reach. My suggestion is that the experiments be worth while, illustrate different important facts and principles, and require thought in the manipu- lation of apparatus. Some one has said that “‘science is classified common sense.” Can we make the physics we teach a matter of common sense? We should teach our pupils to apply the rule of common sense to what they are learning, so that things may seem natural rather than strange and unnatural as is too often true. What we teach we hope to make a part of the boy’s real knowledge. He does not really learn until he does in some way make his knowledge a part of his own experience. “Experience in a field is necessary for any- thing like mastery of the field.’ So the physics we teach must be of a practical nature, or it will not become a part of his real knowledge. ‘There- fore in the elimination of any matter from our course, let us eliminate that which is not practical. Many things appear difficult to a pupil merely because they are strange to him. Often this is due to a too abrupt approach to the subject. Some things may be acquired readily without special preliminary preparation, but others need a slow and carefully planned approach and are then easily acquired. Some streams are easily crossed, some are impassible, others would seem difficult to cross but for the bridges over them. It is for us to lead our pupils to these bridges of the difficulties of science by the most natural paths. In regard to this manner of approaching a new subject, Professor William H. Kilpatrick speaks of “‘psychologizing subject matter.” He says “A teacher must prepare for the learning of his pupils.” We must “get the pupil to start at the beginnings of his science.” “Tt means to make a path of psychological order from the learner’s present state up to a state where he has much experience well organized.” ‘This means then that we must teach the boy from the boy’s point of view, approaching new material through facts and events that are familiar to him from having been a part of his previous experience. In this connection general science is a great help to us as it has brought the boy part way along the road which he is to travel. Here is a marked difference in the teaching of boys and girls, not in the method, but in the difference in the facts and experi- ences by which we approach the study of new things. The teacher must have a personal touch with his pupils. He puts himself in the boy’s place, and with the same viewpoint they go on together. It is a matter of considerable thought and experience for the teacher to plan these approaches to the many new things of physics, but it is a great satisfaction to observe by an awakened interest that you are on the right track and are putting the thing across in a satisfactory manner. The next thing I would emphasize is a clear presentation of the sub- ject. This includes all that has to do with the teaching of the subject, the demonstration, the recitation. the explanation of the text, the method of DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1263 questioning, and the laboratory work. ‘The first essential in this connec- tion is simplicity. It is said of Galileo that he was never satisfied until he made a subject as clear to his pupils as to himself. In regard to instructions to pupils a former principal used to say, that whenever a statement was made for a pupil to hear or read, it should be worded not so that the pupil could understand it, but so that he could not help but understand it. You cannot rely on pupils getting the idea intended on the written page. It is neces- sary that text assignments be thoroughly clarified by the teacher. Professor Briggs, in a talk to some of us teachers a few years ago, emphasized one point in particular—namely, that in conducting any recitation or demonstra- tion with a class the main thing to be taught should be clearly presented to them at the beginning, and kept before their minds to the very end, so that at the close of the period, there could be no doubt, that each pupil knew what he was expected to learn at that time. One of my college instructors in science used to put daily outlines of the lesson on the blackboard. ‘This was of great help to me, and I have always employed this device in my teaching. It did not seem to be a very common practice in those days, but is quite common today. There is one bridge that helps us cross many of the difficult streams of learning. ‘This is the bridge of interest. Work is secondary to a boy in the mastery of a problem in which he is really interested. “Think of what boys have done during the last few years in connection with radio; the time and care and study they have employed in building their sets, listening in, learning the code, receiving, transmitting, experimenting, and often perfecting their apparatus. Quite a number of the inventions and improve- ments in radio are due to the American boy. We as physics teachers have a great fund of material from which to draw to maintain an interest among our pupils. Most pupils enjoy demonstrations and laboratory work, and answering questions when they know the answers. Most of them like to do problems if they can solve them. So let us stimulate this interest and set it to work in the right direction. In regard to this interest in radio: There is more sense in our teaching radio than the telegraph. Of what practical use is the telegraph to the average boy? They do not experiment with the common telegraph in these days. Our pupils have outstripped us. Our syllabus is out-of-date. Last winter I made some artificial galena by heating some sulphur and lead in a closed crucible. As a detector it is sensitive all over. There is no need of a buzzer attachment to your set when using it. Later at a meeting of our Science Club one of the boys gave a demonstration of making this “galena.’’ Since these demonstrations, many of my pupils and others have been eager to make this artificial galena to go with their radio sets. Only last Friday three boys came to me on the last day of school asking if they could use the laboratory for making some crystals. In the matter of demonstration we should be careful to select facts and principles that need demonstration. ‘These demonstrations should be as clear as possible. and accompanied by a line of talk with pointed questions, 1264 NatIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to keep the pupils thinking actively about the matter at hand. I believe in using the best apparatus available for the purpose and of such a size that every pupil of the class can see it. In regard to laboratory work, the experiment should be worth-while and conducted in such a manner that the pupil will have to think about what he is doing, and what he is to learn from the exercise. If possible nothing should be allowed to divert his attention from his work. A few pointed questions for him to answer at the close will help him to remember the more important points of the exercise. It is only by constant practice that we shall be able to develop in him the ability to think clearly. I think sets of pertinent questions are fine for this practice in thinking logically. Questioning is an art which some of us have to acquire. I believe time will be well spent in making out sets of questions requiring careful thought in answering. Even though your pupils may not answer such questions correctly, they can follow the reasoning when the correct answer is made clear to them, and gradually they will learn how to attack questions of this kind. Such questions require something more than snap judgment. There are several other means to help keep the boy interested in physics and to help him in his progress in science. One is the formation of clubs holding regular meetings, conducted in an orderly manner with definite programs. ‘Then there is the conducting of trips to industrial plants or places where there is opportunity to observe practical applications of phys- ical principles. There is the showing of moving or other pictures in the school and elsewhere if occasion offers. Also there is the opportunity for authoritative talks by citizens having an intimate knowledge of certain facts or applications of physical interest. ‘There'is to the matter of out- side reading not only from the library, but from the magazines and news- papers to keep in touch with the science movements of the day. If there is an active club, much of this may be carried on through the club under the supervision of the teacher. We as teachers are especially interested in character development. Above all we wish to turn out good citizens. By personal contact we should recognize originality and should indicate our appreciation by helping it along. We teach discipline by maintaining it. Our pupils acquire a respect for Nature’s laws; they should respect our human laws. With us he will have learned attention, persistence, accuracy, and self-control, and we trust a certain amount of culture, which will be of use to him in his leisure hours. In this development of character there is the great problem of honor in our schools. We draw from all classes, and too often there comes into our midst that element that has little regard for honor. We must not turn out little crooks. Punishment is seldom a remedy. We teach them the laws of conservation of mass and energy. Let us teach them the law of reward for labor; that nothing is gained without paying for it in some way; that the reward for toil is health, wealth, and mental satisfaction. We shall find that it is easier to lead them than to drive them. I see the DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 1265 solution of the honor questions in the pupils themselves. If the fight against dishonor is not fought by the pupils as a whole through their general organization, then let the pupils of your class carry on the fight, or let the physics club do it if one is organized. Before I close I will say a word about a scheme they are trying out this year in Stuyvesant High School, New York. They are fortunate in having as principal a former prominent science teacher who naturally takes a strong interest in the science work of that school. This scheme emphasizes a simple approach to the whole subject during the first half year and a more intensive study during the second half. During this first half year every- thing is of a purely qualitative nature and little is done in regard ‘to state- ments of laws and principles and the use of mathematical formulas. Their system includes one day for lecture, one for laboratory, and three for recita- tion. It has been in use only during the last half year, but I judge, from a talk I had with one of the teachers last Monday evening, that results promise well for the success of the scheme. So in closing, I will again suggest, that you select suitable subject matter of a practical nature, with an abundance of useful applications, and a set of experiments on important facts and principles, preferably those requiring care and thought in the manipulation of apparatus. Approach the various lessons in as clear and simple a manner as possible and in the natural psy- chological order. Stimulate and maintain interest in any legitimate man- ner. In directing the mental activities of your pupils, constantly work to develop clear thinking, utilizing for this purpose, among other things, pertinent questions and problems demanding persistent and logical thought, all of course within the range of the pupils’ abilities. 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PRE ie aiaaaa Bra! bes ah ~earentitan ton senirind cos epontiane ie, eet 7 tae ei Pros bibmieyl ate, ‘ 7 i Daj ricel ‘ seguir tz rat Department of Secondary Education SECRETARY’S MINUTES OFFICERS President—H. T. Srerrrr, Principal of the West High School.............. Des Moines, Iowa Secretary—Ouivta Pounp, Assistant Principal of the Lincoln High School...... Lincoln, Neor. WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 5, 1922 President H. T. Steeper was unable to be present and the secretary, Miss Olivia Pound, presided. Mr. Maurice Ricker, United States Health Service, Washington, D. C., dis- cussed SOME PHENOMENA OF ADOLESCENCE IN RELATION TO CHARACTER TRAINING. Dr. Elbert K. Fretwell, Columbia University, gave a highly stimulating dis- cussion of EXTRA-CURRICULAR Activities. He said there is as yet no definition of extra-curricular activities. What is part of the curriculum in one school, such as the work of the school orchestra and chorus, does not receive credit in another school. At present some sort of athletic training is part of practically every school program. Training for sound bodies and sound health habits are recognized as an essential part of any school program. It is the school’s business to seize opportunities to supervise the activities the pupils will carry on anyway. The school must direct the capable pupils toward developing leadership. The student body must be directed to select the right leaders in the school. The boys and girls must be taught to meet their responsibilities and to be intelligently obedient to authority. The school paper should represent the whole life of the school. H should furnish opportunities for talented writers. By giving credit for extra-curricular activities the work of the pupil can be supervised. Care must be taken not to restrict them too much. Assembly activities also should represent all interests in the school, such as musical, dramatic, athletic, and so on. This will give each group a means of expression. , A lively discussion followed Dr. Fretwell’s address. Dr. F. H. J. Paul, principal DeWitt Clinton High School, New York City, dis- cussed STUDENT ORGANIZATIONS. Principal Eugene R. Smith, Baltimore, Md., spoke on Character Training. He divided his discussion into two divisions. (1) What the pupil needs in the way of character training. (2) What method the school authorities should use to fulfill these needs. Children do not have moral standards. They are born with certain tendencies. These must be so trained that the children will develop right standards. For instance, there is wide difference of opinion among pupils as to what constitutes honesty. The criterion should be what is best for the school. The school authorities should help the pupils develop standards of character by means of example, precept, trying out, examining racial standards, and so on. The pupils should have an opportunity to discuss the ethical problems of the school and arrive at definite decisions. The teachers should study the character of each pupil and consciously help him to overcome defects. Dr. C. D. Kingsley, Boston, Mass., gave a brief report of recent progress of the Commission of Secondary Education. Thursday Afternoon, July 6, 1922 Dr. Thomas W. Butcher, Kansas State Normal, discussed professional train- ing of high school teachers. He said in part that there is no standard at present in regard to what the teacher is expected to accomplish. There is need of an educational program. Ten per cent of all people are not over ten years mentally. The popular education of the high school concerns a small group at the top. This upper group is destined always to rule. The school must train this group to see [1267] 1268 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION what their relation to the people is. The talented should know that they are ex- pected to bear heavy responsibilities. ‘They should realize that public office holding is a responsibility of this especially endowed class. Democracy tends to mediocrity. There is need of a binding ideal. Education, heretofore, has fostered individual needs—not the needs of the Nation. People must realize that they are the Government. Citizenship has been too cheap a thing. High-school teach- ers need contact with life and need a clear conception of the part the school plays in training for living. They should teach children to live now, to know their government, to study civilization. Above all they must “keep school.” There must be authority even in a republic. ; mm Dr. Thomas H. Briggs, Columbia* University, spoke on Professional Training of High School Principals. j Principal Karl F. Adams, of Seattle, was ill and unable to be present. Miss Snow, of the Seattle schools, spoke briefly for him on How High School Authorities Can Better Codperate with Civic Bodies. She described economic conditions in Washington State after the World War and what the schools did to educate the foreign population to use local products in place of the products they had been accustomed to in the old world. The Chamber of Commerce used the schools as a means of codperation between dealers and the people. Dr. L. L. W. Wilson, Philadelphia, was absent, travelling in Europe. Her paper was read by a representative from her school. Principal W. E. Wing, Portland, Me., discussed National Honor Societies of High Schools. There are six or more of these societies at present in existence. All aim at improving scholarship but with this demand excellence in school citizen- ship. Several demand also meritorious service to the school. Mr. C. C. Certain’s report on High School Libraries was read in part. Because the members of the section seemed strange to one another, there were no nominations of officers for next year. ‘The president of the department was empowered to choose officers for next year. The appointments were: for presi- dent, E. E. Crawford, president of Idaho Falls High School, Idaho Falls, Idaho; for vice-president, R. R. Cook, Topeka High School, Topeka, Kans.; for secretary, Mary Sawyer, Girls’ Adviser, Brookline High School, Boston, Mass. CHARACTER TRAINING EUGENE RANDOLPH SMITH, HEADMASTER OF THE PARK SCHOOL, BALTIMORE, AND OF THE BEAVER COUNTRY DAY SCHOOL, BOSTON Character training has always been one of the objects of any good school. The fact remains that it has been to a large degree an indefinite and unanalyzed object. To really accomplish what is aimed for it is necessary that such a broad subject as this be analyzed into its working parts in a way that will make it possible to obtain definite results. For school purposes, it seems to me, there are three steps in the character training of the pupil. The first is giving him an understanding of stand- ards; the second, the desire to live up to the standards; and the third, the strength to carry into effect this purpose. It is easy to forget that our present social and moral standards are the results of thousands of years of community experience and experiment. They have been built upon the failures and successes of the race and are even yet in process of formation. There are certain standards that are quite universally accepted. Others, while they are accepted by the majority of people are still resisted by numbers of others who are equally con- scientious and intelligent. Still others are open questions with what appear to be equally valid arguments for and against them. Tt is evident, there- DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1269 fore, that there is no absolutely fixed body of standards and that no child can be expected to know the generally accepted standards without persistent and thorough training. Let us for a moment consider the child from the day he is born. At birth his only controlling forces are his own desires, which are largely instinctive. There is to him no such thing as social or moral right or wrong. During the early stages of childhood to desire a thing is sufficient motive for at- tempting to get it, and it is only through training that he discovers that there is such a thing as property or that one can not take with impunity anything that he wishes. As apparently simple a thing as distinguishing between truth and falsehood is really a complicated matter, and for a child to learn that there is a distinction between telling a falsehood in relation to facts which may be acted upon and telling an imaginative story is a long step in adapting himself to social codes. As a boy or girl develops the fixed and unfixed standards of adult life are continually forcing themselves upon his or her attention, inhibiting many of the natural instincts. It is therefore of supreme importance that at each step of their school lives pupils should have some definite and understanding explanation of these standards. It is only fair to them to explain that the laws that are generally accepted have been worked out by the community experience of which I have spoken, and that one is simply storing up trouble by attempting to fight against them. Such laws, for example, are the ten commandments, which, despite their religious origin, are nevertheless social laws, and are such laws as would be laid down by any intelligent body of social experts if they were not already in existence. If the child is taught the fundamental importance of service to others and consideration for others, much of the doubtful body of standards can be safely left to his own judgment under the various circumstances that will arise from time to time. But granting that a conscious effort is made to teach world standards to the children, the mere knowledge of such standards will not necessarily mean that they will be lived up to. It is first necessary that the attitude of the child shall be one of codperation rather than of antagonism. Much harm has been done in school life by letting the children feel that the teachers are their natural enemies whom they should outwit if possible. Such an attitude is the foundation for disrespect toward law and authority and toward the breaking down of all respect for community codperation, It is absolutely necessary that children while yet in school shall acquire the attitude that the laws are their own, accepted by common consent to make their environment as helpful and happy as possible. ‘This can come best through actual experience in helping to make such laws, which includes seeing their purpose, and therefore desiring to live up to them and uphold them. Student participation in the conduct of the school in its govern- ment as well as its activities is a powerful tool for this purpose. If chil- dren help to form the traffic laws for passing in the hall, the: rules for 1270 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the conduct of the library, the hundred and one simple agreements or codes that make for successful handling of bodies of children together, they will take the first, and a very important, step toward a similar community helpfulness on a larger scale. The third subdivision I have made is closely related to the second. I know of no way to increase one’s strength in meeting new situations except through experience, and experience that requires judgment, and action upon that judgment. We have long recognized that physical exercise and mental exercise are desirable things, but we have not yet given sufficient weight to social and moral exercise. We have even taken for granted that at the magic age of twenty-one a person became qualified to vote, just as we have assumed that boys and girls who are controlled at every step in the high school can, with impunity, be thrown into the greater freedom of college life. Neither of these assumptions has proved itself justified and the remedy in both cases is the same. From the earliest days children should be given responsi- bility, should be expected to uphold the standards they have been helped to form, should learn through their own social experiences and moral suc- cesses and failures. The so-called self-government or student participation is a logical and efficient means of training. The greater the responsibilities the pupils prove able to assume the finer the training becomes. I should like to say, however, that the less machinery that is used in any form of pupil govern- ment the more chance there is for its success. I believe that too much machinery has been the cause of more failures in this regard than any other single cause. “The nearer to a codperating family spirit a school can attain the nearer it will come to ideal community conditions. Details regarding student government have been so much discussed this afternoon that I shall not go into particulars regarding it, my only desire being to record my own unqualified confidence in its value. I go so far as not to believe in supervising examinations in the high school, and I do not believe it necessary to exact pledges or require signed affidavits. A high ideal of honor, a friendly and codperative spirit between pupils and faculty, and the deterring effect of public opinion, which does not approve of dishonesty, can keep the school’s record clean in this respect. One of the most powerful helps in forming the standards of a student body and in bringing the individual into harmony with those standards, is the open meeting discussion of what is right and wrong and what is best for the group in question. I have no great faith in preaching to children, for while precepts have some value, it is very difficult to make them a real part of the child’s mental make-up. On the other hand, a free discussion with one’s peers leaves definite impression and helps to formulate one’s own Ideas. One discussion of this kind that seemed to me very valuable took up the subject of: honesty. “The reasons why honesty was important were dis- DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 127A cussed, pupils nine years old to college age taking part in the discussion. Various kinds of doubtful cases were talked over. In one such open discussion recently over 150 children defined every kind of dishonesty except that of cheating in examinations. ‘This particular thing did not occur to any of them because they had never had their examinations supervised, and had not, therefore, had it forced on their ‘attention! Another open discussion that proved particularly interesting was one on the subject of gambling. I had noticed that the pupils were playing simple games in which they won something from each other if they were successful. One of these was throwing cards at a crack, the winner taking all the cards thrown. As I felt that this was bringing in an undesirable element I called together all the students over 8 years old and asked them what gambling was. After an animated discussion we finally decided that gambling was getting something for nothing because one was more skillful or more lucky than one’s opponent. My next question was whether we should have gambling in the school or not. The response to this question was extremely embarrassing. A boy at once announced that his father would not play golf unless he was betting at least a ball a hole, while a girl quoted her mother as saying that bridge whist was absolutely uninteresting unless there was some stake. I was forced to stop the discussion a moment while I begged them to leave out their families, and I restated the question like this, ‘Will this school be a happier and better place if we play gambling games, or will it not?” ‘The pupils canvassed the matter thoroughly then took a secret ballot, with the result that only one pupil in the school voted against dropping every kind of gambling game. As soon as the vote was announced one of the oldest boys arose and said that he had cast the one negative ballot, simply because his family was accustomed to all that kind of thing and it never seemed to him particularly harmful. He added that he had been thinking it over while the vote was being taken and he believed the majority was right about the school; at any rate, that he was willing to join them and live up to the decision. : It is likely that if a rule had been made against playing the various kinds of games concerned the student body, not having had the standard clearly formed in their own minds, would have resented it and would have evaded it in every possible way. Having talked it over thoroughly themselves, they believed in the decision and there was no possibility of their resenting it and fighting against it. From the standpoint of the school there has been one grave difficulty in character training. This has been the teacher’s lack of information regard- ing the characteristics of the pupils. Schools have added the great ad- vantages of physical examinations, mental tests, and standardized subject matter tests. It is also necessary for them to have some means of studying in a reasonably objective way the various characteristics that underlie school success and moral and social responses. 1272 NatTIOoNAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION Although many teachers have attempted to study the characteristics of children, they have been handicapped in various ways.. One way has been the lack of any common language in which to define the stage of develop- ment of the child. I believe that the schools must work out some way of meeting this need and I am going to tell you of the solution that we have been using at the Park School in Baltimore. Our method has been to define five classifications under each characteristic study, each teacher plac- . ing a child in one of the five classes at the time of the semi-annual char- acteristic marking. The following classifications are for honesty. “Chey seem to me to be reasonably typical and therefore show how a similar method can be used for any characteristic in question. Class 1—Those who are not only honest with property and in their school work, but are absolutely straightforward and truthful in all their relations. Class 2—Those who are honest with property and in clearly defined situations, but may sometimes evade or excuse themselves instead of meeting an issue squarely. Class 3—Those who are generally honest, but are still lacking in ability to make fine discriminations between honesty and dishonesty. ‘They may sometimes strain a point: in getting help in their work, or equivocate, or be careless of property rights in small things, such as pencils, paper, ete. Class 4#—Those whose ideas of honesty are less clear than in the higher classes, or whose sense of honor is less keen. ‘They more easily yield to temptation, and are likely to be more ashamed of being caught than of the Choa itself. Class 5—Those who are deliberately dishonest. If there are clearly defined differences between a child’s honesty regard- ing property, school work, and straightforwardness and truthfulness, a double, or even triple, mark may be given. In that case the numbers would indicate in order the child’s classification in these respects. Other methods are being devised in various places, but all have the common purpose of keeping the teachers awake to the importance of such qualities and of giving them a usable means of analyzing their pupils in a way that is not only helpful to them but is definite enough to be passed on to others. In closing, I wish to stress two points: the value of experience in forming character, the absolute necessity of each child’s being allowed to meet situations that call for judgment, decision, and action. It must, however, be remembered that a reasonable proportion of failures is to be expected, and that the school should not be discouraged because its pupils are not superhuman. The other point is to re-emphasize the importance of the forming of the standards of which I have been speaking. I believe this is the most neg- lected part of our school character training and it is certainly not the least important part. We must be conscious of the child’s total ignorance of the adult world and of the need of consistently forming, step by step, those standards, and attitudes toward them, that will eventually bring the child into harmony with what is best and will make him an active factor for good citizenship and general betterment. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 173 STUDENT ORGANIZATIONS AND. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTER FRANCIS H. J. PAUL, PRINCIPAL, DE WITT CLINTON HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY Character is the outgrowth of the moral principles that guide us in our practical responses to life situations. In the ultimate analysis the basis of character must be instilled in the home, and at the earliest possible moment. ‘The development of character must take its origin in the incul- cation of right principles, but it also requires opportunity for practical application of such principles under wise guidance. Instruction is a neces- sary element in the formation of character in order that we may know the right. But training is also an essential. Knowledge of the right does not insure its performance. Through the curriculum and in the moments when he draws moral les- sons from the occurrences of life the teacher has his opportunity for instruc- tion that will build up strong powers of reflection that center attention on the right. The teacher’s own personality is even a stronger factor than curriculum or direct instruction. It is in activities outside the classroom that the teacher gains one of his greatest opportunities to influence the character of his students. It is this that makes it so necessary that teachers acquaint themselves with the motives that prompt students to organize into groups for the satisfaction of varying interests. It is this that requires that they participate in and direct such organizations, if through their own characters they are to influence the characters of their students. We cannot ignore the fact that it is natural for students of adolescent age to form organizations good or bad in the ultimate effect on their char- acters. We cannot escape our responsibility in determining which type of organization, the good or the bad, shall prevail. Teachers’ attitudes in regard to this problem vary according to their temperaments, and according to their sense of obligation to their students. One type of teacher opposes all student organizations on the ground that they interfere with studies. Such a teacher puts the curriculum above the student, and fails to use the instinct to organize as a means of arousing interest in subject matter. Another type regards students’ organizations with indifference if not with annoyance, either because he feels that such organizations reflect only the play instinct, or because he resents the extra labor that they may impose upon him. ‘The real teacher, the teacher who possesses a socialized viewpoint, the teacher who grasps the character-form- ing possibilities of student organizations, is the one who sees in such organi- zations opportunities for direct contact with his students in vital social situations. Such a teacher regards the student organization as a laboratory in which character reactions, both qualitative and quantitative, can be determined. That which we wish our nation to be, our schools must first be. When 1274 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION we know the kind of citizens our country needs, we have determined the type of students our schools should develop. Our country needs citizens that have had their individual talents so developed that they will render to the community the best of which they are capable. Our schools should reflect this need by providing opportuni- ties that will enable those of special talent to discover and to develop their peculiar powers. Student organizations that grow out of the subjects of the curriculum afford a ready means to encourage those of special ability to develop their natural interests. Our country needs citizens who shall be able to think for themselves on public questions, citizens who recognize the fact that the right of self- government can be maintained only when all members of the community respond to the obligations upon them of respect for and obedience to sel f- imposed law, citizens who seriously assume the obligation upon them of wise choice of those to whom the enforcement of law is entrusted. Prac- tice in response to such obligations can, in the school, be afforded by student organizations in which privilege and responsibility are recognized as com- mon to all. Our country needs citizens who show that beyond the duty of self- support, beyond the duty of providing for those dependent upon them, rises a greater duty, that of thinking and acting for the community as a whole, that of making the community to some degree better because they have lived in it. Such citizens reflect the ideal of social responsibility, the ideal of service. This ideal should also actuate our student organizations, both those that exist for the development of the individual and those that have as their aim the welfare of the entire student body. Through the positive use of student organizations for such ends as have been outlined, coupled with the recognition of the fact that our students are even now members of the larger community, we can create schools that do not exist for the schoolmaster but for the youth of our land. Education has always had and always will have two aspects, the indi- vidual and the social, varying according to the point at which we place our emphasis. Every agency of education shows these two aspects. Student organizations are no exception. From the standpoint of the individual student we find that these organizations have their chief gratification: (1) In giving a broader outlook on the significance of each department of in- struction, and opportunity for practical application of principles learned therein. (2) In giving opportunity for specialization and the choice of a life career. (3) In encouraging the development of high standards of achievement. (4) In developing initiative and executive ability. From the standpoint of the group as a whole, student organizations prove their value: (1) In providing social experiences for all who coéperate in general activities. (2) By arousing the desire for self-government and the sense of responsibility for the selection of leaders on the basis of worth. (3) By creating a democratic public opinion that recognizes achievement, and rejects accidental differences, whether those be of birth or wealth. (4) By encouraging the spirit of service as the goal of school life. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1275 This two-fold service of student organizations can best be illustrated by considering the concrete case of a school in which such organizations are considered as vital agencies in effecting the social purposes for which the school exists. In such a school the many organizations can be classified into the following groups. Subject groups; Fine Arts Group; Athletics Group; Social Group; Codperative Group; School Publications; Honor Society. The meaning of these respective designations becomes more clear when we enumerate some of the organizations to be found in each group, as in the following outline: SUBJECT GROUP FINE ARTS GROUP ATHLETICS GROUP Good English Club Orchestra Track Team Short Story Club Band Baseball Team Oratorical Society Glee Club Football Team Soccer Team Swimming Club Crew Golf Club Tennis Team Rifle Team, etc. Camera Club Sketch Club Arts & Crafts Club Dramatic Society, etc. Debating Society Playgoers Club Mathematics Club City History Club Economics Club Latin Club French Club Spanish Club German Club Italian Club Physics Club Chemistry Club Radio Club, ete. SOCIAL GROUP Class Organizations Inter-School and Dances Chess Club Senior Class, ete. Form COOPERATIVE GROUP Disciplinary Squad Trafic Squad Lunch Room Squad Sanitary Squad Office Squads Gymnasium Squad Library Squad Study Hall Squad Blind Class Squad Multigraph Squad Printing Squad GENERAL School Annual Weekly Paper Monthly Magazine Students Manual Publications Board Bank Afternoon Help Classes Big Brothers Reserve Officers Training Corp. Religious Clubs Hebrew Culture Society Yee Mve CAVA: Newman Club Honor Society School (codperative) Store Squad Participation in these organizations is provided for both during and after the regular session of the school. Boys participating in organizations func- tioning during school hours, are permitted to engage in such activities when they have free periods. A brief explanation of a few of these organizations may be desirable. The Playgoers Club has for its purpose the inculcation of standards of taste for reputable current plays. During the course of each term, six plays are attended. “These are chosen under the guidance of the faculty adviser. Reports and discussions of the plays attended are required at sub- sequent meetings of the club. The Traffic Squad has charge of halls and stairs during changes of class. This squad serves a very vital purpose in 1276 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION the main building of the school which, built to accommodate 3200 pupils, now has 5400 in attendance. ‘The Sanitary Squad assumes responsibility for the encouragement of habits of cleanliness in the classrooms, the lunch room, and the neighborhood of the building. “The Office Squads, include those students who serve in the two main offices of the school as well as ‘those who are attached to the offices maintained by the different depart- ments of instruction. Boys on all squads, are, in connection with their duties, given opportunities to come into closer contact with the teachers of the different subjects. The result has often been the deepening of an initial interest that has eventuated in the choice of life careers. “The Blind Class Squad is composed of those boys who act as guides and readers for the blind pupils of the school. Some members of this squad have carried their altruistic interest even to the extent of mastering Braille, the writing method used by the blind pupils of this school, in order the better to assist those for whom their efforts are intended. The Afternoon Help Classes are dirceted by boys who have achieved marked success in the different sub- jects of the curriculum, as well as ability to instruct their less fortunate comrades. Student teachers for such classes are carefully selected by student supervisors acting under the guidance of the faculty adviser. “These classes are not intended to exempt teachers from the necessity of assisting backward pupils, but rather to supplement such efforts by opportunities which some boys prefer to accept rather than to admit their ignorance to teachers. ‘The student teachers of these classes are advised by the regular teachers and in some subjects special directions and syllabuses are prepared as aids to the fledgling instructors. “The Big Brothers are older students, known only to their faculty adviser, to whom are referred the cases of students who are special problems to their teachers. In various ways they reach such students and act as intermediaries between them and the school. They interpret the school to the students, and in turn bring to teachers facts concerning them that the students under consideration would never confess to a member of the faculty. The Honor Society constitutes the impelling force behind the activities of this school. Membership in this society is attained only after his worth has been established by the applicant. Scholarship, character, and service are the requisites for admission. It is this requirement of a record of service performed that prompts the socially minded student to find some organiza- tion in the school through which he can contribute his share to the general welfare. He receives an opportunity for personal growth, and is prepared to offer a record of service when he knocks at the door of the Honor Society. ‘The student members who constitute the Assembly of this society consider all applicants who have first shown that they have met the scholastic re- quirements. ‘The names approved by the Student Assembly are then re- ferred to the Senate, composed of a selected group of teachers. In order that justice may be done and the possibility of prejudice removed, boys rejected by the student members of the honor society have the right of appeal to the Senate. Further emphasis is placed on service as an end in school life by reserving to the Honor Society certain advanced and general types of service. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 177 In a school such as we are considering it is essential that behind all its activities there be a means of unifying the various purposes of these minor organizations. Such a means is afforded by the General Organization. The ultimate aim of this General Organization is to encouraage the par- ticipation of each student and teacher in the social life of the school broadly considered, to the end that the school may become a living, human organism and that each may find his opportunity to render the type of service of which he is capable. This is well shown by the fact that when new pupils enter the school the varying privileges afforded them by the General Or- ganization are outlined. At the same time they are urged to consider what talent each of them possesses that can be contributed to make the school better because of their residence within its walls. In like manner each * new teacher is required to show ability and readiness to contribute his share to the social welfare of his students. Membership in the General Organization of the school is open to all students. ‘The dues are twenty-five cents each term. ‘The direct material advantages include reduced prices at the school codperative store, reduction in admission fees at school games and other school functions, and relief from all forms of expense when representing the school in any activity. Some idea of the popularity and extent of influence of the General Organization in this school is shown by the fact that during the term just ended 6405 students, including those housed in the two annexes of the school, were members in good standing, 103 different clubs, teams, and organizations were conducted under the General Organization, and over a hundred teachers assumed specific duties as advisers in connection with these subordinate organizations. “The annual income of all activities of the General Organization, including the conduct of the lunch rooms, amounted to over $55,000. The value of the property of the General Organization is at present over $6000. The aim of all activities is not only to teach the benefits of codperation, but also to furnish further benefits for the student body. Thus the net profits of the lunch room during the past year on a gross business of $35,000 amounted to but $300. Low prices and high standards of quality in food provided are always placed before profits. A further example of a similar nature was shown in connection with the school field day, which took the form of an excursion up the Hudson River to a State park fifty miles from the city of New York. Four thousand of the older students were transported with 150 teachers on a steamer of the Hudson River Day Line.t The price charged each student was but fifty cents, ten cents more than that paid by the school to the steamboat cor- poration. “This extra margin was used to provide medals for the athletic events and for the production of a motion picture of these events. The net profit was but seventy-five dollars. This sum was immediately turned into the general treasury. When the surplus in the treasury becomes large, the General Organization is guided by the counsel of the citizen who urged that it is a disgrace to die rich, and its officers search for means of using the 1’The usual charge to the public for this trip is $1.50. 1278 NationAL EpuUcATION ASSOCIATION surplus that will redound to the ultimate advantage of the student body that has created it. Thus an appropriation of one thousand dollars was made for the purchase of scenery and appurtenances that would make it possible to conduct all dramatic performances in the school. “The most recent appropriation of this kind was one of one thousand dollars for the production of several motion picture reels illustrating the life of the school. It is probable that this money will be returned to the school by exhibitions of the film when produced. The governing body of the General Organization is the Executive Coun- cil, composed of both student and faculty members. The number of student members exceeds the number of faculty representatives. All student mem- bers, including the President, are elected through the franchise of their fellows. The faculty representatives are socially minded teachers repre- senting different groups of activities. At the head of this group is the Honorary President of the General Organization, a teacher specially chosen by the principal. He is given full authority and is held responsible for the activities of the General Organization. His only compensation other than personal growth is in relief from classroom assignments a sufficient number of hours to make it possible for him to meet the responsibilities of his office. All meetings of the Executive Council are open to members of the student body who desire to attend. All requests for expenditure of money must take their origin in the Executive Council. ‘The same is true of all pro- posals for change in the constitution and by-laws of the General Or- ganization. Faculty control of the General Organization is maintained by the Board of Governors. ‘This body is presided over by the principal of the school. Its other members are a student member, elected by the Executive Council ; the Honorary President of the General Organization; and another faculty member chosen to represent the teachers of the school. Before a measure originating in the Executive Council becomes operative it must receive the approval of the Board of Governors. Appropriations must also receive this approval. The Board of Governors has no power to initiate the expenditure of money beyond an emergency appropriation of twenty-five dollars. The final veto power rests in the hands of the principal of the school. ‘This is very rarely used, and even then only when:a measure con- flicts with the regulations of the Board of Education, or is obviously con- trary to public interest. It is axiomatic that when men live in groups of any considerable size the necessity for some form of government arises. What that form of govern- ment shall be depends on the stage of development reached by the indi- vidual men who live under it, and the ideals that prompt the acts of the group. If men do not show practical capacity to govern themselves from within some form of government from without will be impressed upon them. Student organizations, through the development of this practical capacity, should make unnecessary the imposition of any form of govern- ment from without. The General Organization just outlined has developed from the recog- DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1279 nition of the fact that our purpose as American teachers is to prepare our students for the fullest possible individual development consistent with the ever present obligation to grant to others the right to similar development. Coupled with this is the purpose to inculcate in students the sense of respon- sibility to the group to contribute to its welfare the best of which they are individually capable. The General Organization, through its many co- ordinate activities, aims to reflect life in a democratic community as well as to prepare for later participation in the life of such a community. Equality of opportunity is provided for by placing no restrictions upon membership in the organization. Recognition of worth as the basis of distinction is emphasized through scholastic requirements and evidence of achievement as essentials for those who desire to secure positions of trust and responsibility. ‘The natural desire of adolescents to participate in the conduct of their own affairs is encouraged through the many opportunities afforded for codperation in the management of the school. Through the resulting responsibility for the achievement of commendable results in the many phases of school life, the constant aim is to arouse in every student a sense of responsibility for the success of every school activity. The General Organization, viewed from the standpoint of the individual pupil, represents an effort so to use the facilities of the school as to provide for each pupil an outlet for his interests. He is encouraged to find himself both vocationally and avocationally. Every facility is afforded him to exercise any capacity for leadership he may possess, any executive ability that may be his. ‘The contacts provided by such an organization make it possible for students of similar character and similar tastes to meet on the ground of common interests and thus form lasting friendships. ‘The free intercourse of students and teacher advisers provides a social situation from which both students and teacher may benefit. The General Organization also provides experiences that emphasize the obligations of the individual member to his community. Freedom of action is not regarded as something conferred from without but as something resulting from recognition of the demonstrated ability of students to co- operate in the regulation of matters directly affecting them. Self-discipline as a result of group membership is made a conscious necessity. “This in turn creates a sense of community responsibility that affords training in the very essence of citizenship in a democracy. “Che constant emphasis on service to the community as the basic reason for the existence of the organization, and the standard by which its members are always to be judged, creates for students opportunity for experiences under a truly moral order—experi- ences that lead to the discovery of self through self-denial. From the loyalty that develops when every student feels that the school assumes an obligation to recognize his interests and that he must in turn regard his every act in the light of his duty to the school, it is easy to effect the transition to an intelligent loyalty to the local community and to the nation itself. 1280 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON LIBRARY PROBLEMS—THE SCHOOL LIBRARY AS 4 PROBLEM IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN C. C. CERTAIN, CHAIRMAN, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF LANGUAGES, DETROIT, MICHIGAN + The growth of the school-library concept—lIt is a matter of history that during the past decade or two the attention of school administrators has been given largely to the problem of developing and equipping in the public schools adequate laboratory facilities needed in the teaching of the exact and social sciences and the manual and domestic arts. The effort given to the solution of building problems in this connection has been so intense that other important problems have been temporarily neglected. For this reason school buildings have, on the structural side, been designed in a way to make it extremely difficult to house in them libraries adapted to modern educational requirements. School architects have been left entirely to their own devices in library design, while pressure all the while has been brought to bear upon them by persons interested in other lines of school-house construction. Consequently, the provisions formerly made for the housing of school libraries have been most inadequate for modern educational needs. In fact, in many of them it is utterly impossible to teach in accordance with present-day educational and industrial require- ments because of the handicap of poorly constructed school libraries. The temporary neglect of the library is such a serious matter that ac- crediting organizations throughout the United States, such as the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, have developed standards which they are widely recommending. ‘There has been in the past few years a general awakening to the existing state of affairs. In con- sequence, organizations other than those interested specifically in higher institutions of learning have taken up the question of adequate library facilities in public schools. ‘The National Education Association, for example, has adopted and distributed widely a report on standard library organization and administration for secondary schools. “The American Library Association ? has approved and is distributing documents adopted by the National Education Association. “The New York State Legislature recently incorporated in one of its school laws standards promulgated by an authoritative educational organization. Obviously the school library as a concept has become so definite that educative bodies and State govern- ments are now legislating terms of this concept. The secondary-school library concept—A study of the lay-out in Diagram I will give a clear concept of library design in terms of present-day require- ments. A modern secondary-school library should consist of a suite of rooms so designed as to facilitate the teaching process both in individual instruction and in group instruction. Indeed, a library offers every possible 1Tn addition to the chairman, this committee includes the m is ; : nan, i embers listed on page Standard Library Organization and Equipment for Secondary Schools of Difterene Sizes DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1281 advantage to the individual pupil who may be in search of information or of any type of matter, so far as that is concerned, which may be of real or fancied value to him in a personal way. But the modern, secondary- school library goes far beyond this type of merely personal service, and includes service in the most comprehensive sense so far as various social groups in the school are concerned, such as classes, clubs, committees, athletic associations, etc. The library suite includes, therefore, not only a reading room with its open, accessible shelves, with its convenient magazine stands and newspaper racks, with its files of lantern slides, postal cards, and visual materials of various kinds, with its cases of films for moving pictures, with its supply of records for victrolas, and with its carefully analyzed catalogs, indexes, and lists, but also the library classroom and the small conference rooms where pupils have actual experience not only in the use of books as tools, but also as a means of wholesome enjoyment com- bining the delights that come to persons associated in the stimulating pas- time of literary discussion. “The small conference rooms are conveniently equipped for the use of pupils working on problems of a social character ; they are important adjuncts to classrooms where pupils are engaged in carrying out projects of any kind. In addition to these rooms, there are the sound-proof victrola room, the teachers’ conference room, and _ the librarian’s workroom. Classroom method in the modern sense of the word cannot function adequately unless the school is provided with a library possessing the features that have just been outlined. SPECIFICATIONS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL LIBRARIES JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS ighting: Shelving: Beare a. The shelving should be built into the Electric Ceiling Fixtures walls of the reading rooms and of the Indirect or semi-direct lighting. alcoves of anterooms. No table lamps b. The top shelf should not be more than Natural six feet from the floor. The glass area of the windows equal to G: The bottom shelf should be at least ten 20 per cent of the floor area (1 sq. ft. inches above the floor. of glass to each 5 sq. ft. of floor space). d, The shelves should be three feet long and eight inches wide. Finishes: e. The shelving at one end of the room, at a. Ceiling least, should be adjustable. Color ivory white (1) All fixed shelving should be ten b. Upper wall inches apart. Lichen gray, or light buff f. In estimating the capacity of shelving, Gs Woodie or lower wall eight books to the running foot should Color, light buff, stone, or pale azure be used as the basis. d, Dark Bee avoided in woodwork and (1) There should be shelving enough trim to provide not only for an (1) Oak: Fumed oak acid stain filled adequate collection of books with gray filler consisting of when the library is first or- white lead paint, with addition ganized, but for all probable of lamp black to tone to proper additions for the next five years. The minimum capacity color of gray. e are should provide for one book (2) Birch for each child and teacher be- Bulletin Boards: longing to the school. There Color harmonizing with the wall tones. should be shelving in the read- f. Floor ing room proper, outside of The floor should be covered with lino- the conference rooms to ac- leum or cork carpet to deaden the commodate at least 4000 vol- sound. An uwmnobtrusive pattern umes. The space below the should be selected in colors of gray, glass around the pupils’ con- brown, or green, in shades that will ference rooms should be util- harmonize with the colors of the ized for two shelves, 1o inches walls. above the floor. 1282 NaTtIoNAL EpucaTion ASSOCIATION g. There should be two three-foot sections of shelves, twelve inches wide, to take folio books and magazines, such as the Scientific American. (1) These sections of shelving should be located as nearly as pos- sible to the front center of the room. h. A built-in magazine rack,-and a built-in news rack should be substituted for two sections of shelving. It is important that this rack or a similar one be so designed as to provide for picture books for little children. Bulletin Boards: All wall space between windows, and the walls 18 or 20 inches above the shelves should be covered with corticin or cork for bulletins. Wall space should be re- served to accommodate at least two sec- tions of about 16 sq. ft. for bulletin boards made of corticin or cork. Doors: Swinging doors with glass panels are de- sirable. Lrprartan’s Work Room Shelving as in the library reading room. The space below the bottom shelf should be utilized for built-in cupboards. For two or three sections of shelving should be substituted cabinet space for storage pur- poses. These cabinets should be twelve inches deep. There should be running water, sink, and drainage board, r a Lipgary CLASSROOM The wall space on one side of the room should be equipped with shelving of the same dimensions as that in the reading room. The walls should be equipped with display surfaces of cork, extending upward from the top shelf 18 or 20 inches. Not more than two thirds of the room should be furnished with chairs. The portion of the room beneath the sky- - light should be finished architecturally to give the impression of a chapel or special ante room of appropriate design. There should be adjustable shutters to regulate the amount of light admitted. There should be a speaker’s platform of a few inches elevation. There should be a lantern screen equipped with roller. Pupits’ CoNFERENCE Rooms There should be at least six conference rooms. The conference room should not be less than eight feet wide and not less than twelve feet long. The maximum length of the room should not exceed nine feet. The maximum capacity of the room should be nine pupils. One of these conference rooms should be be made sound-proof for pupils using the Victrola. (Adjacent to the workroom.) The two conference rooms located against the end walls of the main reading room should have shelving on one side and at one end. The specifications for shelving in the main reading room should apply in every detail to the shelving in these conference rooms. The conference rooms should be made com- pletely of glass extending from the ceiling to a point not more than 3 ft. 6 in. above the floor. The glass for these rooms must be trans- parent. These rooms should be adequately venti- lated by artificial means. There should be glass doors. There should be transoms at the top of the rooms, that can be opened both into the read- ing room and into the corridor. This transom ventilation is of special importance for use during warm weather when the artificial ven- tilation is shut down. j ne TEACHER'S CONFERENCE ROOM This room is of the same design as the pupils’ conference room. It is equipped with shelves for books and periodicals on profes- sional reading. Special problems in school library design—Architects will agree that the school library, although one of the most valuable and important depart- ments is one of the most difficult to provide for properly in an architectural way. The specifications given in preceding sections of this paper are sub- ject to many modifications, inasmuch as the library may not always be the controlling feature. Other features may enter into the situation in such a way as to require many adjustments in the design of the library. This is only too frequently the case. It seems advisable, therefore, to present briefly some considerations which may, under some conditions, have to be taken into account. 1. The reading room and the conference rooms—A difficulty of the kind just pointed out is encountered in the construction of large high schools in which the spans between walls are usually such as to require library rooms too narrow to accommodate the number of pupils who should have access to the library. In the event that the floor space for the library read- ing room and the committee rooms cannot be readily provided, because of the narrowness of the building, the difficulty might be obviated by housing p DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1283 the library in two rooms placed symmetrically on the second and third floors with book-lifts or other special carrying chutes between them. In this case the library classroom or club room could adjoin the room pro- vided for reading purposes on one floor and the librarian’s workroom could be similarly placed on the other floor. The location of the teachers’ work- room near the library is highly desirable. In the event, however, that such location is not possible, a room conveniently located elsewhere should be reserved for the teachers. This might be placed near the librarian’s workroom, or in some other convenient location. It is necessary for teach- ers to confer frequently over their work in the library and unless there are ample whispering facilities their conferences may be a source of consider- able disturbance to both pupils and librarians. The teachers’ conference room is therefore indispensable. Conference rooms of this kind, provided for pupils, should be equally distributed in each of the large reading rooms. The plan discussed in the previous paragraph is far from ideal and is, at best, only a make-shift, but, if the requirements of lighting and ventilating cannot be met adequately otherwise, the library may have to be housed in this way. ‘The objections to the plan are serious, since separating the rooms of the library suite necessitates much passage back and forth. ‘The location of these rooms in different parts of the building will increase the trafic through corridors and create other administrative difficulties. With regard to the location of the library suite, it should be kept in mind that the library constitutes one department in the modern high school which, like the auditoriums and gymnasium, will be used by every pupil enrolled, with the difference that the library, if properly used, is more frequently needed than either the auditorium or gymnasium, and should, in consequence, be more centrally located than either of these. 2. A problem in architectural construction—Since large high schools should have a floor area adequate to accommodate ten per cent of the daily attendance at any period and since the conventional high-school building is of a design making it difficult to supply a rectangular room of sufficient width, it would seem that architects might devise a plan that would permit the building of a room of adequate width. ‘This might be done by the construction of a wing of the desired width and lighted from both sides; in fact, the second floor of an entire wing might be utilized for this purpose. Under these conditions there would be windows on both sides and at one end of the library suite. “The rooms on the floor beneath the library might then be utilized for domestic arts or science laboratories. It would seem, too, that the problem might be solved by placing the library on the second floor of a section of the building extending centrally between the two wings, the usual location of the auditorium or gymnasium. Diagram II shows the design of a library planned for this location. If the conference rooms for pupils are to be located in the main reading room it is highly desirable to have the main reading room constructed with windows on both sides. The conference rooms should be arranged along 1284 NatIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION an outer wall with windows opening into each room. This arrangement not only furnishes the necessary light, but also solves the problem of ventila- tion. 3. Conference rooms—The objection may be raised that the entrance to the conference rooms directly from the library has the disadvantage of permitting traffic through the reading room which might result in noise and confusion. It may be said, however, that the entrance to these con- ference rooms directly from the library is highly desirable by reason of the fact that necessary supervision may best be maintained under this arrange- ment. In the public school, furthermore, practically the entire organization is controlled by a schedule. Consequently, the general shifting in and out of the reading room of the library is simultaneous with the entrance of the groups into the conference rooms and class rooms. The conference rooms should be enclosed with glass partitions extending the entire way to the ceiling. These rooms are provided for the purpose of giving committees or other student groups sufficient isolation to enable -them to converse in low tones without seriously interrupting individual readers. The wainscoting in the lower portions of these conference rooms should not exceed three feet six inches in height, for the pupils at their conferences should be at all times within sight of the librarian. 4. Shelving—The extent to which shelving should be built in should be determined by an actual count of the volumes to be accommodated in the library. All available wall space in the reading room, the library class - room, the conference rooms, and in the librarian’s workroom should be reserved for shelving even if the number of books required for the first few years does not demand so much shelving. In the main, school librarians and other authorities feel that the library reading room should be left en- tirely free of book stacks. 5. Book stacks—Unfortunately school architects are sometimes inclined to insist upon stack rooms for books, rather than wall shelvings. The objection to stack rooms on the part of educators is that stacks are cumber- some and furthermore not adapted to the needs of the school library. Book stacks in the reading room interfere with supervision. ‘The notion that the wall space available in the reading room is not sufficient to accommodate the necessary number of books is very erroneous. It will be found on actual measurement that from eight to nine books may be shelved per linear foot and that a judicious use of wall space will provide all the shelving needed for ordinary purposes. In fact, reading rooms which provide for the standard twenty to twenty-five square feet per reader for from eight to ten per cent of the daily attendance in the school will also provide wall space to accommodate from four to fifteen thousand volumes. There is a very strong feeling that books requiring stack storage should not be permanently in the secondary school library but should be borrowed through some public library agency. “The total number of volumes in a secondary school library should range from three to ten thousand, depending upon the enrolment of the school and the character of its curriculum. Only DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1285 books which are in frequent or constant use should be in a school library; open shelves around the walls will accommodate all of these that are needed. From an educational standpoint the advisability of placing stacks in the reading room is in general not debatable. “The stacks are undesirable. 6. Combination study hall and library—Correspondence with school architects throughout the United States reveals that in some places the library and the study hall are combined. ‘This practice may seem to result in economy but no school working such a combination as this can claim to have a library in an educational sense. If it is necessary to combine in any way the library with the study hall, this should be done only so far as reference books are concerned. It may seem possible to work out an arrangement whereby all reference work could be done in the study hall. Books, such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, atlases, yearbooks, histories, and books bearing immediately upon such sub- jects as manual arts and the sciences are sometimes stored in the study hall. According to this plan all books of a literary character and all books relating to recreational reading would be housed in the library proper. Such an arrangement as this, however, would not be satisfactory from the stand- point of training pupils in the use of books and libraries. In fact, the arrangement would result in serious misconceptions as to the true nature of the library and as to its administration. Experience indicates that the scattering of books through several different rooms in the building results in a tremendous loss. The division of responsibility between the librarian and the study-hall teacher is sure to result in misunderstanding as to the proper administration of books and other library materials. ‘The library in the school is not a luxury but an educational necessity. It is an educa- tional concept. Merely to place books in study halls and other rooms in the school building is not by any means to provide library facilities. 7. Interior decoration—The ingenious architect will find that the school library offers many opportunities for alleviating lines of construction in the school building. ‘There are few features of the school that admit as much freedom in architectural treatment as does the library. It is needless to say that the possibilities of this should be used to the utmost advantage. There is opportunity here not only to make the library more esthetically satisfying than almost any other room in the school, but also more satisfy- ing to the pupils than the architecture of the homes from which many of them come. No stretch of the imagination is necessary to give vision of these possibilities. The ugliness of the apartment house, with its rigid, severe lines, its cheerless corridors and small windows, may have its influence offset by some enthusiasm in the architectural treatment of the school library. Such features as an open fireplace in the library will give an atmosphere of ease and comfort to the room. ‘The impressions of the children may be made satisfying and their tastes may be improved through the enrichment of their surroundings in the library. 1286 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION THE PROFESSIONALLY TRAINED HIGH-SCHOOL PRINCIPAL THOMAS H. BRIGGS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CIEY, It is axiomatic that to the largest extent a principal determines the character of a school. If he has a clearly defined program which he has convincingly developed with the teachers, if he consistently works with them to make this program a reality in practice, the school is a unity, an organization effective for securing definite results. If, on the other hand, the principal is uncertain of his goal, arbitrary in his routine administration, and narrow in his conception of his duties, the school is a heterogeneous collection of teachers, each attempting more or less what seems good in his own sight. No generalization is more true than this: as the principal, so the school. Formerly, as the name implies, the principal was a head teacher taking care of the details of administration in his odd moments. But as our high schools have increased in importance and size, the principal is today the executive in charge of a no mean institution; in many instances he is supported by one or more assistants and by a corps of heads of departments. These heads of departments and the teachers are all highly trained, speak- ing relatively, and the human raw material with which they work is the most precious that the community has. The principal, then, has become one of the most important public servants, and as such has responsibilities that make his selection a grave duty of the superintendent and board of education. No head of a comparable commercial or industrial plant would for a moment be considered unless he were technically trained for his position or unless he had manifested superior fitness through experience in other similar positions. No teacher is selected today in our better schools unless he is professionally trained or manifestly successful in experience. Not even a kindergartner would be considered unless she had technical and pro- fessional training for her specific work. But as a rule there is no such requirement for the principal, the most important influence in the most important element of the great public investment of education. What are the sources of our high-school principals? In the smallest schools they are simply trained teachers. In the larger they are usually promoted on the basis of their “experience” in the smaller, the demands of which are so different as to make this experience of little worth, or else they are promoted from the corps because of successful teaching or of per- sonality. It is profitable, of course, for a principal to have performed administrative duties, and it is almost essential for him to have been a suc- cessful teacher and to have a good personality; but in the large majority of instancts the newly elected principal today is prepared for his work to no such adequate degree as similar administrators in other lines of work. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1287 The results are that traditions, often of very limited effectiveness, are perpetuated; practices that seemed good in the small school are brought up to the larger, not infrequently without the maximum of success; and generally the principal learns his job at the expense of the pupils, the teachers, and the public, who are paying the full salary of a man supposedly already trained. There are obvious limitations to this method of preparation. Only the ablest and most inventive can through personal experience develop beyond a narrow limit. Even they would profit and progress faster with a sound basis of theory and with a broad knowledge of what has proved effective in other similar schools in the United States and abroad. Such men as manifest success as high-school principals are constantly being offered posi- tions as superintendents, where again they learn their duties with full pay. We have happily passed beyond the day when a teacher began in the first grade and was successively promoted grade by grade up into the high school. We must now get away from the equally mischievous practice of promotion from teacher to principal and from principal to superintendent. What is needed is a body of men and women professionally trained as high-school principals and school boards educated to demand such training and to reward it so that the successful may afford to remain in the work for which they have proved their competence. To the credit of high-school principals it must be said that many have exerted themselves mightily to grow. By visits to other schools, by associa- tions such as this, and by study in summer schools hundreds are annually adding to their powers. But there are fifteen thousand high-school princi- pals in the United States. Of these fifteen thousand the majority spend a considerable part of their time in duties that are not those of a professional principal. In Missouri, exclusive of St. Louis and Kansas City, only six per cent of the principals teach one period a day or more; sixty-one per cent teach five periods or more. In the first class high schools of West Virginia the median number of teaching periods a day for the principals is 3.2. It probably is wise for every principal, even in the largest school, to teach one class so that he may keep in close touch with one phase of the school, but it is obvious that when teaching he is not in the best sense of the word a principal. The facts for Missouri and West Virginia are more or less true for other States. [he amount of teaching done by principals would in most cases, even when finances are limited, be considerably reduced if the principal could show the board of education a convincing professional program of how he proposed to use his time for the improvement of the school. Board members are usually practical enough to see that it is uneconomical to require the highest paid employee to teach when if freed from this duty he can make five or fifteen mediocre teachers into good ones, improve the educational plans of the school, and direct the social life of the pupils, so that they are prepared more effectively to take their places in the com- munity. 1288 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION A principal is removed from his professional work to a part-time teach- ing position usually by the demands of the higher authorities; he removes himself from his professional opportunities by assuming duties that can be as well performed by others. Every visitor of high schools has seen numerous instances of principals who fritter away their time in doing routine work that properly belongs to a clerk, a janitor, a teacher, a pupil, or that may as well be left undone. One principal of a large high school runs the book-room; another hands out supplies; a third unnecessarily sits as guard over a small study hall. These and other similar duties should not be performed by the highest paid officer of the school. They will not be performed long by the professional principal, for he will convince the board of education of the economy of employing a low salaried clerk to free him for larger activities; he will delegate the duties to teachers or pupils, who usually are willing, frequently are glad, to assume such work with its minor responsibility ; or he will organize and develop his school so that some of the matters take care of themselves. Much time can be saved for pro- fessional duties by more economical organization, by turning off work promptly, by the persistent will to devote oneself to the higher things of which one is capable. How principals actually spend their time 1s determined somewhat by the exigencies of the season and by fortuitous happenings. It is interesting, however, to consider the following table which shows the distribution of time by seventeen principals in eight different States during the month of April. These principals had under them from nine to sixty-five teachers ; they devoted from 5.4 to 9.7 hours a day to their own work. important for consideration at the counsel table of the Nation than is education. If the public-school service is to be adequately represented at Washing- ton, there must be a Secretary in the President’s Cabinet. If the Nation is to continue its support of those educational activities and agencies already receiving Federal aid, it will be because a member of the Cabinet makes known the needs of this service in the preparation of the National budget. If the scientific investigation which should be carried on by the National Government is to be undertaken and carried forward on a truly National basis, the director of this enterprise should surely take rank with the Secre- tary of Commerce, the Secretary of Labor, or the Secretary of Agriculture. If education is to have the status, the dignity, and the influence in our Fed- eral Government necessary for the establishment of National leadership, we must have a Secretary. of Education. It is significant that the National Education Association and this Depart- ment of Superintendence have again and again during the past fifty years, and more especially during the past three years, recorded themselves in favor of the establishment of such a Department. It is even more signifi- cant that at this time millions of men and women outside of the profession, through organizations national in their scope, are working shoulder to shoulder with us for the realization of our purpose. One of these organiza- tions has appropriated $125,000 to carry forward our program as expressed in the Towner-Sterling Education Bill. Shall we keep faith with them, or shall we confess that our repeated endorsement of this measure, the his- tory of fifty years of consistent advocacy for a Department of Education, is to be abandoned because it is not expedient for us to stand fast? Shall we admit that we cannot carry on because we find opposition to our pro- gram? Shall we notify Congress that we repudiate our former action? I believe that the answer will come from this body in no uncertain terms. We will stand because our cause is just, because our program is conceived in the interest of the public welfare. Good administration, the structure of our National Government, the practical importance of education in our National life—all call for the recognition of education in our Federal Goy- ernment through the establishment of a National Department of Education with a Secretary in the President’s Cabinet. We will not give up the fight until our program has become the law of the Nation. jie 1334 NaTIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION THE NEED OF A NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR EDUCATIONAL SERVICE A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS An organization is the creation of live organs. It is the product of live activities. Its creation is as indispensable to social and civic, industrial, and commercial life as the organization of the human body is to human life. Snakes and birds have the same organization. They started on their career with the same organs. One stayed on and in the earth and squirms and hisses; the other took to the heavens and soars and sings. Every or- ganization has within it both tendencies. It will ultimately become one or the other. There has never been an organization created by so many organs work- ing at the same time as in the National Education Association under its present plan. It is useless to prophesy what its future is to be. It can never be what the medical organization is. A medical association and others of that kind are protective in their very nature. Nothing of this kind is possible in anything created by kindergartners and university presi- dents, high-school and rural-school teachers, by fifty-seven varieties of interests. It would seem as though the salary issue would unify all, but one can but smile when he realizes that four years ago the official leaders in the National Education Association denounced those women teachers who were so mercenary as to think of joining an organization from so low a motive as to increase their salaries, and now these same men are pleading with the women teachers to join the National Education Association because of its effect upon their salaries. “That simply means that anything is right if you do it in our way, and nothing is right that is not done in our way. ‘That is impossible in an organization of all teachers. “Chat is snaky. The Yeoman Association has 6000 leagues in the United States, with 300,000 members, and they are to build a ten-million-dollar educational home for the orphans or half orphans of their members. The Loyal Order of Moose has an even larger membership. They are both soaring and singing. ‘f = The National Education Association must be so organized that every one of the 600,000 teachers will want to be in it without any suggestion that it will pay them to be in it. The Grange had a vast membership on the ground that it would pay to belong. Then it slumped almost out of sight. Now it is coming back as an organization for service. The only organization of teachers that can abide will be an organization for better service for children. Selfishness will always produce squirming and hissing. Service is always soaring and singing. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1335 THE NEED OF A NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR EDUCATIONAL SERVICE S. P. CAPEN, DIRECTOR OF THE AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The remarks I am about to make will not be popular with this audience. Nevertheless, I hope that you will give them thoughtful consideration, and if I seem dogmatic, remember that the time limit imposed does not permit of extended argument. This Association stands committed to a program for the National or- ganization and support of education that is in part fallacious. ‘The pro- gram appears to be based on the uncritical acceptance of financial and administrative devices that have had a recent temporary popularity. It appears to ignore the results of the Federal Government’s long experience in dealing with education, with labor, with agriculture, and with science. Hence the program has met with opposition in the house of its friends. By no means all educators agree to it. Many of the leading economists and students of government oppose it. The program has also encoun- tered political obstructions that were probably not foreseen. It has not made the progress which its promoters have expected. “These are doubtless the reasons why the question of a National organization for educational service comes before you again. I should like to approach the question from a point of view which, I think, has not been prominent in your discussions hitherto. Let me start with an axiom. The kind of National organization that is established should be determined by the kind of service to be rendered. What service do we want from the Government? Nobody wants the Government to manage and support the schools of the Nation as it manages and supports the post-office. There is practically unanimous agreement that the Gov- ernment should perform only those services for education which cannot be performed by the States and smaller political units. What, then, are the educational services which the States cannot per- form? ‘Three are very conspicuous. First, States cannot insure the consideration of education in the formu- lation of National policies. And education is not only one of the largest concerns of the United States; it is likewise the most potent force both for moulding National attitudes and for fostering material well-being. Second, States cannot gather information on a National scale, or make those comprehensive studies of the National educational enterprise that are required to promote efficiency and guide the development of educational practice. Third, States cannot focus on National problems the best thought of the country and so furnish leadership in the determination of National educa- tional policies. Put, positively, we need from the Federal Government—to an extent to 1336 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION which they are not now supplied—recognition of education in public policy, information and scientific investigation, leadership that will coordinate and inspire educational undertakings throughout the country. On these points practically all persons are agreed. Obviously, the National organization that is set up should be amply equipped to perform these functions. There is much disagreement as to whether the National Government can profitably render other services. The gist of the disagreement is Federal aid. Many persons believe that States cannot support their own systems - of public education, particularly that they cannot maintain the various new types of training made necessary by modern social conditions, and that con- sequently the Government should render financial help. This proposition, however, is not generally accepted. And the dissenters are of the opinion that large financial participation by the Federal Government in the con- duct of education carries with it dangers that should be avoided as long as possible. But let us be honest. The truth is that nobody knows whether the States can continue to maintain and develop their school systems under present conditions of Federal and local taxation. If they cannot, nobody knows how much and what kinds of Federal aid may be necessary. That is a matter that could only be determined by a searching and costly investiga- tion such as has never yet been made. Much light may be shed on the question by the Educational Finance Inquiry now being carried on by the American Council on Education under the direction of Dr. Strayer. But until the results of that inquiry are available all comprehensive propositions for Federal aid are sheer guess work. Meantime, however, one thing is sure. “The type of financial assistance proposed in the Federal measure endorsed by this Association is disastrous. The policy of “50-50” codperative appropriations has already undermined the autonomy of the States. Such appropriations have been attended every- where by difficulties and dissensions that have nullified many of the benefits that they were designed to secure. ‘The policy is beginning to fall under suspicion even among legislators. J venture to prophesy that it will soon be entirely discredited. Now my plea to the Association is this: do not regard this matter as closed. “Take it once more under advisement. The present political situ- ation, if nothing else, justifies such a procedure. Instruct your legislative commission to bring in a new proposal, in the light of the discussions of the last three years, guided especially by a careful study of the Federal Govern- ment’s past experiments in the promotion of education and of related Na- tional interests. Request it to provide for the creation of a Federal agency to perform those functions and only those functions which the Federal Gov- ernment has proved that it can perform well. Bid it follow the facts, even if they indicate a wholly different kind of organization than any you have yet considered. ‘There could be no more fruitful expenditure of the Asso- ciation’s funds. This question is above personalities and above parties. It is more impor- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1337 ere ee eee ee Re tant than the commitments of associations. It concerns the welfare of the children of the United States. It involves as well fundamental principles of government. Nothing of more solemn and far-reaching import has ever come before this body. For what is eventually enacted will fix the trend of American education for generations to come. THE NEED OF A NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR EDUCATIONAL SERVICE E. C. BROOME, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA Do we need a National organization for educational service in the United States? Education, as a National enterprise, was not provided for in the Constitution. It was an implied responsibility among the several undesig- nated powers and duties delegated to the several States. All of the States, although tardily and weakly in several instances, have undertaken to estab- lish a system of free public education for their children. The administration and support of public education, however, has very generally been entrusted to local communities, controlled by local ideas, and limited by local funds. In this way we have struggled for over a cen- tury to develop a universal system of free public education. As a people we are committed to the principle of equal opportunity for all. Every boy and girl, regardless of the accident of birth and residence, should have an equal opportunity of obtaining an education sufficient for intelligent and responsible citizenship. We know, however, that, notwithstanding the large aggregate expenditure for public education, we are still far from realizing this object. We know that, after a century of public schools, a boy in the mountains of North Carolina or Kentucky has by no means an equal chance with the boy of Springfield, Massachusetts, or of Berkeley, California. We know that, according to recent reports, over a million children in this country are being taught by teachers of no education beyond the common school. All of this after a century of free public education under local control and support. What the people of this country need, not the people of Springfield, Berkeley, or Cleveland, but the people as a Nation, is a unanimous convic- tion of the importance of universal education as an indispensable measure of National security. If another international struggle comes among civ- ilized nations, the nation which will prevail will not be the one with the most powerful armies or the greatest physical and financial resources. It will be the nation which has educated its children most thoroughly and generally. The first and most necessary step in this important undertaking is to increase public respect for education. We must make education, as a Na- tional concern, appeal strongly to the imagination of all people. We must O 1338 NatIonaL Epucation AssociATION give education a definite and tangible place, inferior to none, among our National enterprises—in the same degree as we have dignified agriculture and commerce and labor. It is not necessary to expend a hundred million dollars annually in order to attain this end. The American people are naturally proud. ‘They are individualists. They like to pay their own way. They don’t care to be subsidized. Any suggestion that they need financial aid to do their duty is offensive to most Americans. When the American people, all the people, are convinced of the vital importance of a National system of free public schools, so administered that no community may fail to maintain adequate standards, they will cheerfully pay the bill. There is sufficient wealth in every State to maintain, without Federal aid, an efficient system of public schools. The problem, therefore, it would seem, is not to subsidize, but to dignify education. This is the main reason, it seems to me, why education should be given an official position of first rank among the Federal departments, a position which will assure for education the dignity and public respect to which education is entitled as the most important public enterprise. A Department of Education, with a Secretary in the Cabinet, would not only command for education the public esteem which it merits and needs, but would also stimulate throughout the country an interest in education, at present wanting in many sections. For over a quarter of a century the idea of a Federal Department o Education has been advocated. For nearly four years a bill, known as the Smith-Towner, or Towner-Sterling bill, has been before Congress. I hold no brief for that particular bill, although it has been several times endorsed by this Association. This bill is faulty.in several particulars. For some reason it fails to include several educational bureaus which now exist. The provision for an annual appropriation of $100,000,000 is a question- able item. Moreover, the apportionment of this appropriation for the sey- eral activities is not based upon experience or an actual survey of needs, but upon a more or less arbitrary estimate. Aside from the merits or defects of the Towner-Sterling bill, there seem co be no valid arguments against making education an enterprise of equal importance to agriculture, commerce, or labor. Our present Bureau of ~aucation is an agency whose chief business is to collect and distribute in- formation. ‘The successive commissioners have been educators of ability and distinction; but the subordinate position which they have held has car- ried no authority and has gained little recognition from the non-professional public or the other Federal departments. Besides commanding respect for public education, a Department of Edu- cation would be in a position to accomplish certain other necessary objects in education. It would: (1) unite all Federal agencies of public educa- tion; (2) conduct investigations, surveys, and would establish National standards; (3) state, clarify, and define educational objectives; (4) give DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1339 publicity to conditions that need to be understood; (5) deal with problems National in scope, which the several States cannot adequately handle; and (6) promote educational relations with other governments. What we need most in this country, and first, is not an immense Federal appropriation to subsidize slothful communities, but an educational awak- ening that will arouse local pride, stimulate local competition, and increase the respect of the American people for public education. A Federal De- partment of Education will do more than anything else to accomplish this result. It would neither control nor interfere with local enterprise. Years of experience with the Department of Agriculture have shown us that that important branch of the Federal Government has stimulated and encour- aged local effort. There is no reason to believe that a Federal Department of Education would not do the same. A Federal Department of Education under a Cabinet officer would not materially increase National expenditure. At present there are about forty agencies in Washington that are in some way directing or aiding educa- tional endeavor throughout the country and spending public funds for the purpose. The consolidation of these numerous and overlapping activities into one department would certainly result in greater efficiency, if not in greater economy. I hope we have reached the limit in the establishment of State and Federal bureaus, commissions, and other agencies to do this, that, or the other thing which somebody of influence wants done. he time for consolidation and elimination is at hand. The opportunity is before us to do this in the field of National education, as well as to give education the rank in public esteem which it deserves. The main difficulty with education today is that many small, and even large, communities are satisfied with low standards, small appropriations, and a provincial conception of education. The great projects of National highways, of reclamation, and of conservation of National resources would never have been achieved by local initiative. Education is a project of greater concern than any of these, and the time has come when we must, through properly constituted National leadership and by the influence of National inspiration, broaden the horizon of our provincial vision until as a people we shall acquire a better sense of relative values, shall comprehend the fact that education is the most important enterprise of the Nation, the only guarantee of future prosperity and security. THE NEED OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR EDUCATIONAL SERVICE OLIVE M. JONES, PRINCIPAL OF SCHOOL 120, NEW YORK CITY I may be one of those who rush in where angels fear to tread, but never- theless I am impelled to speak in a very homely, everyday, practical sort of way about some of the arguments which seldom find open expression on 1340 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the platform in a discussion of National organization for education but which influence men’s thoughts (and votes) more powerfully than the logical plans which are generally presented. There are several such ob- jections and arguments operating against the proposition of National organization for the equalizing of educational opportunity. Every ob- jection, when analyzed, can be classified under fear. One is the fear of the Foundations. I frankly confess I share it. But *t is because I share in it that I believe in National organization for educa- tion. I fear the domination of any privately financed and carefully organ- ‘zed combination of individuals, by whatever title it calls itself. And be- cause I fear it, I believe there should be in the National Government a department which will protect public education from any such domina- tion—protect it because its officials are appointed by persons directly responsible to popular vote. Because I fear it, I believe that education should be organized nationally, so that there may obtain equality of educa- tional opportunity, apparently threatened in times past by political or com- mercial or industrial or religious combinations, and so that the investigations and researches necessary to educational advance may be supported and financed as the work of publc, not private, educational authorities. A second fear is the fear of supervision. In the first place, does not such a fear carry with it a confession of desire to escape meeting requirements conceded to be justly expected? Why fear supervision unless one has something to hide or means to evade doing right? Why should the State, an impersonal body, fear supervision? In the second place, the fear of supervision in connection with National organization for educational service is an absurd bugaboo, a goblin created by enemies of public education to frighten off its friends, for supervision has no place in National organi- zation for educational service as I see it, and I would fight its inclusion as vigorously as I now believe in National aid to impoverished States. A section of the proposed bill is explicit in this regard. The third fear is that someone is going to get a job as a result of National organization. But since expression of this fear would be interpreted as the jealousy and envy which do really prompt it, a camouflage of high-sounding phrases and speciously idealistic reasoning is established. People have lost patience with this camouflage and are antagonized by the insincerity which it conceals. Naturally, National organization of education means someone to carry out the purposes of organization. When the Department of Labor was established, it meant a man to direct the work of the department. So now there must necessarily be someone to administer the affairs and duties for which the creation of a National organization is desired. Is the jealous fear of who may possibly be selected a good reason for depriving the Nation of an educational procedure on which its own existence may depend ? A fourth fear is that social justice will suffer. I challenge the sincerity of this fear. I think we should be grateful to Felix Adler for showing us the danger we are in through our illusion as to what social justice consists in, and for showing us that behind that term there shelters a dangerously DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1341 exaggerated individualism which is destructive of a National ideal, which would tear down the unity of the American people, so difficult of attain- ment by a Nation composed of groups originally widely separated by vary- ing ideas and ideals. ‘This fear expresses itself in an outcry against the danger of uniformity. I come from a city which is a perpetual refutation of any such danger. And no one there really fears uniformity, for we all know it can’t be done. With a single course of study, a single set of regula- tions and by-laws and one individual superintendent of schools, dearly loved and deeply trusted by all, our 700 or more schools are as individual in their characteristics as the contour of the faces of their principals. Sometimes this exaggerated individualism, the selfish individualism which leads to chaos, calls organization Prussianism. A recent newspaper letter said that Prussianism is a greater evil than illiteracy, and cites Germany as proof of his argument. But German education was not public education nor was it egual opportunity for all the people, and it is in the land of unequal opportunity that Prussianism has its chance to grow. And evil though it was and great as was its harm to civilization, the Prussianism of the Kaiser is no more an enemy of democracy than the Prussianism of a political boss, who has his chance to flourish because of the ignorance of the people he manipulates. The real enemy of democracy is not in National organization for public education but in mob power, the power of mobs of illiterate voters swayed and misguided by conscienceless leaders. And as Prussianism, so called, is the enemy of the opportunity of the individual, so is this greater evil of illiteracy which leads to the autocracy of the mob and the boss. A fifth fear is the fear of politics. I recently attended a meeting in New York called for the purposes of considering ways and means of taking the schools out of politics. As I listened to the two chief speakers declaim against political influence in the schools, and each describe his patent remedy, my conclusion was that each really meant: “Take the schools out of your politics and put them into mine.” This fear, too, is a hobgoblin raised against every National public improvement ever contemplated. Which is more to be feared: the politics of today, which is blind to the needs of ‘children in its budget appropriations, or the politics, which may or may not happen, but which is so controlled by law that appropriations must be made to aid each State to give the same minimum educational opportunities to every child? The real political issue here is one of votes. “The children of the Nation will benefit by National organization for equal opportunity in education, and the children have no votes. Not that I’m arguing that they should have. I’m merely stating the fact that local politicians ignore children’s needs through fear of adult votes. ‘The woman voter, whose suffrage privilege is still new, has not yet awakened to this political issue. I urge every teacher to join every civic organization in which he or she can obtain membership in order to arouse women to the needs of the children and 1342 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION make the politician fear the vote of the children’s defenders more than that of the taxpayers. There is still a sixth fear—the fear of interference with the rights of parents. Recently I read the astonishing statement that the general Goy- ernment has no more right to dictate to the father how much he must educate his child than to prescribe his food or the shape of his clothes, and again that the Government in assuming to direct the minimum requirements for an intelligent citizenship is usurping the place of the father and de- priving him of his most sacred privilege, that of directing the training of his offspring. Did one ever hear such fallacy? In the first place, there is no “sacred privilege” about it. The training of his offspring is no “privilege” but a solemn obligation, a bounden duty, which the Govern- ment has as much right to enforce upon parents as to enforce laws for the observance of any other duty. The Government owes it to the child who is to be its future citizen to compel the parent and the community to give that child at least a minimum of education. Again a fear—this time of increased taxes, possibly well-founded. My brother has seven children. ‘The State where those children were born has little wealth and its educational opportunities are few. His ranch gave a good living but little cash, and it takes big sums to send seven children away to school. So he gave up his ranch and took a salaried position in a city in order to send his children to public school. Is that industrial efficiency? And that State is not to blame. It simply hasn’t the money to do better, and it never can have. Conditions in such States can never be better unless aid is given by wealthier States. That aid should not be given as a charity to be doled out in unequal amounts or withheld as the giver may choose. I was shocked at a recent convention to hear the refusal expressed by the repre- sentative of a wealthy city to listen to the needs of the rural sections of that State where bogs and forests make population sparse and money scarce even while essential industries are carried on there. New York State has compelled New York City to meet the needs of the rural communities. “The Government must similarly meet the needs of the poorer States. State aid to education and minimum requirements of educa- tion are familiar to us in New York. We have recently fought hard to secure the reénactment of every clause which provides such State aid. Federal aid extends to each State as a whole that which New York State now gives each community which meets the conditions for that aid. A recent newspaper article states that it is bribery to make a gift of money by the Government to a State that meets its conditions. Since it is acknowledged that the richer States are already in advance of the mini- mum requirements, and since it is conceded that the wealthier States should be made to help the less fortunate communities, where does the bribery come in? I believe it is merely an attempt to create another fear and ac- complish an evil purpose by indirection. It is easy to defeat good by appeal to fear, and so our enemies are busy manufacturing fears for the unthinking. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1343 Aware of probable comparison with preceding instances of Government aid or Government direction, the same newspaper article states that these other agencies “operate, under absolutely defined constitutional power.” Clever, that. First, an appeal to our fears that there will be an infringe- ment of the Constitution. Second, an argument against an assumption so cleverly made that the average reader is blinded to the falsity of the assumption, for no proponent of Government aid by National organization for education has ever dreamed of anything except operation under abso- lutely defined constitutional powers. Another instance of the same form of argument is an assault upon the provision for a requirement of minimum qualifications as a prerequisite to Government aid by a long harangue on what are to be the standards in his- tory. The average listener is carried away by the argument, and forgets that no proponent of minimum standards ever proposed anything in regard to history or any other subject, except the ability to read and write English. Will the creator of this bugaboo accept a challenge? Will he dare assert that this democracy has not the right to demand minimum standards in reading and writing English in the education of its future voters? The people who raise these bugaboos and rouse these fears are either opponents of public education or have aims which make them fear an enlightened citizenry. Public education is the Nation’s business. Americanization is. Not long ago I spoke in a community where several of the teachers spoke no English at home or even at recess in the yards with their pupils. I heard a soap-box speaker say to a crowd in a foreign language, “This is what I dare not say to you in English because I would be arrested.” He disregarded me because I was only a woman and presumably unfamiliar with his language. Can we have an American Nation if there is no power to organ- ize education nationally so that these things cannot be? Lastly, I make my stand in favor of National organization for education because I am a woman, deeply interested, personally and _ professionally, in equal opportunity for education of all children and of the women of all nations that come to our land. Women vote in America. I fought for suffrage and would fight again for women’s equal rights as citizens. Therefore I want women educated and taught to use their intelligence and their votes for the best interests of children. And I know there are people, now in great numbers in this country, whose men brutally beat the women of their families if they go to any kind of school, and then at the command of a boss or a gang leader drive these same women to the polls to vote, as those women never could have been induced knowingly to vote, against the best interests of school and home. The writer who called National organization for education Prussianism advised us, if we want it and believe in it so strongly, to demand that it be done by Federal amendment. We are ready to do so, but will the States never grant a National good except by Federal amendment? We have the long and historic struggles for abolition of slavery, for women 1344 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION i cn ee a ee eS suffrage, for prohibition. Must the protection of the equal educational opportunities of children, the Nation’s right to maintain an intelligent citizenship, depend upon an unnecessary Federal amendment, or will our political leaders and our anti-American agitators submit now and _ assist in the establishment of both by means of National aid and National organ- ization? THE NEED OF 4 NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR EDUCATIONAL SERVICE W. A. JESSUP, PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY, IOWA Differ as to means—From the days when Washington, in his Farewell Address, dwelt upon the necessity of an enlightened public opinion as essen- tial to our form of government to the present popular voice of alarm rela- tive to the Nation of “‘sixth graders,” there has never been any serious note of discord. All are agreed that we must have an educated electorate. It would be impossible to stage, under any circumstances, a serious debate on the question of the importance of education. The only possible opportunity for debate is centered around a discussion of the means of obtaining this common objective. Experience varied—There have been wide variations in governmental machinery ranging from extreme local control, as exemplified in the district system in Massachusetts and Iowa; highly centralized State control, as ex- emplified in New York; and Federal control, as exemplified under the pro- visions of the Smith-Hughes Act. ‘Thus, we have tried local initiative, State control, and Federal subsidy. Critics differ in their judgment as to the relative efficacy of the different plans. Best method not clear—The State of Lowa, with a highly decentralized system of public education, with relatively little subsidy, with opportunities for tremendous initiative on the part of local communities, has been able to provide a school system that compares in efficiency, as measured by financial support, buildings, equipment, consolidation, length of term, high-school graduation, and the like, with States where all of these factors have been subject to State subsidy, statutory regulation, and all the other trappings of theoretical educational administration. % Certainly the National program for vocational education has not met with such freedom from criticism as to make us feel that we have spoken the last word in regard to Federal control and subsidy. Progress and public opinion—Real progress is ultimately dependent al- most wholly upon public opinion. ‘The tremendous increase in interest in public education and its relationship to the problem of Americanization, within recent years, has come about through an awakened public interest. Excellence in school conditions, whether we look to physical plant, eco- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1345 nomic reward, or educational efficiency, has been directly in proportion to the dominant public sentiment within the community. ‘This has been true irrespective of provisions for the minimum wage, controlled curricula, rigid inspection, or other semi-coercive devices of the State at large. Public opinion vs. bureaucracy—The best single hope for obtaining de- sirable educational ends is through the creation of public opinion, directed toward the specific minor objectives involved in the whole. In the degree that a National organization for educational service will be a dominant factor in creating a favorable public opinion with a will to achieve, in that degree such an organization will be worth while; but in the degree that this National organization rests its case upon men’s coercive devices of in- spection, of regulation, of auditing accounts, of supervision, and the other routine activities of bureaucracy, in that degree the normal progress of education will be limited rather than advanced. Recent public response splendid—Future educational historians will note the years through which we are just passing and direct attention to the really marvelous progress that is being made in education since the war. And to what has this been due? Not to coercive policies but to the wide- spread response of leaders, to the import of facts relative to illiteracy, facts relative to the need of a trained electorate. These facts, revealed by the war, came with something of a shock, but the response has been dazzling. An aroused public has brought better curricula, better buildings and equip- ment, and better instruction. Voluntary organization responsible for progress—Our progress thus far has come about through the leadership of great voluntary organizations which are peculiar to America, such as the National Education Association, the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association, the National Society for the Study of Education, and scores of similar associations. These bodies have afforded opportunity for the development and stimulation of hundreds of leaders who have worked in turn with other organizations, National, State, and local, to the end that we have created sentiment in every section of the land among all classes of persons irrespective of race, creed, or party. Woe betide American education if any of this is lost. We must depend upon more of this rather than less in the future. Short term of Cabinet officers—Much is being said in favor of a Cabinet officer representing education. In this connection it is important to con- sider certain factors involved. How long do Cabinet officers ordinarily remain in their positions? The department of political science of the University of Iowa reports, after an investigation covering the fifteen administrations from 1861 to 1921, that there has been an average tenure of two and two thirds (exclud- ing the ad interim appointments of only a few days).. Thus there is no expectancy that a Secretary of Education would serve even during a single administration. Not only are Cabinet officers in power for a short time, but as a part of 1346 NATIONAL EpucCATION ASSOCIATION party government they and their recommendations are constantly subjected to bitter partisan criticism and with all of the legislative interference only too common in our State and National assemblies. Could the wisest edu- cational statesman have escaped the bitterness of the last administration? Does anyone doubt that there will be equally hostile criticism of the present Cabinet? ‘These partisan conflicts function in dramatic reversals of public policy, complete repudiation of programs. Are we wise in urging that edu- cation be thrust into this hurly-burly of partisan strife? Who will serve?2—Have we enough educational statesmen to afford to throw them on this wheel of short tenure and bitter criticism? “The supply is all too short for the places of leadership and responsibility where condi- tions of tenure and partisan interference have been made much more satis- factory. ; Political strife—Experience thus far in city, State, and institutional con- trol has led us to strive for longer tenure and freedom from partisan align- ment. Even where statutory tenure has been short it has been the practice to provide for continuity of service by force of public opinion. Certainly no one nowadays seriously favors partisan responsibility for educational administration in city, State, or university. Are we not in danger of pro- posing a system of partisan Cabinet representation which will actually lead to strife and ultimately to a divided public opinion in educational matters ? United public opinion essential—I do not wish to be placed in a position of being an opponent of a National organization for educational service, but I do wish to keep uppermost in the discussion the importance of united aggressive public opinion. We need leadership having not only outstanding personality involving the highest type of statesmanship, but we need con- tinuity and freedom from ordinary partisan alignments. Is this likely to happen with a Secretary of Education in the Cabinet ? A constructive suggestion—In connection with our program for a Na- tional organization for educational service might we not draw a valuable lesson from the Judicial Department? Here we see the Supreme Court of the United States created and maintained under conditions of dignity, con- tinuity, and freedom from partisan dictation. Why should we not create our central machinery for National educational service after some such pattern as this rather than cast ourselves into the whirlpool of politics? IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SCHOOL-BUILDING PROGRAM N. L. ENGELHARDT, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The school building is the most important physical agency or instrument utilized in the educative process. The school building is a means to an end not an end in itself. The problems involved in school-building Binnie and school-building construction are mere resultants of the acceptance of DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1347 an educational policy and the establishment of definite educational aims. In the past when the educational program had not been clearly defined and the conservation of health, the development of home makers, the vocational aspects of education, and the like had not been given a place among the definite aims to be achieved, the school-building problem was a simple one, indeed. ‘The experience and practices of years have clarified the educa- tional ends to be sought. With this development of educational aims has come the demand for school housing of such construction and character as to tax severely the community purse and to bring to the fore the questions of economy, adaptability, and efficiency which too often have been ignored or overlooked in the past. The school-building needs of the country have grown to vast proportions. School-bond issues for the past two years aggregate the greatest total of all two-year periods in the history of public-school development. In the year 1921, $240,000,000 worth of school bonds were issued in the United States. Estimated on the basis of present contracts undertaken in many communi- ties and assuming somewhat similar needs in other communities, approxi- mately one and one half billion dollars must be expended on school build- ings in the United States at this time to assure school-housing conditions which will make possible the achievement of our accepted educational aims. City after city has accepted its responsibility and is assuming its share of this huge construction burden. Three, five, and ten million-dollar school- building programs are being reported frequently. School systems with an- nual budgets for current expenditures of two or three hundred thousand dollars are reporting bond. issues for three and four times their annual allotments for education. An increasing faith in public education is evi- denced on every hand. The deliberate acceptance of the cost burden in many communities demonstrates clearly the deep nature of this faith. For the country at large, the funded debt assumed for public-school purposes in 1921 was eight times as much as that incurred in 1916 for similar purposes. The demand for a dollar’s worth for every dollar spent has, however, become more insistent than ever before. The school-building plant repre- sents the crystallization of the highest ideals and purposes of community coéperation and community enterprise. ‘Che wide discussion of such ideals and purposes is developing a more critical public attitude toward com- munity investments in school buildings as well as in the educational yield. Without the determination and acceptance of educational aims by the lead- ership of a community no satisfactory building program can be advanced. With the recognition of the ends to be sought through the educative process, the underlying principles of school-building program development may be laid down. ‘The principles which follow are not mutually exclusive but are of sufficient importance to require separate mention. The educational organization decides the nature of the school plant and the character of the buildings. The age-groups to be taught, the curricula to be pursued, the individual variations to be recognized, and the space and equipment to be allotted to every individual child are the elements of prime 1348 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION importance. Complete definition of the educational organization is essen- tial. The educational organization must become a matter of practice and not remain an empty form. ‘The school system which professes to have adopted a 6-3-3 organization and over a period of years permits every varia- tion therefrom to exist without change, has failed to recognize the educa- tional economy that will result from the unification of its system. With the educational organization defined, the types of buildings and the com- prehensive nature of the structures are determined. No acceptable educa- tional organization can profitably utilize any longer school buildings which are mere nests of classrooms. “The modern schoolhouse is an intricately and wonderfully planned structure, offering every facility for advancing the complex and expanding curriculum program involved in the full con- cept of public education. Financial and educational economy dictate the size of the individual schools. From the standpoint of economy of operation, maintenance, super- vision, and general administration, all available evidence is in favor of the large individual schools. One thousand to twelve-hundred-pupil elemen- tary-school buildings, twelve to fifteen-hundred-pupil junior high-school buildings, and fifteen to twenty-five-hundred pupil senior high-school build- ings are considered desirable when proper allowances are made for the size and type of the community. It is reasonable to suppose that educational economy will likewise result under conditions which permit of better classi- fication, more frequent promotions, and a greater concentration of. special facilities than would be possible in smaller plants. Scientific investigations of the next few years may throw new light on the optimum size of school buildings from the angle of both financial and educational economy. Standards of schoolhouse planning and construction must be determined by State authorities through rigid scientific procedure. The wider experi- ence and the more comprehensive machinery of State education departments should be utilized more fully to safeguard communities from ill-advised planning and faulty construction. Neither the infrequency of school-build- ing construction in the small community nor the instability of administra- tive control in the large city should be among the reasons advanced for failure to secure buildings which become permanent community assets and fully adapted to the needs of the educational program. Local conditions may vary, but, within reasonable limitations, local adherence to State stand- ards is recognized as most desirable. State standards involving economy, the recognition of State educational aims, and the gleanings from the ex- periences of hundreds of other communities have no inconsiderable value. To the degree that the conservation of health and the program of phys- ical education are emphasized among the State aims in education, should the State insist upon adherence to building standards which safeguard the body of the child, leave his physical faculties unimpaired and offer oppor- tunity for further physical development. ‘The splendid progress made by some of the States may well serve as an incentive to those which still lag far behind. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1349 The health and play programs of progressive educational organizations can be advanced only where adequate school sites have been provided. Four to six acres for elementary schools, six to eight acres for junior high schools, ten to twenty acres for senior high schools are standards which are being accepted by so many growing communities that their general acceptance seems inevitable. ‘Che very rapid growth in urban population in the United States and the extreme residential congestion of many cities emphasize the importance of making adequate provision in the school development pro- gram for plenty of air, sunlight, and open spaces. ‘The large percentage of physical defectives, humiliating to our National pride and contradictory to our educational aims, and the needs of our social development programs unite in emphasizing the importance of large school sites. When recent reports covering playground conditions show that 1,800,000 of 3,600,0001 in 429 American cities have less than 6 x 6 square feet each of playground space, or even none at all, and that 70,000 children? in one of our largest cities have been provided with only thirty-five pieces of playground appa- ratus on their schoolgrounds, the urgent need for the development of play- ground standards becomes clear. No school-building program can be adequately advanced without full consideration of city zoning and the policies developed by city zoning com- missions. ‘The values derived from scientific city zoning are being sought by many city councils or boards of aldermen. Zoning is the controlled direction of building development along orderly and well considered lines of city growth. This movement should receive the earnest support of all school administrators, or, when necessary, should even be initiated by them in their communities, as it doubly insures any investment made in new school housing. The hundreds of thousands of dollars spent in the con- struction of school plants, which, in a short time, have been surrounded by manufacturing, railroad, and other industrial developments, have not con- tributed toward the creation of confidence of the public in school adminis- trators. School-building planning must anticipate population trends and should consider every element of adult and child population growth. Private cor- porations, such as telephone companies, have shown the way in the field of population analysis which may well be followed by schoolmen. ‘Telephone companies lay their cables and construct their exchanges not to meet present service demands only but in terms of future patronage. Every available population fact that may have its bearing on future growth is utilized in the prognostication of service needs. What private enterprise has found it profitable and possible to do the school system may well adopt. 1Know and Help Your Schools, 2d Report; National Committee on Chamber of Commerce Codperation with the Public Schools, 1921; American City Bureau, New York City. ? Strayer, George D., and Engelhardt, N. L. The School Plant and School Build- ing Program of Baltimore, 1921; Board of School Commissioners, Baltimore, Maryland. 1350 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION The selection of school-building sites should be on the basis of known population data and in terms of desirable environment standards. No longer should politics, personal gain, or undesirability for any other purpose be the basis for selection of school sites. The anticipation of future needs, based on housing types, residential saturation, transportation development and industrial sectioning, and the advance purchase of sites determine toa large degree the desirability of the future plant. Continuing map studies of population growth are essential administrative tools for success in this field. Travel distances for present and future child population are factors to be considered. There has been a tendency toward standardization of the one half mile radius for elementary schools, one mile for junior-high school, and one and one half miles and more for senior-high school. ‘The tremen- dous overlapping in the elementary-school districts of many cities, where the erection of small school buildings has been the rule, is evidence of fail- ure to recognize the invaluable results of city planning and the gains to be secured from the establishment of distances between home and school which children of varying ages may be expected to travel. The degree to which pupil travel standards have been ignored in the past is evident in a recent city school-building survey, where ten elementary-school buildings were pointed out as falling within the district defined by a three-eighths mile circle being drawn with one elementary school as a center. If a child may, within a half-mile walk from his home, reach any one of six, eight, or ten school buildings, the chances are against his finding any desirable, high- grade, fully equipped schools in the group. A school-building program is a continuing program. A prevailing falla- cious concept is that appropriations for school buildings are to be considered necessary only at stated intervals, and that such appropriations once made have solved the building problems of the community for an indefinite period. The school-building problems of no actively growing American community can be laid aside with the assumption that the task is completed. Trax- payers should recognize that the opportunity for developing and improving the school plant always exists. The aim of the administrator should be to keep his school-housing projects so far in advance of actual needs that short- time sessions and temporary housing do not become necessary except in times of urgent stress. Attendance and census records should be so utilized that the physical facilities in space and equipment become available for the school child when the compulsory laws of the local custom bring children into school for the first time. The superintendent of schools who can say during times of peace that his community has a record of no part-time pupils and no unsuitable housing has demonstrated, without question, his ability as an administrator. The program of publicity develo should be of a continuing nature future building needs may be. ped in conjunction with building policies and give clear-cut estimates of what the Communities informed far enough in ad- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1351 vance react more favorably when additional funds are sought for the fur- ther development of their plant. School-building planning and construction require a specialized archi- tectural skill and training, together with a knowledge of the educational field. In the field of school-building construction, it has been a common practice for members of boards of education to assume the chief responsi- bility. This responsibility is not wisely delegated to lay members of boards of education with perhaps only a temporary interest in the problem, nor even to the architect who has not made himself thoroughly familiar with school problems and needs. Along with the rapid standardization of edu- cational provisions has come the development of architects who have been willing to recognize the exceedingly complex nature of school-building planning and who have equipped themselves to render a special service in the educational field. Only as boards of education assure the highest degree of codperation between the educational forces which administer policies and the architectural forces which supervise the working drawings and specifi- cations of school buildings will investments in school buildings be guaran- teed gilt-edge. Elasticity of planning is a positively essential element to be considered in plant development. Changing educational methods and administrative policies will necessitate varying adaptations of the school plant. During one decade study halls may be deemed essential, during the next they may be rated as superfluous. An elastic plan recognizes variations as concom- itants of educational growth. School authorities who plan in terms of the ultimately desired structure, although only a fractional part is needed to- day, serve the more intelligently. The wisest policy to pursue is to reserve for all time the possibility of addition to any plant except as positive assur- ance prevails that the best size has been attained. Public-school structures should be of a permanent construction in keeping with the nature of the program to be advanced. Unfortunately, Type D construction, consisting of masonry walls, but of otherwise ordinary or joist construction and wood finish, prevails today in the forty-five per cent of existing school buildings, and even a less permanent construction in twenty- one per cent more. Fire-proof construction makes for permanence, lower maintenance, and repair costs, less fire insurance and greater community assurance in the safety of its children. True economy in school-building costs is not inconsistent with the pro- gram outlined above. On the contrary, it is implied in every step. Real economy is effected only as the full educational program is understood, and as the physical agencies employed to achieve those ends are utilized effect- ively to the greatest degree, by the greatest number of people, over the longest period of time. Economy results when permanence is assured, debt, maintenance, and operation costs are kept at a minimum, and the highest physical, social, and educational efficiency of the product is achieved. The new technique that is being rapidly developed in the field of pro- gram planning will strengthen the professional status of the superintendent 11352 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and will establish more firmly his position as a community leader. In com- munities that have felt the need for more adequate school planning, the school administrator can be relied upon to bend his energies to the solution of the difficulties growing out of such need. ADAPTING THE SCHOOL PLANT JO JHE CURRICULUM CHARLES L, SPAIN, DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICHIGAN The present-day elementary school has developed from the one-room building of Colonial days, which was built chiefly for religious instruction. This building was developed into a type like the Quincy Grammar School, built in Boston in 1848, a four-story twelve-room building with a separate room for each grade. ‘Training for social and industrial life had then re- placed religious training and the curriculum included the three R’s, his- tory, language and grammar, conduct, bookkeeping and object lessons. In spite of the present-day demand that the child be trained not only as an individual but also as an effective member of society, with provision in the curriculum for health, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and experience with materials and tools of industry, and training for worthy home life, the Quincy type of building is still typical. It would seem impossible to teach in this box-like building physiology and hygiene, play, physical edu- cation, literature, civics, nature study, music, art, sewing, manual training, and cooking in addition to those subjects formerly taught, yet that is what is being attempted. Detroit’s solution of the building problem is the platoon school, the gen- eral plan of which is familiar. Half the school is seated in home-rooms where the three R’s are taught; the other half simultaneously engages in special activities, gymnasium, play court, auditorium, library, science, liter- ature, music, art, sewing, cooking, and shop. At the end of one and one half hours the two halves change. Platoon schools have been constructed by remodeling old buildings, by adding an auditorium and gymnasium to any building of from twelve to twenty-seven rooms, thereby increasing its capacity to 33 1/3 per cent, or by building a new structure. In the last three years forty-nine elementary school additions and nine new buildings have been constructed, and money is available for nine more new buildings and five more additions. The number of platoon schools has increased from six in 1918 to sixteen in 1919, thirty-two in 1920, and fifty-one in February, 1923. the program has been to adapt the school plant to mee of the present-day curriculum, The entire aim of t the requirements DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1353 SOLVING THE PROBLEM—THE ARCHITECT AND THE SUPERINTENDENT FREDERICK W. GARBER, ARCHITECT, CINCINNATI, OHIO My subject is Solving the Problem—The Architect and the Superin- tendent. I wish I knew some definite formula that would sometimes work successfully, but there seems to be none. You superintendents who have had some experience in building know, and so do the conscientious archi- tects, that any successful solution of a school is a difficult problem and not a divine inspiration conceived in a few minutes. ‘There are as many per- fectly designed schools as there are superintendents in this room. ‘This is equally true of banks, libraries, and residences. Never have I seen like ideals expressed in elevation or plan, although each group has a marked family resemblance. Let us take the residence as a type or example to explain what I have in mind. If two residences of $10,000 each for two clients of different tem- peraments were to be given as a commission to one architect and his ideas were to be expressed, the solution would no doubt be the same for both. If the architect functions properly, he will study his client’s needs, methods of living, conducting his household, and the like, and base his solution on this information. His solutions would then be different; and so it is with any two large schools. The standardization of two- or four-room schools as a whole may be possible, but never of larger ones. In Cincinnati, and what I have to say today refers to our work in Cin- cinnati exclusively, in addition to meeting the different educational needs for schools which are affected by environment and lot conditions, the board and superintendent insist that the schools be varied in their architectural treatment. In varying the design of the buildings, we believe that a dis- tinct educational value is created that will arrest the attention of the pupils and inculcate good taste. In fact, if pupils secure their preliminary educa- tion in school buildings of the highest type, the fineness of the architectural design will educate them, particularly the boys, to a most respectful attitude toward architecture and its good influences. Site and environment in the city schools have much to do with the final expression. Let me contrast several grade schools to show our point of view. Westwood, our first school, is in the suburbs, located on a lot of about six acres, which lies a trifle above the street grade. I wish to con- trast this with the Guilford School, also a grade school, but located in what might be called a commercial, old-resident and tenement district; in fact, it faces a ten-story shoe factory. The lot is a typical downtown lot, and here the problem was to exaggerate the scale so as not to have it appear dwarfed by its high neighbors and probably higher ones in the future. Let us leave this school and go to the hill-tops to a poor colored district and contrast the two foregoing with this. Douglas is also a grade school on a very small lot and is devoted exclusively to colored children. The 1354 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION Bloom School, a grade school with provisions for a junior high school, occupies one half a city block in an old tenement district. “This, in a small way, illustrates better than I can put in words what we are attempting to accomplish. Before I leave this problem to take up an individual problem, I want to leave this thought with you superintendents: In any city, many schools would be better placed if the Park Board would work in closer harmony with the Board of Education. .As one studies the administration of cities, I am convinced that more concerted action would not only provide better locations but would result in infinitely better results. Perhaps the City Planning Commissions which are now coming into vogue will have a pro- nounced influence, and surely no phase of city planning is more important than the proper sites for schools. It is not my intention to convey the im- pression that schools should be placed in parks, but their proximity to small parks and playgrounds which might be made one comprehensive scheme with the school, would certainly be an achievement worth while. In discussing the superintendent and the architect, I intend to take the East Side High School as an example. ‘The East Side High School is the last high school to be finished, and will illustrate how in Cincinnati the Board of Education, the superintendent, and the architect operate in the solution of a problem. When I say superintendent or Board of Education I use them as synonymous terms. No better working basis between Board and superintendent, I dare say, can be found than in our city. As an abstract problem, building, whether a school or otherwise, consists of three factors: size, material, and cost. Fix any two of these factors of the problem and the third can be solved by the architect, providing reason -and judgment are exercised. “Too often the cost and size are fixed and the material never goes beyond the paper stage. What has been called size or requirements is the function of the superintendent. His task is not a light one, for each department head will, if he or she be human, demand all and more than is required. ‘This is as it should be. Who of us has not seen an unbalanced school due to an over-strong personality in some department. The superintendent must then weigh carefully and adjust nicely the bal- ance between his departments. No light task, I assure you. Some day I hope some architect will find a man willing and rich enough to give each department just what it thinks it needs. The result will be a school of many buildings with a total capacity to house all the activities of all the schools in one group. Henry Ford could not endow it, mu but he might be called upon to furnish a ra access between departments. The superintendent in Cincinnati has always laid down what he desires to accomplish from an educational standpoint in a program that has been considered with him by the Board of Education. ments. He went further in the East Side High Sc what he would consider as ideal in the relation of ch less a city, pid-transit system for easy This covers all depart- hool and expressed just one department to an- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1355 other. These qualifications are of primary importance. The educational problem is, in my opinion, the raison d’etre of the school. This program was given to the architects as the preliminary step that preceded the design of the school. These mandatory conditions and the site selected were the conditions upon which the architects were to base their solution of the problem. A word as to the site: The site selected by the Board of Education con- sists of thirty-eight acres, an old farm located on the edge of one of our best residence districts. It also draws from a remoter district chitdren from a factory colony. ‘These conditions called for a school to house all the activi- ties that could be required in a high school. As Superintendent Condon expressed it in words that are now carved on the base of the tower: “All who will may enter and find within these walls equal and varied oppor- tunity for a liberal education, based alike upon art and industry, with books and things, work and study combined; and where good health, the spirit of play, and joy in work well done shall abound.” Some of the restrictions which did not lighten our task were of great importance. First, the lot faced an important thoroughfare. Second, the axis of another equally important thoroughfare terminated in whatever would become the fore-court of a group of buildings or the principal fea- ture of the exterior of the building. Third, the extreme variation in the grades of the lot was sixty feet. Conferences were held at this time with the superintendent almost daily. Several tentative sketches were made in the office, but none seemed to solve the problem satisfactorily. Except at great expense would the lot admit of all departments being housed in one building. The fine wooded valley running parallel with the street we considered should be preserved. We were of the opinion that with the lot restrictions, it would be best not to house all the departments in one building but to arrange them in a group of buildings. All preceding high schools in Cincinnati were housed under one roof. A rough sketch was made, outlining the various departments without details, just assigning spaces. “The Board of Education was called in and a great discussion followed. The chief objection to a group plan was the time that would be lost in moving classes between periods. ‘his objection was answered by the presi- dent of the board and the superintendent, who believed and has since proved the fact that a few minutes so lost would be more than made up by the efficiency of the pupils in the classroom; the advantages of outlook and the fenestration also were not to be ignored. ‘The points of the compass are such that the sun is present some time each day in each room. The departments at this time were located and the development of the plan began. ‘The departments as located were as follows: the central building houses on the first floor the administrative office and the audi- torium; the second floor, the balcony of the auditorium and the library; the third floor, the lunch rooms. Grouped about this center, beginning with building “A,” extreme left, the commercial department is housed on 1356 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the first floor with one of its rooms in building ‘‘B” in the rear. Continu- ing along the rear you have two classrooms and a small auditorium. ‘The rooms facing the fore-court are literary club rooms which are used for club purposes, teachers’ meetings, and so forth, and for recitations in literature. The second floor of building ‘“‘A”’ is occupied by a large study hall and sewing-room. On the second floor of building ‘““B” is housed the arts and crafts with a large classroom. You will note that the art rooms are on the same floor and adjacent to the library in building “C.’’ ‘The third floor of building,“A” is occupied by a model flat, girls’ study room, classroom and laundry and a girls’ chemistry laboratory, and on the same level in building “B,” domestic science rooms. You will also note that the girls’ chemistry, which is devoted to the chemistry of cooking, is adjacent to the domestic science rooms located on this same floor in building “B” and the lunch room on the same floor in building “C.”” Building ““D” is devoted entirely to classrooms, faculty rooms, and emergency room. ‘The class- rooms were not all located in building “‘D,” but some were located in each building except building “C.” This permitted of a little more elasticity and reduced the moving of classes from building to building. They were also placed in this building because of their central location, and par- ticularly for their proximity to the industrial arts building and the gym- nasia. Building “D” is devoted entirely to the sciences and their lecture rooms and several classrooms, and on the upper two floors in a correspond- ing position, as in building “A,” are the boys’ study rooms. In the program for the gymnasia and the stadium, which might be con- sidered a part of it, the superintendent desired to house the physical activi- ties of the school and to make provisions for visiting teams and for all the activities of the stadium, the only stadium for use of all the high schools. On the first floor, which rises above the concourse level to the left, are located the plunge, showers, and dressing-rooms and. immediately above it the gymnasium for the girls. To the right the same provisions are made for the boys. “As the land slopes toward this end of the building, provisions were made for a laundry, where in time we hope to have the necessary machinery installed. Between these two gymnasia is located the open-air gymnasium. ‘The open-air gymnasium can be used by either boys or girls and the walls are prepared for hand-ball and basket-ball. This gymnasium is used only when the weather will not permit the use of the field for gym- mastic exercises. By the use of team rooms, visiting pupils are excluded from all the gymnasia. In the industrial arts, all departments of industrial work were to be housed. Grouped with the industrial arts buildings are the heating facili- ties for the entire group of buildings. This building, although externally conforming to the design of the buildings for the gymnasia and the aca- demic group, is on the interior finished as a factory. The building is ex- tremely compact and the corridor space, which runs the full length of the building, is divided into two stories for each shop height to provide the necessary locker space. In this building are housed on the first floor auto- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1357 mobile construction shop, testing laboratory, foundry, forge, and machine shops; on the second floor, carpenter shop, mill room, plumbing and sheet metal, pattern and cabinet shops; on the third floor, electric construction laboratory, composing pressroom, and drafting rooms. During the detailed layout of these departments, which took several weeks, each day the Board, of seven members, the superintendent, and the department heads met in our office for conference and study. Here all the details and arrangements of each department were thrashed out. We did not always agree, but we were a large family each doing the best he could to bring about an ideal school. As to special features, in laying out the preliminary sketches, the archi- tects found that the number of pupils per class varied with each department. In the interest of economy in construction and teaching, after a long talk with the superintendent they asked if it would not be possible to fix, in so far as possible, the same number of pupils for all classes in all departments. This was an innovation, and after much discussion it was finally decided to fix each class at thirty or multiples of thirty. In other words, the gymnasia classes were fixed at sixty, two units, with provision for ninety if needed. The science, commercial, industrial and household arts were fixed at one unit or a multiple thereof. A small auditorium was provided to take five units. “This is used for special group instruction for science classes, music, and special lectures in which lantern slides and moving pictures are used. The study rooms, four in number, were fixed at eight units each. The total capacity of the school was figured at 1800. This provides for one half the pupils on this basis to make their “home-rooms” in the study rooms. With thirty classrooms the total number of pupils is made up. Each pupil is provided with a locker in the corridors which distributes the pupils over the entire building. ‘The lockers take up all the space between double walls not used by columns, heat ducts, and other utilities. I know that some authorities do not agree with this scheme, but we have found that it works. What the total capacity of the school would be if all departments were working to their full quota of thirty I am not prepared to say, as that would be a matter of program; but this I do know, that this year there are 400 more pupils than the school was designed for and as yet no interference with the functioning of the school has been noted. In lieu of “home-rooms” for the teachers, we have a faculty room. In this room provisions are made so that a number of instructors can use it as headquarters when not teaching. This applies primarily to the teachers who do classroom work only. The departments in science and the com- mercial arts have provisions made for offices for their use, and there is no difficulty in the arts department of having the teachers use them as home- rooms. ‘There is no reason, however, in the opinion of the superintendent and architects, why the classrooms should not be used every hour of the day—and they will be when the school becomes crowded. It is false econ- omy to permit a room to be used for instructions for two periods a day, say in Latin, and used for no other purpose during the remainder of the day. 1358 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Such a teacher would be assigned to a class as a pupil, and her remaining time, if not utilized in class work, would be employed in the faculty room. The use of the faculty room and the provision made for doubling up certain units has added an elasticity which we have not found in our other high schools. As to the exterior, these buildings were built during the war and we suggested the Colonial type of architecture, because we considered it would . make a special appeal and the site.ideal for this style. I have always been apprehensive of the use of this style in a school building because of the tremendous scale of the windows and other features which might well be considered objectional, if it were contrasted with other buildings, usually residences. But here we have a lot with enough foliage to exclude such a comparison. The buildings are approached from either end through the valley and on the main axis by the bridge. The bridge became necessary, as we retained the beautiful wooded valley between the street and build- ings. ‘The drive follows the rear of the Academic Group. The fore-court is approached across the bridge on the axis of the tower. The tower not only marks the axis on Madison Road, which it faces, but also terminates the end of Erie Avenue and can be seen for at least a mile and a quarter. The cupolas on the buildings and the chimneys are for discharging foul air. ‘The gymnasia and the industrial arts face the long side of the athletic field and are at right angles to the axis of building ““D.” Beyond the ath- letic field, when the demand is created and funds are available, the Board expects to develop an agricultural school. We are now engaged on another high school, and the superintendent and the principal of each high school are now developing a program that will take advantage of all we have learned in the East Side High School. A school is always a difficult problem because of the few tricks left to an architect. He is compelled to juggle with the large blank wall spaces and the tremendous window areas. Excessive ornament is tabooed, and even if well done is apt to be considered in bad taste. Finally, I have come to the conclusion that the architect alone cannot in this day, when costs are not too low, solve any school successfully unless he has the hearty codperation of the superintendent and Board. The super- intendent in the interest of economy must study his problem for educational needs as never before. The architect must study not only cost, but also the problems of up-keep and expansion. Aside from cost, the best results can- not be obtained except by careful planning and study. It is not inspiration, but sober, logical judgment and a perfect understanding of the educational needs as outlined by the superintendent, and a thorough understanding of these needs by the architect, that will answer the problems that you super- intendents have. That all problems should be clothed with beauty is neces- Sary as an inspiration to good teaching and for the good of the pupils. A beautiful building exterior and interior without a well-arranged scheme for practical educational needs is not a successful solution. If the practical » DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1359 needs are answered without having good designs, it is equally unsuccessful. The real solution must combine needs and architectural housing. Whether the school be large or small, the answer should be the same, and will be if sufficient study and thought are used. The architect cannot stand alone, nor can the superintendent; each has a distinct function to perform if a perfect school is to be built. THE ADVANTAGES OF THE ONE-STORY SCHOOL PLAN DWIGHT H. PERKINS, ARCHITECT, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS School buildings of one story have the following advantages over those of two or more stories: First, superior classroom lighting; second, greater safety ; third, easier adaptability; fourth, cheaper construction and mainte- nance; fifth, more homelike—‘“less institutional” design; and sixth, ready conformity to development and changes in educational methods. The views which will be thrown upon the screen are arranged in the order and ac- cording to these topics—sometimes without relation to each other—except those showing Cleveland and California schools which are grouped accord- ing to buildings. First—Lighting—The advantages of controlled top light are available for all rooms. Classrooms along the outer walls have windows as well as skylights,—the cheer-giving window views of sky and trees are retained. Assembly rooms, storage space, toilets, and other portions are properly and sufficiently lighted from above. Sunlight may be admitted through the ceiling. One is, therefore, at liberty to disregard orientation in locating classrooms—all north or all south exposure may be provided, as well as east or west exposure, because the defects of too little or too much sun may be corrected by means of the skylight adjusting vanes. Uncontrolled skylight is both bad and unnecessary. By means of the revolving sheet-metal vanes, covering the entire skylight area, one may darken the room for stereopticon use, or may “open wide’ and admit all the light there is on a cloudy day. The vanes can be set at any angle so as to admit light and exclude sun. Walls and ceilings can and should be colored so as to augment the intro- duction and diffusion of light to relieve eye strain and increase the refining effect of beautiful interiors. ‘Top-lighting simplifies this problem. Second—Safety—Stairs are forgotten, no crowding, no stumbling, no time required to make use of them. Exits are multiplied indefinitely. Children can escape all at once and in every direction. Even the windows, so close to the ground, would provide safe and adequate egress were every door in the building locked. Basements containing combustible stores are eliminated. Stairways and halls cannot be filled with smoke from fires below. While it is advisable to build all walls and partitions of incombustible material, such methods are not obligatory, and it is customary in such buildings to build the roof 1360 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of wood. Nothing but a property loss can result, and that can be covered by insurance. Basement space required for heating plant and for janitor’s storage can be placed beneath terraces and not under classrooms, again promoting safety as sometimes defined by laymen. T hird—A daptability—The uses to be made of the separate classroom exits are obvious: instant dismissal in fire-drill, or at closing time, as well as passing to and from out-door play, all of which promote class independ- ence and decrease class interference. The central assembly rooms, particularly in elementary schools, are used with perfect ease not only as lobbies or thoroughfares, but for many kinds of group instruction. The stages are enlarged and become kindergartens or gymnasiums, giving multiple use for single investment. An assembly hall in constant use, even though that use be incidental, has been found to be valuable when it is pleasantly furnished and decorated. It should not be shut off for the occasional ceremony, as the old-fashioned parlor in the home was. Such halls are not isolated when placed as in the buildings to be shown on the screen. On the other hand, their strict use as gathering places is in no wise restricted. During evening assemblies, it has been found advantageous to allow the parents to use the classrooms as committee rooms, coat rooms, and the like. Additions are easily made by simple extensions of the corridors, and the construction of rooms between and along them exactly as in the original portion. Such additions can be made without interfering with the school sessions. Fourth—Economical construction and maintenance—The question of cost is the one usually put first, but here it is not answered first because it is minor as compared with light, safety, and adaptability. Although this type of plan was brought forward at first for financial reasons, it has main- tained its position and growth, I believe, entirely for its other merits. I would advocate it, even though it were more expensive than other types. The one-story plan is economical to construct because all superfluous basement space may be omitted. Basements may be limited to actual boiler, coal, and storage requirements, so that three fourths of the first-floor con- struction may be directly upon filling upon the ground surface, no floor spans required. All staircases and space for same, as well as corridor space opposite stair- ways, are omitted. Corridors may also be more compactly planned in one than in two or three-story buildings, and corridor space costs just as much classroom space. Twenty-five per cent of the corridor length and cost may be saved by the simple device of turning the classrooms with the end to the outside, and with top light there is no objection to this. This arrangement also results in better wardrobe and blackboard locations, and is shown by one of the slides taken from a design to be built in Hammond, Indiana. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1361 Roof construction, as noted above, may be combustible and less expensive and this without jeopardizing life. No claim is made that one-story buildings cost less per cubic foot than others; on the contrary, they have been found to cost slightly more, about three or four per cent. The saving results from decreased bulk. Slides prepared for the Hawthorne Elementary School at Elmhurst, Illi- nois, give comparisons of a one-story and a two-story plan of similar capaci- ties and facilities. In this school unnecessary basement space and first-floor construction were omitted in the two-story plan as well as the one-story. No special advantage was given the one-story. Of course, more land is required for this type, but not enough to cause prohibitive cost. As for maintenance, less building requires less work for cleaning and repairing. The question will occur to you, Is this type more expensive to heat than the two- or three-story? Let us be frank and admit that it is. This is particularly true if ceiling lights are not placed beneath the classroom sky- lights. When they are, the extra cost of heating the classrooms becomes negligible, but when they are not, it will cost from six to eight per cent more for coal because of the loss of heat from the skylights. In regard to heating and ventilation apparatus, I believe it is not possible, or desirable if possible, to limit the heating and ventilation to the single fan, plenum chamber indirect system. I believe that one form or another of what is now known as the split system should be installed in which radi- ation is placed under the windows or in shafts immediately in connection with classrooms so that they may be heated without movement of the fan. In such installations fans, plenum chambers, and ducts exist for ventilation purposes only and have only incidental heating functions to perform. Fifth—Design—In the opinion of many, schools should become less over- powering institutions and more home-like. Always situated in residence districts, they should take on more the character of homes, a central home of the community made inviting and approachable day and evening by young and old. ‘The one-story type seems to comport with this conception. Sixth—Conformity—The slides will show great variety in plan, but much more diversity might be shown, if desired. This diversity results from the freedom of the basic idea, from the expanding demands made upon schools, the changing curricula, and from conditions of funds, site, and locality. The freedom from restraint, both upon architects and educators, seems to be influencing builders of this type of schools along original and progressive lines in such a way as to make a distinct contribution to educa- tion at this time, and, I believe, to point the way for better service, more real education, and future progress. 1362 NATIONAL EpuCcATION ASSOCIATION THE PROBLEMS BEFORE THE COMMISSION IN CHARGE OF THE EDUCATIONAL FINANCE INQUIRY GEORGE D. STRAYER, DIRECTOR OF THE EDUCATIONAL FINANCE INQUIRY, AND PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Our conception of the scope of public education has developed and ex- panded during the past generation. In no part of the United States is the education provided in the elementary school now thought sufficient to satisfy either the demands of society or the needs of the individual. To the original elementary school we have added high schools, vocational schools, continuation schools, special classes, and college and university training at public expense. We have, as well, enlarged the scope of education to in- clude physical education, health service, recreation, community organiza- tion, and the like. The cost of education has increased many fold. We are without any very clear definition of the extent of the program which is required, and we have no sound estimate of the cost that will be involved in providing for the realization of the whole or a part of the program. We are living in a period of economic readjustment and uncertainty. There is in the popular mind a reaction against any increase in taxes and a demand for retrenchment in the support of governmental activities. We who work in the field of education are conscious of the inadequacy of much of the work that is now being done because of the failure to provide sufi- cient funds to pay for the service of properly qualified teachers or to pro- vide the necessary buildings and equipment for schools. But however great our need, we are faced with the necessity of inquiring concerning the eco- nomic resources available for the support of schools. In making such an inquiry we may not ignore the cost of other governmental services, nor may we be unmindful of the fact that a very large percentage of our National income is consumed in maintaining the standard of living which we now enjoy. Because of the complexity of the situation confronting us, we need to assemble the facts upon which to base intelligent action in the financing of education. The importance of an investigation in the field of educational finance was emphasized at the Citizens Conference on Education, called by the United States Commissioner of Education, in the spring of 1920. This conference passed resolutions urging a thorough-going investigation of the cost of education and of the public resources available for the support of our schools. The discussion at that time, participated in both by laymen and by educators, made it clear that we could not hope to advance the pro- gram indefinitely without a sound factual basis for estimating the costs involved. A group of State and city superintendents of schools and other members of the Department of Superintendence met at Atlantic City in 1921. After considerable discussion they agreed that an inquiry concerning the present DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1363 program of education and the cost of maintaining it was most vital to those charged with the responsibility for administering public education. They appointed a committee from their number to assist in launching such an investigation, provided funds were made available for the conduct of the inquiry. The American Council on Education secured contributions amounting to $170,000 from the Commonwealth Fund, the General Education Board, the Carnegie Corporation, and the Milbank Memorial Fund to cover the expenses of the investigation. ‘These funds were contributed to the Amer- ican Council on Education, with the distinct understanding that they would be spent in accordance with the best judgment of the Commission appointed by the Council. Those contributing the funds have from the start made it clear that they do not seek to influence in any way the conducting of the investigation and that they will not be responsible for its outcome. The Council has placed in complete charge of the inquiry a Commission com- posed of men experienced in education, taxation, and business. This Com- _ mission consists of the following persons: E. C. Brooks, S. P. Capen, E. P. Cubberley, Edward C. Elliott, Thomas E. Finegan, Robert M. Haig, Victor Morawitz, Henry C. Morrison, George D. Strayer, and Herbert S. Weet. The first meeting of the Commission was held during the last week in October. My report to you today is, therefore, an account of the prog- ress of the inquiry for the four months that it has been under way. _ The primary aims of the Educational Finance Inquiry will be to deter- mine for typical States the program of public education which they have proposed in their constitutions and statutes, the extent to which these pro- grams are now actually carried out, the present cost of education, and the cost that would be involved were the proposed program fully carried out. The distinction which we shall seek to make between the requirements of the law and the actual provision for education now made is a real one. In so simple a matter as the requirement of compulsory school attendance be- tween seven and fourteen years of age there are very great variations in the enforcement of the law and consequent variations in the cost of public education. In many States the requirement with respect to the organiza- tion of special classes for those who are over-age, the establishment of con- tinuation schools, the organization of vocational schools, the provision for medical inspection and health service, and the like, are only partially car- ried out. We shall endeavor, as well, to discover what the cost of education would be were certain. standards adhered to. For example, what would public education cost if every teacher in the elementary schools had a minimum training of standard high-school graduation, plus two years of professional training? How would the cost of education vary if the size of classes in the elementary and high schools were reduced to commonly accepted stand- ards? What would be the cost involved in providing free textbooks in all schools? What does it cost to provide health service and dental clinics? What is the added expense involved in providing the vocational guidance © 1364 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION made possible by the organization of a modern junior high school? What do school lunches, transportation of pupils, special classes for the feeble- minded, the anemic, the blind, and the crippled cost? From these and other closely related inquiries we ought to be able, when any new program for public education is urged, to indicate the added cost of maintenance in- volved. The disregard of our present legal requirements has been due, in a large measure, to the adoption of an extended program without any satis- factory provision for the financing of those new enterprises which have been added from time to time. The Commission proposes, as well, to compare the growth in other gov- ernmental expenditures with the growth in school expenditures. It will be interesting to discover whether or not the large increase in the cost of public education is closely related to the increase for other governmental functions. We know that the program for public education has been greatly expanded. It may appear that there has been a similar expansion in other services provided for by local, State, and National government. A preliminary inquiry has already been undertaken with respect to taxation in support of public education. Studies which seek to evaluate current practices in the fiscal administration of schools are under way. The Commission decided to undertake as an initial inquiry an extensive study in one State. It is expected that in the study of a single State methods of investigation may be developed that may be found applicable elsewhere, and that this preliminary inquiry may make it possible to economize time and effort in the more extended survey. For the purpose of this initial in- quiry the State of New York was selected. This choice was made because of the completeness and accessibility of the financial reports made to the New York State Department of Education, which are based upon a uniform system of accounting, and an account of the thorough-going study of rural education just completed by the Committee of Twenty-One, of which Pro- fessor George A. Works, of Cornell University, is the chairman: Con- siderable progress has already been made in the New York State inquiry, and the investigation has been extended to two other States, Illinois and California. While the inquiry is being conducted in these States certain other investigations are under way which of necessity must be extended to the whole country. For example, the expenditures of the National Gov- ernment for education have been carefully listed. Inquiries concerning the fiscal administration of city school systems, school debts, insurance, and the like, involving data from communities throughout the country are well under way. In any analysis of the cost of education it is necessary to differentiate among those units of organization commonly making up our educational system. The inquiry will, therefore, seek to discover the cost of elementary schools, junior high schools, high schools, teacher-training institutions, col- leges, and universities. Certain other units of school organization, such as continuation schools, special education, and adult education, can be differ- entiated and their cost determined. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1365 Another type of analysis of the cost of education in terms of the work actually done in the classroom is being undertaken. It is good to know the total cost of elementary schools, but it is far more informing to know what educational ends the elementary school is designed to attain and what it costs to realize each of these purposes. The present program of education, as we find it in modern elementary schools, can be organized around four large objectives: (1) To read, write, and speak correctly the English language, and to know and use intelligently the elementary processes of arithmetic. By common consent these are the fundamentals without which satisfactory citizenship cannot be secured. (2) To know and to observe the laws of physical health and well-being, and to appreciate the meaning of life and nature. (3) To know and to appreciate the geography and history of the com- munity, State, and Nation, and of the world at large; to realize one’s share in the social, civic, and industrial order of such a democracy as ours, and to meet the obligations which such knowledge and appreciation should engender. (4) To share intelligently and appreciatively in the fine and useful arts through the pursuit of drawing, music, of manual training, and the house- hold arts as they are related to the three great universal needs of food, clothing, and shelter. It will be helpful to know the relative proportion of the elementary- school budget which is expended for the teaching of fundamentals, as com- pared with those subjects which are sometimes considered less essential. With these facts before them, it may be that some of the critics of our schools will be less free to charge wastefulness, and that they will under- stand better than they now do the place and the cost of that part of our work which they call fundamental. a In addition to the analysis of school costs by units of school organization and in terms of educational objectives to be realized, it is proposed to under- take a careful study of those costs which cannot be charged directly to any specific unit of the school system. ‘These costs are commonly designated as overhead. There is a popular belief that the overhead charges in the field of education are excessive. Nothing has been revealed by our inquiry to date that lends support to this charge. Nevertheless, it seems important to carry forward a most careful analysis of the charges for educational and business administration of schools, and in so far as it is possible to compare these overhead charges with similar costs in other undertakings. The fiscal administration of schools involves the study of the participa- tion by the State in the support of education as well as an inquiry concern- ing local administration and control. What part of the total support of ’ schools is provided by the State? What sources of revenue are allocated for school purposes? Is there a State school tax? How is the burden of sup- port as between the more and less wealthy communities equalized? All of 1366 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION these problems are important for one who is interested in the support of public education in our American commonwealth. The question of the separate financing of education is everywhere being considered. In the United States today approximately forty per cent of all of our cities are organized so as to give the boards of education control of the financing of public education, including, with certain limits, the levying of taxes. In about twenty-five per cent of our cities the board of education is completely dependent and is. required to submit its budget to a general municipal fiscal authority, commonly the board of estimate and apportion- ment, and is permitted to spend funds only as they are granted for the pur- poses designated in the budget passed by this body. Other city boards of education enjoy varying degrees of independence or are subjected to vary- ing degrees of control. The inquiry seeks to discover the effect of these variations in the fiscal administration of city school systems. An inquiry concerning capital outlays has also been instituted. In the great majority of American cities there are insufficient accommodations for the children now enrolled in the public schools. In many communities old, unsanitary, and dangerous buildings are still being occupied. Many mil- lions of dollars must be invested, if children are to be accommodated, and if their health and lives are to be safeguarded. It is important that in the expenditure of these millions the utmost economy consistent with sound educational practice be observed. ‘The problem of financing building pro- grams is one that may not be neglected in the study of school finance. In like manner, the present practices with respect to the insurance of school buildings, the preparation of school budgets, and fiscal accounting are worthy of consideration. The Educational Finance Inquiry has no program which it seeks to im- pose. It cannot enter upon a study of the degree of efficiency that is at- tained by our schools as at present organized. It does seek to inquire what resources may reasonably be expected to be made available for education; what the cost of the program is as actually developed today; and what the cost would be were the program which has been proposed fully carried out. It will seek to analyze costs and to propose in the light of experience sound financial administration. It will endeavor to make clear the cost of expand- ing the present program, or of adopting higher standards than those which are now commonly found. It will seek to show what changes in our pro- gram would be necessitated were a policy of retrenchment required of those who administer our schools. It is only as we present to our public these basic facts with regard to the cost of education that we can hope for an intelligent solution of the problem of financing our American public-school program. In all that the Commission plans to do it is dependent upon the codper- ation of those who administer our public-school system. It is gratifying to be able to report that to date the Commission has had the most cordial and intelligent codperation of all who have been asked to furnish data. or to DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1367 interpret the facts assembled. It will welcome any suggestion or criticism which any of you may be willing to give. The Commission is glad to work with you in the interest of our American public schools and for the welfare of the Nation. FINANCIAL NEEDS OF RURAL EDUCATION ARTHUR M. HYDE, GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OF MISSOURI, JEFFERSON CITY, MISSOURI In this hearing the value of education will stand admitted. Discussion of education from the standpoint of the individual, of society, or of the State is unnecessary. Here, at least, all will agree that the primary duty of the State is to afford to its citizens, present and yet unborn, an oppor- tunity for an education, and that the primary duty of the parents is to make any sacrifice that can be made for the education of their own and their neighbors’ children. : No better test, to my mind, can be made of the value of education than this. Imagine the doors of all the schools of the world closed today to remain closed. In ten years the world would be one fourth illiterate; in twenty years one half illiterate, and any form of civilization would be en- dangered ; in thirty years the world would be chaotic, and in forty years the night of the Middle Ages would have settled upon us. The world and its civilization—all that has been won by centuries of struggle—is separated from the abyss of savagery only by forty or fifty years of education. The greatest problem of education today is the problem of rural educa- tion. Soon after coming into office I made a study of the conditions in rural Missouri. “The schools of the towns and cities in Missouri, my friends, are, generally speaking, very creditable to the State of Missouri. The schools of the towns and cities of Missouri are not perfect, but they are so good that every Missourian can be proud of them. But what about the rural schools? I was amazed to find that our country boys and girls got on an average 121.6 days of schooling a year, whereas their city brothers and sisters got 171.5 days a year. ‘That the boy of the town and city got fifty days more schooling than the boy of the country. I was amazed to find that eighty per cent of the university graduates, of the graduates of our State teachers’ colleges, of the holders of first-grade teachers’ certifi- cates in this State, were teaching in the towns and cities, and that eighty per cent of the third- and fourth-grade certificate holders were teaching in the country. In the town they have grade schools, kindergartens, high schools, vocational training. In the country they have the one-room schoolhouse, which goes no higher than the eighth grade, and has to alternate its grades to go that high. On further investigation I found that such a city as this taxed all of the property of all the people in the whole city, in order that every child, rich 1368 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION or poor, living in the confines of this city should have an equal educational opportunity. I found that Kansas City, with 325,000 people, that St. Louis, with 800,000 people, taxed the property of the whole population, in order that every one might bear equally the burden of taxation to give to every child within the city limits an equal educational opportunity. I found also that in Missouri there are 8836 rural school districts. Under the Missouri Constitution, the Board of Directors of a school dis- trict can levy forty cents taxes on one hundred dollars without any vote of the people. If the people of the district permit it, by a direct vote author- izing it, the Board of Directors of a school district can tax them sixty-five cents on the hundred dollars. Under the guise of economy of State affairs, former administrations of Missouri had assessed farm land and farm prop- erty at a small fraction of its value, or at from twenty to forty per cent of its real value. The farmer, therefore, could use only from twenty to forty per cent of the value of his own land as a basis for levying taxes for the support of his own schools. Let us assume that the maximum of sixty*five cents was levied in every case. There were 852 school districts in Missouri which, under the old system, couldn’t raise by local taxation more than $195 a year to support their school system. ‘There were 868 more districts under the old system that could not raise $260 a year to support their school system. And out of the total 8836 rural districts in Missouri, more than sixty per cent— 5511, to be exact—were unable to raise by local taxation as much as $520 a year. The average rural school district has less than 200 people in it. Let’s see what it would mean to St. Louis if the school system of that city were on the same basis as it is in the average rural county. St. Louis has a mag- nificent system of schools, not perfect, but by all means one of which it is proud, consisting of its grade schools, its high schools, its vocational-train- ing opportunities, and so on, and why? Because St. Louis taxes as one school district the property of 800,000 people, all in one district. To place St. Louis on the same plane as a rural county, divide St. Louis into school districts of 200 people. That would give St. Louis not one district but 4000. Instead of the magnificent system of schools St. Louis now has there would be 4000 one-room schoolhouses, 4000 school boards, 4000 independ- ent teachers. Instead of great school buildings with laboratories and libraries, give to St. Louis the one-room schoolhouse, with its scanty cur- riculum, its poverty of equipment, and I venture the assertion that St. Louis would be little better than a whistling station inside of ten years. People would not live there; they would g0, as so many farmers have done, to some place with better facilities for the education of their children. ‘The problem of the rural school is twofold. First, how to finance better schools in the present districts; second, how to induce consolidation of dis- tricts and finance the vastly improved consolidated schools. We have at- tempted an answer to this problem in two ways in Missouri. First, we put DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1369 property in the State for taxation upon the assessment books at as nearly what it is worth as we know how. Why was that necessary? First, be- cause it takes money to build and maintain a school; second, because with fractional valuation of farm land there were 5511 school districts which were assessed at $80,000 or less, and which at the highest rate of taxation permitted by the Constitution couldn’t raise more than $520 per year to support their schools; and third, because an efficient school cannot be main- tained upon $520 per year. Consequently, the only thing that could be done was to raise the valuation of the land and other property, so that the rate permitted by the Constitution would raise more money if the people wanted to raise it, and so voted. Under full valuation the number of schools which were limited to $195 a year for support was reduced from 852 to 252. The number of schools limited to $260 a year was reduced from 868 to 357. The total number of schools limited to $520 a year was reduced from 5511 to 3186. The enrolment of schools increased by 41,226, and there were in Missouri 6,000,000 more days attendance in 1921 than there were in 1920 as the consequence of the change in policy. I know, and the statistics prove it, that the farmers of Missouri want their children to have the very best education that it is possible to give them. The statistics prove it, because eighty-one per cent of the school districts of this State voluntarily voted for the maximum levy permitted by the Con- stitution for school purposes. Now, my friends, when I think of the coun- try boy or girl, trudging his mile or two to school through the mud and dust of spring and fall and the snow drifts of winter, trying to get an edu- cation in the one-room school that stops at the eighth grade, taught by a perfectly noble person, but one whose training entitles him only to a third- or fourth-grade certificate ; trying to compete in the race of life on fifty days less schooling per year, in a school equipped, perhaps, with an old battered globe, a tattered map, but with no library and no laboratory, trying to compete in the race of life with his city brother and sister, with their spe- cialized departments and their great equipment—when I think about the country boy and girl, I repeat, trying to compete under these unequal con- ditions, then I feel that it is a wonder, nay more, it is a marvel that out of the country have come so many of the world’s great leaders. Don’t imagine that the change in assessed values was accomplished with- out a jar. The politician got busy and set up a howl that we were raising taxes on the farmers. The,county courts and local school boards seized upon the increased valuation to levy much-needed revenues for improve- ments. “The farmers became alarmed because they did not understand, and we heard from them in tones that were mistaken but by no means uncertain. You see, the farmers had for years been fed upon false political propaganda. They have been educated to believe that the cities should pay practically all the taxes, and that they were saving on taxation by having their lands assessed at a small fraction of their value. ‘They were saving a few pennies 1370 - Natrona EpucATION ASSOCIATION on taxation, but the voice which loudly proclaimed the pennies saved was silent as to why they could not maintain their schools. ‘The hands which held out to the farmers a few cents saved in taxation were choking back their holiest aspirations for an education and a fair chance in life for their own boys and girls. The fight is not yet over in Missouri. The farmers are beginning to understand. I have faith that when they do understand they will approve. They tell us it means our political ruin. But I am going ta be Governor three years more in Missouri, and during those three years the kiddies of the farm are going to get a square deal. I want to know if there is a square-toed, up-standing, hard-hitting Republican or Democrat farmer in Missouri who will trade off his kiddies’ chance for an education for a few cents per acre of taxes? We did another thing in Missouri. A council of the leading educators of Missouri met to tell me what was the matter and what ought to be done about it. That council, backed by State Superintendent Baker, produced the County Unit Bill. I put every ounce of pressure I had behind it, and it finally passed. Volumes have been written and songs have been sung about the one-room schoolhouse. It is a great American institution ; out of it have come many of the world’s biggest and best men. If there were nothing better to take its place, I would join, as I am sure every man here would join, in the defense of the one-room schoolhouse to the last ditch and last breath. But there is something better. It is the consolidated school. ‘The consolidated school brings to the country, out where the farm boys and girls can get it, the blessing of eight grades of schooling, plus four years of high school. It gives to the boys and girls of the country equal opportunity, because it gives them a chance for an equal education with their city brothers and sisters. And this, my friends, is what the County Unit means, because it facilitates consolidation of schools and equalizes educational opportunity. I had the figures the other day from Lafayette county. ‘The superin- tendent had put out a sheet which showed that in Lafayette county they had levied a tax in the various districts running from five cents as a mini- mum to sixty-five cents as a maximum in the country, and $1.50 as a maxi- mum in the city. The County Unit means that there will be nobody “sneaking by” on a nickel for schools. The County Unit also means there will be nobody getting penalized because he believes in good schools. The County Unit system of schools will facilitate consolidation of rural schools and the construction of rural high schools. The County Unit means that all the property of all the residents within the jurisdiction shall be taxed equally in order to give every child within that jurisdiction the same iden- tical opportunity for an education. ‘That is all it does mean. A noted American, Roger Babson, was visiting the President of the Ar- gentine Republic, who remarked that South America was richer in natural resources, in forest and water, mineral and mine, than North America, and then asked Roger Babson why it was that North America had developed DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE eval — so much more than South America, although South America was naturally the richer. Mr. Babson, as guest, did not answer. The President an- swered his own question, and the answer was this: “North America has developed more because the Spaniard came to South America in quest of gold; the pilgrim came to North America in quest of God.” My friends, I do not preach Christianity in the terms of the pulpit. I wish I could. But this I do know; fifty years ago Missouri was as great as her people, and no greater. Today Missouri is as great as her people, and no greater. Fifty years from now Missouri will still be of the same size as her people. Fifty years ago Missouri was richer in mineral resources than she is today; fifty years hence Missouri will be less rich in mineral resources than she is today. Not in mineral resources, and not in hogs, not in terms of material wealth will the greatness of a people be measured ; Missouri will be measured in terms of the greatness of her people, and her people will be gauged, first, by their morality; second, by their education; and third and lastly, by their possessions. I am not a politician. I wish I were. The State administration has put its feet in a pathway, the end of which is a bigger and better Missouri, be- cause it means a bigger and more holy and better educated people in the next generation than we have in this. My friends, did you ever stop to think what it is that makes America, your country and mine? Are you one of the people who believes that America is nothing more than scope of ter- ritory and a spot upon the geography? Are you one of those who believes that America is nothing more than its Constitution and a set of laws that limit and define the rights of common men? Are you one of those who believes that America is a sort of social experiment station, a human bio- graphical laboratory, wherein are weighed and calipered the rights of class and mass? My friends, America is all of these things, but America is more than the sum total of these things. If you seek for the commencement of Americanism and of America, you must go back through Abraham Lincoln, on his knees on the floor of the White House; back through George Wash- ington, on his knees in the bitter snow of Valley Forge; back across the ocean to the French Revolution and to the Magna Carta, that great charter of human liberty, wrung from an obstinate and despotic crown at Runny- mede ; back further to that old cross upon the hill of a Skull, whereon hung The Man who first taught mankind liberty and brotherhood, when he taught all men to say that basic term of human brotherhood, “Our Father.” Taking their aspiration and their inspiration from Him, there has struggled down through the ages a long, long caravan of men, bearing at their head the torchlight of human liberty. There has struggled up the long trail of centuries an unnumbered and innumerable host of men who fought upon thousands of battlefields, who pushed ever forward the torchlight of human brotherhood, justice, and liberty, until at last that torchlight was trans- ferred to our shores, to be caught up by a Washington, a Hamilton, and a Jefferson, and America has become the golden hope of the whole world today! 1372 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION It was the men who founded your Government, who first set it down in black and white: “Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and means of edu- cation shall forever be encouraged.” I stand here tonight proud of the fact that during the last year the State of Missouri was able to give to the common schools of the country and of the city $1,142,000 more of State money than they ever had in their history before. I am proud of the fact, if they needed the money, that.the school boards of our State have dared to raise seven and one half million more than the schools ever had from that source in their history before. FINANCIAL NEEDS OF EDUCATION IN CITIES MARK L. THOMSEN, CLEVELAND, OHIO When I saw your program for this morning and saw the list of dis- tinguished and scholarly speakers it was with a good deal of fear that I made an attempt to face you, and yet in a way this is a familiar gathering. If I had the time to reminisce I would tell you how well I know many of you who have never seen me, because it was only four or five years ago when we needed a new superintendent in Cleveland and made a Nation-wide search. In the process of that search I obtained confidential information about most of you who have the right to call yourselves prominent educators at all. That canvass was so thoroughly made that while we could not choose all of you for superintendents for the city of Cleveland the same list served for several boards of education, and in two instances that I know of super- intendents for large cities were chosen from that list. They were the very men we had under consideration. Some of them we did not take because we could not take two. . My relations with superintendents of schools have been very close. We have the same sort of fight in Ohio that Governor Hyde, of Missouri, out- lined to you, and as a professional man meeting the superintendents from all over the State it was interesting and encouraging to me to find the readiness with which those superintendents were willing to leave the matter of raising the funds to those who were members of the Board of Education, who were simply buffers between those of you who were doing the real work and the public itself. In the process of that campaign I, of course, became acquainted with many superintendents. I wish this morning I had the time to call by name those of you in cities outside of Ohio that I got to know. Frank Hunter’s name has just been mentioned. I spent a whole day with him in a room at the Blackstone Hotel in Chicago. I shall never forget that pleasant interview. I hope I can meet him here after this morning’s exercises. I want to express at the opening of my remarks my great pleasure in the fact that Dr. Strayer and the committee that he represents has finally undertaken what should have been undertaken ten or fifteen years ago DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE S73 when there broke out an epidemic of surveys of school systems the country over. ‘These surveys, of course, have done a great deal of good. One of the most notable surveys was made of the Cleveland school system. I learned a great deal from it, but in nearly all those surveys the cart was put before the horse. What should have been done first of all was not: done. ‘They tell you what a school system ought to do and then call your attention to how far you failed in doing it, when what should have been done was to provide the money with which to do it. You cannot have an ideal salary schedule, you cannot pay a superin- tendent $2000 a year, unless you have the funds with which to pay, with- out going to the other extreme which has been done in so many places and borrow not only for the physical equipment of the school system but borrow for the actual operating needs from year to year and burdening the system with a debt that is huge. ‘This I will refer to later on. So I am very glad to know, indeed, that Dr. Strayer and these fellows who have been in the surveys the country over have finally come to see the light, have come to the point where they are thoroughly investigating the sources of revenue for the school system the means by which they may be raised, and then where those funds after they have been raised or they have been made possible, where those funds shall be applied. Now, the needs of the country have been most eloquently outlined by Governor Hyde. I wish he had been Governor of the State of Ohio through the period when we had to fight for funds in that way. We would not have had much of a fight, but we actually had a fight, because the then Governor of Ohio was ambitious to be President of the United States and did everything that any human being in office could do to with- hold from us the power of taxation for at least two years until he had succeeded in getting the nomination and in making the canvass for the presidency. Everything that any man with shrewdness and great ability could do was done. He offered me anything. He would allow us im- mediately to certify the deficits for two years in advance and issue bonds for them in advance, mind you. He would do anything but actually raise the money because he felt very strongly that he wanted to be able to say while he was in office, while he was seeking the nomination for the presi- dency that during his term, in spite of the war and high prices, taxes had not been raised. I am glad that Governor Hyde takes the other view. I believe that the greatest function a board member can fill, the greatest service he can give to his community and to his State is to preach with fervor and with absolute conviction that the public if the question is properly put before it, will pay for education. ‘The public willo that sooner than anything else. That was the burden of my song during the four years that I was a member of the board and for the three years that I was President of the Association of Board Members for the State of Ohio. Now having said that, it may seem queer to you what will come after, but it will not seem any queerer to you than a statement I read in the paper last night made 1374 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION by Dr. Frank Spaulding, because he mellowed evidently very much and advocated great tolerance towards the middle-aged teachers in prodding them towards greater efficiency. I presume that he too has seen the light that in all these things, efficiency, newer methods, content training, and so on, that in all those things exactly the same as in tests we may go too far and we may have no longer as a result progress but actual revolt, an overturning of the good that has been done. I remember saying at one time at a meeting that I hoped we would not go too fast, that we would not get beyond the public, because it had been my observation as a student, as an observer of political reform—I think Mr. Davenport who preceded me will bear me out—that sometimes the most thorough-going reform administration in city government is the one that gets most readily upturned. I presume no city in the United States had a finer administration than had New York City under Mr. Mitchel. Later on he-died, I believe, in the War. Yet his work was overturned overwhelmingly at the end of four years, and apparently the overturning has been sustained, and I think very largely due to the fact that those men, good as they were, failed to educate and take the public along with them. Instead of having a continuous reform, instead of having an evolution of good things there was a temporary revolution and then a turning-back to the things that they had had before. This illustration is important at this time, because while you will need, and Dr. Strayer and his committee will find you will need many more millions of dollars than you have ever had before to carry out a so-called ideal administration of a public-school system that you want, you will, in my judgment, get it much sooner, say within ten years, if you make one tenth of the progress each year instead of trying to make the entire progress in one year and having it overturned the second and third year thereafter. I am saying this to you men and you women, because you are the super- intendents of this country, to you will come the work of educating those with whom you work. ‘That means, first of all, your associates, then the members of your own board that you have to labor with, and through them in turn, the education of your own local constituency. If you can carry that along with you you will succeed ; if you can’t carry it along with you you will be kicked out sooner or later, not because you are wrong but be- cause you fail to catch the necessity of educating the public with you. Just now we have undergone a tremendous burden of taxation, and yet there are greater calls for money than we ever had before. Boards of education the country over—I am no longer a member of the Board of Cleveland and so I am not speaking from that standpoint—have been un- fortunate in having this acute situatior® that the War brought about with the cost of living so high that the actual salaries received by the. teacliers were utterly inadequate to fill the needs, and thousands of faithful teachers left the ranks. No matter how much they loved their work they were compelled to leave because they could not live on those salaries. This exodus from the teaching ranks brought the great wage revision, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1375 a revision of salary schedules throughout the country. ‘Those salary schedules, of course, are not even now what they should be, but they are a tremendous step forward, and as the cost of living falls I personally hope that the salaries will not fall with it, that the salaries will remain on the scale where they were placed. Nevertheless, these boards have been burdened with an operating cost for the time being, and coming also at the same time as the great needs for the National funds it has made it extremely hard to carry the burden. Exactly the same problems that confront boards of education confront the President of the United States today, and I can’t say too much in admiration of the way he is handling this bonus question. I am not speaking either for or against the bonus legislation that is proposed in Congress, but I approve of the President’s insisting that if the bonus legislation is passed, made obligatory upon the Government, there shall also be provided at the same time the funds with which to meet it, that we shall not continue to go on and borrow and borrow and borrow. That brings me to the greatest need in city financing today—that is, the means with which to pay the debts that have been accumulated in one form or another. Now you may want to know something of what from the standpoint of a board member has been the great need of the city school. ‘The country school needs have been outlined to you. American cities like Chicago, St. Louis, and Cleveland, they are good for examples of what I mean, have grown in a haphazard way, nearly all of them without any definite plan, nearly all of them without proper spaces laid out in the beginning for parks, school grounds, playgrounds, breathing spots. As they have grown they have become congested in certain portions, usually the ones with the least facilities. ‘Che ordinary playgrounds are utterly in- sufficient to take care of the growing needs of the school children, never- theless city school boards must at a time when property values are high purchase and condemn property for school grounds, plan larger school buildings at enormous cost, utterly out of proportion to their utility. Then we have the great influx of foreigners. I was born abroad myself. I always speak of this matter with the greatest sympathy, and I hope with some understanding, I am sure with a greater understanding than some of those who count themselves authorities thereon. ‘This foreign popula- tion requires special attention. We have in Cleveland what we call steamer schools, so-called because they are composed largely of children that came fresh from the steerage compartments of European steamships. With this huge foreign population there came with it the great illiterate foreign population, sometimes illiterate only so far as the English language was concerned. The great problem of trying to educate such an adult population entailed enormous expense on the city government. Now these are problems for the city government that the country sees nothing of. I have found it extremely difficult in going before the legis- lature of the State of Ohio to convince those men, the majority of whom were from country districts, that these problems were not imaginary problems, but that they were real problems with which every board had to deal. 1376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Great as those problems are, still greater problems have been thrust on the average city school system by the fact that the compulsory age for school is constantly being raised. In the State of Ohio it is for some pupils eighteen years, for others, sixteen. I remember the time when it was raised from thirteen to fifteen years, a huge increase in school population which we had to take care of at once. Now when we have once covered a district and placed in that district schoolhouses with a certain number of rooms to take care of the normal number of pupils, then all of a sudden we have had thrust upon us the problem of taking care of anywhere from twenty to thirty per cent more pupils. ‘Then came makeshifts of every kind for housing more pupils in the same rooms. The Gary plan was tried, then the shift plans, the Kalamazoo plans, and all the other plans were tried as fast as experts could think of them, half-day sessions, and the like. I remember going to Public School No. 64 in New York City, in which Dr. Emerson, of Boston, had succeeded in getting the Bureau of Experi- mental Work in New York to inaugurate the experiment of better feeding or nourishing of children, particularly from that district, and I remember how I looked it over and how I admired the ingenuity with which the Board of Education in New York, or its head, had made use of what they could for playgrounds, for with the enormous street congestion, dangerous to life and limb, something had to be provided in the way of playgrounds. Do you men in the rural districts have any idea of what it means in a city to provide for a single new school in a district of that kind, not only enough room in which to erect the building itself, but some halfway adequate school provisions for the children as well? ‘That is the tremen- dous burden that is put on the modern American city today. Then there is the question of secondary education. I admit all that Governor Hyde said. He said it so well, so thoroughly. I am so heartily in sympathy with the program that he has inaugurated in Missouri that I hope he will remain in office long enough to see it through. I am so heartily in sympathy with it that I would dislike to have you think for one moment that I am criticising what he said, but the question of secondary education in the cities is far more important than it is in the country for the very simple reason that we have not the occupations that are decent and healthful or at all proper for children from fourteen to seventeen in the Nation’s cities, I was brought up in the country, and from the age of twelve to the age of nineteen I did not go to school at all. I ama college man today, but I do not particularly lament or regret the fact that from the age of twelve to nineteen I was kept out of school. There was plenty of good healthful, sane work that exercised my brain probably as much as school would have exercised it and gave me a sense of responsibility as well. There was plenty of work of that kind that could be done. If you go to the cities and you want to pick out an occupation for boys and girls nine, twelve, and seventeen years of age, what will you get? The meanest kind of factory work, dangerous to health, under circumstances that are morally DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1377 unfit for those young people. It is doubly important for us to take care of that huge school population through that adolescent period, and we must do it by some type of secondary education. It takes a great deal of money to equip such a school as our Cleveland East Technical High School, the forerunner, according to Mr. Wirt, of Gary, and others, of many fine technical high schools in the country. It takes a huge amount of money, enough to found a college to build a school like that in modern times. I think we have an appropriation at this time of fully a million and a half for one of those big schools. ‘These are the problems that are thrust upon the city school officials today. They cannot be taken care of twenty or forty years from now. I would not plead for less money for the country, I would plead, if I had any power to plead effectively, for far more money for country schools than they are receiving today. One of the pitiable and pathetic things that I found when as an amateur in the matter I started out to reform the laws of the State of Ohio was that because a constitutional provision exists that the laws must be of uniform application, I could not help Cleveland with- out reforming the laws of the entire State. It was pathetic to me to find that the small town of stationary population, no growth and no decline, of which there are a great many in this country, were through stupidity and neglect in far greater difficulty financially than were the great cities like Cincinnati and Cleveland and Voledo and Columbus, just because they had forgotten entirely what Justice Brewer, of the United States Supreme Court, stated to our graduating class in law school, that one of the great curses of the United States was not our great industrial trusts that were then being prosecuted in the courts, but it was the abominable trust of the people of the United States in the future generation to pay the debts that we were piling up in endless bond issues at the time. For these cities have almost all of them, without exception, gone hugely in debt to provide the buildings and the equipment that is needed for modern city work. Some have also, through faulty budgeting, gone in debt for actual operating expenses. I am a resident of one of the suburbs in Cleveland, adjacent to another suburb, counted one of the wealthiest and most rapidly growing suburbs around Cleveland. The board that went into power a few weeks ago found that instead of having any sinking fund in that suburb there was absolutely nothing but a book entry. Every dollar in their sinking fund had been used up for operating expenses, and that was done in a wealthy enlightened suburb, where there was no need of such a procedure, because they had nowhere near reached the limit of taxation. “I’wo of the board members have come to me for advice. What will they do with the school population growing at a rate that will probably increase their school popu- lation in the average more than 20 per cent a year? What will they do when the very buildings that they have today for which bonds were issued a long time ago are not paid? Now that is the fault of budgeting. Some- body—either members of the board who were mentally too lazy to make 1378 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the investigation evidently, or a superintendent, a clerk, or a paid official, who also was mentally too lazy to put the facts before the board, and the facts through the board before their public—failed to get what was needed at the time it was needed when there was plenty of funds. The suburb in which I will live is near there and its population, though a very small population, is even wealthier. Exactly the same thing is being duplicated there with long term bonds running from thirty to thirty-five years, with extremely small nominal payments on the principal at the present time and after an expenditure to meet the debts which could have been paid at the time they were incurred instead of having the funds with which to meet the actual operating expenses that are needed when the crisis comes—I say that is one of the worst things that has cursed the American city school administration the country over. One of the things that I recall as the President of the Board of Educa- tion was the signing of nearly ten million dollars of bonds on school build- ings. I had voted for the measure, and we got the bonds, but every bond that I signed, every time I added my signature it was a thousand dollars, and I regret it. The best I could do was to get them in on a strictly serial basis of twenty years’ maximum life, and even then I knew that every time we spent a million dollars for school buildings we spent five hundred thou- sand dollars before we paid it off for interest on those bonds. Now bonds run on the average at least twenty years, and many times forty years. In the case of forty-year bonds before the principal is paid for you have paid the principal, and you have paid twice as much as the principal in addi- tion to that before you are finally through. Now such a burden on the financial system for education is enormous; moreover, it puts a burden upon every new superintendent who goes into a district that he should not have; it puts an obligation on him that he ought never to shoulder. The best warning I can give you is this: While you plead for more money, plead for absolute honesty with your public. Plead for the pay- ment of your debts. Don’t unload them on another superintendent or another board. Plead for the payment of your building, so that you can use the building without having afterwards simply to scour the pot clean for money in order to pay the interest and sinking fund charges for that building, for every growing city needs buildings every year, needs new books, new chairs, needs coal with which to heat those buildings, and needs new buildings. New buildings are just as much an everyday necessity in a modern city as is the matter of what you ordinarily call the maintenance of that property. Now you are to have a discussion on higher education by Mr. Daven- port, and you have undoubtedly what will be an extremely scholarly and sane presentation of how to raise money by Professor Seligman, and I envy him his topic. That is one of the things that I feel competent to speak on. You are up against the old question of whether the Federal Government shall give considerable aid to education the country over. In every State where this matter comes up you will have the question of how much, the DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1379 question of how big the proportion of the expenditures for local educational purchases shall be made by State appropriations, which means State taxes. I would emphasize to you, the question of the county unit, so that no one little district with a rich population can get along with an extremely small levy for tax purposes, while other districts that do not have a rich popula- tion will have a much larger levy. You will have such problems come up. Let me give you this as the practical solution of some of these things. I do not know what Professor Seligman will tell you as to the theory of taxation, but I believe he will agree with me that in the long run, if you do not hitch your wagon to the star of local revenue you will get bumped sooner or later, if you do not hitch your wagon to the star of local revenue you will get bumped. I am for State revenue, and I am too in favor of some Federal assistance, but I do not think it is as important as you think, If I had the time I would explain. I am for it, and I hope it will come. Don’t work to get the bulk of your money for local education from State revenue, because I don’t think it is coming from there, because you will always have gross inequalities of taxes on local property, so that the flat rate works a great injustice, but if you will look to the education of the public where you are located up to the point where they can see that the expenditures you are making are just expenditures, that they are neces- sary expenditures, that there is no great or no unnecessary overhead, if you will do that you will in almost every instance get the local support that is needed, even though the taxes reach a point where it hurts. If you really have at heart the welfare of the children of the district which you are serving, keep on educating your public. ‘They are not doing it in the suburb where I am living. ‘They are not doing it in the adjoining suburb. ‘They have done it in the city of Cleveland, in spite of the fact that the burden there is far greater than it is in those suburbs, and in spite 2f the fact that every time an issue has been put before the public to in- crease taxes for school purposes it has been carried, overwhelmingly carried. Why? Because Dr. Spaulding, while he was superintendent, because Mr. Jones, who is your President, followed him, because the Board that served with him, kept the public absolutely informed all the time, because there was not a cent of expenditure taken from the sinking fund that belonged there, because every dollar that was to go toward the payment of debts was put in there, and because the books were opened and were kept in such fashion that they could be seen. The country will not stand for useless taxes. ‘hey are disgusted with taxes that simply stand for useless and extravagant expenditures. “They will stand for the other, and you men who are in charge of these school systems ought to go through your system with a fine-tooth comb and elimi- nate every bit that is unnecessary expenditure at this time. Put the emphasis upon what you pay your teachers. You are the ones to do the actual work. Put the emphasis on what you pay your teachers and put your emphasis on paying debts, so that each superintendent and each board and each year’s administration has the funds for that year to 1380 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION use. Do that and you will get what you want. I think you will find many times that there are expenses you can eliminate. I think you will often find that at least for two or three years to come, while the country is adjusting itself to this after-war condition, you may get on without any additional taxes of any kind. Educate the public, and carry it along with you, and when the time comes that you want to strike for more money you will get it, you will get it in amost unlimited quantities, so long as you can prove to the public that your use of it is right. FINANCIAL NEEDS OF HIGHER EDUCATION FREDERICK M. DAVENPORT, MEMBER OF NEW YORK STATE SENATE, AND PROFESSOR OF LAW AND CIVIL POLITY, HAMILTON COLLEGE, CLINTON, NEW YORK I wish Commissioner Finegan would go out in my district in central New York and make that introduction. They might not believe it but it would satisfy me. You remember Mr. Dooley who once kept a saloon in Chicago, used to say to his friend Hennessey, before the days of the Eighteenth Amend- ment: “Hennessey, never mind when they get you wrong, it is only when they begin to get your number that you are in danger.” I am asked to speak briefly this morning on the financial needs of higher education, which I reckon means colleges and universities, since about everything else has been covered. Whenever I tackle a big subject like this I always think of a story that Bishop Vincent, of the Methodist Church, used to tell of a rather emotional Methodist preacher who was in the habit of beginning every address with a brief invocation, and saying: “O, Lord, hold me together until I tell it,” but I have always been ac- customed myself, when I used that invocation, to vary it a little, “O Lord, hold them together till I tell it.’ But I did not make that prayer this morning, because I heard Commissioner Finegan make that $20,000 offer and I knew that that would be far more fruitful of your staying through than any prayer I might personally make. } Of course, one way to discuss this subject, the financial needs of higher education, is to suggest the extending fields into which funds may be poured, and how to get the funds through assessments and levy. Last summer in the month of July it was fearfully hot out in the State of Maine, and it looked as though the crops would not come through, and although they did not take much stock in it in that hard-headed section of the country they finally agreed in that community that they would have a meeting and pray for rain. “They all came together. First, a brother who was quite accustomed to public prayer, got up and began something after this wise: “O Lord, send a deluge. Send the blessed floods of thy rain.” Well, that did not suit that Yankee audience very well, and after DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1381 him there was a fellow of the town-meeting type who got up and said: O Lord, we don’t want no deluge. We don’t want the blessed floods of thy rain. The soil is pretty thin in these parts. What we need is just three or four days of old-fashioned sizzle-sozzle.” I think what we need in discussing this subject for a few minutes this morning is all the practical sense we can muster, because we have a real problem, and so I shall begin and end by saying that the most important financial need in higher education is the elimination of waste. Now that is not a new thought, I realize, but it never was so pressing as it is now. You begin to hear about that sort of thing everywhere, in industry, in the case of the railroads—the wastes of competitive terminals, the wastes of returning empties, and all sorts of waste. You read the report of the Hoover Committee of the Federated American Engineers on Industry, and you notice particularly in the five great trades the burden of it is the elimi- nation of waste, fifty per cent of which they charged to management and about twenty-five per cent to labor, and when you come to government in America, well, there is Hell-and—Maria Dawes, of this part of the country, over in Washington doing what he can, and then in my own State of New York we have a very sensible man in the Executive Chair, Governor Miller, who is attempting to show what can be done in the efficient, economical, and business administration of a great commonwealth. We are proceeding under his administration in New York on the principle [which I think is absolutely sound], that you have got to have advance but you ought not to try to have it faster than you can pay for it and manage its, .leagree, too, with what Mark Thomsen said this morning, that you ought not to go any faster than the public sense of your community goes along with it. I am in entire agreement with Governor Hyde with respect to the wholesale use of the referendum, but I have the most tremendous respect for the public sense developing slowly under education into public opinion. I be- lieve you can get anything through that method with the American people. In our part of the country the general burden of education, both rural and municipal, is widening and bearing heavily upon the taxpayer, and the groanings are increasing in volume with each passing year. The most important financial need in higher education is the elimination of waste. What is the situation? Students are crowding into colleges and universities. The number of students between 1898 and 1915 doubled; between 1898 and 1920, more than doubled. Since the war and especially during the last year or two the institutions of higher education have been smothered with students. If you ask, why such an inrush, there are all kinds of answers. One is that there is an aroused consciousness about what constitutes living, as the result of the war; parents are bound to have this thing called higher educa- tion for their sons and daughters. And then there is the more cynical view of the anonymous writer in one of our leading magazines, quoted by Presi- dent Coffman, of the University of Minnesota, in a recent address. ‘This 1382 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION anonymous writer suggests that higher education be financed by requiring students to pay fees on the basis of the grades they receive. He describes a school that was in dire financial distress. Everyone was discouraged and despondent. The faculty met from time to time and engaged in the usual academic discussion, but academic discussion did not supply funds to buy coal or to pay the grocer or the butcher. The president of the institution held out the hope of better days but no one could see them. A business expert was employed to study and report. He discovered that there were two classes of students, those who go to college for an education and those who are in college because it is a fashionable and respectable place to be. He recommended that all students having a grade of 90 or better should be exempt from fees; those having a grade of 80 to 90 should pay a fee of say $200 a year, between 70 and 80, $500 a year, and so on down until those who received grades of 20 or below should pay a twenty thousand dollar fee. Out of three thousand students he discovered that 180 would have no fees to pay. One of the mythical fathers, sending his twenty thou- sand dollar check, is reported to have written: “It comes high, but I believe it is worth it to be rid of the boy for the year.” This cynical view of the institution of higher education as more or less of an eleemosynary cross between an orphans’ home and a school for defectives and delinquents is somewhat borne out by the rapidly vanishing ratio be- tween what the student pays and what public funds or private endowments pay into the treasury of so-called higher education. I believe statistics for 1900 indicate that the student paid one half. Now he pays perhaps one third, or one quarter, and the end is not yet. But the bill of particulars grows. In the institutions of higher educa- tion we pour funds into wider and wider extensions of curriculum. In- stead of the college, for example, holding itself to the baccalaureate de- grees, it is reaching out into what is known as applied science degrees— civil engineering, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, and the rest. Moreover, in so-called higher education we are running out into the fringes of knowledge, seeking meticulously the limits of specialization, with an ominous increase of financial overhead as the result of the process. The number of faculty hens with one chicken grows apace, not in one institution alone but in many institutions within the same area; same kind of hen, same kind of chicken. It is probably all right for Yale to teach the Mandarin dialects, but why should all the institutions in New England or in the country teach them, too? If there is a good man on the dative case some- where, why not codrdinate effort, why not let all the dative case sharks swim in his waters and give them the credit for it where their college or university residence happens to be? Why in most institutions of higher education is not a restriction to essentials and ‘concentration upon quality the important thing? Why are half the colleges doing university work? Why couldn’t we dispense with twenty-five to thirty per cent of all the institutions of higher education in the country? Sentiment, you say. A cat with nine lives is not in it with a college, so far as tenacity of existence DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1383 is concerned. We thought that many institutions would blessedly perish of starvation in the period of financial tension following the war. But alumni, friends, communities rallied to support, and nearly all the perish- ing are held back from the brink of the Styx. All right; but this over- lapping, competitive process is helping to crush the spirit and effectiveness of higher education as it is of religion. ‘The drives and the deficits go merrily on. But is not there an end to it all? Isn’t there a limit to the gutting of the social income of the country? Has the time come, for example, when we must examine the situation and ascertain more sharply than we have whether there is a dividing line between the general social value and the value to the individual of various types of higher education? If we are to train persons for future individual performance and careers of more than average earning power, is it right that training of this sort, professional and technical, where the direct value to the individual is very high, should be altogether a charge upon the pub- lic purse or private philanthropy, or rather to a considerable extent a lien upon his future earnings, to be at least in part repaid by him through a sound system of loan agreements? We are trying in this country to do something never tried before, we are offering practically free almost any kind of professional education, or any other type of higher education. How long can we bear up under it? From the standpoint of public funds certainly, and to a degree from the standpoint of patriotic private endowments, what ought the money poured into the treasuries of higher education to be used primarily for? I think not so much to produce professional technicians and prosperous individual- istic careers, but to produce the statesmen of politics and government, the statesmen of industry, the statesmen of journalism, the statesmen of liter- ature, the statesmen of education, the statesmen of organization—in a word, the National leaders without whose vision the country perishes and of whose genius America never stood so much in need. Where are your great Ameri- cans in National affairs? Where are your “‘spacious-minded” citizens who give leadership to a democracy? The wiser heads in American industry will tell you quietly that they cannot begin to find the broad directing minds needed in larger number every year as industry grows in organization and complexity. ‘The professional technician rarely becomes a directing mind, without which all is lost. And the wiser heads in industry now look for the men of broader liberal training in higher education to fit into an in- dustrial environment which has outgrown the technicians. If the whole system of National higher education is not moving in the channel which produces first of all statesmen of the broader National affairs, is it not drifting towards National waste? Surely what we need most is men who can broadly think and plan for this whole people. We should have learned that from the war. The only reason that the planet is worth living on today at all is that France pro- duced for the world one man who could think, in Ferdinand Foch. Are our colleges, which above all should be training centers for National 1384 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION leadership, furnishing environment which develops the leaders? Football or hockey is an intelligible and interesting game to college students, but is knowledge as yet an intelligible and interesting game? Not so that you would notice it. On its academic side, the college is yet a passionless home of culture and calm. By the waters of paradise there we sat down and plucked Utopian flowers in Icarian valleys; a resting and ruminating spot between the actuality that was and the actuality which is to be. “ Tis better to have come and loafed than never to have come at all.”’ Would the modern college training have advantaged Lincoln? Only the Infinite knows. It might have been an act of sabotage comparable with heaving a boulder into a Corliss engine. One of the most striking things about Roosevelt was the comparatively slight contribution which his Harvard edu- cation seems to have made to his great store of knowledge and power. “The birds, the woods, the jungle, the wild animals, the cow-boys, the ward- heelers, the bosses, the Rough Riders, the Kaisers—they educated Roosevelt. But there is one tremendously vital side of college existence, the side of athletic and social activity, and into that channel the energy of American college youth pours itself with abandon. Is not there a reason and has it not a bearing upon waste and finance? English traditions of higher education in Canada and Great Britain divide the student body into the “pass” group and the “honor” group. “Pass” courses are taken by the “pass” group—as I understand it, a distinct and separate curriculum. ‘The large group of “honor” men who strive eagerly for mental achievement, make the reputation of all Canadian and British universities and furnish the leadership of affairs in the British Empire. Their “honor” men are managed in a totally different way, in different classes, with different relation to their teachers, with much independence, but are held to a rigid program of achievement. ‘The system gives a man who is keen, who is anxious to develop his mental resources, an opportunity ° to do it on a broad scale in personal contact with his instructors who are directing his studies. It is said to have a surprising effect upon the gen- eral morale of higher education. I do not speak from knowledge. I employ my information only as an illustration. In American higher education, on the other hand, we have a tendency to run every man, good or bad, through the same mould. Practically all our colleges and universities have some kind of an honor system, but the “honor” group consists of three or four or ten per cent; and there is practi- cally no effect upon the student body as a whole. The student body as a whole we have leveled down to the average or below the average, precisely as some of the labor unions do. And it is no wonder that there has grown up, inside the institutions of higher education, an inner world of vast activity that has no relation to the actual purpose for which the students are in college, a world dramatic, social, musical, athletic. Something must be invented to satisfy the bound- less vitality and energy and initiative of young Americans. And there are large numbers of men in every college, the best of them from the stand- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1385 point of future leadership, whose powers find insufficient outlet and interest in the mass-curriculum constructed for the mass-average. And many of them are left to invent other forms of training which have at least the merit of stirring their enthusiasm and capacity for individual achievement, and helping them still to conceive themselves as members of a burly and pro- gressive race. How are we to remedy the waste of such a system as ours—by adopting arbitrarily the mental class-cleavage grouping of the English and Ca- nadians? I think there is a better and more distinctively American way. Perhaps twenty-five per cent of the wastage may be stopped at the threshold. This is what they are seeking to do at Columbia, as I understand it, by testing out applicants for admission to the college of liberal arts and sciences by simple psychological methods. I am informed that last year, out of 750 applicants, about 450 were admitted. “The combination of the scientific test for intelligence with the conventional test for scholarship favors gifted boys with poor advantages above rich boys with gifted tutors, as Thorndike puts it. It is therefore a genuinely democratic method, brings better ma- terial into the colleges and eliminates the financial waste of attempting the instruction of the unfit. But after the men are in, at the end of the sophomore year, after they have had their full chance and have demonstrated that they are not quali- fied with capacity, desire, and earnestness, why shouldn’t they be weeded again? Every student, speaking in a purely financial sense, is a financial liability instead of an asset. “hen why not liquidate the liabilities at least at the end of the sophomore year? “Thus we may economize energy, effort, and funds during the last two years, when the greatest intellectual impres- sion is to be made upon personality anyway. For the large group which would then be left, the democratic principle is not, every man down to the level of the average, but all men up to the height of their capacity for men- tal achievement. The financial remedy for the ills of higher education is to be found, I think, not in new methods of assessment, and apportionment of taxes, but in the elimination of waste in organization and functioning through a re- turn to sound principles of democratic philosophy. Something must be done other than new drives, new deficits, new extensions of curriculum, and new taxes. I know there are virginal educational areas which have never yet been ploughed. I know that in certain directions there is a genuine call to advance. But when unit costs are rising and the volume of units is rap- idly increasing and the social income is not expanding to meet the rising costs, the chief financial need of higher education is economy of expendi- ture, of function, of organization; and above all, the fixing of purpose dominantly upon the expenditure of public and semi-public funds for the development of broad leadership in American affairs. 1386 NatTIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION HOW MAY THE NECESSARY FUNDS FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION BE PROVIDED? EDWIN R. A. SELIGMAN, PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY When I see before me this immense and distinguished audience I am reminded of the story of Hennessy’s friend. Pat had led a rather checkered life and now, being on his deathbed, sent for the priest to grant him abso- lution and to perform the last rites of the church. When the priest saw him he said: “Well, Pat, haven’t you decided yet whether you want to go to Heaven or to Hell?” Pat replied: “Well, Your Reverence, Heaven is a very attractive place. I like it for its climate and for many other reasons. But, saving your presence, I prefer the other place for its company.” Thus you see, gentlemen, why it is that I feel so much complimented in addressing you today. Now we come to the topic, that very thorny topic, to which I am assigned to speak. And, instead of reading from a prepared paper, I prefer to talk to you quite freely from a few notes. Let us first try to see why and how the problem of the inadequacy of our present reve- nues to finance education has arisen. ‘There are at least four reasons for the emergence of the problem. ‘The first reason has been referred to by several of the preceding speakers, that education looms continually larger in our actuality and in our imagination and that we are yet only in the very beginning of that movement. While agreeing with almost everything that my distinguished predecessor, Senator Davenport, has said, I should never- theless like to urge that there are almost no bounds to be set to the possibili- ties of the education of the future. I wonder how many of you have read that inspiring book by G. D. H. Cole, the British Guild socialist. Despite the fact that I am by no means in accord with his economic teachings, I think that his last book presents more successfully than anything else that I have read a picture of what education may come to be in a democracy. We may as well accept the proposition that there is going to be continually more spent for education ; for it will be an ever better education. Inasmuch as the world tests a country’s civilization not by the amount spent for its battleships, but by the sums spent for education, this feature of the problem will constantly acquire greater significance. In the next place, I should say that we find in education, as in every other form of modern social activity, a well-defined transition from private to public activity. The schools, like the roads, the courts, the army, like almost everything else that is a matter of communal effort today, were originally private. Even today in this country we have in many of our States not alone private schools, such as primary and secondary schools at the bottom, but private money-making professional schools at the top. Education, however, perhaps more rapidly than any other domain of com- munal life in a modern democracy, has gone over and is today in this coun- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1387 try markedly going over from the private to the public field. Therefore, the difficulty of financing education has become aggravated because the ex- penditure must nowadays be met primarily out of the public funds, and not by any means to such an extent as in the past out of the large contributions of the wealthy to private institutions. In the third place, even after education became a public function it for a long time paid its own way. ‘The time was when through the receipt of educational fees there was no net burden resting upon the community at large. Senator Davenport has pointed out to you how even in the higher education we are gradually going over from the thirty per cent to the fifty, sixty, seventy, or even eighty per cent of cost resting as a deficit on the institution or on the community as a whole. In many democratic countries you still have school fees. ‘The distinctive characteristic of our country, however, is the public school. For, as you all know, the public-school sys- tem of Great Britain, far from being public in our sense, is the most aris- tocratic type of school in the world. In this country, however, the public- school system with the implication of free and gratuitous education started partly under Dutch, partly under Anglo-Saxon influences. ‘That idea is now working its way to the very top of the edifice. With the transition from a public-school system which pays its own way through fees to a system which has got to be supported by the community, the fiscal problem emerges. ‘The streets are swept and cleaned today not by the abutting householder, but at public expense. The courts today are no longer self- supporting, as in former times: Adam Smith, you remember, recommended that court expenses should be paid out of fees from the litigants in order to make the judges more diligent in their work. Just as the courts are today supported out of public revenues; just as the public policeman has supplanted the private watchman; so it is coming to be with education. Finally, we come to the last point, which is that in the forms of public revenue themselves there has been a great change. In early times public expenditures were defrayed out of voluntary contributions. We know in every colony of what is now the United States the exact date when the contributions from the men “whose heart is willing,’ as the law quaintly put it, no longer sufficed for defraying the public expenditures. ‘There were so many whose hearts were obdurate that they had to substitute for the voluntary offering the compulsory payment. But even then and until very recently the revenues of Government were defrayed from other sources, and taxation was of exceptional occurrence. While a man was then as now willing to die for his country, very few were found who were willing to dig their hands in their own pockets for their country. Public expenditures in Colonial times were very largely met by lotteries, by special assessments, by fees. The very institution with which I am connected, Columbia, was started and maintained for a long time by a lottery. “Taxation is an entirely modern development, a development of the end of the eighteenth and the nineteenth century. Our troubles with England were due not so much to the fact that taxation was without representation, as to the fact that there 1388 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION was an effective method of taxation. The modern difficulty has arisen be- cause people must now pay those expenses which hitherto were defrayed in other ways. Notwithstanding everything that I have said, isn’t it true that the aver- age man today is willing to pay his taxes provided he knows that his neigh- bor is also doing the same? Haven’t we seen today, as a result of the great war, this unheard-of readiness on the part of citizens of our own country as well as other countries to bear crushing burdens for the common good? Again, isn’t it true that while education has developed and while the needs, as we have been told, have prodigiously augmented, wealth has also increased pari passu? Aren’t we far wealthier today than we were a gen- eration or a century ago? Aren’t we the richest Nation of the world, upon whose very whisper hangs the decision of diplomats and statesmen all over the world? How is it, then, that rolling in wealth as we are, with a readi- ness of the average citizen to listen to the claims of education, how is it that we find this great and growing embarrassment ? Well, gentlemen, the reason can be put in a nutshell: our technique of public revenue has not kept pace with the increase in our wealth and with the increase in our financial needs. We have the wealth, but are no longer able to tap it effectively. “That is the real core of the difficulty. What is it that we practically find? When our revenue system devel- oped in this country it was in accordance with the underlying economic facts. The first thing that the Puritan settlers did, when a few years after their arrival they went over to this system of compulsory contributions, was to lay down the principle that every man should contribute according to his ability. ‘Faculty’ is the word you find in the New Plymouth laws; and in parts of New England today they still call it the faculty tax. How was this faculty or this ability measured? In a way very different from the custom in the old country. In Great Britain, when you speak of a man being worth £10,000, what do you mean? You mean that his income is £10,000 a year. But in this country when you say a man is worth $10,000, you mean that his property is worth $10,000. Now why did we develop in this country the system of measuring wealth by property? Because in the feudal system, in the Middle Ages, in Great Britain, land was never bought or sold, and a man’s wealth could be measured only by his rent roll. But in this country as soon as we started trying to conquer nature in our fight with the virgin conditions of this continent, land, like everything else, became the object of daily purchase and sale. Accordingly, a man’s wealth in those days was measured in terms of the land that he had, and after a while of the other scant property that he might have acquired. That was perfectly right and perfectly true, because in those days there were not any very poor, just as there were not any very rich. Every man worked and every man had a little property and things went along fairly well. A man’s wealth was measured in terms of his property. Now, however, the situation is entirely different so far as the funda- mental economic facts are concerned. A transition, nay, a revolution has DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1389 taken place. Just as our economic system has changed from the primitive economic system to the modern industrial system, so the basis of our fiscal life has changed. The old general property tax which gradually developed in parts of this country at the end of the eighteenth century, in other parts during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, and in still other sections only toward the middle of the nineteenth century—the general property tax has become, so to speak, a sacrosanct idea, a shibboleth, something to conjure with. Not one man out of a thousand will think of a man’s ability to pay taxes except in terms of the property that he owns. Yet it is today entirely wrong. It is a thing of the past in almost every other part of the world, where the general property tax has disintegrated and disappeared. It is fast going in this country in the more developed States of the Union. Senator Davenport has just introduced-a bill in New York State doing away with the last vestiges—most of the others were done away with some years ago—of the general property tax, and in many another State the general property tax is beginning to disintegrate and crumble. Now why is it that property is no longer the fit test of ability to pay? Why is it that the efforts that are being made throughout the length and breadth of this country and the endeavor of our school authorities to secure a little more money by bothering with property assessments are all bound to fail? The Governor of Missouri has just told us—of course, we have only a few States where that deplorable situation of the fractional assess- ment that they have in Missouri exists—what their great effort has been to jack assessments up to the level which is found in most of our other States, legally at least. I do not wish to deny for a moment that for purely local purposes the selling or property value of the real estates is still quite defensible as the basis for assessment in this country. I won’t go into the reasons as to why that is, because that would lead me too far astray, further than to say that where there is under our modern economic conditions an immediate capitalization of the yield or produce into the changed property or selling value, as is the case in land, you can still use property as a test of ability to pay or of value in real estate. But the case is very different with all that kind of property outside of real estate and with all those ele- ments of ability outside of property. There are three reasons why we have got into this muddle. First, the growth of intangible property. ‘The industrial revolution created corpora- tions about the middle of the century, when our first general corporation laws were enacted. This mass of intangible property, consisting of securi- ties, of stocks, bonds, and all the rest, as well as of mortgages, constitutes a great part of the wealth of this country nowadays. No method ever devised by mankind, from the time of the Roman when they used torture in the attempt to elicit the facts, down to the listing and tax-ferret laws of modern times, has ever succeeded in making a man declare his intangible personalty when he has an inducement not to do so. One great reason, accordingly, why our general property tax has become a failure, especially in proportion as you are dealing with those States where you find more 1390 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION industry and commerce, is because intangible personalty has slipped out of the assessment list. As a result the burden falls upon the owner of the tangible personalty, chiefly the farmer. ‘That is one of the great reasons of discontent in this country today. The second point is perhaps even more important, namely, that the eco- nomic revolution has brought about the emergence of immense sources of wealth entirely unconnected with property. Our railway presidents who get $50,000 or $100,000 a year, our great lawyers and doctors who make from $100,000 to $300,000 a year in the city of New York, our architects, our engineers, the whole mass of modern society has in it persons who re- ceive immense sums in the way of emoluments and earnings. Yet if they spend all those earnings—and you can generally count upon their good wives to do so—they are not liable in one iota to any form of property tax. Thus we find entire classes who are not in any way reached under the sys- tem of property as a criterion of faculty. But there is something still more important. Under the older economic system, where things went along placidly, where there was less speculative activity, where there was no modern world machinery of trade and com- merce, a business man’s prosperity could fairly well be measured by his stock- in-trade or his property. Now, with the prevalence of speculative activity, with the development of the turnover, with the progress in all those other more subtle economic aspects of our modern life, a business man no longer reckons his prosperity according to his property or stock-in-trade, but accord- ing to his profits, and these profits may stand in very little relation to his property. ‘Take two men with the same profit, but with very divergent stock-in-trade. Take, for instance, the large department store and the dia- mond merchant. Although they may enjoy the same yearly profit, they will have not only entirely different store accommodations, but also entirely dif- ferent quantities or values of stock-in-trade. Their turnover may vary, and the ratio of profits to stock may vary. That is the reason why the business man today no longer believes, if he is an intelligent man, in property as the test of success. When the war with England took place, how did we finance it? So far as direct taxation was concerned, by a tax on property. In the Civil War we had indeed a very small and insignificant tax on income, but we had primarily a direct tax on property and, above all, the indirect taxes. But what happened in this war? Not a single example of a property tax, and very little from indirect taxes. Seventy or eighty per cent of all our tax revenue consisted of taxes on profits and on incomes. Isn’t that enough to show you what the situation is and how the world has changed? Yet only a few of our States have begun to be touched by the recognition of this transition which we in the Federal Government have long since realized. In other words, the reason why our revenues are inadequate is because we are tinkering with an outworn and irremediably defective machine. You can’t patch it up. I don’t mean to say that there are not States in this country which are more agricultural in character than, let us say, New York or Massachusetts or Illinois, where for some time perhaps the general DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1391 property tax will linger. But I do mean to say that the sooner we realize that the real basis of taxation, the real criterion of ability to pay has changed from property to produce, or yield, or earnings, or profits, or income, the better for all concerned. Now what has taken place? We find that in our industrial States like New York, Massachusetts, and now New Jersey, that even in the West, in Wisconsin and in some of the Southern States, like Delaware and: others, after trying in vain to accommodate present fiscal methods to present con- ditions by developing a more or less unsuccessful corporation tax, we now have gone over to supplementing, or, as in New York, supplanting the prop- erty tax by a system, first, of taxes on income, and second, more important even than that, by taxes on business. Why is it that the farmers find so much difficulty? I quite agree with what Mr. Thomsen has said, that, after all, the problem is one of local taxation. Under our present conditions, however, even if you escape the deplorable situation of fractional assessment in a few of the Western States, you can’t have a full assessment of your local real estate. For, since the real estate is used also as a basis of the State tax, and since the State tax is apportioned locally according to the amount of assessed valuation, there is an inevitable tendency on the part of every county assessor to cut down the local assessments to the lowest possible figure. The lower the local assessment the less the contribution to State tax. - But even if you were able to jack up the local assessments of real estate, you would still have the two problems of intangible property, which does not find its way at all into the assessment lists, as well as the existence of your rich doctors or lawyers or other professional men who cannot be reached by a property tax. The thing to do is to make even the local revenues more adequate, more’ in keeping with local ability to pay. ‘That means, in the first place, to do away entirely with the State tax on real estate, keeping your real-estate tax only for local purposes and getting your State revenues from other sources, as we are beginning to do in many of our States. But it means far more than that. It means that you will tap the State-wide sources of wealth, the incomes of individuals which come not from the land, but from the opportunities connected with the real estate in their locality, the incomes which do not go to the farmer in the locality, but which go to the merchant who lives in the town or to the man who lives in the city, but whose career depends fundamentally on the farmer. You have got to tap those sources of revenue, and you can do this by very low rates, as we are showing in New York. In New York, with an average rate of two per cent on in- comes and four per cent on business, we are securing a revenue this year of sixty or seventy millions of dollars. -Even Delaware has recently im- posed a similar tax, which they call an income school tax, devoting the whole of the revenue to schools. Whether we do the one thing or the other, the point I desire to make is that the revenues will come in so abun- dantly under a modern system of taxation that the State will be able to turn back to the localities monies which in a deeper sense really flow from 1392 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the localities. Half of our New York income tax goes back to the locali- ties, and when, in addition to that, the local real estate is no longer assessed for State purposes with the result of pulling down the assessment, and when, as in New York, the localities get a share of the income in propor- tion to their assessed valuation, the old-time tendency to undervaluation is counteracted, and the higher local valuation will require a smaller tax rate to raise a given sum. ‘Thus you will have both coming and going such an immense increase of potential revenues as to satisfy everyone, and the em- barrassments, hitherto found in this country from the financing of educa- tion, will come to an end. I want to close by a story which may illustrate our program. A few years ago I was traveling in Switzerland, where, as you know, the only means of passenger transportation is often the stage-coach. At a small mountain station I paid my fare and clambered up on the box of the dili- gence. Shortly afterwards a peasant came along with a big basket and bought a second-class ticket, climbing up and then sitting down next to me. I wondered, but said nothing. Then came an old woman with a large bundle on her head. She asked for a third-class ticket, but instead of going inside she also got up and sat down on my other side. Then I said to the postilion: “What does this mean? I paid for a first-class ticket. Now ‘these good people come in here and, although they buy second- and third- class tickets, they crowd in beside me. What is the explanation?” The postilion smiled and said: ‘““Wait a bit and see.” So he cracked his whip and the six mules started off at a brisk rate. Soon we came to a hill. They began to walk, and as the hill became steeper we came to a stop. Then the postilion jumped down and cried out: “First-class passengers, remain seated ; second-class passengers, get out and walk; third-class passengers, get out and push.” Now, ladies and gentlemen, if we are really serious about it, we all want to be third-class passengers, and push for the reform of which I have spoken. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1393 WHAT HAS THIS COUNTRY REASON TO EXPECT BY WAY OF CULTURE, EFFICIENCY, AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP IN RETURN FOR THE COST OF OPERATING PUBLIC EDUCATION? W. O. THOMPSON, PRESIDENT OF OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO President Jones: It is not so hard, as a rule, to get interested in what lies in front of us; it is more difficult to review the work we have done, analyze it, and face some unburied mistakes. ‘This program has been set together with malice aforethought, that it may be an example to us. We have been proceeding by adding more money to our budget. We have been adding more subjects to our curriculum, constantly expanding, and it is a wonder now if it is not time to check up to see whether we have given in return to these communities in proportion to what the communities have given us. In short, are we achieving the ideals that we set out to achieve? Have we kept them strictly in mind during the expenditure of our time, our efforts, and our funds, to the end that we may have what the public wants? If you will look at the program you will discover that we have men east and west of the Mississippi Valley, men of varied phases of edu- cation, men of varied training in education, men with varied experiences in education. I am proud to present this group of men to you this morning, and I believe that they will present to you some of the consensus of opinion, based on substantial fact, out of the righteousness and mellowness of some of the richest experience that this country has ever afforded men in public life. I wish to thank you particularly because this is Thursday morning, and I hope the members on the program this morning will feel that this is a real tribute, that you men have stayed through these long meetings all this week and are out here fresh as daisies to meet this group. I shall ask you first to listen to Dr. William O. Thompson, the presi- dent of the Ohio State University, a man whom we respect in Ohio for his good sense and for his practical views and because of his long and successful experience. Dr. Thompson. Dr. Thompson: Mr. Chairman, Ladies, and Gentlemen: The topic announced this morning, as given to me, was “The Ideals to be Achieved by Public Education.” The topic for this morning is an inquiry that cannot be otherwise than wholesome. This, if I understand it, is the spirit of modern education. Very few educational gatherings in the last generation have failed to de- velop this spirit of inquiry into the aims, the processes, and the results of education. The accent or emphasis may have shifted from time to time, but at no time has there been indifference. The teachers of the country are continually alert as to the quality of their work and its results upon the rising generation. In no other circles of the country is the free exercise of the critical spirit more welcome than among the scholars and teachers. The result has been that no educational theory has been repressed. Men are free to utter their 1394 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION convictions and their beliefs. On the other hand, no theory worthy of attention establishes itself without a challenge and the test of experiment. This critical attitude toward education is chiefly from within. Giving all due recognition to the occasional writer or non-professional critic, it may be noted that the most critical of all critics are to be found in the rank and file of the education of the country. This attitude toward the work to which the teacher has devoted his life preserves it from dry decay and from irresponsible anarchy. This critical spirit in which I assume we all rejoice has put under the microscope of criticism every proposal as to content of courses, subject- matter, methods of teaching, organization of material, and indeed every educational principle or practice yet invented or discovered by our most fruitful minds. ‘The high value of this critical attitude is here affirmed. Further attention is invited to the suggestion that this perpetual criticism of our work does not justify the oft-repeated statement that nothing is settled in education. It may be well to remember that no fallacy or folly can find permanent place in our educational program in the face of such criticism. ‘The public may reasonably expect the teachers of the country steadily to eliminate the least desirable and to perpetuate the most effective principles and practices in education. Education an experiment—This attitude suggests that all education is an experiment with the human spirit. By the very nature of the case it cannot be a static science or a fossilized practice. This great laboratory in which the teachers of the country are working out the experiment with the human spirit is the most throbbing, thrilling place in the world. No one should claim infallibility or inerrancy for it. At the very best it is a rationally conducted experiment by the most capable among us. There are no patents on its processes and no secrets to be withheld. “These great and vital experiments are in the interest of the individual and of society where the spirit of dogmatism and conclusiveness are alien to the atmosphere of education. We are not unmindful of the confidence with which the ultra- conservative mind clings to the past and all that it holds. These minds are apt in adverse criticism of all that is new chiefly because it is new or in- comprehensible to a mind chiefly interested in archeology. Inertia and sleeping sickness may be quite as fatal to progress as St. Vitus’ dance or the rickets. The failure to appreciate that education is of necessity an experiment has turned many otherwise good people into carping critics when they ought to have been our most constructive helpers. Even then they have not been entirely useless. Sign-boards have a double function, to point out the way of progress and also the way to avoid. Constructive criticism is always welcome, but even the most iconoclastic criticism is not entirely without profit. The public attitude—I am putting emphasis upon this view of educa- tion for the reason that our inquiry must recognize that the “public” graciously taken into our confidence this morning does not always fully understand just what the function of the school is in our system of educa- tion. Frequently it assumes to know. Especially is this true of the ex- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1395 educator whose memory of the schoolroom is more vivid than his knowledge of present conditions is accurate. One may read volumes of this kind of educational comment and agree heartily with it if it were in accordance with actual conditions. Public comment upon education is always sincere, but often misled and deceived through the inability of the educator to inform the public, or his failure to appreciate the importance of such a disclosure. At best, the teachers of the country are not good in wholesome publicity. The result is that education has often suffered at the hands of its friends and of those who sincerely desire to be its friends. The freedom to experiment—The one fact that stands out in American education in which we all rejoice is the freedom to experiment which has been accorded the teacher. Granted for the moment that all education is a progressive experiment with the human spirit, nothing could be more vital to the progress of civilization than the freedom to experiment with our ideas. Happily there has been a large field of freedom in which prac- tically all our progress has been made. In certain circles we have heard much about the necessity for academic freedom and the liberty of the mind in the presence of great dogmas. In fact, however, they have been but passing phases. Public education has been kept singularly free for any rational experiment looking toward the discovery of new principles or the improvement of existing practices. The spirit of the teacher has had much to do with this state of affairs, but I am not unmindful of or unappreciative of the fine progressive spirit of the public which has sustained the teacher in his effort to do more than has yet been done for the American child and youth. ‘This freedom for experimentation in education is, in my opinion, one of the greatest present- day assets within our grasp. It may, and doubtless will, give rise to much that is ephemeral, but we may confidently trust the same critical judgment of the scholars and teachers to lead us into the green pastures and beside the still waters rather than over the Niagara. Standards of education—These are the days in which we are hearing much that is novel and some that is startling in the field of educational standards. The object of all this, let it not be forgotten, is to discover whether the schools are doing the work as well as they might or as they ought under all the circumstances. Serious scholars are in doubt as to the high efficiency of much of our work. The normal earnestness with which they are attacking the situation merits our enthusiastic commendation. No doubt some of the standards of measurement are artificial and to a degree defective. No one would claim for them inerrancy. ‘The earnest judg- ment of the most accurate scholar may need revision. It is from within, let it be now said, that this critical spirit has found expression. ‘Teachers and investigators are convinced that some unattained standards are ‘within the possibilities. Further, there is admission now that our standards of measurement long in use have measurably failed to serve as a satisfactory standard of intel- lectual or educational progress. The examination system imported from 1396 NATIONAL EpuCATION ASSOCIATION the Old World has grown hoary with age, notwithstanding a long-con- tinued paralysis. The National Education Association years ago vocalized its doubt about the efficiency of the examination system both for promotion from grade to grade and for entrance to high school or college. The inertia of the academic mind since the discovery of the examination system and the insufferable contentment of those promoted with their own status prevented any progress. Meantime the educational world tolerated this device be- cause no genius came along with anything better. But times are changing. During the war no army officer could discover a skilled workman or a man of special talent in response to a requisition from the War Department. It took a psychologist to go down into the ranks and by some intelligence tests discover the talents tied up in napkins, and quietly clothed with the authority of the Government put these talents out to work. ‘This shocked the entire country into submission. A new test of intelligence and of intellectual progress has been found by which it might be known whether one man was more skilled than another or whether any man was more skilled than his present status would suggest.. When 112 teachers of history can read the same lot of papers and vary in their estimates from about 25 or 30 to 75 or 80 no intelligent man needs to be told that the examination system has broken down utterly. When students prepared in private schools well equipped to pass entrance examinations by men who live, move, and have their being in examinations, are compared in their college progress with students prepared in the free atmosphere of a public high school and the comparison results favorably for the high- school student, it should be no crime to suggest that our standards of meas- urement have not been all we could desire. That this question looms large in every educational program throughout the country is one of the most hopeful signs of progress on the educational horizon. It is notice to the public that the schoolmaster is determined to find out the truth in this matter. A further criticism—I venture to suggest that we are apt to overlook the consequences sure to follow this rejection of the absoluteness of the old methods. For a long time education has been too much a matter of com- mand. The more mature mind in dealing with the less mature mind has unconsciously and perhaps without malice aforethought assumed the air of command. We set a task for the student. We tell him to do as he is told. He follows the dictation and direction of the textbook, the laboratory guide, or the teacher. We then proceed to examine him to discover whether he has obeyed orders. “Too many examinations have been set with this definite thing in mind rather than the idea of intellectual growth or educational progress. In other words the tendency has been and still is to a great degree to put the entire responsibility for education upon the student. I have known college professors who disclaimed almost all responsibility. Ina most interesting and illuminating article on the scientific technique of curriculum making, Professor Judd discloses this same tendency to ad- just curricula, to rearrange the contents, all with the pupil in view, This DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1397 is admirable so far as it goes. It would be fine to have a curriculum that a pupil could comprehend and a content that he could master, but finer by far to have one that a teacher could teach and then to hold the teacher responsible for doing his work as well as the pupil is expected to do his. The modern shake-up in standards of measurement will develop the fact. that in this great experiment with the human spirit which we describe as education there is some responsibility attaching to those who conduct the experiment. In the final analysis the teacher will share responsibility with the pupil and the student. Interestingly enough the great leaders in graduate education have pointed with pride to those of their students who have marked successes. Gladly they share the honors. In these days we hear more of the failures to pass in high school and college and less of the reason why these failures accumulate from year to year. Our systems of inspection and examinations have been applied too exclusively to the student. Let us not relieve him of any responsibility that is his. On the other hand we may as well prepare for the inevitable. “The new stand- ards of performance will be found to apply to the teacher. ‘Therein lies our next progressive step in education. In Ohio last year if we may trust public statements, 180,000 pupils failed to pass in the schools of the State. Making all proper allowances and discounts this situation cannot be accounted for by heredity, intel- lectual dullness, the presence of the moron in the class, or the kind of textbook used. Even poor ventilation will not entirely explain the situa- tion. ‘The teacher is part of this process. In some of our schools there are more important questions than those of physical equipment and salaries. The public may reasonably expect us to meet this situation courageously and honestly. Cost of education—The element of cost is inevitably included. We could not escape it. I propose no statistical study. I would suggest, how- ever, that the public mind is not altogether convinced of the soundness of our educational methods in finance. I have rarely heard complaint on the score of salaries paid to teachers or to superintendents and principals. The truth is that the well-nigh universal belief among us as to the efficacy of education in preparing the children to live well in a democracy has carried with it a high appreciation of the service of the teacher. People are not complaining about the rewards or remuneration of the teaching. They have, however, a legitimate right to raise an inquiry as to the efficiency of public free education in dealing with the great masses of children and youth entrusted to our care. They share our anxiety, and they pay most of the bills. The question is not whether education is worth what it costs. There is no money value that can be put upon education. Never- theless, there is just inquiry as to whether the measure of our efficiency corresponds to a rational expectation. The fact already referred to that one hundred eighty thousand in any State in this Union should fail to show satisfactory evidence of progress in our system of education is a distinct challenge to us either to explain the situation in a satisfactory way or to discover why we cannot explain. 1398 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION We cannot escape the responsibility for our trust in view of the large freedom we enjoy in our methods of work. Let us now pass to another phase of the inquiry suggested by the topic for the morning,—namely, the field of idealism in which the school has its life. Our ideals are our ideas emotionalized to the highest pitches of enthusiasm. Was it Carlyle (but no matter) who taught us that religion was morality touched with emotion? Where there is no vision the people perish. ‘The schoolroom, if it be a place of education, thrills with this emotionalized idea. Here is the kingdom of the human intellect regnant with all the possibilities of its power. Intellectual standards—First of all, we affirm that a national expectation from the public requires that the schoolroom be supremely intellectual. I shall not debate but assume the utility of much of the new subject-matter, such as agriculture, mechanic arts, household arts, as well as much of the older material. I should like to insist upon the cultivation of the intellectual power de- manded by the ability to read and to interpret. Inasmuch as George Washington persisted to his dying day in some incorrect spelling and since Homer and Shakespeare were afflicted with the same weakness I shall not insist upon spelling but direct attention to the fact that all these men dealt familiarly with ideas and not too much with mere words formerly known as the “signs of ideas.” These men were sufficiently intellectual to deal directly with ideas however expressed in spelling. It should not be overlooked that this is an intellectual world and requires an intellect equal to its interpretation. Modern invention has not abolished the necessity of intellectual power. The mediocre intellect will never scale the heights of lofty thinking or enjoy the pleasures of a world of thought relations. The interpretation of the world with all its history of struggle, of passion, of ambition is an essential to progress. Somewhere in our edu- cational system these free intellects must have their opportunity. Much of our energy has been given to reducing education to terms for the simple instead of reducing the great ideas to the terms of clarity and simplicity. In the multitude of words we have lost our ideas and our ideals. Too often do we hear the complaint from the best intellects of the dullness and monotony of the classroom. ‘The call today, as I see it, is that the school- room shall be so highly intellectualized as to develop the power to deal with ideas and ideals. ‘This is the field where American traditions have developed the spirit of conquest. No adequate program of Americaniza- tion is possible until this power of interpretation has been developed. Supremacy of law—A second remark now offered is that the public may justly expect the school to maintain a proper state of mind toward the supremacy of law as accepted by the American people. I do not refer to the supremacy of the law as the bulwark of the status quo but as the conditions precedent to all orderly progress. We are not interested in sudden revolutions but in steady progress. Our Constitution as the supreme law of the land has stood for more than a century subject DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1399 to nineteen amendments. Doubtless it will continue to stand subject to other amendments as the popular mind centers upon new conceptions of citizenship and of government. ‘The point in mind is that education is a process in an intellectual world where the orderly processes of law obtain. The human intellect is no exception. The human being should early learn that this is an orderly world where chaos, anarchy, and lawlessness are the enemies of all progress and happiness. Ideals as to freedom—A third remark is that the public may rightly ex- pect us to maintain the highest ideals as to freedom. ‘This great constitu- tional democracy has been developed under the ideals of civil and religious liberty, of a liberty under and within the law, and of the rights of both persons and property. Here is a more or less well-ordered society in which the supreme good of society and the rights of the individual are happily blended. ‘The history of our progress in civilization as illustrated in the institutions of society such as the school, the home, the church, the courts of justice, and the legislative bodies, all unite in making America what she is. [Chose who love the flag in its idealism cherish the school as the great organization of society for progress and happiness. ‘This is more than a political or economic issue. It is the great moral issue of the day. ‘Teachers and citizens alike are disturbed at times because of the lack of moral sta- bility or of moral alertness on the part of public-school pupils and of college students. Compulsory education has thrust all classes into the public schools. As some one has remarked, ‘“The streets have gone to college.” It may be well to remind ourselves, therefore, that the most stupendous moral issues of all history have been thrust upon the schools of the country. We are confronted not only with the facts of illiteracy in a very literal sense, but with a social and moral illiteracy infinitely more appalling. The schools are set not only to redeem the intellectual life of the rising genera- tion, but to redeem the social and moral situation so that a patriotic love of our institutions may perpetuate an America worthy of our best traditions and our reasonable expectations. Constitutions and laws are not in them- selves guarantees of free institutions. Men build institutions and ordain constitutions. The supreme issue, therefore, is the building of the citizen who will support his government and maintain free institutions. Mean- time it is well for the citizen to be economically efficient and sufficient. It is well that his education shall contribute to this end. In a very large sense the supreme issue is the moral quality of his citizen- ship. If the school shall contribute liberally to this high purpose no cost of education can compare with the value of the results. A free citizen in a free country cherishing and supporting free institutions is the crowning glory of our civilization. The school needs no other justification. 1400 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WHAT HAS THIS COUNTRY REASON TO EXPECT BY WAY OF CUL- TURE, EFFICIENCY, AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP IN RETURN FOR THE COST OF OPERATING PUBLIC EDUCATION? FRANK E. SPAULDING, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, YALE UNIVERSITY, NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT President Jones: I feel especially qualified to introduce the next speaker. I have had, as you know, the pleasure of working with Dr. Frank E. Spaulding. I think I ought to be permitted to say that he has been the greatest superintendent of schools Cleveland ever had. He has done most effective service there. Later he had the opportunity in Europe to test out men of all grades, shades, ages, and varieties. If he did not have the oppor- tunity to see some of the products of the education of this country, I don’t know who has. I think Dr. Spaulding recognizes things and absorbs them when he sees them. I am especially impressed by his judgment because he discovered me. Dr. Spaulding: This country is spending a round billion of dollars a year in “operating public education.” What is a fair return for this expendi- ture? This is a typically American question, a question couched in the terms and breathing the spirit of American business efficiency. Important as this question is, it is far transcended in importance by these questions: What results, other than culture, efficiency, and good citizenship, as these are currently conceived, must this country seek from her public schools? ‘And, what beside money, beside the things and services that money can buy, must this country invest in public education ? Sir Auckland Geddes maintained in a recent address that the end of education is “to turn out minds that see facts in a certain color.” What is the color of our public education? We have never seriously faced this question of the color of our education—so much more fundamentally im- portant than the facts of education, with which we are chiefly engrossed. We do, indeed, give some consideration to the various pigments that we think should be introduced into the color of our education. But this is as far as we ever go in dealing with the color of our education; we stop with the detailed pigments that we think should be represented. But what of the color, the deep fundamental color that has absorbed all the pigments that we have introduced, the color that is the resultant of all pigments; what is it? Is it patriotism? Is it honesty and sincerity? Is it truthfulness? Is it goodness? Is it courage? Is it cheerfulness? Is it generosity? Is it humility? Is it sympathy? Is it love of humanity? Is it love of justice? Is it regard for law and order? Is it sense of duty and obligation? Is it service? Is it character? Is it thirst for knowledge? Is it regard for accuracy? Is it appreciation of the beautiful—in art, litera- ture, music, nature? It contains traces, indeed, of all these pigments, some quite marked, others so faint as to be hardly discernible by the naked eye. But the color itself — DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1401 the deep, all-absorbing, overwhelming color of our public education, is individual success through individual effort,—the desire, the determination for individual achievement; and this desire, this determination, is over- whelmingly, almost universally, focussed upon ideals of material achieve- ment, of material prosperity. Our schools are not to be criticised for this color of the education that they give; this color has been inevitable. Our schools but represent and prepare their pupils to realize the dominant interests and purposes of our people. These interests and purposes were expressed by Emerson, over three quarters of a century ago, in language that needs but slight if any modifica- tion today, when he said, “In America out-of-doors all seems a market ;” the lecture platform, the pulpit, legislative halls, the public press, “recom- mend conventional virtues, whatever will earn and preserve property; al- ways the capitalist; the college, the church, the hospital, the theatre, the hotel, the road, the ship, of the capitalist, whatever goes to secure, adorn, enlarge these, is good; what jeopardizes any of these is damnable.” Our public schools are popular institutions, in every sense of the term; they are the creation of the people; they are supported by the people; they are made to serve the interests and demands of the people. ‘These interests and demands are fundamentally, overwhelmingly—may we not say increas- ingly ?—the demands of business, of material prosperity. There is not one of the important developments which make up the edu- cational progress of the last quarter-century, that does not represent a busi- ness demand, that does not maintain itself and justify itself chiefly in terms of its contribution to material prosperity. When the business man is asked to make his criticism of the public schools constructive, to specify in positive terms the improvements that he would have made, what does he reply? ‘Teach pupils to spell; to write a legible hand; to compose a business letter; to perform fundamental operations in arithmetic quickly, confidently, and accurately; to be prompt; to carry out instructions; to be loyal to the interests of their employers—all excellent business assets that contribute directly to material prosperity. It is far from my intention to criticise the business demands on our schools. With the life of our people what it is, with our dominant inter- ests, our aspirations and ideals what they are, these demands on our public schools are inevitable, just as inevitable as the color of the education for which these demands furnish the pigment. My purpose in holding up before us the fundamental, overwhelming color of our education, and in directing attention to the equally fundamental and overwhelming public interests and demands that supply the pigments of this color, is that we may face such profound questions as these. Is this overwhelming color of individual, material success a cadnchasy color? Is it a safe color in which to prepare our youth to see the facts of life? What is to be the end of the domination of these material interests, these aspirations and ideals, that perpetuate and strengthen themselves through the color that they impose on all our public education? Pushed to the limit, do these guarantee the perpetuity and advancement of civilization ? 1402 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The life of our people on this continent began with the stern struggle to wrest from nature the bare necessities of living; and this was but a renewal in America of a struggle as old as the human race. Until very recent times, the struggle in this country was almost purely individualistic; every man for himself. America, the land of individual opportunity! The raw materials of nature were at hand for the use of everybody; the degree of prosperity that any man might achieve was lim- ited, but limited only by the man’s own efforts. There was little room for dispute or uncertainty concerning the ownership or enjoyment of the pro- ceeds of individual exertions. But these primitive conditions of individual success are largely and in- creasingly of the past. Nature’s raw materials lie freely at the hands of few today; isolated, individual labors, where possible, accomplish little. Coéperation is today indispensable; the extent of harmonious coéperation is already the measure of achievement; its importance is bound to increase rapidly. For the first time in recorded human history, we have in America the unique spectacle of an immense, populous nation in which there is an abundance of all the elements required to provide not merely the necessi- ties of life but comforts and even luxuries in generous measure. “The raw materials are at hand in almost limitless variety and abundance; human intelligence, expressed in scientific discoveries, inventions, effective organi- zation, and administrative control, and especially in the Iron Man of rap- idly growing efficiency—such intelligence is also at hand in increasing abundance. ‘The effective application of this intelligence to raw materials, in ways that are already mastered, insures a product abundant for the needs and comfort of everyone. And as we are convincingly told, we are now but just beginning to glimpse the practical possibilities of develop- ments of material prosperity that in a few years may surpass that of the present as much as the present surpasses the primitive prosperity of three centuries ago. What is the fitting color in which to see and to deal with these stu- pendously promising, these awe-inspiring, these terrifying facts? The color of individual success through individual effort has demonstrated its fitness as the color in which to see and to deal successfully with the raw materials of nature under primitive conditions. But as the all-dominant color in which to see and to deal with human facts, is it not already beginning to reveal its limitations, its unfitness? May it not be that this color is largely responsible for the human frictions and collisions in which center our gravest concerns today? Does this color not facilitate, lead naturally and almost inevitably to the exploitation, in the interests of individual success, of humans in place of materials? Not a few competent observers and thinkers, whose judgments rightly command respect, see grave danger of the self-destruction of present civili- zation through war. May not the color, in which men see and deal with the facts of peace, be the source of equally grave danger for civilization ? Where, indeed, but in the color in which Nations see facts, do wars orig- inate? DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1403 The color in which our public education prepares our children and youth to see and deal with facts is surely a matter of supreme concern, both do- mestic and international. This country, through its leaders, through its statesmen—its statesmen in industry and commerce, as well as in govern- ment—must take public education seriously, to a degree never yet ap- proached. Our statesmen must regard and teach our whole people to regard public education, the color of public education, as of fundamental and transcendent concern to the immediate problems of government, of commerce, and of industry. ‘They must even give our basal problems of public education precedence over problems of government, commerce, and industry, because the solution that we make of our basal educational prob- lems goes so far to determine the form that all these other problems shall take a few years hence. WHAT HAS THIS COUNTRY REASON TO EXPECT BY WAY OF CUL- TURE, EFFICIENCY, AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP IN RETURN FOR THE COST OF OPERATING PUBLIC . EDUCATION? JOHN J. TIGERT, U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. President Jones: We have a new Commissioner of Education whom we have not all seen and heard. We are expecting great things from him. He has come on the stage of education in an active time, in a time of opportunity. Dr. Tigert has had a varied experience and training. We are very glad to hear from him, particularly this morning, because of the opportunities he has had as a Rhodes scholar at Oxford to get the English and the European viewpoints which give him then an international view- point of the results of education. Dr. Tigert: The general theme of our discussion at .this time is the Ideals to be Achieved by Public Education. ‘The word “ideals” in the caption makes it evident that a statistical summary of what is possible with our present expenditures, agencies, and organization of education is not what is wanted but rather what are the most desirable objectives of educa- tion in the light of the country’s needs. In recent years, this matter of the ideals of educational effort, especially with reference to citizenship, one of the phases to which we are expressly limited in this discussion, has been discussed more frequently than almost any other educational topic, largely because of the influence of the war and attendant conditions. ‘The sub- ject suggests itself, no doubt, to some of us as a threadbare theme, and this is a great temptation to undertake some ingenious application of the subject that might assume the aspect of something new under the camou- flage of an old title. I dare say that others on the program may do this. At the risk of being trite, an old fogy parading in the old-fashioned long skirts of pedagogical innocence, I propose to discuss the subject as it has been stated. Truth is eternal and there are some things that will have to be reiterated for a long time if we are to get them entrenched in American life. It 1404 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION would be unthinkable that any teacher for the sake of novelty, interest, or originality would vary the alphabet, numbers, or forms of speech from time to time. Likewise there are certain truths which are so fundamental in educational objectives as to seem to me to be generally accepted if not self-evident. Emphasis must be continued upon these truths until we have reached our goal. One of these generally accepted tenets is the necessity of an enlightened, informed, and intellignt citizenship. This necessity is the mother of the American public-school system. I shall not dwell upon the fact that such a large part of our population are without the pale of the schools as to make it well-nigh impossible for them to be intelligent, right-thinking, and right-acting citizens; so much so that this one thing alone imperils the future of the American Republic. But I wish to stress the point that there is still something to be desired in the efficiency of our schools. The American people spend more money upon education than any other people in the world, and they have a right to expect at least as much, if not more, enlightenment, efficiency, and culture from their schools as any other people. Perhaps they get this, but I do not think that we can be satisfied with present results. An ideal is something that is never realized, but it tends and should tend to stimulate improvement. Our people are a young people. ‘The American people do not by nature have the capacity for infinite pains, laborious effort, and careful exactitude that some other peoples possess; but they have an energy, an initiative, and an invention that no other people in the world have today. ‘These character- istics make for progress of a certain kind, in that we are quick to seize upon new ideas, fads, and innovations, but the same qualities of character some- times make for half-baked results. We attempt to teach much more than we can teach well or accurately. There is a vice as well as a virtue in our multitude of fashions, methods, plans, and devices for the improvement of education. We need, it seems to me, greater efficiency in inculcating the fundamentals. Let it be said that we have made marvelous*progress in the past ten years. I shall take no time here to summarize the educational renaissance that we have enjoyed since the World War. Assuming that we should secure reasonable and satisfactory returns for our outlay for education in the way of culture and efficiency, assuming that we might even secure the maximum of these, should we be satisfied? I. think not. Education which makes for enlightenment and efficiency without at the same time developing the proper attitude toward society is not only unsatisfactory, but it may prove a menace to the Nation. We must be as much concerned about what our boys and girls learn to do as we are about what they learn to know. The French philosopher Amiel puts this thought beautifully. ‘Human- ism,’ says he, “is but the emancipation of the mind. Christianity preaches and brings salvation by the consecration of the will. One makes better by enlightening, the other enlightens by making better. It is the difference between Jesus and Socrates.” The Socratic law that virtue is knowledge does not insure that all men will practice the good that they know. If we DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1405 cannot teach the old-fashioned virtues of honesty, justice, decency, and the Christian doctrine of love along with modern thought, then we had better dismantle our splendid and magnificently equipped schools and return to the old log schoolhouse. We had better have citizens who have character and little erudition than citizens whose knowledge is a peril to society. The man who discovered that surgical instruments should be sharp made an important discovery, but the man who discovered that the instruments should at the same time be sterilized made, I think, a more important dis- covery. So far as I am concerned, if I had to be operated on, I would much prefer a dull knife that was clean to a sharp knife that was foul. The former could do little or no damage, but the latter would carry the nocuous germs so far into my body as to destroy my life. And so, to en- lighten the mind, to emancipate the thought of man without the proper direction of will, is but to magnify the injury he will do in the world. Education for knowedge and efficiency alone will possibly enable a man who might have been only a house robber or a highwayman to become the head of some great business concern where he can steal on a big scale, or to reach some position of political power in which he may wreck society. President Angell, of Yale, says that he would prefer to have an immoral Greek professor rather than an immoral football coach. This does not mean that football is more important than Greek, but it does mean that the football coach has more opportunity to develop character than the Greek professor. Sam Jones, the evangelist, once said: “T would rather have my boy in Heaven learning his A BC’s than in Hell reading Latin and Greek.” Germany has furnished us a conspicuous illustration of the evil of educa- tion or culture and efficiency without the proper social attitude. Germany raised the efficiency of education to the nth power. Illiteracy is almost unknown among the German people. ‘They have made marvelous strides in culture in the field of philosophy, in the application of science. But this efficiency was directed into a spring at the throat of the world and envel- oped it in a “Pentecost of calamity” that almost destroyed civilization. Says Professor Althearn, “Four thousand two hundred college professors caused the World War.” He has reference to the German professors who taught so efficiently that they made sixty-eight million people subscribe to such doctrines as: “Might is right; We are a race of Supermen; God demands the destruction of the weaker peoples about us; The tombstone of a dead German grenadier is more beautiful than all the paintings ever painted ; Democracy is the death agony of organization,—it is the means whereby cattle become rulers; And now abide faith, hope and hate, and the greatest of these is hate.” The efficiency of German education in disseminating these diabolical doc- trines, in applying modern science to the art of destruction, and in various other ways has brought civilization to the verge of collapse. Could the Germans have foreseen how their efficiency would be prostituted? I think not. Far better for Germany and for the world that her people had all been illiterate than that she should have taken the course she has taken. 1406 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Illiterates are not all bad citizens, nor are they altogether inefficient. Let me say that there is an erroneous impression that the illiterates of America are confined largely to the Negroes and the mountain-whites of the South, and that these mountain-whites are undesirable citizens. Noth- ing could be further from the truth. There are great centers of illiteracy in the big manufacturing States—Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois. Further the so-called ignorant whites of the South have made perhaps as large a contribution to the Nation as any other of its people. It is unfair and preposterous to place so much of our shortcomings, as revealed in educational statistics, in inefficiency, and in other respects at the door of the ignorant whites of Kentucky, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Abra- ham Lincoln was one of these. So was Andrew Jackson and many others who have rendered unquestioned service to the Republic. It is unfortunate that some people in the country generally do not appre- ciate the sterling qualities of the mountaineers of Kentucky and Tennessee. There are many illiterates among them, but they have some efficiency and are usually splendid citizens. They were efficient enough to win the Battle of King’s Mountain, in the dark hours of American history; they were efficient enough to destroy the flower of the British Army, fresh from cam- paigns against the armies of Napoleon, at New Orleans. If one questions that they possess efficiency today let him note the three men selected by General Pershing to stand by the grave of the Unknown Soldier. The three men who were considered by their Commander to have rendered the most conspicuous service to their country in the recent war and in the order of service were, first, Sergeant Woodfill, a Kentucky mountaineer; second, Sergeant York, a Tennessee mountaineer ; third, Major Whittlesey, of New York. Certainly, Alvin York had some kind of efficiency that enabled him to kill and capture a German battalion armed with machine guns. Certainly, he must have been something of a patriot. The illiterates do not form the most dangerous class of American citizens. Let us by all means wipe out illiteracy, but let us not fail to see that much more is required to make America safe. We must do something to enable the many nationalities who constitute our citizenship to understand and appreciate America; we must do more to help our native-born Americans to appreciate the contributions that these varied elements have made to our American life. Both of these are prob- lems of education. Many of these alien peoples have come to our shores with ideas subversive of government because they have lived under despotic governments that have engendered hatred. We must implant in them a love and an appreciation for a government such as ours which permits its citizens so much freedom that they may be free to write and speak as they will about it. Today our country is being sown with literature directed at the overthrow of our government. Many publications are dedicated to this purpose. We pick up leaflets upon unemployment intended to incite the laboring classes to rebellion, which call for the overthrow of the American Republic and close with “Hail to the Soviet Government of America.” DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1407 We have not yet learned to teach citizenship to our own American-born boys and girls. We must teach respect for the flag; we must teach the principles of American government; we must teach American history in a far more effective way if we are to insure the future of American democ- racy. Americans are intensely patriotic, but through ignorance they render less respect for their flag than some other peoples. The French people, and even the defeated Germans, invariably uncovered in the presence of the American flag overseas. I watched a parade on last Labor Day in a great American city and I only saw three men uncover, though the flag passed repeatedly. This is not a matter of lack of patriotism; it is a matter of ignorance. Every American boy and girl should be taught to know that the Ameri- can flag was the oldest flag that was carried in the World War; that it is the only flag that has never been lowered in defeat; that it has never followed armies of conquest; that it has never been unfurled except in behalf of liberty—and then perhaps Americans would learn to appreciate the forms of respect for such an emblem. I believe heartily in the American Legion’s program of citizenship. I would have all teachers take the oath of allegiance. I would require them to be American citizens. I would require the teaching of American his- tory and government. I would have the American flag displayed on every schoolhouse in the country. WHAT HAS THIS COUNTRY REASON TO EXPECT BY WAY OF CULTURE, EFFICIENCY, AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP IN RETURN FOR THE COST OF OPERATING PUBLIC EDUCATION? WILL C. WOOD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA President Jones: The chair is planning to close this meeting at twelve o’clock or very close thereto. I shall dispense with an elaborate introduc- tion of the last speaker in order that the time may be conserved. Mr. Will C. Wood, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Cali- fornia, is an introduction in himself, because of the great work he has done in this country. He is a National figure and you will appreciate him. Mr. Wood: It is not often that a school man finds himself called upon in a conference of his peers to justify the American school system of which he is a part. I confess at the outset that the task set for me has not been considered a light and transient one. ‘The time and situation demand that as schoolmen we analyze our purposes and accomplishments carefully; the back-sweep of the tide of war enthusiasm in the form of retrenchment has struck us and we must avoid the dangerous undertow that is bound to carry 1408 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION out to sea all institutions too weak to withstand it. The American people generally are asking themselves and one another and particularly the leaders of education the very question the president of this department has put to me: What in the way of culture, efficiency, and good citizenship has the country reason to expect in return for the cost of operating the public schools? In discussing the problem, however, I would emphasize the wording in which the problem is defined. The discussion is concerned not with what the people expect, but what the people have reason to expect from their expenditures for public education. The natural point of departure in this discussion is the amount we are now expending for the elementary and secondary schools of our country. The figures for the year ended June 30, 1920, show a total expenditure for the public schools by all the States of a trifle less than nine hundred million dollars. With the growth of population and the upward trend of wages that persisted in the early part of the last fiscal year, we may safely assume that the total expenditure for public education during the year ended June 30, 1921, was between $1,000,000,000 and $1,100,000,000, which is ap- proximately $10 for each man, woman, and child in the country. Let us compare this expenditure with the total expenditure of 1911, a decade previous. The total expenditure for that year was $446,727,000, or $4.76 for each unit of population. ‘The Federal department of labor is au- thority for the statement that during the year 1921 the purchasing power * of a dollar was less than half its purchasing power in 1911. In other words, the $10 per capita expended for public education in 1921 could purchase no more than the $4.76 per capita expended in 1911. The so-called in- creases in school expenditures during the last decade have therefore not been increases at all. School expenditures measured in purchasing power are no greater today than they were before the war. After all the agitation and enthusiasm for education growing out of awakened recognition of the Na- tion’s dependence upon and duty toward the youth it had drafted for its defense, we find that expenditure for schools has barely kept up to the pre- war level. ‘The country as a whole is spending for education in 1922 a less proportion of its total income than in 1911. It must therefore be ob- served that the schools are guiltless of the greed of the profiteer. What in the way of culture, efficiency, and good citizenship has this country reason to expect in 1922 in return for the cost of operating the public schools? The answer is simple and direct: inasmuch as it is spend- ing no more of purchasing power upon the schools in 1922 than it was ex- pending in 1911,it has reason to expect no more by way of culture, efficiency, and good citizenship than it secured by the expenditures of 1911. It has reason to expect no more, but as a matter of fact it is getting more, the increase being chargeable to the devotion of the great body of teachers and school administrators to the cause of better America. Let not this last statement, however, be seized upon to impose still further upon the mis- sionary spirit of the teaching body. It would be dangerous to do’so. A disposition toward missionary work is probably a matter of inheritance, and there are strong indications that the missionary strain in the human blood- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1409 stream is running out, probably because most missionary school-teachers, being wedded only to their mission, leave no descendants to perpetuate their self-sacrificing strain. I said a moment ago the American people have reason to expect from their schools in 1922 no more than they secured from them in 1911. For- tunately for our purposes, the results secured in 1911 have been measured with a fair degree of accuracy. The boys who were eligible for enrolment in the elementary and high schools of America in 1911 and the years imme- diately preceding were the very boys who were subject to the drafts of 1917 and 1918. We know now what kind of men they had become. Some were accepted, others rejected or placed in limited service. I firmly believe that the return made to America by the young men accepted in the American Expeditionary Force exceeds in value the total cost of their education a thousand times. The pluck and courage, the quickness of mind and body, the qualities of character that kept the great majority of them clean, the ability to meet new situations successfully, the wonderful initiative—all these indicate that the schools had rendered the Nation a service of untold value. However, when we turn to the men rejected or put into limited service, we read a different story. “The Army educational tests, as distin- guished from the Army intelligence tests, show that 29.4 per cent of the men included in the first draft were unable to meet the relatively simple test of intelligent reading and legible writing. Up to the outbreak of the war, the Army would not enlist illiterates, but the draft of June, 1917, yielded almost a hundred thousand illiterates or near-illiterates, the ma- jority of whom were native-born. ‘They could not sign their names. ‘They could not read signs or bulletins about camp. They could not communicate with the folks at home. “The report of the Surgeon General shows that of the 3,208,000 men included in the first draft and physically examined 949,000, or 29.59 per cent, were totally or partially disqualified for military duty for physical reasons. According to the last Federal census, we have in America 4,931,905 illiterates, of whom 3,084,738 were native-born. ‘These ‘figures attest the incompleteness rather than the incompetency of the Amer- ican school system of 1911 and the years immediately preceding. We can- not deny, however, that incompetence played its part in making possible the insufficiency of education revealed by the draft. Could we escape incom- petence and its results, with 30,000 of our 600,000 teachers having only an eighth-grade education or less; with 150,000, or one fourth of our teachers, having only two years of high-school work or less; with only 120,000 hav- ing the standard of preparation for teaching recognized as the minimum in all civilized nations; with one fourth of our teachers having less than two years’ experience and with more than half of them having less than four years’ experience in teaching? Is it any wonder that the boys of rural com- munities showed a greater percentage of illiteracy, a greater percentage of physica! defects, and less ability on an average in reading and understanding than the boys from the cities, when we consider that the typical rural-school teacher has had less than two years of high-school work, is under twenty- one years of age, has had less than two years of experience in teaching, and 1410 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION is at least twenty miles from a superintendent or supervisor who visits her only once a year? It was just such conditions as these that made possible the disappointing revelations of illiteracy, near-illiteracy, physical defective- ness, lack of comprehension and appreciation of American purposes and ideals during the World War. ‘The inadequacy of the American school system of 1911 and preceding years made possible the educational defects among the men drafted for the Great War. Since America is putting into her public education no more of her substance per capita in 1921 than she put into it in 1911, she has reason to expect no better results from the school system of 1921. It would be an idle thing to discuss what America can expect frem the school system of 1921. We know what we can expect. I shall therefore devote the remainder of this address to a discussion of what the American people have reason to expect in the way of culture, efficiency, and good citizenship from the school system of 1931. What kind of school system shall we have in 1931? It depends entirely upon the attitude of the American people toward facts that are well-known. One erstwhile leader in the American educational world decries the use of school statistics which show our shortcomings and cause the country un- easiness and concern, and bids us emulate the ostrich and seek surcease from anxiety by burying our heads in the sand. Since the American people after opportunity duly offered have neglected to accept the lead of this modern Ichabod in other matters, we may safely assume that, far from imitating the foolish bird of the desert, they will emulate the proud eagle of the Nation’s aegis, being ever alert against danger and keeping the serpent safe within its talons. I do not doubt that the American people, when they know the facts, will gladly build and support a school system to match the Nation’s need. Encouraged by this hope, I shall outline what I believe the American school system should embrace by the year 1931. The school system of America must be based upon the principle of equality of opportunity. Every child born in America is entitled to a fair chance to develop to the fullest such native abilities and tendencies as are . not socially undesirable. In planning to realize equality of opportunity, it is necessary to recognize natural inequalities, so the school system must include divers means to meet divers needs. The school system of 1931 will frankly avail itself of intelligence tests to determine whether individuals have sufficient mental endowment to justify public expenditures for their education. As school administrators, we must frankly recognize that there is*a point in the scale of intelligence, below which native endowment is so slight, that effort to develop it is wasted, or largely wasted. If we are men of judgment, we will define with scrupulous care, the cases of individuals whose intelligence is below the minimum point in the scale, as custodial cases, and insist that the State make provision for them outside the school department. Notwithstanding sentiment to the contrary, the schools can no longer justify expenditures of from three to five times as much upon individuals who. will never reach the bare limit of self-support, as upon individuals of normal intelligence. The DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1411 school system of 1931 should be expected to care only for individuals who possess sufficient native endowment to justify education. The school system of 1931 will concern itself with all citizens of the re- public, young, old, or middle-aged, who are capable of improving them- selves and are desirous of doing so. Education we would define as the process of more fully initiating the individual into the life of the commu- nity. Such education begins in infancy and continues as long as the indi- vidual needs and desires fuller participation in the life of the community. What are the steps or stages, or perhaps I should say, the degrees of initiation into community life? The first I would mention is the step of acquaintance with the language arts and number, these being the accepted fundamental tools of knowledge. Every individual in America of normal intelligence by the time he has reached the age of twelve years should as a very minimum know how to read ordinary English prose and verse, write legibly and with reasonable grammatical correctness ordinary business and social letters, spelling the commonly used words with accuracy. In ad- dition, he should know how to count to at least a million, how to handle simple measures of length, weight, and volume and how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide with accuracy whole numbers and common and decimal fractions. He should also know the more fundamental rules of personal and community hygiene and should have mastered at least a gen- eral outline of the history of our country, an acquaintance with our leading National heroes, and with the principal features of our National, State, and local government. Such knowledge, I say, should be the very mini- mum. In addition to this knowledge he should be trained in the more fundamental habits of personal and community life. It is not pleasant to contemplate the fact that there are millions of adults in America, most of them born here, who have not met even the first re- quirement I have mentioned. ‘The people of America have a right to expect that this blot upon American democracy shall be removed before 1931. To be effective the program must include the following means for overcoming illiteracy among the on-coming generation: (1) Laws making full-time attendance compulsory for all children between the ages of six and sixteen years; (2) laws providing for the appointment in every com- munity of intelligent supervisors of attendance who will conceive their duties to include not only the bringing in of truants but also the duty of seeing that blind, deaf, crippled, orphaned, feeble-minded, and destitute children are placed in touch with agencies capable of caring for them, and the duty of acting as mediator between school and home before truancy becomes a fact; (3) a course of study for primary-school children that will be vital and based upon motive; (4) provision for the supervision of health and physical condition to prevent loss of attendance and secure a proper physical basis for school work and, where necessary, hot school lunches ; (5) annual registration of minors to discover children who are not attend- ing school; (6) special classes in our larger cities for the deaf, blind, and crippled children, for speech defectives, and for retarded pupils ; and adequate State institutions for the care and education of such children 1412 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION living in districts where special classes cannot be economically maintained ; and (7) itinerant schools and itinerant teachers for children who, for various reasons, cannot attend schools. For overcoming illiteracy among the adult population we must include in our program the following: (1) evening schools, conveniently placed for working adults in schoolhouses, factories, or warehouses and offering special courses for adult illiterates; (2) specially trained teachers who un- derstand the special problem of teaching adults, are interested in the work and willing to get in touch with the men even while they are working; (3) special textbooks intended to meet the needs of adult illiterates; (4) afternoon classes, conducted if necessary in the front room of an illiterate woman’s home, for the benefit of illiterate mothers, including a nursery for the babies that may be brought; (5) home teachers to keep in touch with foreign homes, raise them to the American standard, and interpret to the mothers the institutions of America; and (6) itinerant teachers to visit and instruct adult illiterates at rural centers. If such a program is adopted, and if the Federal Government will in the meanwhile keep the gates closed against illiterates and people of low in- telligence, we can abolish illiteracy without doubt by 1931. It is all a question whether America is interested enough in human beings and in the future of democracy to pay the price of a clean and wholesome record. The minimum program of education I have outlined will make only a slight return to the country by way of culture, efficiency, and good citizenship. We must not deceive ourselves as to the value of mere literacy and acquaintance with the tools of knowledge. Literacy, considered apart from its use, means little by way of culture, efficiency, or good citizen- ship. Thomas Huxley sums up the value of literacy thus in his admirable essay on a liberal education: “If I am a knave or a fool,” says Huxley, “teaching me to read and write won’t make me less of either one or the . other—unless somebody shows me how to put my reading and writing to wise and good purposes. ‘The only medicine for suffering, crime, and all the other woes of mankind is wisdom. ‘Teach a man to read and write and you have put into his hands the great keys of the wisdom-box. But it is quite another matter whether he ever opens the box or not. And he is as likely to poison as to cure himself, if, without guidance, he swallows the first drug that comes to hand. In these times a man may as well be purblind as unable to read—lame, as unable to write. But I protest that, if I thought the alternative a necessary one, I would rather that children should grow up ignorant of both of these mighty arts than that they should remain ignorant of that knowledge to which these arts are means.” Literacy taken by itself may have been what Alexander Pope had in mind when he wrote: A little knowledge is a dangerous thing; Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring. To secure any adequate return from our school expenditures in the way of culture, efficiency, and good citizenship, we must extend education be- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1413 yond the point of mere acquaintanceship with the fundamental tools of knowledge. The individual is born into a world governed by natural laws with which he should become acquainted; he is also born into a complex world of human relationships—a world filled with activities that in their present form are the products of human experience. He stands in the relation of debtor to the forefathers of his land; to the people of ancient Greece, Egypt, modern Britain, and even China and the Celebes. He lives, not alone, but dependent upon many men of many lands; upon a multitude of economic, governmental, and social institutions and agencies. If these people and institutions are to serve him he must have at least a bare ac- quaintance with them. And if he in turn is to serve others, whether of his own or future generations, it is essential that he become so acquainted with the more significant human activities as to enable him to choose a service suited to his likes and talents. He must become acquainted during his earlier years with the elements of a wide range of studies that interpret human and natural environment. By means of books and contact with things, he must acquaint himself with human geography, the literary herit- age of his people, the history of his country and the roots thereof, the gov- ernment under which he lives, the community life about him, and the more significant phases of nature, including the simpler elements of the sciences. May I say in this connection that the great organization of Boy Scouts of America, working apart from the schools but auxiliary to them, has won- derful possibilities as an educational agency for acquainting boys with their natural and human environment. The plan for awarding merit badges for such subjects and activities as agriculture, architecture, art, astronomy, automobiling, aviation, bird study, botany, business, camping, chemistry, civics, conservation, cooking, craftsmanship, and cycling—to stop only with the ‘‘c’s”—fills a real need in the life of American youth. Generally speak- ing, Boy Scout education with its emphasis upon doing and upon project work is even more vital than much of the work of the schools. The value is in acquainting boys with significant human activities. While the horizon of human interests is being widened by means of school, scouting, and life activities, instruction and training should also be given through biography and literature, as well as by precept and example, in the character-building elements, including manners, morals, and worthy ideals. By the time the individual has reached the age of twelve he should have acquired the ability to read aloud intelligently, to read silently with reasonable speed and comprehension, and to put his thoughts on paper in clear and grammatical language, with due attention to the spelling of words and some attention to simple organization of material. The matter may be summed up as follows: During the first six years of the school course, corresponding to the logical elementary-school period, the child, in addition to the acquirement of a good working mastery of the tools of knowledge, should also have acquired acquaintance with those elements of the human and natural environment that are foundational for culture, efficiency, and good citizenship. 1414 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION The period from the age of twelve to that of twenty may be recognized as the critical period in the life of the individual. Physical, psychological, social, and economic problems of that period tend to make it one of stress and sometimes distress. "These years determine very largely whether the individual is to develop successfully those interests and activities that make for culture, efficiency, and good citizenship. ‘They determine in large measure whether he will become a swimmer, a sinker, or a floater. “They correspond roughly to the period of secondary education, and during this period we have the right to expect that he shall develop, subject to the possibility of change, a major interest that will lead ultimately to a life career worth while to himself and to society. The career chosen may involve the development of valuable skill in a vocation or the acquirement of general and specific knowledge foundational for later specialization; but a life-career motive there should be, before the end of the period, subject, as I have said, to revision in the light of broader experience. With such a motive, the individual in most instances will seek as a matter of course to develop the culture and efficiency necessary to his calling. However, this will not in itself be sufficient. “The demands of society will not be met unless the individual has a reasonable acquaint- ance with the best and highest ideals of the human race and particularly of the American people. He should have as a minimum three years of vital work in English, classical and American literature, which shall func- tion not only in appreciation of literary form and content but also in con- tinued reading of the best thought as it develops in current literature. He should have as a minimum such acquaintance with the history of the world as a well-planned one-year course in European history will give, and in addition a course in American history of at least one year. He should have such acquaintance with our governmental, economic, and social institutions as may be acquired in a minimum period of one year. He should have ac- quaintance with at least one laboratory science in order that he may know something of the scientific approach in solving problems, since science plays so vital a part in the life of our time. He should also have developed through a reasonable program of physical education a strong body, with mind and muscles codrdinated, a wholesome interest in outdoor activities. and an intelligent grasp of personal and community hygiene. The outline of the secondary field I have submitted represents the mini- mum requirement which all citizens of this Nation should have opportunity and encouragement to meet. In order to afford this opportunity, I sug- gest that the secondary-school system of 1931 include the following: (1) compulsory full-time education up to the age of sixteen, regardless of the fact that the elementary course may have been completed before that age, and compulsory part-time education up to the age of eighteen, as heretofore suggested; (2) junior high schools embracing the seventh, eighth, and ninth years ; senior high schools representing the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years, and where necessary, junior colleges representing the thirteenth and fourteenth years; (3) a cosmopolitan or inclusive high-school curriculum broad enough to include not only the foundational cultural subjects but also DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1415 the representative vocations for both men and women; (4) election of studies on a scope sufficiently broad to permit the individual student to build a program suited to his needs around the common core of prescribed work heretofore described; (5) part-time and evening classes placed to meet the convenience of workers, enabling the individual to get a broader and better understanding of the job on which he labors during work hours and preparing him for the next round in the ladder of his vocation, as well as for better exercise of the prerogatives of citizenship; and (6) intelligent vocational guidance and life-career counsel. Such a program does not afford a guaranty of a reasonable return in culture, efficiency, and good citizenship. Its merit is that it exposes the individual to the contagion of culture, efficiency, and good citizenship. After all is said and done, culture, efficiency, and good citizenship cannot be imposed; they are matters of inward growth, inspired by outward sug- gestions and influences. However, the country will have reason to expect that the great majority of young people who complete such a program of education will not only have acquired valuable information, knowledge, a life-career motive and with many, reasonable skill in a vocation, but will also have developed some of those chief qualities, habits, abilities, attitudes, and ideals that mark the cultivated man, the efficient human, and the good citizen. Indeed such should be the constant motive of those who do the training. We have reason to expect that the majority of them, to a reason- able degree, will have “made the body the ready servant of the will;”’ that their intellects will be trained to distinguish between truth and error; that their minds will be trained to think hard and with reasonable precision ; that they will have learned to love beauty in nature and in art, and to hate the sodden and the vile. The country has reason to expect that individuals coming up to citizen- ship through such a course will have developed genuine ability to think, which is essential to worthy citizenship. Ability to think is a better test of qualification for citizenship than mere literacy. James Bryce in his last work, Modern Democracies, recalls English rustics of sixty years ago “Shrewd men unable to read, but with plenty of mother-wit, and by their strong sense and solid judgment quite as well qualified to vote as are their grandchildren today who read a newspaper and revel in the cinema.” He also points out that the voters of Greece learned their politics, not from the printed page, but by listening to informed orators and by discussion among themselves. “It is thinking that matters,” says Bryce, “not reading, and by thinking I mean the power of getting at facts and arguing consecutively from them. In these days our reading has become a substitute for think- ing. On the printed page, truth has no better chance than falsehood, ex- cept with those who read widely and have the capacity of discernment. A modern voter guided by his party newspapers is no better off than his grandfather who, in England, eighty years ago, voted at the bidding of his landlord or employer. A democracy that has been taught only to read and not also to reflect and judge will not be better for the ability to read.” For the expenditure made for education the country has the right \ 1416 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to expect that the majority of citizens will have the power of getting at facts, the ability to reason therefrom, and to give a reason for the faith that is in them. The country also has reason to expect that the majority of individuals completing such a course will have developed a sense of duty and responsi- bility necessary for the continuance of a democratic civilization. ‘To this end, the secondary-school period must afford abundant opportunities for participation in school activities involving responsibilities; opportunities for the exercise of initiative and self-direction; opportunities to learn to live and serve with people, even at the price of making mistakes. There is reason to expect that students under such a program will have grown out of many of the petty prejudices, provincialisms, and superstitions that fetter the human mind and will; they will have de- veloped that open-mindedness which is essential to progress; the open- mindedness which recognizes that truth has not yet been fully revealed, but is still in process of revelation; the open-mindedness that is will- ing to examine thoughtfully and carefully new ideas and things even though they may threaten to shatter, or modify, some of our cherished beliefs. It is indeed strange that men and parties and creeds should seek by violent or near-violent means to check the growth or modification of ideas and ideals. It was closed-mindedness that caused Jesus of Nazareth to die on the cross, Socrates to drink the hemlock, and Galileo to be thrust into prison. And yet each of these great characters is today reckoned as one of the greatest benefactors of human kind. The shadow of intolerance, falling across the path of human kind throughout the ages, has always re- tarded human progress. By keeping men in darkness it has slain its vic- tories by millions and cramped the souls of whole nations and races. Open- mindedness has to its credit the discovery of America, freedom of religion and conscience, the development of science and its marvelous applications to human needs, the progress of engineering, the conquest for civilization of almost the entire earth, the birth of the American Republic, the growth of democracy, the development of humanitarianism, the conception of a war- less world. History and science are united in discounting the fear of open- mindedness. Man is by nature conservative. Dr. William James in his Pragmatism declares “Our minds grow in spots; and like grease-spots they spread as little as possible: we keep unaltered as much of our old knowledge, as many of our old prejudices and beliefs, as we can. We patch and tinker more than we renew. The novelty sinks in; it stains the ancient mass, but it is also tinged by what absorbs it. Our past apperceives and coéperates; and in the new equilibrium in which each step forward in the process of learning terminates, it happens relatively seldom that the new fact is added raw. More usually it is embedded cooked, as one might Say, or stewed down in the sauce of the old.” In other words, James points out the innate quality of conservatism in the human mind, What is needed as an undoubted mark of culture, efficiency, and good citizenship is neither an intensification of the incrusted grease-spots of the mind nor an open-mindedness ready to embrace anything bearing the impress or ap- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1417 pearance of novelty; rather is it a critical or examining attitude—a disposi- tion to made ideas, whether novel or ancient, stand the test of careful analysis. In discussing culture in his essay on ‘‘Sweetness and Light,” Matthew Arnold includes open-mindedness and the development of intelli- gent criticism of ideas as the chief marks of culture. ‘“‘Culture,’’ he says, “is a study of perfection and has its origin in a love of perfection. ‘The great aim of culture is that of setting ourselves to ascertain what perfection “is and to make it prevail. Not a having and a resting, but a growing and a becoming is the character of perfection as culture sees it. Now is the moment for culture to be of service—culture which believes in making reason and the will of God prevail, believes in perfection, in the study and pursuit of perfection, and is no longer debarred by a rigid, invincible ex- clusion of whatever is new from getting acceptance for its ideas simply because they are new.” Such is the program and such the purposes of the American school system. A sense of responsibility and duty; a general knowledge of the world and its more worthy activities; a special knowledge of at least one human activity; a trained mind, responsive to the best ideas and ideals, whether old or new; an ability to make one’s way in the world honestly; a love of perfection that silently but surely reshapes the soul toward perfection; and a heart that beats in unison with the best in the kingdom of this world and the kingdom above—these, in reasonable measure, are the fruits the country has reason to expect from a generously supported American school system. VIRGINIA’S BUILDING PROGRAM, ITS AIMS AND VOCATIONAL WORK E. T. DUFFIELD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, VIRGINIA, MINNESOTA Virginia is a city of some 18,000 people. Its school district is not co- extensive with the city, but is platted in the form of an inverted chair, ten miles due north and south and six miles due east and west, and covers 48 square miles of territory. Virginia serves a rural, mining, lumbering, and residential population. Its school enrolment of 4000 children is dis- tributed as follows: 2 per cent, strictly rural; 7 per cent, locational or small village; and 91 per cent, urban. The rural population is taken care of as a unit by itself through the first eight grades; the small village groups are partly now and next year will be totally assimilated into the city schools through our own system of trans- portation. Virginia’s future building program combined with its present equipment will aim toesatisfy the general demand of cities similarly constituted. It contemplates two general types of grade schools: Type 1—To house the kindergarten and the first four grades; and Type 2—To house the kinder- garten and the first six grades. 1418 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION These two types are so located geographically that the normal children of the kindergarten through the fourth grade will not be required to travel more than a quarter of a mile to school, and normal children of the fifth and sixth grades not more than one half a mile. “Type 2 structures will be found on the extreme wings and in the centre of the city. Type 1 structures are and will be located between the Type 2 structures. Type 3—The Junior-Senior High School organized on the 6-3-3 plan is already finished and is located geographically in the centre of the city, and also in the centre of school population. Type 4—This building, an old seven-room building, is being gradually set aside and remodelled for the subnormal group. Its present equipment is for several trades and as the number of teachers increase the vocational training will be made more varied. Type 5—This is the purely industrial type and houses those departments separately established on a commercial basis. Virginia now has the following schools: ‘Type Oo a oe 3 schools Hay pipe er pee eee ny So agi Ni an Ss el ee 1 school ns See encanta ee 1 school yy py ees cee meee la ee 1 school Re uae = io em ee oe a 2 schools vo OH SRI Meee Se Oe 6 Ee ey 3 schools, rural and village. Type Da pote im ee ee ee 1 school PAY 2A ee epee ee OA by BV beh 8s Ee 1 school Contemplated within a year or 4: Type Yin AE AM ELAR wee ates 5 Dp Nh etl ei x Dore gts 1 school Junot Hs, S348 bande al alent SOUL, cence Be 1 school The Type 2 school being contemplated will be a conversion of a Type 1 school to a Type 2 by the addition of 10 or 12 rooms. We are now erecting a modern fire-proof grade school of Type 2 with 17 class rooms, combined auditorium and gymnasium. Plans are being prepared to erect a 12-room Type 1 structure in an isolated section of the downtown district this summer. When our present plans are complete Virginia will have for its im- mediate needs: Type [2 eS Se. See Oe eee 3 schools Zine ees Su le Ee! 6 hh ene ee ae 3 schools . See seuet ohn Ei ee ee hp » 1 school i 422 2 0S Dae Bae Se, Ge ee 1 school ; } Sais echoe 22 SSE ee eee ee ae ee 2 schools eS 3 schools DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1419 To complete our entire program we will be forced at the present rate of growth of our school population to erect a junior high school to ac- commodate the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades and the prevocational shops. Each building is equipped with the modern idea of a maximum average of twenty-five pupils to a teacher. The room capacity is thirty-five pupils. In discussing our vocational system, we are brought face to face with the large corporation school trying to strengthen its usefulness in directing the training of their employees into one narrow channel which spells in- creased production for the company and yet involves decreased general capacity for usefulness of the individual. ‘They are demanding more and more as time goes on that a man stick to what he is doing, because of the expense and economic risk involved in ‘‘changing over.”” We must meet this corporation school by giving a broad general training and also enough specialized work to enable a youth to finish his apprenticeship in the trade of his choice quickly and intelligently. ‘The Virginia schools have as their aim the making of students who are mentally alert, physically fit, morally straight, and vocationally efficient. It is attempting to provide vocational efficiency by the following method. Our Department of Research is the centre of vocational and educational advisement activities. It is the centre because within this office are col- lected into a folder file system various records of all the pupils in the Virginia schools. Copies of classroom achievement, attendance, scholar- ship, intelligence test, I. Q., physical, dental, medical, and social records, and any other pertinent memoranda are filed under individual pupils’ names. ‘This body of information for each child is of definite value in advising with the pupils and their parents, concerning their future school and life activities. It is also of particular value in studying the problems of the retarded, dull, and subnormal pupil as well as the supernormal cases. Beginning with the seventh grade a systematic endeavor is made to pre- sent the different phases of life’s industrial activities to enable the students to find themselves. The seventh and eighth grade students are given eight different vocational experiences for two years in courses ten weeks in length, one hour a day. ‘Thus the seventh grade boys are given a short intensive experience in drafting, agriculture, home mechanics, wood turn- ing, and pattern making. ‘The seventh-grade girls are given work in cook- ing and sewing. ‘The eighth-grade boys are given work in electricity, printing, office practice, and metal work (machine shop). ‘The eighth- grade girls are given photography, office practice, cooking, and sewing. These lines are all taught by expert tradesmen, and we feel that these experiences are a distinct contribution to the general education of the boys and girls and at the same time afford them a basis for better selection of their future school courses and later vocations. 7 After this tryout period in the grades, the students are asked to begin making a decision between a professional and an industrial career. Here 1420 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the vocational advisors collaborate with the research department in trying to interpret for the student the past achievements as revealed in the folder file of the research department. If a student selects a professional career he chooses those subjects offered as prerequisite to his entering the special school or university. If he selects an industrial career he is given an op- portunity for intensive training along a number of different lines. At this point the parents are required to sign the program of the student certifying that they are satisfied with the program selected by and for the student. The students in agriculture have a real farm of sixty-seven acres, fully equipped with buildings and machinery, and fully stocked. This farm together with a greenhouse, dairy department, and classrooms in the high- school building serve as an experimental laboratory for both practical and theoretical work. ‘The products from the farm such as, vegetables, garden - truck, milk, and eggs are used in the domestic science and cafeteria depart- ments. The classes in carpentry are building a cottage under the conditions as found in the trade. We propose next year to acquire property, put in a permanent foundation and temporary heat so as to erect and enclose a building during the mild fall weather; heat it during the winter months for the interior finishing, painting, and otherwise complete it in the spring; dispose of it at public sale, the building to be removed from our site and the premises prepared for another building the following year. ‘The work of the print shop is entirely of a productive nature. ‘The shop prints practically all the school printing. We plan on introducing a cer- tain amount of commercial work so as to create the atmosphere of a busi- ness establishment and to bring our work in closer touch and competition with the trade so that we may prove to ourselves and others that our work is of the proper standing. The electrical department handles storage batteries on a commercial basis; armature winding for the motors and generators of our school sys- tem, the interior wiring in the buildings put up by the carpentry classes. Work of a commercial nature is constantly provided for these classes. In the automobile department an agreement has been reached with the local garage owners whereby no objection is raised to our taking such com- mercial work as we find necessary for instructional purposes. And so on through our trade departments we are making an attempt to do first-class teaching and at the same time command the respect of skilled mechanics in the trade by doing as much practical work under conditions found in the trade as we are able to absorb into our instructional system. Pupils studying trades are taught English, science, mathematics, art, and similarly related subjects. The mathematics is the mathematics of the particular trade, the science is closely related to the trade itself. ‘Thus much unrelated material is disregarded. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE LIST OF SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN OUR VOCATIONAL SCHEME . English (a) Public Speaking (b) Shop English (c) General English 2. Normal Training 3 . Science (a) General Science (b) Geology (c) Physiography (d) Biology (e) Botany (f) Physics (g) Chemistry (Ah) ‘Related Science (i) Physiology 4. Mathematics 6 oo © (a) General Mathematics (b) Related Mathematics (c) Commercial Arithmetic (d) Higher Algebra (e) Solid Geometry . Commercial (a) Office Practice (5) Typing (c) Shorthand (d) Salesmanship (e) Bookkeeping (f) Commercial Law (g) Commercial Geography . History and Social Sciences (a) United States History (b) English History (c) Modern History (d) Ancient History ) Social Sciences ) Community Civics ) Economics ) Industrial History ) ) Art for Art’s Sake Related Art (c) Applied Art . Languages (Ancient and Modern) (a) Latin (b) French (c) Spanish . Household Arts © (a) Cooking (b) Cafeteria Management (Lunch room) (c) Sewing (a’) Commercial Sewing (b') Advanced Trade (c’) Home Furnishing—House Planning (d’) Millinery (e’) Dressmaking (f’) Hand Sewing (d) Home Nursing (a') Elementary Dietetics 10. Music (a) Band (b) Orchestra (c) Harmony—Music Appreciation—History (d) Glee Club—Chorus 1421 1422 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 11. Trades a) Printin ; es Woodwork—Carpentry—Cabinet Making {c) Turning—Pattern Making (d) Machine Shop (e) Electricity (f) Automotive (g) Drafting (h) Agriculture ; (a’) Farm crops and soils (b') Animal Husbandry , (c’) Farm Law, Surveying, Sociology . (d') Marketing (e') Dairying (1) Photography (7) Mill work (k) Foundry (1) Forging ¥ (m) Building Construction A strong feature of our vocational work is conducted in the night schools where the following subjects are offered to about 1000 students. . Americanization . Business English Bookkeeping . Shorthand . Typewriting . Cooking (a) General Cookery (b) Boy Scout Classes 7. Home Furnishing 8. Sewing 9. Art 10. Building Construction 11. Printing 12. Drafting 13. Machine Shop 14. Wood Turning—Pattern Making 15. Auto Repair 16. Electrical (a) Battery Repair (6) Motor and Armature Winding AnpPwne We are becoming more and more convinced that our scheme of voca- tional guidance is showing satisfactory progress. (a) Many of the students who enter the so-called trade courses discover themselves and their abilities and later transfer to the professional courses. (b) It is keeping the students in school longer than previously, so much so that we are about to recommend the immediate addition of four more trades to the shops and extending more openings to girls. A comparative statement of the enrolment of boys in June, 1921, and September, 1921, corroborates the above statement: DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1423 REGISTRATION Decreased Grade June, 1921 Sept., 1921 enrolment 8 103 100 3 9 109 105 4 10 74 69 5 11 52 46 6 12 40 39 il Motaltm. seas 378 359 19 The following table gives figures to show that in the Junior-Senior High School the diversified trade courses are keeping the greater majority in school. Grades Re ata UA Sa 7 8 9 10 11 Ws Total EWROlMen CaeGies steeiecnagea es 248 264 315 184 134 105 1398+ Weftmtheucity.nsoor eens 11 14 17 7 3 ahs 5 Pastecompulsorys ae...) 1): 3 3 18 9 6 2, 41 ibvealtheibe rianit ass cmrtee ieee Mors 1 1 ais int mee 2 Works Penmitte. syaac cee se. et Sit Tits 2 te Nee 2 Tetala. ae he TA ae Oe Bana. 07 1Including 148 sixth graders now enrolled in seventh grade. It also gives evidence that we do not need so much compulsion to keep children in school as we need compulsion to offer the necessary courses to make it worth while staying. We are still in the experimental stage and just beginning to treat our vocational work scientifically. Public education in the past had for its object the trained intellect. It accomplished this too largely through the medium of the printed page. It often neglected to bring the mind into contact with real things where this might easily have been done. The result was often to remove the student from the practical as he pursued his education in higher schools. ‘The ideal of the American people is markedly a person who can do things. The ideal of the Corpo- ration Trade School is preéminently utilitarian. Attempt is being made in Virginia to combine the humanitarian and utilitarian ideals in a well- balanced harmonious whole which will result in an intelligent, practical citizen capable of making a place for himself in our civic and economic order thus contributing his share not only in the field of labor but in the civil and social organizations as well. THE ONE-STORY SCHOOL A. A. MC DONALD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SIOUX FALLS, SOUTH DAKOTA In its five new schools recently completed, the city of Sioux Falls has made a radical departure from the ordinary type of two- and three-story schoolhouses. The buildings are one story in height, fire-proof in con- struction, panic-proof in arrangement, and embody the latest ideas in ar- 1424 NationaL EpucATION ASSOCIATION rangement for the health of the pupils, the efficiency of the instruction, and the wider use by the community: The five buildings are practically identical in plan, construction, and equipment. The classrooms are ar- ranged along a central court which serves as an assembly room, gymnasium, and community center. ‘The space between the two front entrances is given to administrative offices, a library, and minor rooms of general use. At the rear is a stage which serves also as a kindergarten-room. Manual- training and domestic-science rooms are placed at the rear corners of the building. The assembly room will seat approximately 500 persons; it is lighted wholly from above and is furnished with folding chairs, so that it may be used for all school activities. It is equipped for social-center use and has a booth for a stereopticon and motion-picture machine. The floor may be cleared readily for indoor gymnastics or physical training, marching, or folk dancing. ‘The large stage is sufficient to accommodate a chorus of 300 children and may be used for general school exercises and amateur dramatics. ‘The stage may be separated from the balance of the auditorium by a curtain, so that it is for all practical purposes a separate room. It has a large bay in addition to the skylights and is finished in attractive home- like style with a fire-place. The classrooms are wider than long and are equipped with built-in ward- robes. They receive their main light from above through large skylights and depend upon the side windows for auxiliary light only. A minimum of woodwork has been introduced, and the concrete floors have been covered with battleship linoleum to eliminate noise and to facilitate cleaning. ‘The overhead lighting is almost ideal in softness and evenness, movable chair desks have been introduced in place of fixed desks, so that great mobility in the adjustment of classes to various types of work is possible. The sanitary equipment of the building is of the most modern type, the toilets and baths are on the main floor where they may be readily accessible to the children and under close supervision of the principal and teachers. The kindergarten and first grade have a separate toilet and lavatory. The heating plant and janitor’s storeroom are the only portions of the building which are below grade. The boilers are outside of the main building, so that in case of accident no harm will come to the children. The buildings are fire-proof throughout, four large exits lead directly to the playground, and a separate exit leads from the kindergarten to a low terrace. The buildings are accordingly panic-proof. No steps are found in these build- ings, even the door mat is sunk to the floor level to avoid tripping. There is every reason to believe that the buildings embody the latest and most mod- ern ideas in schoolhouse arrangement and construction, so that they will conserve the health and insure the safety of the children and that they will augment the efficiency of the administration of work. To summarize: These buildings are fire-proof, panic-proof, and so ar- ranged as to promote the efficiency of all school work as well as the efficiency of all community-center work, such as parent-teachers‘ association, basket- ball games, and any meetings for public welfare. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1425 ee eS TRON Re MOOTED QUESTIONS IN SCHOOL-BUILDING SERVICE WILLIAM B. ITTNER, ARCHITECT AND SCHOOL SPECIALIST, ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI Schoolhouse planning and construction involves but one big problem, namely: successful adaptation of facilities to educational needs. Nothing less than this will result in efficient building service. And it is building service that school architects together with school administrators are striv- ing to secure. Educational needs and demands vary with the different communities. There are common elements, to be sure, but there are a greater number of individual elements. Classroom work is similar in most schools, but the proportionate number of classrooms will vary with different schools. For instance, with the platoon and work-study-play plan, a smaller number of regular rooms are required than with the traditional organization. And quite a number of schools are organizing on the platoon plan or some modification of it. There is a greater difference with the other component parts of the school plant, namely: auditoriums, work shops, libraries, laboratories, and physical education quarters. These vary even with schools in the same city. Some schools have no auditorium at all; others are inclined to make them of sufficient size for the entire student enrolment, which, of course, may represent waste. Again, there are schools with the barest requirements for shops and laboratories, while others include the richest environments pos- sible for these activities. Practically all schools are now including physical education quarters, but even so there are variations in demands and policies regarding these facilities. One gymnasium is desired for some schools, and in others two are deemed indispensable. In many southern communities playgrounds are used practically the entire year; consequently, gymnasium space may be reduced to a minimum in the elementary schools or eliminated entirely. Even the non-instructional space varies. For instance, the size of the lunch rooms depends on the type of organization and the general policies regarding their use as instructional quarters when not appropriated for school lunches. Main corridors in some schools serve informal educational uses as well as a means of circulation; consequently, a restriction of their space might be accomplished at too great a sacrifice. A matter which often emerges as an obstacle to adaptation is the con- tinued demand for more housing. School plants are usually planned for the more immediate housing needs and by the time they are completed the enrolment has outgrown them. Housing problems argue for adequate fore- sight and a survey of future as well as present needs. The efficient school architectural organizations include experts for the necessary housing investi- gations as well as experts for educational adaptation. Educational demands are constantly changing; therefore, educational programs must change and these, in turn, call for occasional changes in the 1426 NationaL Epucation AssociATION school plant. ‘The successful school architect must anticipate future edu- cational needs and problems when planning present needs. Elasticity Is the secret of continued building service. ‘The building plan must be elastic, so that alterations and expansions may be readily made with the greatest economy and without impairing lighting or ventilation. With adaptation as the dominant thought, the planning and development of every school plant becomes an individual and a constantly changing prob- lem. ‘The debated questions of size of auditorium, group plan vs. compact plan, top-lighting, and one-story buildings resolve themselves into variations of methods in bringing about a solution to the varieties of building projects. No school architect who is a student of changing educational demands and organization and who is fully aware that needs and policies vary with prac- tically every community will ever take a decided stand for a certain size or type of auditorium applicable to all types of schools. Nor will he advocate the group plan indiscriminately, nor top-lighting, nor the one-story schools except as they apply in the solution of particular problems. The full possibilities of school auditoriums as socializing units and edu- cational factors are being realized in a comparatively small number of schools. Where an auditorium is desired for occasional large gatherings only, the financial drain becomes too great on the school’s resources for its installation in all schools of a community. In this case it is better to select one or more schools with central location and restrict auditoriums to them. The size, then, will depend on contemplated use. There is no doubt, how- ever, that the auditorium may and should become a vital instructional force and it is to be hoped that all schools will organize, so that this desirable asset will really become a necessity through educational demands. In schools where the auditoriums are used regularly by groups of classes for instructional and socializing purposes the over-large room is a disad- vantage. Instead the medium-sized auditorium, preferably with a capacity of from six to eight hundred, is the most practical. "This medium-sized space if planned in correct relation with a stage gymnasium and separated therefrom by a sound-proof movable partition can always be enlarged for special occasions. There has been some discussion on the advantage of group planning in schoolhouse construction. If the group plan can show greater educational adaptation than the compact plan, then it should receive paramount con- sideration in the initial planning of school plants. Nevertheless, it requires a large site, adds materially to the cost of construction on account of the large number of outside walls, necessitates needlessly long runs of pipe lines for heating and ventilation, and requires extra cost for tunneling or construction of covered passageways between buildings. It also adds to the problem of administration, supervision, and janitorial service. If the edu- cational advantages can outweigh these disadvantages, well and good. Sometimes it may be necessary to institute a group plan. Circumstances may force it. For example, at Greenfield, Ohio, ‘Mr. E. L. McClain, a public-spirited citizen, through a generous impulse. donated a beautiful DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1427 high school to the city several years ago. It was complete in every respect. At the present time the Board of Education is planning an elementary school in close proximity. And Mr. McClain is matching this by another donation in the form of a detached annex to the high school for additional shops, agricultural laboratories, and a swimming pool. ‘The completed plan will include a group of three buildings. Here the group plan is de- sirable, and it is usually unavoidable where old buildings are to be enlarged and eventually replaced. It has been argued that the group plan gives a more pleasing effect archi- tecturally. There is also a negative to this assumption. The best in archi- tecture is not necessarily a detachment of component parts but rather cor- rect proportion, proper relationship, nobility of mass, and simplicity of design. Surely, these can be attained as well with a consolidation as with a detachment of related parts. So, again, it is a question of individual adaptation, a study of the elements involved before a solution can be evolved. Much time and energy have been wasted on discussions of top-lighting. This type of lighting may be ideal for shops, but it is decidedly questionable whether this method of lighting alone or in combination with side lighting will be found generally satisfactory for classrooms. First of all, there is danger of improper distribution of light. ‘The result is usually an over-supply of light in the center portion of the rooms, with blackboards and the more remote parts in semi-darkness. It is obvious that lack of proper light distribution constitutes an obstacle to building service. There is also something in the psychology of closed-up walls. Rooms with adequate and properly arranged side lighting are far more cheerful and inviting. Furthermore, top-lighting for classrooms is restricted to one- story buildings, and these are only recommended in specific instances. The question of proper lighting is intimately connected with a number of conditions. It is at once a matter of adaptation. ‘That the light should come from the left side; that the window area should be in proper propor- tion to the floor area (which varies in different latitudes), and that win- dows should extend to the ceiling of the room are matters on which there has been a general agreement. As suggested in a preceding statement, the question of top-lighting nat- urally relates to the one-story buildings which should be restricted to the warmer climates, and it is not always advisable to erect them there. A couple of years ago several elementary schools were being planned for Dallas, ‘Texas. A tendency seemed to be in the direction of the one-story schools. A report of comparison between a one- and a two-story building with identical facilities was requested. Several of the outstanding results were as follows: (1) Site comparisons revealed that the one-story required 151% per cent larger site than the two-story building to provide equal play space; (2) in cubical content the one-story exceeded the two-story by 54,336 cubic feet; and (3) the cost was $20,648 greater. Without any outstanding counteracting educational advantages, no light- 1428 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ing or safety advantages of the one-story over the two-story plan, the new Dallas schools were planned as two-story structures. In the smaller as well as the larger cities adaptation revolves around centralization. ‘The development of a large number of small plants instead of a small number of large plants precludes successful adaptation and build- ing economies, For instance, if a city with eight small schools of approxi- mately four hundred pupils each attempts to install gymnasiums, shower baths, and auditoriums in each plant, the cost becomes prohibitive. How much saner to provide two large plants with a capacity equal to the eight schools. ‘Two auditoriums, two gymnasiums, and other enriched facilities in proportion are then financially possible. ‘The city of Detroit furnishes an excellent example of transition on a large scale from small schools to large units. Greenfield, Ohio, is as good an example of the advantages of one large centralized group for a school population of fourteen hundred pupils. For a medium-sized city, Gary, Indiana, stands out as a shining example of centralization. When adaptation and centralization are achieved, the mooted questions will change color. ‘The size of the auditorium will be determined after an understanding of contemplated use. ‘Top-lighting and the one-story type of school will generally prove impractical. All of the so-called mooted topics will be absorbed by the one great problem of adaptation. To sum up: Centralization, the scientific adaptation of the school plant to educa- tional and housing needs, present and future, elasticity of building plan, so that changes and expansions are practically and economically possible, and the reduction of non-instructional space to the required minimum constitute the guiding principles in the development of school plants in all commu- nities. THE SUPERINTENDENT AND STANDARDIZED TESTS D. C. BLISS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MONTCLAIR, NEW JERSEY One of the most significant developments in recent educational adminis- tration is the extensive use of standardized tests. It marks the change from schools administered on the basis of mere opinion to a procedure having for its justification ascertained facts. Such tests have now been employed for a sufficient length of time to show that they may be used for three things: (1) Determination of existing conditions; (2) Diagnosis of causes of failure; (3) Prognosis for future procedure. Judging from their practice, our schools seem to assume that the first step constitutes the whole testing program. ‘They need to realize that the accumulation of medians, averages, graphs, and the like is of little avail. The important thing is such an analysis of these returns as will show the causes of failure, and then such a modification of method as will remedy — the situation. The sick man is not helped when he is told that appendi- citis is the cause of the severe pain. He wants action, and that quickly. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1429 Doubtless it is of interest to the teacher to know that her class reaches a certain average on the Woody Test. If that is the beginning and the -end, the time consumed in giving the test is largely wasted. If the class record is poor, the teacher wants to know why it is poor. It may be due to much drill on some operations and too little drill on others. Little consideration had been given to the prognostic value of tests until their extensive use by the army in classifying the millions of men gathered by the selective draft. It is of this phase of testing that I wish to speak in the brief time at my disposal. For the sake of using concrete facts, I will describe in considerable detail how Montclair has used the standard test in the sixth grade as a means of determining the grouping in the seventh grade, or the first year of the junior high school. One of our largest junior schools is recruited from four elementary schools of the most diverse character. One of these schools is attended almost wholly by Italians, another by Negroes and Italians, a third by children from an unusually fine type of American ancestry, while the fourth school is of a cosmopolitan character, with extreme types represented. When the junior school was first organized, the principal faced a difficult task. Here were children of all degrees of intellectual ability, gathered in one school. ‘The only information available to the principal was the promotion record of the child. Variation in the standards of the four schools and in the marks given by a dozen teachers made this record of little value as a means for classifying the pupils. The only thing to do was to form tentative groups according to the available evidence and later make such adjustments of individual pupils as their record in the junior school required. ‘The larger part of the first semester was consumed in this wasteful procedure. It became evident that some better means than the trial-and-error method must be found for classifying these children. Accordingly, during the latter part of the year 1917, a battery of six tests was given to all sixth-grade pupils in the four schools, and on the basis of the results the names of the pupils were arranged in order, the pupil making the best record being No. 1, and so on. ‘The first year the six tests employed were: Thorndike Visual Vocabulary, Thorndike Scale Alpha, Trabue Completion, Whipple Easy Opposites, Courtis Arithmetic Series B, and Ayres Spelling. One hundred ninety-six pupils were thus tested, and five fairly homogeneous groups were formed. ‘These groups constituted the basis for assignment to sections, in making up the classes for the following September. As may be imagined, it was a task of considerable magnitude for one person to give these six tests, rank the papers and indicate the respective groupings. Unless these groupings were justified in the light of the records of the seventh grade, the scheme would necessarily have to be abandoned. Accordingly, after the close of the year in 1918, the scholastic record of these same 196 children was compared with their prognostic record to determine the degree of accuracy of the prognosis. 1430 NationaL EpucatTion ASSOCIATION If a pupil was ranked in Group-I in the prognosis and his record the next year placed him in Group-I; we were entirely satisfied. If the prognosis placed him in Group-V and his record located him in Group-V, the prognosis was considered correct. The fact should not be overlooked that the group in which a child was placed at the close of the seventh year depended entirely upon that most variable of all measures, the teacher’s mark. “The amount of this error no one can tell, but it is doubtless a considerable one. When the first prognostic grouping was checked by the first scholastic grouping, the accuracy of the placement was close enough to justify all the time and labor expended. Accordingly the same plan has been fol- lowed for four years, and the grouping checked the subsequent year. The close resemblance of the personnel of the two groups is best illus- trated by this chart, showing the prognostic grouping in 1919 and the scholastic grouping in 1920. Of the original prognostic Group-I, 67 per cent were classified in Group-I on their record, 23 per cent in Group-I1, 3 per cent in Group-III, and 7 per cent in Group-IV. Not a single pupil went to Group-V. Of the prognostic Group-V, 74 per cent were classified on their scholastic record as belonging in Group-V, 10 per cent in Group-IV, and 16 per cent in Group-III. Not a single pupil was placed in Group-II or Group-I. It is evident that the difference between any two groups is very small. While 67 per cent remained in Group-I, the 23 per cent that were placed in Group-II might well be classed in Group-I, leaving the 3 per cent and 7 per cent of Groups III and IV as the sum of the prognosis error. While these two groups show the highest correlaton between the prognostic and scholastic groupings, the entire record for the four years is most significant. The per cent of all children examined remaining, on their record for the year, in exactly the same group in which placed by examina- tion, is as follows: 1917-1918, 43 per cent; 1918-1919, 36 per cent; 1919-1920, 42 per cent; and 1920-1921, 44 per cent. If these percentages were increased by the inclusion of these children in adjacent groups, the resulting groups, which are sufficiently homogeneous for working purposes, would show an accuracy of placement of about 80 per cent. When it is remembered that one of the factors consists of the weighted marks of different teachers, the error does not seem excessive. This study gave some interesting facts upon the relation of the junior high school, with its differentiated courses of study, to elimination. In 1917, the junior high school had not been organized long enough for the school to realize to the fullest extent the opportunities for adapting subject matter and methods to the needs of pupils. Elimination was least in the most advanced section, and increased progressively as appears below: DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1431 PROGNOSTIC GROUPING Number Elimination Groupee ate noe TaeecE Eee lie Giinhs Rar os See e 28 4 Group, Llman. tes 0 EST tee OEP Peitias sek Sead: Leet 36 8 Group lle sa be Eon feels Pes es dasa 51 11 COLON py Vege tae GEaI. BOR Eae Moco a -& Teen BA Sele 42 15 ECU Vier ert oi Leet CA nee. dekard SEAL Se. 38 21 MGOtdl mat eters ee re Pn eee 195 59 With a clearer appreciation of the significance of the junior high school and a better adjustment of the curriculum, three years later elimi- nations were not only fewer in number, but clearly were not dependent upon scholarship. PROGNOSTIC GROUPING, 1920 Numbers CP GTT Sl gee NS G8 Boy Oe Oe ee ee 39 5 siraray et I RS Sea oa Arie ory i ee ee 42 9 Ca eT OE A Sree eo a Soe CN ee ee 44 9 LOUD Vay Set Pha is Mei more Mae 8 hee 4] h (GLP 25. ee SER Oe A TL Re. Te 36 12 RSE ER Pos Ree Pe Re Ee a mags 202 42 While the diagnostic tests employed the first year of this plan were fairly satisfactory, a few substitutions have been made whenever new tests appeared which seemed better adapted to the purpose. Our experience with the use of a selected list of tests for the purpose of determining the proper grouping in the junior high school, while by no means infallible, indicates a degree of accuracy in the placement of pupils that fully justifies the effort. THE SUPERINTENDENT AND THE COURSE OF STUDY H. B. BRUNER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OKMULGEE, OKLAHOMA The importance of the course of study—Of chief importance in any school system is the quality of instruction. Next to the teacher herself, the most forceful factor in determining what the quality shall be is without doubt the course of study. In spite of this fact, the relative amount of time given to this most important phase of the superintendent’s work is very small. Time-consuming details, such as building programs, budgets, insurance, and the multiple other tasks which fall to the lot of the average superin- tendent are given precedence over the course of study because this feature 1432 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION will wait. The public makes vicious attacks upon us, when our buildings and finances are not in proper shape, but the long-suffering students and teachers generously accept our excuse again and again that we are too busy to do the most important thing for which we are hired. On account of this neglect on our part, hundreds of new teachers form improper habits in their first year’s experience, since there is nothing to supply the direction so badly needed. Many of them retain these habits throughout their schoolroom careers. To my mind this is one of the chief causes of unsatisfactory teaching. Who should write the course of study?—Mbost of us in administrative positions have overestimated the amount of our own time which would be required to put across a vital and useful course of study. In many instances, the mere showing of a favorable disposition toward its making will light the fires of enthusiasm and initiative in our teaching staff and will result in a product far superior to the superintendent-made, scissors- type course which is so prevalent today. As far away as the superintendent is from actual instruction, it would be next to impossible and extremely unwise for him to dictate many of the details. In the first place, he will not have the correct knowledge except in a general way, and in the second place, as pointed out above, he does not have the time which a thorough job would require. Much has recently been said in regard to the sharing of administrative duties with the classroom teacher. Fortunately, we have got beyond the saying stage and many of us have realized the tremendous advantages to ourselves and to the school systems which we represent of letting the teachers in on our administrative problems, especially those of a policy- forming nature. I know of no better way of bringing the teaching forces into a helpful and coéperative relationship with the administration than that of assisting them in organizing in such a way as to initiate and carry to completion a course of study which really meets the needs of the pupils in their charge. As to their fitness for this work, there is no question, for, after all it is the classroom teacher, together with her immediate super- visors, who should determine the course of study, especially the details, since it is she who comes in direct daily contact with the child’s life. Hence she knows better than any other the requirements and standards to which any course must measure up. Upon the superintendent, however, should devolve the first move in this direction. It is his business to indicate a desire to have his teachers codperate in doing what has formerly been supposed to be his job. It is his business to discuss with them schemes so that all agencies will work in harmony and not at counter-purposes. It is also his business to discuss with them the needs of the school in general, so as to insure a proper balance to the course of study, thus eliminating undue emphasis on any particular features. And last, but most important, it is his task and duty to provide (through administrative adjustments) time and facilities for the teacher to carry out the requests he has made of her. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1433 What should the course of study be?—These are times of flux. Never before in the history of school work has there been a greater need for new and up-to-the-minute courses of study, highly flexible in many respects, a course of study which will be suited, not only to the varying needs of children, but also to the needs and conditions, financial and otherwise, of the community and school in which the course is to function. The loose- leaf type, where teachers are permitted and encouraged to write suggestions for yearly revisions, is often highly desirable. Now, as never before, are we beginning to recognize the need for the kind of course of study which will take into account the different types of mentality. To my mind the greatest need in the field of education at present is a course of study, followed later by textbooks, suited to the needs of children of both superior and inferior types of intelligence. This is _ totally lacking today as far as I am acquainted with the facts. Yet in these times of change, our course must keep its finger on the spot. It must not be allowed to wander aimlessly. In certain respects it must be very, very definite, or many teachers, especially the inexperienced ones, will stray far from the mark. With all its flexibility, it must be in some features uniform, not the goose-step type, but so arranged that each part will work with all others toward the same unified end. In order to insure some of these things, it will probably be necessary for the superintendent or his supervisors to set out a scheme something like the following, which will be directly applicable in any department or field of work. Teachers do not consider a carefully made set of direc- tions as an imposition, but will take them in the spirit in which they are given—namely, as a guide toward unified effort. A typical set of directions from the superintendent to the makers of the course of study—‘In order that our efforts may be bent toward the same end, may I not ask that each of you follow in the main the suggestions given below in making your particular portion of the new course of study which, when completed, will be of such great assistance to you and me and every one in your department and school ? 1. State definitely the goals or aims of your course. (a) The ultimate aim. (b) The immediate aim. 2. Content. (a) Give list of standard tests which may be used to determine the efficiency for your grade of work, mentioning the desirable standards. (6) State the minimum essentials, outlining in great detail the first two or three weeks’ work, as it should be covered by an average teacher with an average group of pupils. : (c) Give list of usable projects, carrying one of these projects to com- pletion in great detail, so that an inexperienced teacher may be able to follow any project on your list by using carefully the directions you give in your example. (d) Give content bibliography in detail, mentioning the books, pages, publishing companies, and the like. 1434 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 3. Method. (a) Mention as many little concrete devices as possible whereby a teacher can put across the content of this course. (b) Give complete bibliography on method, mentioning a broad range of suggested methods. ‘This is a tremendous asset to any course. 4. The general bibliography, referring to exact pages and chapters, making the material so accessible that there will be a maximum attraction for its use by teachers.” Instruction is supposed to be the chief business of the public schools. Around this as a centre should revolve all other things, buildings, budgets, compulsory attendance—everything. Yet it is deplorable, when we con- sider what a relatively small amount of effort superintendents give to this field. ‘The time is rapidly approaching, and rightly so, when the super- intendent will be judged more and more by the quality, recentness, and usableness of his course of study as well as upon the size of the bond issue he has floated, the type of building he has constructed, or the increase in taxes he has convinced the people to vote, important and necessary as all these are. WHY MAINTAIN THE PRESENT SALARY SCHEDULES? M. G. CLARK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SIOUX CITY, IOWA I have no brief today, fellow superintendents, for the defense of the teacher’s pocket book per se. Neither have I prepared for you columns of statistics concerning the present-day evaluation of teachers’ salaries in terms of their living costs. Rather, my discussion has to do with what we com- monly call the school product, its output—boys and girls—and with their vision of life and their attitude toward our democracy. ‘This appears to me to be the only real basis for our discussion. Our salary problem, therefore, as I see it, is not merely a question in- volving the basis for our 1922 teachers’ contracts, but is rather a problem involving the future of this school output. It involves the establishment of a policy that shall determine for at least a generation or more the trend of our democracy through its educational influences. Place of the public school—I believe, therefore, and this is my first thesis, that we must determine clearly for ourselves and for our communities the place which the public-school system really occupies in the development and perpetuity of our democracy and in the functioning of American institu- tions. The American public school has been the great bulwark of American democracy. It has been more than an educational agency. It is far more than a place for teaching the rudiments of civilized communication. It is something far greater than a place in which the child familiarizes himself with the tools of life’s business and of social economy. It is the one insti- tution in which the spirit of America and the ideals of America have been DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1435 held before the minds of America’s young people, to take root, to grow and to function through their lives. America is America because of the American public school. American democracy is American democracy because of the democracy of the public school. American backbone is American backbone because of the teaching and the training of American youths in American schools. Our civiliza- tion has held together against the onslaughts of the millions of uneducated south Europe emigrants because of the American public-school system. ‘The American melting pot is the American public school. America is co- hesive—in so far as she has cohesion—because of the truths and principles that have knit the hearts of American public-school children together. In supporting the public school of the city, State, and Nation, therefore, the tax-payer is doing more than paying for the training of the intellectual child. The public-school tax pays for the upholding of American institu- tions. “The public-school tax pays for the maintenance and the safety of the city, the State, and the Nation. The salary of the teacher, therefore, must be commensutate with this demand. It must insure teacher quality, rather than teacher quantity. Teaching functions—My second thesis calls to your attention the vital relationships existing between remuneration and teaching function. A true teacher is a leader. She only can lead who is sure of her objective and sure of the path to its approach. Life must be concrete to the teacher. She must be a functioning part of her community, otherwise her life is not con- crete, her knowledge is purely academic, and her pupils will quickly lose confidence in her leadership. A leader possesses the spirit of leadership— mentally, morally, physically, socially. She must feel herself the peer of her fellows in dress, in living quarters, in community functions. She min- gles happily with other community leaders. ‘To deprive her of this is to deprive her of leadership—to deprive her of companionship and, above all, to deprive her of self-respect. Teaching ought not to become again synonymous with self-disrespect in community associations. The spirit of the true teacher is always buoyant. It must remain buoyant. The broken-spirited have no place in the school- room. Again, as a leader the teacher must feel free from worry concerning her financial future. She must be assured, through the salary policy of her community, that her thrift and her financial management will bring to her old-age security. To deprive her of this possibility of necessity destroys her spirit of independence and re-creates her a discouraged community mendicant, an avowed husband or new job hunter, or a society hater in her secret attitude. On the contrary, the true teacher feels the call to com- munity helpfulness. Instead of being an object of pity and charity she de- sires to bestow charity. This is a part of life she ought not to miss; it is a personal trust and responsibility in keeping with her character. The teacher who really functions as a child leader must be assured of a functioning remuneration. Her salary must be commensurate with her 1436 NATIONAL EpUCATION ASSOCIATION self-respect. It must be commensurate with the respect which the com- munity gives to its leaders. It must be commensurate with the respect the community would have its children give its teachers. It must be commen- surate with ideas of thrift and of personal financial independence. With- out this assurance she is dominated by an unreasoning fear, an influence — from which every school-child should be protected. Such weakness soon dominates the school atmosphere and destroys its virility. The past two years of promised financial security and of equality in community life have done much for the betterment of the teachers of our country. Their finan- cial independence has reacted upon their very personality. “They are men and women among men and women. ‘They have entered community affairs. ‘They have assured much of leadership in. community organiza- tions—social, civic, and religious. May this betterment, this leadership, not be lost through false salary economies. The procreation of the profession—My third thesis deals with a far more subtle danger to our American institutions. It may be said that in keeping with the general law of life a vocation procreates itself. The type of to- morrow’s teachers depends upon the “call” today’s teachers send out to the young on-coming generation. ‘This is the call of their spirit, the call of their attitude toward life, the call of their attitude toward their vocation, the call of their community leadership, the call of the part they play in the world’s work, the call society accords them in its ranks. It is a call that youngsters never misinterpret. High-school and college students are more busily evaluating life’s possibilities than they are evaluating the worth- whileness of geometry and latin. Red-blooded, virile, intellectual, spiritual boys and girls in high school and college are listening for calls. They respond to a “call’’ only as it appeals to their idea of worth-whileness, of ability to fit into their concep- tion of a life-work that shall give opportunity for their ambitions to func- tion. They feel an obligation to the world. They feel themselves to be worth-while. They resist a call that does not put up to them a challenge to do their part in the accomplishment of the world’s progress. The time has come when the make-shift teacher, especially men, must be taboo in the business of teaching. The man waiting for a higher call has no business at the teacher’s desk. There can be no higher call for him. Child leadership demands men who see in its call the highest and best that life affords in human service. The teacher’s call, therefore, must be a call for the best in American boyhood and girlhood. Our schools must have the best of our young peo- ple—the pick of American virility—if they are to survive and maintain the position Doctor Eliot says they now occupy. Anything, therefore, that weakens the position of the teacher in the minds of the young people of our schools and colleges necessarily weakens its call for the procreation of the profession. Is not this principle largely responsible for the position occupied by the church in American society today? For the first time in the history of teaching, teachers are occupying a DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1437 position of medium financial respectability. ‘The call of the profession to a virile class of young people will depend upon this condition being main- tained and even strengthened. Any tendency to lower the standard of salaries will react upon the future generation of teachers. It will enervate the profession and, therefore, weaken the schools. Principle of waste—My fourth thesis has to do with the principle of waste. For centuries the world moved on its way totally ignorant of the wonderful possibilities of electricity. It knew nothing of the potentialities by which it was surrounded. It wasted through generations of human struggle the abilities of electricity to work for man, to light and to heat his home, to convey messages from country to country, even to cure the ills of man himself. The world’s greatest waste, however, is its constant waste of human potentialities. “The waste of intellectual, spiritual, and economic possibili- ties. ‘The human potentialities of the future are all gathered in the school- rooms of today. “The loosening of those bonds are largely in the hands of the teachers. ‘The potentialities of day after tomorrow likewise are in the hands of tomorrow’s teachers. “To place before a group of children a teacher with any form of handicap is to continue human waste. The world can only afford to place in such a position of leadership a teacher of broad vision, of high ideals, of great intellectual and spiritual caliber. No one can measure the potentialities of a group of twenty children. Unless the bonds of those possibilities are loosened, unless vision is kept before these children, the probability of waste is immeasurable. The sad part of the story is that human waste is never recovered. Gold is never destroyed. Man’s ingenuity makes it practically always possible to bring about its recovery. But the potentiality of the human mind, abused, lost, wasted, is gone forever. The call of the teacher’s cult to the future generations of teachers is a call for the solution of the problem of human waste. It is a call for the highest and best in our young manhood and young womanhood to respond to a great need in America. It is America’s call. The best in industrial leadership demands the best in financial remuneration. It cannot otherwise be obtained. The best in human life naturally gravitates to those positions in the world’s service which humanity recognizes and honors. While true honor is a spiritual recognition of the spiritual service of man, as yet most effective recognition of worth-while service in world work is measured by the dollar. The red-blooded, the virile, the great in vision, demand their complete recognition and place with the world’s leaders. Conclusion—In concluding, I would emphasize two things: (1) The round of possible National decay. ‘The story of the farmer who bought more land to raise more corn to feed more hogs to get more money to buy more land is well known. ‘The seemingly harmless proposal to lower teachers’ salaries in order to ease the tax burden of the moment will bring us face to face with an educational, economic, and moral round of National decay. This round will read somewhat as follows: Ease the tax burden 1438 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION by lowering teachers’ salaries, employ a lower type of teaching personality, secure a lower standard of teaching, resulting in inefficient: schools, a lower standard of community life, a devitalized State, and finally a degenerating democracy. Then the round again, a further decrease in teaching salaries, ‘a further decrease in school efficiency, a still lower standard of community life, a greater devitalization of the State, a further lowering of National ideals. And thus the round goes on. Rather, let us demand a constantly recurring round of increasing Na- tional efficiency, a round that shall start with the principle of financial in- surance of self-respect and of self-support for the teaching profession. (2) What shall we as a group of superintendents do concerning the problem with which we are faced? In a democracy we must start with the unit of democracy, the individual tax-payer. From him to the com- munity. From the community to the State, and finally to National policies or standards. Let the superintendents, the teachers, and the friends of education place before their tax-payers, before their communities, some such group of facts and ideals as I have feebly tried to sketch in this paper. Let us formulate a platform, looking toward a more efficient democracy through a more efficient teaching body; a platform upon which we are willing to stand. Let us preach and teach the principles of this platform untiringly in our local communities. Let us fill the newspapers with these facts. Let us study the question and become certain of the validity of our argument. Then let the educational forces of the entire country stand pat. Let them fight, if need be—it will be a fight for a better America—but, above all, let us hold that which we now have. THE ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION CHARLES A. WAGNER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHESTER, PENNSYLVANIA | The opposition to supervision needs to be classed as opinions urged against supervision ; they are not arguments. 1. Supervision destroys the individuality of the teacher. This is true of poor supervision; the poor teacher has no individuality to suppress. Good supervision develops teachers by correcting the improvable work and by offering extra inducements and recognition to the original teacher. 2. Supervision expects too much of teachers. A complaint of the inert and mechanical teacher. Good supervision inspires the best teacher most of course, because there is most to inspire. 3. Supervision has no professional standards. This fact is being changed and rendered less true every day and year. Supervision is passing from the individual to the professional basis. 4. The supervisor tries to catch teachers unprepared. Spying is not supervision, but a base counterfeit. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1439 5. Teachers object to supervisors’ little supervisory slips; they, too, want to write slips on the supervisors. Merely a quibble; but teachers should be recognized and their opinions of their work taken into consideration. Some other opposing claims are met in the opinions in favor of super- vision: (1) Supervision helps the new teacher most quickly into unity and harmony with the system; (2) Supervision helps the poorly trained teacher to become a better teacher, improving as rapidly as the teacher will exert herself; (3) Supervision induces meditation, contemplation, se!f-criticism by teachers; (4+) New ideas, plans, procedures are brought into the system by supervision and adapted to the system; (5) The best work of the system is used as type and model for other teachers of the system; (6) If rating and pay are to be based on effectiveness in work, supervision is needed ; (7) The work of a system is unified by supervision ; opportunities of the children are made as nearly equal as possible in all points of the system; and (8) Supervision is called for by the tendency to specialization in every human activity. The accumulated knowledge and the acquired skill of profes- ‘sionals can thus become an inexhaustible resource for system and profession. THE NEXT STEP IN SCHOOL SUPERVISION E. E. OBERHOLTZER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TULSA, OKLAHOMA I have been asked to discuss ‘““[The Next Step in School Supervision.” In the definition of my subject I wish to have it understood that super- vision in its broad sense is chiefly to stimulate the development and efficiency of all the activities and functions of public-school education. We have long devoted much of our time to the observational, inspectorial type of supervision. In this respect we have practiced the old-fashioned method of struggling for progress through the trial-and-error policy, but, in the present day, education has received a new interpretation, a new enthusiasm, and a new stimulation. ‘The science of education is making rapid progress. Educational method is passing through a period of change in the direction of larger initiative and individuality for the learner. Among educational workers there is being developed a higher sense of professional obligation which finds itself embodied in renewed interest in professional organizations among teachers and other educators, while in the public mind there is a growing demand for a wider program of educa- tion and more efficient results. ‘ Moreover, America is taking the lead in this movement. Universal education with the objectives to meet the needs of a democratic society and to adapt the individual to his social and economic place is truly an American program which is destined to grow until it becomes a world program of education, recognized, respected, and relied upon for the ulti- mate salvation of world civilization. Surely, expert supervision should be constructive. It should seek to establish a unity of effort throughout the schools, so that the part of each 1440 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION one in the education of children may be as effective as possible. ‘This unity of purpose and codperation is the chief object of supervision and should receive the same scientific consideration as is now being given to the measurement of results in teaching through standard tests and measure- ments. At the present time, among cities the size of this group—namely, 25,000 to 100,000, there is no scientific procedure or proper machinery to give the expert supervision needed, or to extend supervision to include these important fields. The three types of supervisory officials now generally recognized are: (1) The superintendent, (2) the supervisor or director of special subjects or departments, and (3) the supervising principal. As we look into the present status of these officials, we find many con- flicting. conditions which prevent them from doing expert supervision. Superintendent James Van Sickle, of Springfield, Massachusetts,! gives in his statement of the best use of the superintendent’s time the following duties: His task is to assign duties and keep hands off, yet know what is being done. He must serve as the acting head of a great and intricate business; he must serve as a clearinghouse for all requests, sane or insane, pressed by supervisors, principals, teachers, and the public. He must sift the “likely” requests and present them to the board clearly and convincingly. He must keep the school board informed regarding his policies and plans, and also with regard to the progress and success or failure of such plans and polices. He must educate a constantly changing board, a task that is likely to call for all the skill and tact that he possesses. He must hold himself in readiness to supply any member of the board ’ or the city government, on short notice, with such information as may be desired. He must often interpret the board to the teaching force, and the teaching force to the board. He must serve as a court of appeal in cases of discipline. He must keep things smooth in his field. George A. Mirick, of Cambridge, Massachusetts,” defines the two classes of school officers relating to instruction. The school commissioner, whom he assigns as director, relating to the selection of subordinates, inspection, selection of textbooks, and the improvement of teachers; as an executive he is the agent of the board of education in its relation to the community and to the teaching group. As an organizer he is responsible for the whole system in each department relating to administration, instruction, and supervision. Mirick delegates to the supervisor duties quite separate from administra- tion. The supervisor must be authoritative on subject matter, on cur- riculum, on method, on scientific procedure, on motivation, on diagnosis, and in seeking coéperation in planning and conducting meetings. ‘The chief point about this type of supervision is that it is widely removed from administration and inspection. Moreover, in dealing with the supervisors or directors of special sub- jects or departments, we find that few of them have the perspective of the whole school program or the scientific training which reaches into the various fields and interests that lie outside of the special subject. As we turn to the supervising principal, we are confronted again with * Des Moines Report, N. E. A. Proceedings, Vol. 59, p. 727. ? Elementary School Journal, Dec., 1918, p. 285. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1441 the conflict in duties and the proper distribution of the principal’s time for supervision, administration, and clerical work. Worth McClure, of Seattle, Washington,’ finds that the greatest need of principals is a study looking towards a development of two things—namely, (a) a philosophy of the principalship, and (4) a working, administrative, and supervising © technique. He found a wide variation of opinion ‘as to the duties and proper distribution of the time of the principal. Fifteen university pro- fessors give the following table of relative importance of the functions of the principal. :? Rank of Median Total Importance Function Weighing Weighing Range 1 Supervision of teaching............. robs 40 582 25-65 2 PNCNASHRACIOM Ee ok sanioelevecsia nie «ees 20 310 10-40 3 Community leadership. cqes os. s ness 15 218 10-25 4 Proressionalisturdyaso tic oes aes ovals 11 197 5-30 5 Gl errealEWOLlkenn peatecea rand shores is erent oerase a 6.8 10 130 0-20 A group of city superintendents assigned the following valuations :° Rank of Median Importance Function Percentage Range 1 SUperViISION Poet e Per ein Ma eens ie rie ons te uae 50 40-80 2 (A AMINISEP ALLOM, oc, oie cs jeteeDorewet ce peters gel aunysTeuensh eyes o «0 20 5-60 3 GTenicaliw orks. 52 sci capetacrnast ia anel note chactttan rate suena 10 0-25 Forty-three Seattle elementary-school principals were asked to give rela- tive importance on the basis of time emphasis. “This combined data shows that administration received about thirty per cent more time than did supervision and about seventy-three per cent more time than clerical work. Supervision received about twenty-six per cent more time than clerical work, while the relative importance of the functions in actual practice, as observed by thirteen university professors, is given in the followng table :* Rank of Median Total Importance Function Weighing Weighing Range 1 i Natinnhmisiaen tea" Soa ot a nao One Te eO en ure co 30 452 27-50 Z Giatton Re xed Sos eae eee 30 375 20-40 3 Supervision: of) teachingea.c ss. «ues 17 217 5-30 4 Community leadership 22... 2 5\05 -- ste eine 10 126 5-25 5 Proressionalenstd Ver etree duct 2 eisai clones 9 88 0-20 From the foregoing statements it is evident that there is yet to be found proper scientific procedure and organized machinery to meet the full needs of supervision. Nevertheless, we can determine with a great deal of accuracy how well we are administering certain parts of the present cur- riculum and the results we are getting in teaching some phases of subject matter, thus checking indirectly one phase of supervision. If we wish only to measure the results in addition and multiplication we have well-defined standards for this, but if on the other hand we turn from checking results in the fundamental processes of arithmetic to chal- lenge the wisdom of our practice in presenting certain phases of the subject 1Blementary School Journal, March, 1921, p. 500. 2Elementary School Journal, March, 1921, p. 503. 8Elementary School Journal, March, 1921, Pp. 505. 4Elementary School Journal, March, 1921, p. 506. 1442 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION matter or in introducing it in particular grades, then we have no scientific data to prove the value. Mere opinion still prevails to a great extent in the selection, arrangement, and placing of curriculum activities and in the evaluation of subject matter. For example, we have not yet the scientific procedure nor the organized machinery for ascertaining whether algebra belongs in the first year of the high school or the second year, or whether a foreign language should be taught in the first year of the junior high school or in the last. So the problem of curriculum construction, testing, arranging, and plac- ing is still left largely to agencies which are guided by the practices of tradition, personal opinion, or as Dr. Judd says, “In the happy-go-lucky plan of the chance enthusiast.t Referring again to Dr. Judd, who finds there is no well-defined agency for securing the new curriculum material or overhauling the old, and relates a concrete experience of his in the assign- ment to fifty members of the National Association of Secondary School Principals the task of each preparing five lessons in social and industrial organization material that each should try in his own school and report on them. Very little response was obtained, although the parties to whom this task was assigned were volunteers, and after a year and a half of “patient waiting and correspondence,” the committee had eighteen lessons. Quoting Dr. Judd, “The evidence is painfully clear that high-school prin- cipals do not regard themselves as the chief agents of society for the con- struction of new material on civics.” § “As we have no adequate scientific methods, or constituted agencies, for the reconstruction of the curriculum, it certainly behooves us to take up the consideration of the curriculum problem and to canvass the possible lines of procedure which can be adopted to remedy the situation.” Scientific measurement through standard tests has come to be a definite part of the routine school work. Although there was opposition to these tests on account of new revelations made, and although this new procedure disturbed ordinary routine, yet to this movement we must ascribe the awakening of school administrators to the results achieved by their re- spective school systems. Valuations in practice, waste in codrdination, introduction of new courses into the curriculum, and revision of subject matter have all been attacked without any very consistent study or knowl- edge of the remedies needed. If scientific tests are to make a lasting con- tribution they must produce more than adverse criticism. ‘They must assist in the evaluation, not only in the technique and procedure in teach- ing, but also in the technique and procedure in supervision and curriculum building. Since these tests have been developed to a point where they serve with considerable success in gaining knowledge of children, regarding both the differences in intelligence of the group and the status of the individual in achievement, we are now ready to take the next step by reviewing our theory of educational organization with respect to the individual child and the group to be taught, not as a means to an end but as an end which 1 School and Society, Vol. XV, No. 367, p. 2. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1443 must meet all the individual needs and social demands. Public-school education must ever keep in mind mass or group teaching, administered without sacrificing the individual to the masses. However, instruction is but one phase of education. There is always a possibility for new means of improvement in education, which we, as school administrators, are obliged to recognize. What value are we obtaining in the field of practice from experts in scientific research? What value are we obtaining from curriculum builders in the finer adjustment to our local needs? What value are we obtaining from textbook writers in bringing us the new materials and methods of presentation derived directly from the field of practice? ‘To answer these questions we must turn again to the broad field of public education. The correct solution of all problems, which leads with the least resistance to the direct results we desire, must come from careful scientific supervision of all phases of public education. Then the next step in school supervision is to establish scientific pro- cedure and a proper organization for the evaluation of supervision as it relates to all phases of public education. It must attack problems of technique and method, problems of teaching service, problems of super- visors and directors of special subjects, or departments, and problems of curriculum building and subject-matter revision. The next step in super- vision is scientific and expert supervision of supervision. ‘This is the new problem in the science of education to which teacher-training institutions, public-school administrators, and experts in every field of education must direct their attention. F. J. Kelly suggests, as one of the opportunities for teacher-training institutions in the program of American education, the establishment of new relations between these institutions and the public schools, that they become definitely associated with some of the best public schools of the State for clinical service as a teacher-training laboratory rendered under typical public-school conditions and with adequate expert supervision paid for by the teacher-training institution. Further, that these teacher-train- ing institutions, at least one in the larger cities, maintain experimental schools and other agencies for purposes of research in the fundamental educational sciences in the field of actual practice. This suggestion, if embodied in public education, will become one of the greatest forward steps in solving scientific supervision. Research from long distance and aside from the field of practice is apt to miss its mark by way of develop- ing wrong theories and methods, very much in the same sense as the mighty German gun, which thundered forth its huge missiles without tangible results, except to terrorize, weaken the morale, and maim the innocent. Quoting Dr. Kelly further, “The demand for research facilities in edu- cation rests upon two propositions: First, education is built upon the social sciences of psychology, sociology, economics, and political science. Since these social sciences are so little developed as yet, any profession built upon them must be constantly changing in its so-called ‘established principles.’ To guide this constant change there is need for the most careful and con- 1 Des Moines Report, N. E. A. Proceedings, Vol. 59, p. 89. 1444 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION sistent research. Second, the research should be carried on by educational institutions as a part of the work of public education. “Today research is the key to supremacy in most lines of business. Manu- facturers of electrical goods, rubber goods, oil products, pottery, silk, or what not, depend more upon some unique device or process for the superiority of their output than upon accuracy of workmanship. Accord- ingly they set up expensive laboratories quite independent of their factories, employ high-salaried experts to busy themselves in attempting to discover some better way.” Is it not, therefore, important for us, who are active in the field of public education and who recognize good business methods in industry to see that in the big business of selling the schools as the greatest social need of civilization our obligation is to begin at once the practice of big business in so far as it can be related extensively and efficiently to educational practice? We cannot afford to continue our grevious mistakes in waste and progress when good business points the way to success. But this development needs careful guarding, for we have yet few well-trained workers in the social science field, in research methods, and in sane, efficient practice. We must bring the teacher-training institutions and the public schools into direct contact, and this adjustment must become so sensitive and well-timed that there may be no loss of energy or efficiency. Perhaps our State universities should take the lead, but our men and women in the field should certainly be awakened to the great opportunities in this new field. Detroit, in the field of public education, has perhaps the honor of taking the first step in organizing the training school, the research deparment, and the department of supervision under the authority of Director Courtis. This, it seems to me, comes yery nearly to the proper codrdination of efficiency departments which shall bring about expert supervision of super- vision. As superintendent, I feel the need of that kind of accurate and direct knowledge of the work being done in our own school system, which shall enable me and others to judge of the results and unified effort as we move toward the one single goal. I need scientifically derived tests for checking supervision of my own effort, the effort of our principals, and the effort of our directors. I need to sit down with our business leaders and point to the results which will define to them in practical terms progress and development, costs and efficiency, extensions and achievement. I am un- able, however, to do this, because we have not as yet, neither in the training schools nor in the field of practice, individuals trained for this type of supervision. - We have not yet discovered scientific procedure or organized effort to undertake the task. We are in need of a new type of supervisor—the director of supervision —directly constituted for this particular task and subject to no influence except the direction of the superintendent. ‘This new type of supervisor must be able to see impersonally results, movements, and practice all in- terpreted in the well-defined objectives constituting the program of edu- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1445 cation. The next step in supervision, in my judgment, demands this new type of service and investigation, leading to organization of new depart- ments in the field of training and practice. It demands that we apply business practice, scientific practice, and serviceable practice in experiment- ing, in developing, in using and in carrying forward the work of public education. Curriculum building, selecting, testing, arranging and placing subject-matter material, adaptation of curriculum to social demands and the improvement of all activities of public education through expert super- vision is the great work to be accomplished. No organized department of public education has exerted so much in- fluence on the world program of education as has this Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association. If we come here merely to discuss, merely to think over and relate our experiences, then we will not have achieved the greatest good, but if we come here with practi- cal and forward-looking ideas, to have them criticised constructively and sincerely, in order that they may become embodied in some field of prac- tice, truly tested by laboratory and scientific methods, carefully standard- ized and carefully reported, then we are transferring that type of experi- ence which is usable in furthering the interests of public education. How- ever, let me drop a word of caution—namely, that all of these theories, all of these theses, and all of these discussions must remain directly related to a program of security and progress, founded upon the principle that education is for the child and that the education of every boy and girl must be so conducted as to preserve and develop those elements of per- sonality that are especially valuable in a democratic social structure. As a part of this program of education in nation building the next step in super- vision is yet to be realized. Let us move forward! SELLING THE SCHOOLS TO THE PUBLIC H. B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA Just as the successful merchant must interest and convince the public that it is desirable to spend money for his merchandise, so must those re- sponsible for public education interest and convince the public that it is wise to spend the money needed for schools. ‘The church, the Christian associations, and all other social agencies which are dependent upon public approval for their financial support face a similar problem. In opening a discussion of this topic, we need to remind ourselves of a few basic considerations. In the first place, schools are established and maintained by the public in our democracy in order to accomplish certain work for the children of the Nation better than the public believes this work can be otherwise done. Secondly, they depend ultimately upon the will of the people for every detail of their development and maintenance. What type of service they shall render, how they shall be managed, and in what amounts they shall be financed must finally be decided by the people. 1446 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Their approval or disapproval on all fundamental matters quickly registers itself, and if their wishes are not heeded decisive expression may be defi- nitely expected at the polls. In light of these considerations, it is evident that the public schools of any age or locality express approximately the dominant convictions of the people regarding what education should try to do and at what expense. Leading the public to provide such schools as are necessary and to meet the costs thereof is therefore a problem in broad, fundamental, public salesmanship. The history of American education reveals that two problems which con- cern us in this discussion have been constant problems. One concerns the quantity and types of education which the public shall provide and the other the amount of money which must be expended to provide these desirable types of education. ‘These problems are interdependent. ‘The quantity and types of education which may be maintained are determined mainly by the total funds available for use. On the other hand, an appreciation on the part of the people of the children’s need of more education and of the vary- ing types of education which are necessary to meet the needs and supply the serious shortcomings in the people, releases more funds for the estab- lishment and maintenance of schools. Since the money available controls what may be done, we are apt to think of our task in salesmanship as merely a money-raising problem. To do so is to approach the problem backwards, with the resulting con- fusion that follows inevitably from placing the cart before the horse. Merely securing the money needed is not marketing the schools to the people. ‘This attack may succeed occasionally as far as getting needed money is concerned. It is not, however, a satisfactory handling of the matter because it is not a fundamental procedure. As a matter of fact, constantly presenting the schools’ actual needs in a frank, honest, concrete fashion constitutes the real essence of selling the schools to the people. Any other procedure is clearly superficial and is therefore certain to prove in- effective more often than otherwise. From the above discussion, educational salesmanship must first devote itself to keeping clearly and constantly before the public the amount and kinds of education which are necessary to achieve the ends society expects of the public schools. The public has a right to expect this. If it is not done, it must not be blamed if it does not support the public schools as those responsible think it should. This task in salesmanship is a continuous one. It is necessarily so from at least four standpoints. First, the population whose support is needed gradually changes and new comers must be kept informed. ‘This is espe- cially true in rapidly growing centers of population. Oftentimes the latest citizens to come into a city or community are soon going to be numbered among the most influential people of the community. They must have a chance to be informed of the views of the school administration in reference to the needs of the schools. Second, the needs which should be met in part through schools gradually DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1447 change, requiring that the processes of education shall be continually read- justed to meet these changes. For example, physical education and recre- ation are now provided in larger measure than before in an effort to meet through the public schools certain needs of the people with which we were but little concerned before the great war. Likewise the schools are responsible for ministering in many other ways to the physical vitality of children as they were not a few years ago. Third, the convictions of people as to what the schools should do change. As a result of the changed thinking of people, such subjects as music, man- ual training, home economics, which formerly were not provided, are now a part of the work of every modern school. They came in at first as a result of the agitation and demands of intelligent, progressive citizens, and not through the initial efforts of educators. As the thinking of people changes and enlarges the plans of the administration responsible for the schools, the whole people should be advised that they may react intelligently in support of the school’s expanded responsibility. Fourth, ideas change in reference to how the school may go about its work most successfully. The public must be kept informed of these changed procedures with reasons therefor. It is now considered advisable to provide every school of any size with an assembly-room, with workshops, with visual instruction materials, and so on. Since the provision of these facilities entails added expense, the whole public should be kept informed in reference to the basic reasons for such changes. In view of the foregoing basic considerations, the administration respon- sible for any system of schools must keep before the public certain major phases of the school program. Both costs and results secured must be pre- sented ; otherwise, the public is in no position to give willing and adequate financial support to the school program. A satisfied public is just as impor- tant in financing the public schools as are satisfied customers in the success of any business or commercial enterprise. What, then, are some of the major aspects of any foublec! school system’s program about which the people must be kept informed and with which they must be in hearty accord ? First, the values to society of good schools must be continually kept be- fore the public. As education grows more complex and complete, and as schools improve to meet life’s needs, new ways of stating these values so that they shall be inclusive and in the language of the latest thought must be found. It is highly important that the values of education be always presented fundamentally to the public. The people should become accustomed to think of education not in terms of mere mastery on the part of children of the various subjects of study. Rather they should think of the contribu- tion of the school through the teaching of subjects and related experiences to the physical, moral, vocational, avocational, and citizenship efficiency of each child as a child and as a citizen. No opportunity for keeping before the public these large aims of the school should go unused. Both in public 1448 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION addresses and in the regular school publications, such as the courses of study and board of education reports, these fundamental undertakings of education should be concretely impressed upon the public mind. Nothing will do more to dignify education and to give it its rightful place of domi- nant importance in human affairs, thus enabling the public thoroughly to appreciate that no necessary price is too great to pay for the results which successful schools insure. An educational program which seeks effectively to achieve such funda- mental results makes a convincing appeal to every sane person as a plain business proposition. The experiences of the war did much to convince all of the superior efficiency in any undertaking of an educated citizenship. This was evidenced first in the power of a highly trained but miseducated Germany to defy the world for four years. It was also seen in the success with which our own citizenry successfully met every new and trying situ- ation presented by the war. In consequence of this world-scale demonstra- tion of the values of thorough education, we find our civic and fraternal organizations and our women’s clubs seriously concerned to aid the im- provement of education as never before. They realize that progress in democracy, in civilization, and in human liberty all depend on the constant improvement of our educational institutions, and they are intelligently ag- gressive to make them efficient. This general point of view must be borne out and supported in each community by concrete evidences that the schools are achieving the results projected. The Nation-wide practice of devoting a week annually to edu- cation will bring large dividends in terms of increased support for educa- tion if the opportunity is wisely, honestly, and generously improved. On such occasions not only should desirable progress which is dependent upon education be emphasized, but the actual results produced by schools should be convincingly set forth. sr Second, the need and importance of the total organization and machinery of the public schools should be kept continually in the public mind. Other- wise, the public fails to see the reasons for the changes and improvements which are constantly appearing in a progressive school system. Not under- standing the need for such improvements, they are objected to as expensive “frills.” The modern business man and woman progresses in business. mat- ters by reaching out for each new method or device which promises in- creased efficiency, such as the adding machine, the dictaphone, the modern filing system, and so on. Yet, many people who are progressive in their own business, if they are not kept informed of changed and improved pro- cedures in education with the reasons therefor, condemn educational changes as fanciful and faddish. A few of the major items in the machinery of operating a modern school whose need should be understood by the public may be noted briefly. The need of adequate grounds for play and gardening must be borne out by the types of work done and the results secured. The reasons for providing other than mere standard schoolrooms of the conventional tvpe must be DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1449 evidenced in the profitable types of work and experience provided the pupils and in the uses made of the school by the community. Only thus can the expense be justified for providing and maintaining libraries, workshops with tools for use in art, cooking, sewing. manual training, club rooms for com- munity meetings, assembly-rooms for various school and neighborhood pur- poses, lunch and rest-rooms, gymnasia, and so on. Newer types of equipment must justify their existence by the kinds of work they are used in and by the results secured which would be impossible otherwise. When so presented, the public will readily understand the need of providing movable furniture rather than fixed school desks; ample sup- plies of supplementary and reference books; visual aids of all sorts, such as maps, globes, reading and music charts, stereographs, lanterns, lantern slides, moving pictures; musical instruments, such as pianos, victrolas, band and orchestra instruments, and so on. The need and service of the modern course of study with its many sub- jects and varied advantages must be understood. Unless it is, it does not stand justified in the public mind in contrast with the narrower curriculum of a generation ago. How it is demanded by the modern school’s effort to educate each child as completely as possible for the varied duties of life in a complex civilization must be understood concretely. The service rendered by research departments in schools in promoting economy and efficiency must be understood that this addition to the modern school system may be approved and supported. Every progressive business man and woman knows the service which research agencies have rendered in their lines of work, but they are entitled to an explanation and demon- stration of the service it renders in schools. How it aids in fixing proper standards, in judging whether pupils’ attainments are satisfactory, in classi- fying children to promote better progress, and through the doing of these and other valuable things insures better education for the children at less cost, should be made clear. The improved school service which is rendered by well-trained, profes- sionally minded, adequately paid teachers in contrast with the results pro- duced by mediocre teachers should be clearly demonstrated. The largest expense for good schools goes into the teaching staff. The higher the stand- ards maintained in selecting this staff, the more expensive it is. “That the increased results from securing such teachers far outweigh the costs should be made evident. The time limits fixed for this topic make it impossible to discuss in detail the ways and means of leading and guiding the public so that they are in- telligently and wisely active in promoting the development and improve- ment of their schools and at the same time enthusiastic in meeting the costs for public education. Certain basic considerations in determining the methods that should be used have been indicated above, however. For guidance as to detailed procedures, much good help is now available. Par- ticular mention should be made of the excellent aid which may be found in 1450 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION - Alexander’s School Statistics and Publicity and Alexander and Theisen’s Publicity Campaigns for Better Schools. Before passing from this phase of the topic in reference to how this work shall be gone about, four lines of fundamental procedure should be men- tioned which are desirable to employ in working with the public. I shall note them in order of ascending importance. First, reasonable use should be made of expert opinion. “The public mind in America is fairly well informed. It considers principles and policies, not merely the immediate and tangible. The complexities of modern business necessitate expert professional advice, so the people are trained through their business experiences to consider seriously the advice of the expert, pro- vided his positions are supported by common-sense considerations and tangi- ble concrete evidence. The views and advice of experts in reference as to how to improve the public schools should, therefore, be brought to the at- tention of the public. ‘This may be done through public addresses before civic, social, parent-teacher, and fraternal organizations, and through the public press. ‘The public has a right to expect its school officials to keep them informed of new ideas and procedures which may lead to improved educational advantages for the children of the community. Second, successful practices in use which are not employed in the local schools and which promise improved educational advantages should be pre- sented to the public. Visits to observe these practices should be arranged. Both school officials and interested citizens should visit. The results se- cured from such visits should be reported through the press and before meetings of all sorts. Photographs should be secured. With many types of work, exhibits may be arranged. ‘These exhibits serve corresponding ends in preparing the public mind for improving education that they serve in commercial lines in creating a demand on the part of the public for im- proved manufactured or other products. Third, great attention should be paid to presenting to the public the re- sults their schools are securing. “They should see their schools at work under normal conditions. Once or oftener annually, the results secured should be shown through an exhibit. The exhibit condenses the year’s work for the busy citizen and affords him a chance to study quickly the results his annual investment in education is helping to produce. Both the staple and newer lines of work should be shown. Features employing the children in action should be arranged. Statistical data should be presented graphically. Graphs to bring out progressive steps and improved results covering a period of years render it easy to see whether progress has been made. Brief addresses interpreting what the exhibit shows help in getting its meaning understood. The accomplishment of this result is also greatly helped by having in charge of every part of the exhibit both children, teach- ers, and parents who will take an interest in meeting visitors and in helping them to get the most possible from the exhibit. Fourth, much more extended codperative relations with citizens who are interested in improving their community in all possible ways should be es- DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1451 tablished by the schools than generally obtains. Advisory and consultation committees should be established whenever their help may be honestly asked. These committees never fail to prove a real help in analyzing and enlarg- ing the plans and policies under consideration. Further, it should be un- derstood that the school administration welcomes constructive suggestions and help from every source—mothers’ clubs, parent-teacher organizations, women’s clubs, and other civic, social, and fraternal organizations. If these codperative relations are genuine and extensive use is made of them, the thinking, influential people throughout the community have all con- tributed to the development and shaping of every new policy and program before it is matured. The result is that when it is put into effect, or sub- mitted to a vote, there is little doubt of its success. Not only may large groups of citizens, organized for codperative effort, aid in raising money and in voting bonds, but in putting into effect better salaries for teachers, modernized school curricula, and improved school facilities, such as junior high schools, night schools, Americanization programs. ‘he large results achieved through such efforts in many places attest the efficacy of these pro- cedures in executing such measures. The writer’s experience with types of effort of this sort in Berkeley during the past four years warrants him in urging upon you such ways of working. This discussion aims to emphasize throughout that the public schools in any community should be kept concretely and adequately before the people at all times with the object of having their plans and results clearly under- stood and enthusiastically supported. When enlarged programs with in- creased costs are put into effect, they should come as a result of extended, well-considered thinking on the part of the whole public. Such changes should gradually evolve and shape themselves as a result of codperative counsel rather than as the result of hasty, revivalistic efforts of a revolution- ary type. That communities vary greatly in their support of school programs is evident to even the casual observer. “That the same community supports its schools better at certain times than at others is equally apparent. In the main, the difference in communities and in the same community at different times is due, provided what the people are asked to support is wise and desirable, to the way it is presented to the people—to the chance they are given to know fully and fairly what they should do. American communities vary in wealth and therefore in the types of programs they are able to support. “They also vary in types of people which predominate and in controlling interests. School programs should not, therefore, be uniform nor will the expense bills be uniform. Experience suggests strongly, however, that communities support programs which are sensible in plan and costs, provided school leaders give the people a fair chance to be convinced that the proposed program is a good one. ‘The responsibility for the success or failure of any community to put into effect a proper school program falls definitely, therefore, upon the school administration of the community. 1452 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION That more definite provision must be made by school officials for carry- ing the duties of leading community thinking and planning aright is be- coming increasingly evident. This arises out of greater costs for schools. It is also emphasized by the increasing complexity of modern education. When leadership in presenting school programs and in securing financial support for them is so vital to community welfare, why is it not more ade- quately provided? ‘The reasons urged are many, such as: “It takes time when there is none to spare because there are so many other things to do’’; “We do not know how to do this work; there is no accepted technique which is sure to succeed”’ ; “It costs money, when there is not enough now available to meet the needs of the schools.” All of these state real difficulties, but each must be met and overcome. ‘Time must be found to do the thing which is basic to all else. A little money must be spent to insure the rais- ing of the greater amounts of money needed to finance the major efforts of the school. While there is no “‘fool-proof” technique of working, there is a good deal ot help available as to how to proceed. Where it is lacking, common sense and ingenuity must do the best they can, for the task must be done. In closing, let me remind school boards and administrators everywhere that only those school procedures and results can be sold permanently in any community or State which are actually worthy. Nor may school au- thorities expect to finance smoothly even the most worthy undertakings unless they have been presented to and kept before the public, so that they know and are definitely convinced of their worth and genuineness. While the duties and responsibilities of school authorities are many, this task of leading the public in the understanding and support of the best school sys- tem which can be conceived for and financed by any community is a pri- mary duty which no school administration may neglect. ‘The discharge of this duty is an indispensable prerequisite to all other efforts, and so must receive first attention if the progress and security of our public schools are to be maintained in keeping with the progressive evolution of modern social, commercial, and political institutions generally. YOUR MOST PERPLEXING PROBLEM E. C, FISHER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ROCK ISLAND, ILLINOIS In putting this question to a number of leading school men they were quick to respond ‘Financing the Schools.” The question of financing the schools is like the poor, “always with us.” To me the most perplexing and vital problem that we have in our schools is our inability to deal with the child as an individual rather than as a member of the group. The schools should so adapt their courses of study to the children as to make it both possible and practicable always to have every child at his best. This is a departure from the traditional group method where a definite DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1453 achievement was required of all pupils, regardless of ability, and will re- quire not only a rewriting of our courses of study, but also “selling the teacher on the proposition.” The traditional group plan does not take into consideration the ability and the individual differences of pupils. The minimum requirement is the standard of achievement. No provision is made for a large percentage of the children who have ability far beyond this standard. ‘The result is dis- astrous in that it tends to hold the stronger children to a mediocre attain- ment. Much time and money have been expended in the study of the average and the subnormal child, while the stronger and more intelligent have been left to drift. “These children should have the consideration and direction that their ability warrants. To illustrate, during the semester just closed, our course in reading was arranged and directed on the basis of ability. Many children read well and satisfactorily, according to the best Standards of Measure in reading, ten books; a few read twelve or more, while some, in doing their best, barely completed the basal text with an additional supplementary reader. It needs no argument to see and believe that such a procedure places only one limit on the individual pupil, and that is the limit of his own ability. It is a measure of each pupil “by his own yard stick, not that of another.” The advantages of the plan are: (1) It tests and then teaches; (2) at keeps every child at his best; (3) it avoids comparison, except with the pupil’s own record; and (4) the consciousness of his own growth is a con- stant incentive to greater effort. This is not a theory but a practical and workable ideal. The difficulties in the administration are: (1) Selling the teacher on the plan; (2) adapting the course of study to different abili- ties; and (3) reducing the number of pupils per teacher. The latter is the most difficult because it is based on the question of finance. PROBLEMS OF FINANCING EDUCATION—HOW THEY ARE BEING SOLVED IN MY CITY S. 0. HARTWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA The charter of the city of St. Paul has definite restrictions on city funds which make the task of securing adequate school revenues especially difficult. Taxes are based upon per capita of population, $30 per capita being the limit for all tax costs for the running expenses of the city including the schools. Under present conditions the schools cannot expect more than one third of this sum. ‘To this $10 per capita is added State apportion- ment and State aid, making the present allowance for the schools a little more than $11 per capita of population. The only way to change charter restrictions is by amendment through popular vote. ‘The only other avenue for additional funds is through the possible increase of State funds, Neither way gives immediate promise. 1454 . NatIoNAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION As the charter is drawn amendments almost necessarily involve the increase for other departments as well as for the schools; because of this, recent attempts to seure a higher per capita have failed. Apparently, the school campaigns have restored in the public a realization of school needs without as yet a discovery of the legal means of meeting them. The campaigns, however, have had an effect on the apportionment of funds in the different branches of the city government for the schools. The efforts of the Department of Education are directed along four main lines. First, a careful budget. The budget for 1922, prepared in July, 1921, did not ask for all that the schools needed, but it did make clear through analysis of activities that the amounts asked for were absolutely necessary. As a result, it was the only one of the departmental budgets not reduced by the city comptroller, who has the task of making the final budget. He cut nearly $2,000,000 from the requests of other departments. Second, publicity regarding school facts and school needs. Before and during the war our financial restrictions were so acute that much emphasis was placed on school poverty with a somewhat necessary, though un- fortunate, corollary of poverty of results. Actually we can show good results for the money expended. ‘The present effort of publicity is, first— to establish clearly the fact that quality and extent of school service must depend on the support given through taxation, and second—to present the school needs on the basis of a city modern in spirit and up-to-date in public service. Third, a needed step is the careful planning of a building program for a number of years ahead. Since 1900 the city has lagged in its building activities. We are now spending a bond issue authorized at the opening of the war; it is meeting the most pressing needs. To catch up and keep up, further bond issues will be necessary. Detroit, Michigan, in the last few years has shown the value of a fundamental analysis of population and building conditions as the basis of a building program. We are fairly advanced in a similar study. It has already proved most valuable. The fourth line of effort is economy in the administration of present funds. This is a vital requirement in establishing confidence in manage- ment and educational results. On this confidence must really rest the plea for the additional funds needed to keep public education abreast of the city requirements. HOW WE ARE SELLING THE PUBLIC SCHOOL PROGRAM LO;OURSGEY J. M. GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA We have learned wisdom from the peddler by the park gate, who shows his dancing monkeys and pretty balloons in a way to make the children clamor and cry for them and then the parents buy. Sell education to the children and you have sold it to their parents and your city. The con- verse of this proposition is also true, sell education to the parents and you DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1455 eee ee ee ee have sold it to the children, for the attitude of parents toward the schools is by far the most powerful influence in determining whether the children enter, remain in, and complete the scheduled courses in the schools. As practical salesmen, we seek to sell both pupils and patrons, but our chief endeavor is directed toward the children, for it is through them as sales- men that parents find the way to the dotted line. Educators of old, like a certain man, made a great supper and bade many, but those invited made excuses and did not come. Then the master of the house said let anybody come—the poor, the maimed, the halt, the blind— yet many didn’t come. Then he sent out his servants—his attendance officers—with orders to go into the highways and hedges and compel them to come in. Here the translator doubtless omits a few clauses which were in the original text, “and being compelled to eat what they didn’t want it gave them indigestion and with one accord they made straight for the highways and hedges, saying ‘never again.’ ”’ _ Teachers have been so captivated with their educational menu that for a long time they thought the beauty and value of grammar and mathe- matics, history, and hygiene would sell themselves to the children. Later, on finding many not sold, reluctantly they asked the aid of the law to compel them to partake of the educational feast, only to learn that you may lead a horse to water but you can’t make him drink. More recently, teachers have learned that this old truth is not a truth at all, for you can make him drink if you salt him. ‘This is our task today. It is a long story, too long for my brief minutes if it be not apart from the purpose of this theme, to note the changes that have been made in the educational program, looking toward selling education to all the children. ‘The story concerns itself with changing the old, ugly, barren, uncomfortable, ill-furnished school building into new, attractive, beautiful, hygienic, and comfortable well-equipped building with adequate and equipped playgrounds; it concerns itself with the replacing of the unat- tractive, unskilled, and little educated teacher—salesmen—with attractive, skilled, and better educated salesmen (teachers) or in transforming the best of the old into teachers with modern points of view and ways of doing; it concerns itself with the enrichment and extension and increased useful- ness and compelling attractiveness of the courses of study all so arranged to suit the varying capabilities and needs of the children; it concerns itself with a closer study of the customers who buy—the children—so that the right goods may be offered them. We have learned that all should not have the same program of studies and that selling plans for one are not suited to others. All of these we have attempted and are attempting to do in New Orleans, and the end is not yet. We are inclined to see our own problem the most difficult and I have sometimes wished I had an easy place like the other superintendents in this group. The facts warrant my holding the opinion that selling public education in New Orleans has its own peculiar difficulties for the salesmen of private and parochial education are numerous and active. How well public education is selling to the children is seen in the tre- 1456 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION mendous increase in enrolment we have had in one year. February 1, 1921, we had enrolled 50,097, while February 1, 1922, the enrollment was 55,971, an increase of over eleven per cent in one year. Has any other city in this group, without an equal increase in population, experienced such an increase during the past year? We had a right to expect an increase of about two per cent in one year as our population is increasing about eighteen per cent in ten years so our increase in school enrolment, during the past year has been more than five times the normal rate of increase. Our public has been sold on the proposition to give the school board the right to levy taxes for the operation and extension of school facilities. During last school session, this proposition was voted into the State con- stitution by a vote of three to one of the voters in the State and by as great a proportion in New Orleans. Included in the plan is the authority given the school board to issue bonds for school buildings to run for not more than forty years and to require a tax for floating the bonds of not more than one and three quarter mills. In view of the fact that our rate of assessment is at 85 per cent of the cash value of property, this rate produces more funds than four or six mills where assessed values are one quarter or one fifth of the real value of the property. It was a great and interesting campaign of education that prepared the way for the peoples’ vote. The school board and administration officers were ably assisted by a permanent organization of citizens known as The Public School Alliance and by seventy permanent, organized school parents’ clubs with about 10,000 members, several teachers’ organizations, and organizations of women and by the press of the city. In this campaign, the child was made the center. ‘Give the children a chance,” “The best is none too good for the children,” and “The children expect you to do your duty” were some of the compelling slogans of the campaign. ‘The needs of the children for buildings and grounds, good teachers and books, and other things needed were given first importance. The need of the teachers for adequate pay so that the best men and women could be drawn into the school rooms as teachers and held there was also a powerful force in securing a favorable vote on the tax. We endeavor to keep selling our schools to the people—I think nowhere has the press been more generous of its space. School news and stories are always found in the columns of our papers. During the past month our leading morning paper sent a reporter to school ; she remained a whole day in each half grade with one teacher, and on the following morning there was a whole column story about a day’s work in the first B or the third A, as the case may be, and a large cut showing some phase of the day’s work. These sixteen daily stories are but one instance of how our news- papers help inform the people of what the schools are doing. We believe in our goods and know that about all that is needed to make a sale is to show the goods. American Education Week was made much of in our city. The press gave full accounts, a great electric sign was placed across our principal business street by order of the mayor, and blazed out its announcement DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1457 of the week and its invitation to visit the schools. There were 402 separate exercises in the public schools, representatives of the American Legion and others made 287 addresses at these meetings and 12,509 visitors came to the schools. One of the most important functions of the superintendent of schools is to associate himself with the business men of the community. Each Thursday he attends the Chamber of Commerce luncheon, where oppor- tunity is given to talk the school program to business men and on special occasions to address the whole group; on Wednesdays he sells education to the Rotary Club of the city, and as often as opportunity is afforded he addresses the organizations of men and more often he speaks to organiza- tions of women and especially to the organizations of parents connected with the schools. ‘There is one general professional organization of teachers and many organizations of classes of teachers—these organizations help materially in selling programs to the city. Our mild winter climate makes it possible to stage large out-door demon- strations of school work, these pageants, athletic and physical education, and musical and other events never fail to call favorable attention to the schools. New Orleans public schools have been more fortunate in receiving large gifts from the estates of former rich citizens than any other city. On the first Saturday in May we observe Founders’ Day—formerly called McDonogh Day in honor of John McDonogh, who about seventy years ago left one half of his, at that time, large wealth to the public schools of the city. It is an impressive and beautiful sight to see the thousands of little children bringing their flowers to deposit around his monument in one of our public squares and then by thousands march singing through the mayor’s parlor and City Hall. This demonstration always attracts the moving-picture men, the newspaper photographers and reporters, and thousands of citizens have their attention called in a favorable way to the schools. On the first Saturday in May, we hold at our famous, or some may say infamous, race track, our annual track and field meet for boys in the elementary schools. There are some thousands of these boys in compe- tition—sometimes eight hundred contenders entered in the fifty-yard dash— the competition among schools is keen and usually fine and this annual event finds much front page and other space, with pictures, in all our papers. There are many other details that could be given of ways and means employed in our selling program but enough has been said to give the more important means employed, and others would not differ materially from means in common use in all your cities. In summary, the child is made the beginning and the end of our selling program; we seek to make our education so worthwhile and the teaching so effective as to attract and hold him in school and to fill him with school spirit and information, so that he becomes a salesman, selling his parents. Parents are organized and are active in practically all our schools; wide publicity is given our school program through newspaper 1458 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION articles and stories and news and through addresses and discussions and exhibits of what the schools are doing and what they need and how the peoples’ money is being spent. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE J. H. BEVERIDGE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OMAHA, NEBRASKA When asked to open this discussion it occurred to the speaker that he could serve the Department best by getting an expression from its members. To this end he asked a number of superintendents to write a brief letter setting forth their own ideas on the future policies of the Department and others to state the kind of program they would plan for the coming year if the responsibility of preparing such a program were theirs. Each member of the Executive Committee was also asked to express him- self on this topic as a result of his experience in working on this committee. The following is a consensus of opinion then of a representative member- ship of the Department supplemented by additional ideas, an outgrowth of the experience of the Executive Committee. For convenience let us consider first, constructive suggestions and second, specific questions to be answered. CONSTRUCTIVE SUGGESTIONS For superintendents—A majority of inquiries answered seem to indicate that this Department should be in reality a meeting of superintendents for the discussion of superintendents’ problems in such a concrete and effective way that these administrative officers will be able to render better service to their constituency. This is not, however, unanimous. Many hold the membership should include college and normal-school presidents, deans of education in colleges and universities, heads of research departments in city and State school systems, and the like. Public school finance—One of the most important and immediate prob- lems we face is that of financing public education. Future schools will be more expensive than those of today. If public education is to serve its real purpose means of supporting it must be found. The compulsory school age has been extended, attendance in high schools is rapidly increas- ing, standards of teachers’ professional preparation are being raised. Hence it will be necessary not only to increase taxation, but new sources of revenue must be found. Why not let this body appoint a commission to study taxa- tion and the collection and distribution of public funds? Such a committee would study and report for a period of three to five years; or possibly be continuous. This committee should be alert to codperate and affiliate with other commissions making similar studies. School publicity—In order to secure necessary financial support we must undertake the “development of basic evidence” that will enable us to carry DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1459 forward effective publicity campaigns. The public must understand what the school is doing and what the needs of the school are. “This department should know what has been accomplished through effective publicity cam- paigns and how such campaigns were planned and carried out. ‘The tech- nique for such publicity for State, city, and county should be carefully worked out and made available in a definite, concise, and concrete form. It should be organized on a Nation-wide basis. A commission from this Department should be named to work out the best that has been thought, said, and done in selling the public schools to the respective communities and make its report to this body with definite recommendations and state what the fundamental principles underlying school publicity are and how the need for and value of public education may become rooted in the minds and hearts of the people. Building program—What are the steps in formulating the building pro- gram for a city? Can old buildings be reconstructed or remodeled to meet present-day requirements? How are buildings properly located? What are the types of heating and ventilation for respective climates? How best conserve space, still secure plenty of fresh air and sunlight? How secure best plans and specifications? How get satisfactory janitorial service after you have your building? What is standard equipment for each type of building? How buy it at a reasonable price? How shall you make a building survey of your city and formulate a building program covering a series of years indicating needs for housing school children and how these needs may be most economically met commensurate with efficiency? This will involve present cost in relation to operating costs of large and small units and a study of educational objectives in each department of school organization. School buildings are constructed for the means of instruction, not as an end in construction. We commend the plan ohhal building exhibit in connection with the meeting of this Department this year. The idea expanded to meet new needs should become an annual event. Educational objectives and achievements—Let us take an inventory of what we are doing to see if our cause is defensible before we carry it in an aggressive way to the people. This should precede our publicity cam- paign. What are we doing in each of the following units—elementary school unit including kindergarten and first six grades; junior high-school unit; senior high-school unit ; training or normal-school unit; special school unit ; part-time or continuation unit ; adult education unit; and educational citizenship unit? What are the objectives to be attained in each unit? What subjects of the curriculum are designed to realize these objectives? What are the costs of each unit in terms of educational objectives? Would it not help each one of us to study the system with which he is affiliated in terms of objectives and accomplishments ? It seems to the speaker that at every meeting of this Department some report of educational achievements in the past year with a forward qutlook should find a place on the program. 1460 NaTIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION Budget making and expenditures—In order to meet the demands for constantly expanding needs of the modern city and an efficient school system more accurate and scientific methods of budget making must be worked out. We must face this situation in a businesslike manner. We should make our requests for funds in terms of past accomplishments and for well-defined future needs. We must furnish the board of education and the appropriating body with such detailed information as will enable them to reach intelligent conclusions with respect to the adequacy or excessive- ness of amounts requested. This will necessitate still better methods of accounting, a better system of bookkeeping, better comparative unit cost in relation to achievements attained. ‘The better business man the superin- tendent is the more effectively will he be able to handle this phase of the administrative problem. Here is an opportunity for a committee from this Department to render a real service to education by giving specific reason for the faith that is in us. Better school organization—This Department can well afford to study the problem of efficient school organization. No doubt such a study would | assist school administrators in eliminating waste and in securing better re- turns for money invested, in classification, standardization and distribution of schools, supplies and equipment, in the classification of pupils according to their abilities and aptitudes, in the advantage of the larger administrative unit over the smaller to a reasonable degree. We can bring better organi- zation into child accounting by live census, improved attendance records, a more careful study of promotion and failures coupled with better manage- ment of the attendance department with the assistance of the visiting teacher, vocational director, and school nurse. We might inquire concerning the value of teacher participation in cer- tain forms of school organization. The supervision of instruction—Here is one of the most fruitful fields for improving the efficiency of the schools. Every superintendent knows that where the best supervision is there is the most efficient school in the city, other factors being equal. Why is School No. 27 always best in everything? If every school in Chicago, Denver, Rochester, Omaha, or Cleveland had as good supervision as the best school in that city has, the efficiency of that school system would be increased—say thirty, sixty, or a hundred per cent. Every careful study of supervision evidences this senti- ment. We need to know the best that has been accomplished in supervision. Have you noticed how silent most books on education are in respect to supervision? Here is an opportunity for an alert committee to render service to the profession. The foregoing occurs to the speaker as the more important and im- mediate topics for the consideration of this department. A committee or commission should be appointed by the department to study these separate. ‘items and make constructive reports and recommendations to the depart- ment. The speaker is not unmindful of other important matters deserving the attention of the department, such as: (1) How boards of edweation are. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1461 created; (2) the necessity for independent political control of boards of education; (3) codperation between city systems;.(4) curricula building; (5) teacher-supply, preparation, tenure of office, etc. SPECIFIC QUESTIONS 1. Shall this Department be made a clearing-house for the status and advancement of the profession in this country? What is the key to making the organization professional? Should it'be the business of the paid secre- tary to coordinate the best available vision on educational matters? If not what should be the responsibility of the secretary. 2. Shall the Department publish a yearbook which contains the best that is recommended and approved by each annual meeting? Shall the secre- tary have as his aid a Department of Research for carrying out and follow- ing up the suggestions of each annual meeting? 3. What is to be the relationship existing between the twelve affiliated organizations and the Department? Shall the Department attempt in any way to direct the groups into a harmonious whole or shall these groups be independent ? 4. Shall the cities be arranged as in groups with simply one program for each group or shall we have two programs for each city group—one, a session open to all, and the other, an executive session where superintendents only of cities within the respective groups meet together to discuss problems peculiar to their respective groups. 5. Shall the program for 1923 be a program of distinguished talent giving addresses or shall the program be one for the consideration of problems and the reports of commissions, with constructive recommendations which will aid the superintendent in his work? RESOLUTIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, MARCH 2, 1922 MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE Chairman, Francis G. Brarr, State Superintendent of Public Instruction..Springfield, Illinois KATHERINE Hamiton, Assistant Superintendent of Schools.............. St. Paul, Minnesota Witt C. Woop, State Superintendent of Public Instruction............ Sacramento, California Epwin C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools...........-..00. ..-Philadelphia, Pennsylvania HeAwWikK VV. ALLOW, ouperititendent Of SCHOOIS). «Gero. «ace vle os vie ssn aie Washington, D. C. CHar, Ormonp WittiaMs, Superintendent of Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tennessee, and President of the National Education Association, The Department of Superintendence of the National Education Associa- tion of the United States, representing, as it does, the head education officers, administrators, and superintendents of the school systems of the several States and territories of the Union, believing that huge armaments on land and sea are disturbers rather than promoters of international goodwill and world peace, creators rather than reducers of those vast National debts which hold the masses of mankind in poverty and ignorance, do hereby most heartily commend President Harding and his cabinet for their leader- ship in calling the world conference on the limitation of armaments and 1462 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION for the far-reaching and fundamental work accomplished; and believing that the war-worn peoples of the earth realize now as never before that an ignorant populace is one of the main causes of wars, furnishing as it does an easy prey for deception and exploitation by ambitious and unscru- pulous leaders, and that moved by the revelations of this great war the quickened thought of mankind is turning with eager faith and hope to universal education as the only guarantee of and sure foundation for a permanent world peace, and believing that in their search for a system of free public education which gives promise of immediate and abiding results, the American system of public instruction cannot avoid becoming an object of searching inquiry and observation—believing these things, we the mem- bers of the Department of Superintendence undertake a restatement of those principles and policies which we consider fundamental to the organi- zation, administration, supervision, and instruction of a thorough and efficient system of schools, sufficiently elastic and responsive to meet the needs and demands of the growing thought and life of democracy. 1. No Nation-wide system of education can be thorough and efficient in implanting National ideals, aspirations, and principles in the minds of the youth, in transmitting from generation to generation its spiritual and in- tellectual inheritance, without liberal financial support from district, county, State, and Nation. Most of the defects and failures of such a system as reflected in unfit, unsanitary grounds and buildings, in inadequate equip- ment and courses of study, in ill-trained and incompetent teachers and supervisors, are traceable to insufficient revenues. Granting the possibility of effecting economies in present costs through better organization and instruction, we renew our former declaration that in order to raise the level of intelligence and citizenship throughout the Nation, in order to remove the National menace of ignorance and illiteracy, our State and Na- tional leaders must face the great task with statesmanlike vision and cour- age and provide for such National, State, and local revenues as will make possible the establishment of Nation-wide standards of intelligence, moral- ity, and good citizenship. 2. In the consideration of Federal appropriations, it is necessary to restate and redefine the responsibility and authority of Nation and State in the establishment and control of public education. Education is a func- tion of the State and not of the Nation. The principles of our Govern- ment and the teachings of our history establish that fact. Any attempt to transfer or limit this peculiar State function cannot fail to impair rather than improve the effectiveness and thoroughness of education. However great the need may be for more uniform opportunities and standards of education throughout the Nation, however lofty and patriotic the motives of those who may advocate it, any plan, either by direction or indirection, to establish and control educational standards and policies from the Na- tional capital will be destructive of sound governmental and educational principles and policies. But grants of vast tracts of land and large sums of money have been made from time to time by the Federal Government to the States for the encouragement of education, without such conditions DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE 1463 as impaired the educational authority and responsibility of the States ac- cepting such grants. In-so-far as certain features of the Smith-Lever and the Smith-Hughes acts seem to violate this principle we call upon Congress to amend them. 3. Believing that the Towner-Sterling bill now before Congress recog- nizes and embodies the policy of the undivided responsibility and authority of the State in matters of education, we reafirm our approval of the prin- ciples of that bill. 4, Much of the thoroughness and efficiency of a school system depends upon the size and character of the school unit of taxation and supervision. The small local district with a small enrolment and small taxable wealth is a relic of pioneer times and is an obstruction to educational progress. The size and shape of the local school district must be determined not only by its educational needs but by its revenue resources. As the child is as much a citizen of the county and State as he is of the local district, a part of the cost of his education should be borne by the county and the State. The county should be a unit for taxation and supervision in order to equalize educational opportunities and establish uniform standards through- out the country. “The State should be a unit for taxation and supervision in order to equalize the educational opportunities and maintain uniform minimum standards throughout the State. To the financing and management of public education should be applied the soundest business principles and experience. We approve the budget system of estimating the annual needs and apportioning the annual revenues and the use of a uniform plan of cost accounting such as has been recom- mended by a committee of this Department. 5. We believe that a system of public instruction to meet thoroughly and effectively the needs and demands of a free and self-governing people with universal suffrage, must offer a program of free educational oppor- tunity extending from the kindergarten through the university, that the courses offered should be responsive to the growing thought and needs of society and should prepare for complete living in the social, intellectual, and industrial life of a democratic community. Such programs of study should provide in addition to the so-called cultural studies, courses in his- tory and principles of our Government, thrift, vocations and homemaking, health, and social service. 6. If the National disgrace of ignorance and illiteracy is to be removed, thorough and effective compulsory attendance laws must be enacted and enforced in every State and district in the Union. 7. Current criticism of autocratic and domineering superintendence, of overlapping, duplicating and conflicting supervising authorities, whether well-founded or not, must not blind the public to the fact that one of the greatest needs of our school system, one of its most economic factors, is close and effective supervision. ‘The need of teachers with native and acquired abilities is basic and paramount, but unless there is wise, sympathetic, force- ful leadership to unify and direct their efforts toward common ends there must and will be great confusion, conflict, and waste. We therefore, 1464 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION declare a thorough and efficient system of schools impossible without close and competent supervision in every district, county, and State. 8. We declare for careful statutory definitions of the respective functions and for clear and definite legal provisions establishing the duties and pow- ers of State, county, and district superintendents. 9. There can be no such thing as an equal educational opportunity for the youth of a State or Nation until every child has a thoroughly prepared and efficient teacher. What we would implant in the hearts and minds of our children must first be found in the hearts and minds of the teachers. To secure for every school in America a good teacher is the most impera- tive need and demand of the hour. ‘Therefore, in order to attract the brightest and the best persons into the teaching work and to encourage them to make the necessary preparation, we recommend that this Depart- ment commit itself to a campaign. (a) To hold the present salary schedules against the reaction which has already set in. (2) To hold and strengthen our teachers’ pension and retirement funds. (c) To lift the standards of qualification so as to exclude the untrained and unfit. (d) To enlarge and strengthen our teacher-training institutions. 10. We believe that the interests of teachers and superintendents are one and we deplore any and all influences or forces which seek to create division and conflict between them. 11. We believe that thoroughness and efficiency in our school systems demand that teachers and superintendents who have met the standard of qualifications and employment shall not be dismissed from their positions except upon definite charges stated and established. 12. We feel that. our schools cannot do their best work without the in- telligent sympathetic support of that basic institution, the American home. Every influence which tends to impair the home life of the Nation is a blow struck at every other institution, but more especially at our schools. Every effort to strengthen and enrich the home life of our people should have the aggressive support of this Department. We, therefore, commend the National Home Makers Guild in its effort to secure professional recognition of this great work and to secure through proclamations of the President of the United States and the Governors of the several States the setting aside of October the 31st, each year, as Home Makers Day. 13. We declare that the public schools of America are established and maintained for the education of children in a knowledge of the truth and we deplore the apparent tendency to make them a medium for the spread of propaganda of various kinds. We further protest against the use of our public-school organizations for the furtherance of commercial schemes or as agencies for the collection of money for any purpose whatsoever. 14, In order that our educational system may more effectively remove illiteracy, and more thoroughly Americanize and assimilate the foreign- born elements in this country we call upon Congress to close the doors for the present against any further foreign immigration Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts OFFICERS President—Witzur H. BEnpER, State Director of Vocational Education..... Des Moines, Iowa Secretary—Miss FRanKig Conneit, Supervisor of Continuation Schools...... Hannibal, Mo. PROGRAM FOR CHICAGO MEETING FIRST SESSION—Tuespay AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 28, 1922 Part-Time Epucation—Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif.; Lulu Auracher, Principal of Continuation School, Des Moines, Towa. GENERAL DISCUSSION. DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN VOCATIONAL INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION AND GENERAL MANUAL TRAINING oR INDUsTRIAL ARTS—T. E. Johnson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich.; Ira I. Cammack, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. GENERAL DISCUSSION. SECOND SESSION—WeEpDNESDAY AFTERNOON, Marcu 1, 1922 FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF HOME MAKING IN THE HiGH ScHoot—Anna E. Richard- son, Chief Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C.; Wylle B. McNeal, State Supervisor of Home Economics, St. Paul, Minn. GENERAL DISCUSSION. Is EXPENDITURE OF CiTy FuNps For EVENING ADULT VOCATIONAL EpuUCATION JuSTI- FIABLE ?—John H. Beveridge, Superintendent of Schools, Omaha, Nebr.; E. C. Hartwell, Superintendent of Schools, Buffalo, N. Y. GENERAL DISCUSSION. FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS OF HOME MAKING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL ANNA E. RICHARDSON, CHIEF HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION SERVICE, FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The aim of vocational courses in Home Economics should be: to train girls and women to be skilled in the occupations of the home, to be proficient in the application of principles and knowledge on: which the successful practice of the vocation depends, as well as to assume the responsibility for the management of a home. We should study the work and responsibilities demanded by the wife and mother in successfully managing a home and the duties which a woman must successfully perform in purchasing for the wants of the family, in providing for the social and spiritual demands, and in maintaining the right standards of family life, if we aim to really offer training which, in any small degree, is to fit our girls and women for the many sided occupation which we call home making. [1465] 1466 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The first demand of home economic teachers was for real products. This pushed small quantity laboratory cooking out of the schools and substi- tuted for it the lunch room family-size portions, the home kitchen in place of laboratory equipment. Planning and purchasing as well as the prepara- tion, not only of one dish, but of a meal, are essential if these girls are to go home and prepare real food for real families. Not only must this instruction be given in the schools under as nearly normal conditions as possible, but the girl must have the chance to do a real bit of home making in areal home. This is accomplished to some extent by the practice cottage. A few years ago there was scarcely a course in child care or training to be found either in high school or college home economics courses. A great change has come in this respect and some of the high schools are finding opportunity to bring into school life contact with children through special home projects, attendance at day nurseries, children’s homes, and the like. I have been frequently asked the question, “Do you not think it is better to reach many girls with a little home economics than a few girls with a vocational course?” The educational value of a general course in home economics is accepted and experience has proved its worth. General courses cannot hope to offer training which will fit for the many sided vocation of home making, and it was for this reason that the vocational education funds were appropriated to help support a specially planned course for the girls who are desirous of this training and are willing to give adequate time to it. There have been no sufficiently conclusive studies made to determine just how much training should be offered to girls in home making. Our statistics show that only 142 out of every 1000 pupils entering school graduate from high school so that it is important that we offer this oppor- tunity where we will reach the greatest number. ‘Therefore, we have urged that at least the first two years of high school be devoted to a pro- gram of home making as varied as we can make it, so that the girl may get an appreciation of the home and the manifold variety of its occupations and responsibilities. When we have seen what training can do for the agricultural and in- dustrial interests of the country, can we hesitate to apply some of the same scientific and educational methods to home-making ? IS EXPENDITURE OF CITY SCHOOL FUNDS FOR ADULT EDUCATION JUSTIFIABLE? J. H. BEVERIDGE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OMAHA, NEBRASKA Adult education in this discussion has reference to that training which is given to those beyond the compulsory school age and will include even those who, having been granted work permits, are required to spend a portion of their time in school in order to meet legal requirements. In some cities Dept. oF VocaTIONAL EDUCATION AND PracticaL Arts 1467 this will refer to the training of those beyond eighteen years of age; others, beyond sixteen, and in some cases even those beyond. fourteen years of age. Necessity of adult education—The necessity for adult education is found in our belief in a democracy as the best type of government. Although Americans contend that a democratic form of government will serve society better than any other, the speaker is inclined to believe, when honest with himself and with the history of his own government, that democracy is still on trial. Sometimes he is inclined to the idea that in certain departments of the social order and even in certain departments of our own government that there is so much democracy that there is some difficulty in knowing exactly what is to be done with this type of government so that the best interests of the people may be served. Concerning this situation it is clearly evident that the perpetuity of our government can only be assured through an intelligent electorate. No matter how optimistic one is, how enthusiastic in the interest of his own country or even how patriotic, he cannot face the facts of the present day without being compelled to admit that a higher level of intelligence in the electorate is necessary in order that the better interests of the country may be served. The complexity of our present social order is such that it requires an insight and an understanding of the economical and social conditions in order to live rationally and perform the functions of American citizenry. Such an understanding of our economical and social conditions in turn requires a high intelligence level and continuous study on the part of adults as defined in the beginning of this discussion. An impetus has been given to adult education because of the association of members of all classes of society, political and economical, on a common level during the world war. Through this experience of the people the members of society have come to recognize in part the value of education to themselves, to their friends and to certain movements in which they become interested. "They are coming to see more clearly than ever before that in this country a common language—an American language, if you please—is necessary to an understanding and comprehension of what is going on in America, that in this country at least this is the basic and funda- mental language, an inseparable exponent of citizenship. And yet in addition to the necessity of adult education because of our democratic form of government another important sociological question arises. As society is now organized adult education is necessary as a pro- tection to civil as well as political society. As the speaker sees it, one of the most essential points that confronts society today is how workers spend their leisure time, the out-of-regular-employment hours. It is significant to the welfare of this country that the extra-work hours shall be so employed that this time shall contribute to the welfare of the individual and to the welfare of society. How we spend our non-work hours will to a large degree deter- mine the destiny of our nation. Do you realize that almost one half the waking hours of the laborers of 1468 NATIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION today per week are non-work hours? Some statisticians have figured that in a city of two hundred thousand people there are over one million extra non-work hours per day. This may be a little exaggerated, but it signifies the importance of formulating a philosophy and practice for the proper use of the non-work hours. The factory system, division of labor, specializa- tion and efficiency programs are giving us new social problems. Much work is now regulated as perfunctory and fails to develop power. It is of such a character that it is monotonous, it does not offer the opportunity for self-expression. While many of us find in the work in which we are engaged great joy and satisfaction, yet when one studies modern industry it is not difficult for him to understand the attitude of the people when upon hearing the president of the Boston Labor Union speak encouragingly of Doctor Elliott’s address on The Joy of Work, derisive laughter swept through the audience. One might inquire if handling a single tool day after day in a factory or sorting pens weeks after week or merely sliding rings from one place to another to be cut by a tool for a distinct purpose would set a man’s soul on fire with enthusiasm for his work. ‘This type of work baffles self- expression. One could even conceive that another engaged in such instinct- defeating work as this would lead him occasionally to wish that he were where he would burn body and soul. But the problem is here. Society must meet it. Its members must be given enough education to enable them to study, to think, to appreciate so that some form of self-expression may find a place in their lives, in their non-working hours. We must give people the opportunity to get not alone food for the body but food for the soul. We must enable members of society to get wholesome mental relaxa- tion, to understand better the great out-of-doors, to cultivate a taste for literature and music. Indeed it would be well if they were taught how to play. Almost every person feels within him “an instinct that reaches and towers and groping blindly above it for light climbs to a soul in grass and flowers.” Ages ago a wise man said, “Wisdom cometh from the opportunities of leisure.” Someone has suggested that one great difference between Lincoln and other men was the way Lincoln spent his leisure time. It was in their leisure hours that Henry Irving, the actor, and De Souchet, the dramatist, laid the foundation of their success. In history the names of such are legion. Adult education is needed to discover worthwhile leadership. Proof of this is found in the organization growth and development of Foreman’s Training Classes in factory and business organizations. That education of this type aids one in becoming more efficient in his vocation goes almost without saying. With the passing of apprenticeship it becomes necessary to train for the vocation by schools provided for that purpose. Evidence of the value of adult education—“By your fruits ye shall know them.” The following letter shows the value placed upon such training by a student in an evening class at Racine, Wisconsin: Dept. OF VocaTIONAL EpucATION AND PracticaL Arts 1469 DEAR Mr. GRAHAM: In 1914, when you were in charge of the vocational schools in Racine, I received my first glimpse of an evening school. To learn the English language and to be able to read English books was the height of my ambition. Being ignorant of the American customs, government, and history, I was more or less prejudiced against the average American. However, under the splendid environment of the evening school, which served me as an eye-opener, I have not only changed my opinions concerning the American people, but I have also changed the course of my life and set up my ambitions to a much higher level. Those moments when America and her opportunities were unfolded to me as an open book shall never fail in my memory. During the evening school course, I realized that there was a chance for me to go to a high school and later to a college. So, in the fall of 1916, I entered Racine High School, from which I graduated in the spring of 1918. In April of the year 1918, I entered the service of the U. S. Government so the progress of my ambition was slightly retarded. However, in the fall of the year 1919, I reached the place after which my heart was yearning for years—I entered the College of Engineering of the University of Wisconsin. This, in a few words, gives you the vision to which the evening schools opened my eyes. Not only have I learned to love America and her institutions, but I have also learned to appreciate the efforts of the men who, through the vocational schools, are absorbing large numbers of the coming aliens by opening their eyes to the splendid ideals and opportunities of this great country. Most sincerely yours, JoHN SLozaKk. No doubt most of the cities represented here this afternoon could relate similar experiences. Just how Omaha has several boys who are taking regular high-school work as a result of an interest developed in evening school study. William Novak entered the South Evening High School in 1918. He is now completing his regular high-school work carrying six subjects and doing his work well. Another evening school student who is interested in architecture, Harold Sefren, is now in high schoo! taking four periods in mechanical drawing, one in electricity, one in geometry, and one in woodworking. It is unnecessary to multiply numbers. Here is a letter from the American Smelting and Refining Company showing the value to the Company of ‘““The Foreman’s ‘Training Class” con- ducted by the public schools of Omaha, Nebraska. Omaha, Nebraska, April 27, 1921 It affords me considerable pleasure to commend the Foreman’s Training Class, which was conducted during the past eighteen weeks in our plant, this class based upon the text “Foreman Training and Factory Management.” This class has been conducted here during a very trying period and has certainly a large influence in establishing among our foremen an appreciation of the fact that our problems are their problems, that our responsibilities are their responsi- bilities, and that our business is their business. It is a course which develops straight thinking along constructive lines which is a particularly desirable thing at this time. ARTHUR E. HALL, General Superintendent of the American Smelting and Refining Co. The speaker heard the manager of this Company state in public that the training given in this Foreman’s Class saved the company $200,000. He 1470 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION also heard a graduate engineer, a-student in this same class, say he had learned more about managing men in sixteen lessons in the Foreman’s Training Class than he had learned in all his previous experience. He was a university graduate with several years’ business experience. With evidence of this kind you may be interested to know what we attempt to teach in this type of adult education. Briefly stated the follow- ing are the objectives in Foreman Training: (1) Increased production. (2) Improvement of operations and processes. (3) Decreased cost of operation. (4) Improved codperation. (5) Decreased labor turnover. (6) Development of an understanding by the management, the foreman and the workers of the responsibility of each individual with regard to fac- tory operations. (7) Recognition of the relation of the factory to the com- munity and the community to the factory. (8) Recognition by the worker of production as a social rather than as a mere duty to himself and to the business in which he is employed. (9) Stimulation of other types of desir- able training. (10) Preparation of analyses of jobs for use by foremen in training workers. (11) Preparation of foremen as industrial instructors. (12) Provision of job specifications for each job. Foremen training has proved so successful in Nebraska that many busi- ness institutions are arranging to continue training through the organization of regular foreman conferences. From this type of training increases in production have resulted ranging from fifteen per cent at the close of ten lessons in a large laundry to one hundred per cent after twenty-one lessons in an engine factory. Improvements in operations and processes causing a direct saving of money is but a small part of the general result from such courses. “The more important results seem to be the esprit de corps developed, loyalty to the institution and right attitude toward life. ‘To illustrate, during the packers’ strike in Omaha one of the largest companies said that the training given to the foremen in their factory through afhliation with the public schools was by far the greatest factor in bringing about an amicable settlement. Reports from thirteen cities selected with good geographical distribution representing the several districts of the United States show that last year $323,043 were spent for adult education. In twelve of the cities the total enrolment was 41,719 pupils. Only one city of over one half million is included in this list, that one being but slightly over that figure. It can hardly be charged that these cities are doing what is not justifiable. The several cities were asked to give estimate of value of work in adult education. Statements follow indicating cities by number: (1) Just as valuable as day school. (2) Most valuable work in proportion to cost. (3) Value cannot be estimated. Here to stay. (4) Teachers think it so valuable that they contribute their services. (5) Highest regard for work. (6) Valuable service rendered. (7) Much help given. (8) Of value to all who attend. (9) This work should be curtailed in this time of retrenchment. Of less importance than child education. (10) Has been limited until additional revenue can be secured. (11) Money brings a Dept. oF VocATIONAL EDUCATION AND PracticAL Arts 1471 large return for money spent. (12) Wise expenditure but funds inade- quate. (13) Much help given serious minded students. The burden of evidence seems to be that adult education is necessary and valuable and that a city is justified in spending or investing public funds for its support. “This type of education in the larger way is not only for the welfare of the city, where the adults live, but it is for the welfare of State and Nation. All should contribute to the support of this type of edu- cation, and to adult vocational education for that matter, for this is a medium through which eventually will come the training for citizenship and for service. Indeed the speaker cannot see how the two can be entirely separated if the best interests of either or both are to be served. It has been shown that there is need of adult education in our democratic government, that it is necessary for the conservation and development of citizenship in the non-working hours, that it helps to increase the efficiency of workers in service, that it is an aid in developing worthy leadership. Its value is evidenced by statements of brother workers and employers. Cities have given their approval by support and statements concerning its value. ‘This type of education has received both State and Federal aid. Through the aid of public land grants State colleges have been estab- lished for the teaching of agriculture and mechanic arts. Other subjects are not excluded. By 1915 there had been established sixty-seven institu- tions giving instruction to sixty-nine thousand students. We have our State universities with their professional schools and giving baccalaureate degrees. Why should not city schools train for vocations and citizenship? It is just to community, State, and Nation. If retrenchment must come the child should come first. Let us never place the dollar above the child. BOSTON MEETING SECRETARY S MINUTES The Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts met Thursday afternoon, July 6, 1922, in Alumni Hall, Wentworth Institute. The meeting was called to order by L. H. Dennis, State director of vocational education for Penn- sylvania, who presided over the meeting in the absence of Mr. Bender, the president. Mr. Dennis presented the various speakers, and in connection with each topic briefly set forth the importance of having the aims and objectives, as well as the basic need, of vocational education clearly analyzed and understood. He urged vocational teachers and administrators to clarify their own vision and thinking first and to follow this with a definite effort to inform correctly those engaged in, and responsible for, the administration of education generally. The program follows: VocATIONAL EpucaTION AN Economic Necesstry—Emery Filbey, University of Chicago, Chicago, III. Tue Economic VALUE OF VOCATIONAL TRAINING—Robert O. Small, State Depart- ment of Education, Boston, Mass. VocaATIONAL EDUCATION FOR THE RuRAL CoMMuNITY—Augustus O, Thomas, State Superintendent of Public Schools, Augusta, Maine. After the addresses had been given, the meeting adjourned to the lower floor, where a delightful reception was held. 1472 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The only business transacted was to appoint a nominating committee, con- sisting of A. L. Williston, principal of Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.; Pro- fessor George A. Works, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.; R. W. Heim, State director of vocational education, Newark, Del. This committee reported the fol- lowing: For president, L. H. Dennis, State Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa; for vice-president, Benjamin W. Johnson, University of California, Berkeley, Calif.; for recording secretary, C. C. Colvin, State Department of Edu- cation, Springfield, Ill.; for corresponding secretary, Leigh J. Rodgers, head of the department of machine work, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass. The report was adopted. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AN ECONOMIC NECESSITY EMERY FILBEY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS For purposes of this discussion we shall assume that vocational education | includes “any form of education whether given in a school or elsewhere, the purpose of which is to fit an individual to pursue effectively a recognized profitable employment, whether pursued for wages or otherwise.”’+ We should further assume that “vocational education of any specific kind func- tions when, as a result of a definite amount of training, an ascertainable degree of proficiency in the exercise of a vocation is shown in the individuals trained.” * Any attempt to show economic necessity for vocational educa- tion must then take account first of the fact that such training is purposeful, and second of the fact that the return on such training should be measurable in terms of functioning. In order that we may get this problem more clearly before us it seems desirable to canvass briefly present provision for the training in question, claims for and actual measurable accomplishment. We shall then be in a position to discuss probable economic returns as a basis for present-day pro- grams of vocational education. In order that undue confusion may be avoided the discussion will be confined to training of less than college grade and for the most part to young people between the ages of 14 and 18, al- though in a few instances statistical material introduced covers training for adults as well as for juniors. Since complete statistical data are not available for all lines of employ- ment it seems desirable to refer for quantitative measures of training pro- vision to the field of trades and industries which has been rather clearly defined and for which there is rather complete information. The comparative significance of this group is indicated by reference to the United States Census Bulletin on Comparative Occupational Statistics for 1920. These statistical computations show that of the 41,614,248 per- sons ten years of age and over who are engaged in gainful occupations, 30.8 per cent, or 12,818,524, are working,in the manufacturing and mechanical industries. Of this number approximately 15 per cent are women. ‘The total group is larger by approximately two millions than the agriculture, 1 David Snedden. Vocational Education, p. 535. ? David Snedden. Vocational Education, p. 537. Dept. oF VocaTIONAL EDUCATION AND PracticaL Arts 1473 forestry, and animal husbandry group and as large as the combined groups of workers in trade, professional service, domestic and personal service, and clerical occupations. A survey of present training provision and attainment for this large group of workers presents some rather striking facts. The 1920 census shows for example approximately one apprentice, so called, to eighty work- ers, although attention is called to the fact that many of these young people may be engaged in “machine tending.” Incomplete data for 1910 as com- pared with those for 1920 show on the whole a marked decline in appren- ticeship due in large part, no doubt, to more rigid classification. A corre- spondingly low percentage of apprenticeship training is reported by the Committee on Elimination of Waste in Industry of the Federated American Engineering Societies. It finds in the building trades, for example, a group representing some 3,000,000 mechanics and laborers, which is approximately 7 per cent of all persons employed in gainful occupations, only 1 per cent of the total number of workers listed as apprentices. It is evident that the large fraction of workers in these occupations is being trained, if at all, through provision other than apprenticeship. Carefully prepared estimates of the work done by trade schools both pub- lic and private indicate that up to 1910 the total registration of regular students in trade schools did not exceed 1800, and that the number regis- tered in 1920 was not in excess of five thousand. This meant in 1910 one trade school student for 6000 workers in manufacturing and mechanical industries and in 1920 one student for 2500 such employes. The Annual Report of the Federal Board for Vocational Education for 1920 shows the following enrolment for training in public all-day, part- time, and evening courses in “Trades and Industries”: All-day, 21,224; part-time, 17,244; evening, 48,354. Interpreted in terms of the working population represented, this means one all-day student for 600 workers; one part-time student for 750 workers; and one evening school student for 250 men and women employed in manufacturing and mechanical industries. Using 2500 wage earners in manufacturing and mechanical industries as a base for distributing trainees we find the following representation: Ap- prenticeship, 25; evening schools, 10; day-schools, 4; continuation schools, 3; trade schools, 1; total, 43. . This means one trainee to 57 workers, which even if all training repre- sented were quantitatively acceptable would be meager provision against which to check economic or other returns in any large way. If we assume an average productive work period of thirty years and an average training period of two years there should be under normal conditions one trainee for fteen workers. ‘This number checked against our present showing would indicate that approximately one fourth of the workers are being served even if we were to assume that present indicated provision were qualita- tively acceptable, a condition which cannot be assumed, especially for a large part of the training indicated under apprenticeship and continuation schools. 1474 NationaL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION Since the total number of employed workers is approximately 3.3 times the number employed in manufacturing and mechanical industries and since approximately only one half of the total population ten years of age and over is engaged in gainful occupation, this means one trainee in all indus- trial courses combined for 8250 gainfully employed and one to 16,500 total .population ten years of age and over. On this basis we have at the present time, including apprentices, trade school students, day, evening, and con- tinuation school registrants forty-three students in the industrial courses for a community population of 20,625. This thought of in terms of a community program does not represent major effort in the training of young people for vocations, especially since there is no indication that train- ing for other lines of employment is more generously provided than for manufacturing and mechanical industries. The Military survey of New York State, 1918, shows one boy in seven of the sixteen, seventeen, and eighteen-year-old group in school. Since this is the period during which vocational education can best be. administered there is here again indication that up to date we have not provided even quantitatively for vocational education for those entering upon employment on less than the college level. It is obvious that, if school provision through vocational education is desirable, much remains to be done, and continued support, especially at public expense, calls for justification. It is in this connection that we find the advocates of vocational education resorting to the economic argument in favor of such training. Unfortunately the pro- ponents of vocational education, just as those who have become enthused over possibilities for service through general education, have been inclined to deal in generalities rather than in specific factual returns from training undertaken. Upon the basis of generalities we find in the literature of Vocational Education proposals covering returns through wage increase and increased earning power; through conservation of materials and elimina- tion of waste; through health improvement, safety and general well-being, and through other miscellaneous returns such as costs and standards of liy- ing. Needless to say we have experienced to date nothing approaching a wind-fall of blessing through realization of any or all of these general objectives. Douglass has pointed out some of the fallacies connected with the early discussion centering around the “wage worth of vocational training,” and shown that contrary to early expectation under certain conditions training on a large scale might be expected to reduce rather than increase the money wage. His conclusions indicate the fallacy of attempting to justify voca- tional education on the basis of direct wage increase.1 It is doubtful if even such an ingenious system of computation as that employed by the Com- mission on National Aid for Vocational Education can long escape public challenge, although it proposed a modest wage increase of only ten to twenty-five cents a day for trained workers.2 There is here something + Paul Douglass. American Apprenticeship and Industrial Education, _ * Report of the Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education—63 Session, Document No. 1004, p. 18-2 PP. 307-314. d Congress, Second Dept. oF VocATIONAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICAL ARTS 1475 Se Ee akin to the situation which would be created among dentists if larger and larger numbers were to be trained. Instead of increasing the financial re- turn it might reasonably be reduced as more and more workers were raised from the less productive levels of employment, a movement which would in turn tend to increase the wage return for the depleted group. Leaving then as relatively profitless any further discussion of wage returns, what economic returns should be expected from Vocational Education? In one of the early papers presented before this section in 1879 we find this statement :* ‘The problem then that seems to be before the educators of today is how some system of Industrial Education can be incorporated with our excellent public-school system, so that general culture and hand culture may be carried along together harmoniously. If this can be done we believe the laborer of the United States will lead the world in ingenuity and handicraft. How this may be done we leave to pe aeeeriss by the papers and discussions in this Department which are soon to ollow. And again: Labor is not only the child of education, but is dependent on it for its skill and productiveness. Education is now more necessary to the laborer than ever before, because the kind of labor required demands skill and knowledge rather than brute force, which is more and more supplied by steam and other forces of nature. We find here an effort similar to more recent pronouncement from such groups as the Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education to en- courage one form of vocational education because of general economic con- siderations of a national character. In addition to its argument that vocational education would be a wise business investment, the Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education called attention to the need for conservation of natural and human resources at a time when advantage from natural resources was on the decline and necessity for-competition in world markets was becoming more and more pressing. It pointed out the necessity for increase in the efficiency of labor in the shops and elsewhere to overcome any loss through failure of the resource factor. It also indi- cated opportunities to reduce waste through relieving unemployment, under- ‘employment, and other forms of improper work connection through a pro- gram of education which would fit unskilled labor for transfer to “‘scarcer and more needed work of management”’ and high-grade technical perform- ance. ‘Through such transfer from overcrowded to more remunerative occupations the commission hoped to make possible marked expansion of our industries. Although the above statements of economic need are not subject to the same technical complications involved in attempts to show wage increase, they are very general statements and difficult to check in terms of training accomplishment. ‘The following statement from former Secretary Redfield is subject to the same difficulty although it does reflect the economic interest of one of the staunch supporters of the vocational education movement :2 SiAddresses and Proceedings, National Education Association, 1879. 2Alvin E. Dodd, To Fit Millions for Their Work. Manwal Training Magazine, December, IQI5. 1476 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION We are among the world’s great industrial peoples, striving mightily for our place in the commercial sun. We need that place to keep our workmen employed and their families happy, but we omit a necessary thing to win and hold the posi- tion for which we strive.’ We train the physician for his job, the lawyer for his profession. We teach the veterinary how to care for the horse, and we even expect a dog doctor to know his job. With exceptions, excellent indeed, but all too rare, we are letting the city boy and the mechanic’s son go it alone. We are so busy with winning our way, so concerned with our own National, State, and local affairs that a great problem like the wasting of our youth has been almost untouched. Here it has come to be that years of a young mechanic’s life are wasted in. the learning how to earn his living after he has reached the time of life when it 1s his desire and duty to earn that living. Here is a weakness and a waste that may well alter the place of the United States in the commercial and industrial world. Mr. Miles,? writing in 1912, called attention to the tariff situation and to the necessity for international competition in production. Facing pros- pective tariff reduction he pointed out that “the volume of imports will largely increase and every additional dollar of import must be offset by an additional dollar of export, carrying an equal percentage of labor.” This he held to be fundamental if the American working man was to retain his standard of living, much more fundamental if he were to improve it. He held that “‘as a people we are ignorant of foreign trade. America is to be likened to a huge stevedore bearing down to the ships of the sea crude and semi-crude material for the use of the capital, labor, and intelligence of foreign nations.” Contrast this general ‘statement made by Mr. Miles in 1912 with a specific statement made by him before the City Club of Chicago in May of this year and you have an indication of progress which would afford a satisfactory measure of efficient vocational education so far as economic necessity is concerned. His statement follows: Take hosiery, for instance: In the last five years a single operator has run twenty-five automatic machines, making the entire stock of 150 dozen pairs daily. Her piece-rate has been reduced to two cents per dozen pairs, and yet she gets three dollars a day. These socks cost 81.5 cents per-dozen pairs today, including 36 cents for the yarn, and retail at ten cents a pair. The total labor cost from raw cotton to finished sock is two cents per pair; the lowest wage in the world, and the highest weekly earning paid to any hosiery workers in the world.’ Mr. Miles points out that similar conditions prevail today in the manu-- facture of shoes, agricultural implements, sewing-machines and certain other products which are produced in America more cheaply and better than in any other country, making possible favorable competition in world markets and at the same time paying high wages. Savings in production can unquestionably be shown in agriculture, where it is claimed that the cost of producing the crop of a given year has been reduced by approximately $20,000,000 a year over a period of fifty years, resulting in an economic gain of near one billion dollars annually at the present time. In other words the modern farmer is beginning to be something other than a “miner, mining the fertility of the soil, and selling it for the bare cost of the mining.” 1H. E. Miles, Industrial Education, Bulletin No. 28, National Association of Manufacturers, T9I2. 2H. E. Miles, Chairman of the Fair Tariff League, Address before the City Club i May 17, 1922, City Club Bulletin, May 22, 1922, p. 83. oS ee Dept. oF VocATIONAL EDUCATION AND PracticAL Arts 147 Corresponding progress is to be noted in business and in homemaking, but in all lines of productive effort there is yet much to be desired, as is indicated by the recent report of the Committee on Elimination of Waste in Industry of the Federated American Engineering Societies.1 While it is possible to show gross gains it is also possible to show enormous wastage and it is for the most part through the elimination of specific items of waste that the economic value of vocational education is tobe found. Additional gross gains in productivity or well-being may be equally chargeable to other forms of education or to general social factors rather than to specific vocational training. Let us look, then, at a few of the specific items_of waste as determined by this recent engineering investigation. ‘The com- mittee finds that ‘“‘waste in industry is attributable to (1) Low production, caused by faulty management of materials, plant, equipment, and ‘men; (2) interrupted production, caused by idle men, idle materials, idle plants, idle equipment; (3) restricted production, intentionally caused by owners, management, or labor; (4) lost production, caused by ill health, physical defects, and industrial accidents.” Here we find at last a satisfactory base for a discussion of the economic return from vocational education. It should be possible through specific training to correct our present faulty handling of ‘‘materials, plants, and men,” and it should be possible through bringing about better understanding of the complete program of production to reduce the willful restriction of output, both by management and by men employed. Such wastes as are represented by illness, physical defects, and industrial accidents are clearly chargeable to the economic account, although they represent incalculable loss in terms of human suffer- ing and social maladjustments. As an example of the economic return which would be possible through one form of vocational education, both in school and in employment, let us consider the return possible through health training, including safety. Recent estimates show that the 42,000,000 men and women gainfully em- ployed in the United States lose approximately 350,000,000 days each year because of illness. It has been estimated that at least 45 per cent of this loss is preventable. “This means for the gainfully employed a loss from pre- ventable disease and death of near $1,800,000,000. Add to this economic item the long term result of 6,000,000 cases of organic disease among wage- earners, resulting from infection, and we have a situation which challenges our vocational education program in no uncertain terms. Achallenge for measured production. In addition to loss through illness there is an equally attractive field for educational service through accident prevention. ‘The fatal accidents in industry alone for 1919 were approximately 23,000. In addition there were 575,000 causing four weeks or more disability, and 3,000,000 causing at least one day’s disability. Impaired earning power caused by death or dis- ability combined with time lost because of accident have been estimated as 1‘*Waste in Industry,’? Federated American Engineering Societies, Washington, D. C. 1478 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION representing an economic loss of near $853,000,000 for the year. 1919.2 It has been estimated that proper safety measures including education would prevent between 50 per cent and 80 per cent of these accidents. Here we find a specific objective for vocational education which would result in material economic gain, both for the employer and for the worker. This combined loss through illness and accident representing as it does some 4.3 per cent of otir total national income, or the return on productive labor for 1,750,000 workers, does not approach the total wastage reported by the Engineering Societies. To this amount should be added loss through “faulty production control,” “faulty labor control,” preventable idleness of men, plant, and equipment, and loss resulting from willful restriction of production. ‘The total waste estimated for the metal trades covered by this investigation was fixed at 28 per cent, ranging from 6 per cent in the best plant to 55 per cent in the poorest. If we assume, and there is just basis” for such assumption, that metal trades plants are as well managed as are other productive enterprises, we are justified in concluding that approxi- mately 28 per cent of the workers now employed are engaged to no purpose. Numerically this means wasted effort for 11,480,000 men and women, or more than three times the total increase in our working population between 1910 and 1920. z The mere recognition of the fact that these enormous wastes are to be found even in our best managed enterprises carries us one step forward in the matter of solution. It remains to seek out the specific causal factors be- fore remedial treatment can be effective. Fortunately some progress is being made through detailed analysis of the situation. ‘The committee finds that approximately 50 per cent of the responsibility for waste should be lodged with management; 25 per cent with labor, and the remainder distributed among outside agencies.?, Such a distribution at once suggests the training level on which specific corrective vocational education should be adminis- tered if definite economic returns are to be expected. It should, for ex- ample, be found possible through trade extension courses for adults, to attack many of the problems centering around the control of materials and the scheduling of production. It should be, and experience has proved that it is, possible through foremanship training to relieve much of the friction and consequent loss due to inefficient handling of labor. Similar results may be expected although not yet so clearly demonstrated through the thoroughgoing pre-employment vocational training of young men and young women who are to enter the more responsible positions in all lines of productive work. Such training is represented by much of the unit trade, agricultural, and homemaking courses administered under the Fed- eral Board for Vocational Education and by the training now available in such schools as the New York City Textile High School. Training of this character coupled with leadership and expert service made possible through corresponding training on the college level, and connected onthe other hand with an extended program of education for all workers en- 1 Statistical summaries from ‘Waste in Industry,” Federated American Engineering Societies, Washington, D. C. : 2 “Waste in Industry,” Federated American Engineering Societies, Washington, D. C., page 9. - Dept. oF VocaTIONAL EpucATION AND PracticaL Arts 1479 courages us to expect a measurable economic return from vocational edu- cation. If the return from education of the rank and file of workers is to be a measurable one, vocational education must be as specific for this group as for those who are to provide for more efficient management. If vocational education is to reduce illness; prevent accidents; make for conservation of materials, through reducing the amount of spoiled work and the number of broken tools; motivate workers and reduce friction; quickly and effect- ively adjust workers to the kind of employment for which they are best suited, thus reducing unemployment, underemployment, and labor turnover ; it must have definite economic objectives and instructional practice must be adjusted to these objectives. To be effective such training administered in all-day, part-time, evening, or corporation schools must break for all time with “machine” methods of education and in like manner with teachers who can see educational return only in terms of “‘machine-made” educational product. We must get away from an administrative program controlled by teachers of special sub- jects. We may well begin by teaching workers and potential workers, who present themselves for vocational education, that part of the material in the field of health education which will enable them to keep fit and to protect themselves against loss from accident. We may give them training in social science and economics which will enable them to interpret the social and economic forces surrounding them in their work. ‘Those who are privileged to advance to positions of responsibility should have enough to prevent the kind of disturbance to which President Howard, of the “Commonwealth Steel Company, referred in a recent address, in which he compared the influence of a foreman or other responsible employee in charge of labor, who persists in “rubbing labor the wrong way,” to that of an individual who stands in front of a very delicate and expensive machine and deliberately throws sand and grit into the bearings. This leads to material loss. The treatment of workers in many instances brings on similar results with consequent loss through ill-will and under-production. The vocational education of junior management in this detail of handling workers affords a specific objective, the return upon which is easily meas- urable. Equally measurable is that return upon the training of workers . who are subjecting themselves to management without basic information to serve as a guide to safe and sane action; in other words, without “grit resisting” protective devices or qualities. All workers need this protec- tion and something of the ability here implied and the giving of such ability affords one of the outstanding economic requirements of the present day. The marked need for a higher type of technical productivity is too obvious to call for elaboration here. Suffice to say that in this field of endeavor is to be found instructional material for all levels and for all types of vocational education yet proposed ; educational opportunities for training which can be made to result in a type of ability which can be used to marked economic advantage both to the individual and to the community at large. 1480 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Great as is the economic necessity for such training and even granting pointed and specific objectives now available for many units of vocational education, there is no guarantee that a major return can be expected unless the detail of instruction can be carefully controlled. There is in all prob- ability no better statement of the problem here presented than that pre- pared by the American Defense Society in its bulletin on “Reconstruction in Education.” A brief selection from their statement follows: Training must do more than develop the automatic skill required. It must do more than impart the special knowledge needed. Unless it also makes the student master fundamentals, unless it also fosters initiative, it is hardly justified as educa- tion. ‘Therefore the translation of job specifications into school procedure requires an analysis of the specifications for a given type of work into “common operations” or fundamental principles and processes. It is now generally agreed that instruction is most effective when given by means of jobs, projects, or handling of real cases. The difficulty in constructing a course of instruction on this principle lies in selecting or organizing a series of jobs, projects, and real cases which gives proper attention to all the factors of skill and knowledge called for by the list of fundamentals. ‘The content of the course must cover comprehensively the requirements of the specifications. Once equipped with this type of instructional material and provided with instructors and administrators who are in sympathy with and trained in its use we may expect a very definite return upon vocational education; a return of economic as well as of broader social value. Such a program should function in part as a corrective to the disturbance generated in the course of our rapid transfer from a rural to an urban population and from a relatively crude to a highly scientific system of production. It should make possible a type of current progress which would prevent the condition to which attention was drawn in a recent article; a warning against lack of progress which would permit “the schools to lie becalmed in the current- less drift of old educational opinions and routines.” Department of the Wider Use of Schoolhouses PROGRAM OF MEETINGS OFFICERS President—JosEPHINE C. Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction..Olympia, Wash, Vice-President—l. B. Morcan, Director of Vocational Schools............ Kansas City, Kans. Secretary—EucENE C. Gizsney, Director of Community Centers, Board of EIAGOA PLOT ete ew EV Re Tass Cashes ol suo\n wins farsre oa cisvovsyere 5, ops ier iaisrssh .cyatayelsconayone obs New York, N. Y. FIRST SESSION—Mownpay AFTERNOON, JULY 3, 1922 Architectural Adaptation of School Buildings for After-School Use ARCHITECTURE THAT ENCOURAGES THE WIDER USE oF ScHOooLs—William B. Ittner, School Architect, St. Louis, Mo. Wier UsE OF THE ScHOOoL PLANT—Frank Irving Cooper, School Architect, Boston, Mass. Wiwer-UsE ProsLtemMs IN Rurat ScHoots—Dwight H. Perkins, School Architect, Chicago, Il. How ScHooLtHouses IN New York CITY ARE PLANNED FOR USE OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL Hours—C. B. J. Snyder, Superintendent of School Buildings, New York, N. Y. Detroit’s New ComMMunNiTY CENTER ScHoots—Frank Cody, Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Mich. Discussion Lep py—N. L. Engelhardt, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. SECOND SESSION—WEeEpNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 5, 1922 Wider Use of Schools in Cities FACILITATING THE USE OF SCHOOLS BY CITIZENS’ Groups—Eugene C. Gibney, Di- rector of Extension Activities, Board of Education, New York, N. Y. How WE SOLVED THE JANITORIAL PrRoBLEM—James T. Mulroy, Director of Ex- tended Use of Schools, Boston, Mass. THE VIRGINIA COOPERATIVE EDUCATION AssOcIATION—ITs INFLUENCE ON THE COM- MUNITY THROUGH THE WIDER USE OF ScHOOL PLANTs—Mrs. E. Fenno Heath, Member Executive Committee of the Codperative Education Association, and County President of Patrons’ Leagues in Elizabeth City County. How Civic AssociaTions CAN Hetp Run ScHooL, Crentres—Violet G. Williams, Recreation Commission, York, Pa. DIFFICULTIES IN THE DuaL Direction oF AFTER-SHOOL ActTiviT1Es—W. C. Bachelor, Recreation Commission, Utica, N. Y. Wiper Use oF ScHOOLS AND THE Scour Movement—Charles Mills, Director of Publicity, Boy Scouts of America, New York, N. Y. Business MEETING. Ds The officers for 1921-1922 were reélected, and the school building program will be continued. : [1481] 1482 NaTIonAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE THAT ENCOURAGES WIDER USE WILLIAM B. ITTNER, ARCHITECT AND SCHOOL SPECIALIST, ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI Service is the test of good school architecture. “The more efficient, the more extensive the service, the better the school plant. The topic could also read, How the Wider Use.of Schools Encourages Good School Archi- tecture, since the vital consideration in all school planning is adaptation to use. At the same time the stimulating influence of a salient suggestive environment on wider use cannot be overlooked. ‘The two phrases, there- fore—namely, Good architecture and Extended use support one another. Efficient schoolhouse planning encourages a multiplicity of uses and vice versa, maximum use calls for efficient building service. School plants of yesterday cannot serve the expanded education of today— The old-time one-room rural school with its monotonous emptiness and isolation could not serve anything but a mere handful of children for text- book study. A far more fruitful service can be offered by the enriched consolidated rural school quite general today. “The stereotyped box-like structure on a barren restricted site in our city of yesterday had no greater propensity for service than the forlorn and neglected one-room rural school. But compare it with some of our inviting architectural creations of today. This difference, no doubt, is the result of a change in needs. The funda- mental changes in the working and living conditions of our great common- wealth have evolved a change in educational demands with a shift of emphasis on vital educational considerations. And simultaneously, an enriched and expanded school life has created demands for riches and more varied equipment in the form of buildings and grounds; in other words, for a new type of school plant. Present-day objectives in education and community development require a rich, varied, and extensive environment—The maintenance and promo- tion of physical health is now a fundamental in elementary and secondary education. It is likewise a fundamental in the development of community life. The traditional classroom school could never serve an active health program. Playgrounds, gardens, gymnasiums, and showers are demanded for all. Neither can the barren environment of yesterday’s schools serve for training in manual skill, worthy home membership, and wholesome use of leisure. Work shops, drawing rooms, laboratories, auditoriums, and school libraries are required. Classrooms for book work are not eliminated in schools, but they constitute only a portion of the facilities today and not the complete equipment. It is the renaissance in public education then, with its new objectives, together with an appreciation of the expansion of public-school service that have a new type of school environment—one that is richer, finer, far more interesting, varied, and extensive. Public schools of today exist for all people as well as for all the children DEPARTMENT OF THE Wiper UsE oF SCHOOLHOUSES 1483 of all the people—Public schools originally were established for children and primarily today they exist for “all the children of all the people.” But gradually, as education has become a continuous process, schools have expanded their service to include also “all the people.” And again, it is this wider use that continues to encourage greater efficiency in plan, richer and more varied facilities and more beautiful buildings and grounds. When analyzed, the facilities essential to adult uses are practically the same as those needed for the young folks. The chief difference lies in greater variety of certain instructional quarters and in size of equipment. For this reason secondary schools or complete centralized plants often serve better for adult uses than elementary schools. But where secondary schools are more or less remote, even present-day elementary school equipment can be adapted for community service. Efficiency of plan is an ally to community service—The proper location and relationship of the component parts of a school plant are important both for regular and community service. Take, for instance, the gym- nasiums, showers, pools, and accessories. Unless these recreational facili- ties connect directly with the play grounds, there will always be a dis- crepancy in the service of the full equipment. It is essential that the auditorium be located on the main floor in close proximity to the main entrance, or arranged with a direct outside entrance. It is desirable, also, that the school library be near the main entrance, or at least centrally located in the building. But these requirements of loca- tion and correlation also serve the regular student body efficiently. There- fore, there need be no special re-arrangement of facilities when planning tor wider use. Successful lighting, ventilation, and heating encourage wider use—The successful lighting, ventilation, and heating affect the success of community as much as regular school uses. The “open plan” type which permits of maximum natural lighting to all parts of the building and an artificial ‘lighting system of proper distribution and intensity ought to give satisfactory lighting service. The “open plan” type of building results in maximum natural ventilation, as well as lighting. In addition to this provision a properly designed, installed and controlled heating and ventilating plant will secure during the colder weather sufficient air movement, humidity, and normal temperature at all times. And it has become common practice now to install heating plants in such manner that rooms like the auditorium, library, the gymnasiums, the offices, and any others may be separately heated and ventilated. p School plants should represent the noblest architectural creations in the community—The interior of a school plant is but one phase. If schools are to appeal to the whole community, if they are to extend beckoning hands to the boys and girls who have dropped, for various reasons, then their exteriors must also evidence interest, variety, and beauty. In other words, exteriors must be symbolical of the interiors. There was lack of appeal both to children and adults, young and old in the school-housey school- 1484 NATIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION house of yesterday. No one wonders now that children were glad to get away from it and that adults never entered its portals unless need com- pelled. ‘The chief counteracting influence of the dead environment was, perhaps the radiance from the soul of a born teacher who inspired youth to great day-dreams. But what an assistance the present-day environment would have been to such a teacher, an ally rather than an obstacle. In order to insure an architectural individuality, the exterior design of building should represent an evolution of the interior plan. If the interior plan is rich, well-balanced, and proportioned, the exterior should evidence these qualities. Then schools will not only be good to look upon, but interesting and cheerful to work and study in. ‘They will constitute community assets both educationally and architecturally, as well as effective agencies for human advancement. WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT FRANK IRVING COOPER, ARCHITECT, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS A recent study of new school buildings now in process of erection has brought out the surprising fact that over two hundred and eighty millions of dollars will be spent for school building in the United States during 1922. ‘Two hundred and eighty millions of dollars for school building that if used for school work in the customary way would mean that these build- ings would be used only five or six hours of each school day, five days of each week, thirty-eight weeks in the year. In other words, school building would be used 190 days out of 365 possible days leaving two hundred and eighty million dollars buried so far as its use is concerned for 175 days of the year. ‘This calculation refers to new structures only. > Carrying this investigation one step farther the report of the U. S. Bureau of Education gives as the total valuation of school property in 1917 the sum of $1,983,508,818. The great part of this stupendous amount of money lies idle for 175 days of each year. In many communities the public need for greater civic and social oppor- tunities has focused attention upon the idle school plants. ‘The people saw they already possessed one of the first requisites for providing these civic and social opportunities, that is, a meeting place convenient of access, com- fortable, and oftentimes ready for use. “The public was aroused and the use of the schoolhouse began to grow. Gary, Indiana, is a striking example of the use of the schoolhouse by the » people for sixteen hours each day. The children of that favored com- munity no longer creep unwillingly to school but go joyfully to the school building many times during the day whenever their varied educational processes call them there and in all parts of the buildings they look happily about their work and happy about their play. And the parents of Gary when their day’s business is complete and their home work is done go He these same school buildings and make use of educational oppentenrecs for themselves in classes conducted for adults, and enjoy playing with each DEPARTMENT OF THE WIDER USE OF SCHOOLHOUSES 1485 other and with the children in the big auditoriums where music and drama and literature fill pleasant hours. In Knott County, Kentucky, there is a chain of little schoolhouses which were built to meet the need of community work for the adults and education for the children. The first one of these little schoolhouses was built at Caney Creek and is the fruit of the untiring and unselfish effort of a visiting lady who saw the need of the little community and had a vision of the richness and beauty which it would add to the lives of all the people in that mountain valley. This little schoolhouse contains a room for the kindergarten with a little kitchen in which lunch is prepared for the children and which is used as the distributing center for refreshments during the social meetings which are held in the big room. Beyond the kitchen is a room fitted out for industrial work and domestic science; this gives opportunity for instruc- tion and practice in all kinds of manual work, both for the school children and for the grown-ups. These three rooms take up about one half of the building. The other half is a large room which is used as a schoolroom for older children through the high school grades, during the hours set apart for school work. At other times it is used as an assembly room for public meetings of all kinds in that community. At one end of this room there is a stage which may be shut off by folding doors; at the other end there is a folding partition by means of which a small portion may be shut off as a recitation room. Beyond this end of the room is a small room used for the principal and for a community library. This little schoolhouse has been used so much and has given so great satisfaction that six similarly situated communities in this county have asked for the privilege of duplicating it and have erected a like building. Money for carrying on the activities of this little school has been raised in part by the community and in part by subscription. ‘This past winter a selected group of boys from this school traveled with its founder over the eastern part of the country, telling of the work of the school. ; In Wakefield, Massachusetts, there is being built a high school building which allows in some unusual ways the extended use of the school building. It is planned for a comprehensive high school, with class and recitation rooms, laboratories, commercial rooms, domestic science and domestic art rooms, library, mechanical and free-hand drawing rooms, shops, assembly hall, gymnasiums, lunch room, and principal’s and superintendent's suites. Of these rooms the administration suite, assembly hall, gymnasium, shops, and the rooms for domestic science and art are planned also for community use. The administration suites are so planned that by opening folding doors small meeting halls may be arranged for groups of not over one hundred persons each and each hall has its separate outside entrance. The assembly hall, gymnasium, domestic science, and domestic art rooms, and the lunch room are all so planned that they have their own outside entrances and each may be used by its own group of people without inter- fering with any other group and without opening up the rest of the school building. 1486 NATIONAL EpuUCATION ASSOCIATION The gymnasium is behind and on the same level as the stage of the assembly hall and may be used to enlarge the stages, conversely; when ex- hibition games are played in the gymnasium, the assembly hall may be used to seat the spectators. There are here given three specific examples of communities which appre- ciate the value of the school plant, the needs of the community, and the way in which these two are brought together: Gary, Indiana, which by its long-established school system and well-designed school buildings has been a prime mover in the increased use of the school building. ‘The little town of Caney Creek, Kentucky, solved its own problem successfully and was an inspiring example imitated by several communities. And the old town of Wakefield, situated in one of the earliest and most thickly settled of our States, recognizes the same conditions and is meeting the same need in a similar way and by carefully planning its school buildings is preparing the way for a wider use of the school plant. DIFFICULTIES IN THE DUAL DIRECTION OF AFTER- SCHOOL ACTIVITIES W. C. BACHELOR, SUPERINTENDENT OF RECREATION, UTICA, NEW YORK I have been requested to present briefly some difficulties in the dual direction of after-school activities. I will, however, confine myself to a discussion of some of the difficulties experienced by the Utica Department of Recreation in the use of school grounds as playgrounds and school build-- ings as community centers. I make no apology for confining my discussion to our own local problems as this in no way limits my subject. The diffi- culties experienced in Utica have been so many and so varied as to ade- quately cover the entire subject and include most of the obstacles which will be encountered in the average community. The words “dual direction” referring to after-school activities in Utica is hardly appropriate, as our local school board conducts no after-school activities other than parent-teacher associations, the evening schools, a grammar school baseball league and interscholastic athletic teams, the two latter engaging only about one per cent of the school enrolment, and these for only a brief period of the year. The suspension of the building program during the war left Utica, as it did most other cities, in a condition which has necessitated since the war an increased rate of expansion, and the consequent large appropriations re- quired to compensate for past deficiencies in this respect explain in some degree the opposition on the part of a minority of the Utica School Board to undertake anything in the way of development of after-school activities. However, the Department of Recreation which “aims through the proper utilization of leisure time to build physique, develop character, and promote citizenship” considers these so-called extra curricular activities as of equal if not even greater importance than some of those of the conventional school DEPARTMENT OF THE Wiper User oF SCHOOLHOUSES 1487 curriculum. The Recreation Commission two years ago, therefore, out- lined a comprehensive and diversified program of supervised recreational activities covering the summer vacation period and including after-school activities during May, June, September, and October. This was supple- mented by community organization during the remainder of the year—that is, from November to May. Having secured an adequate appropriation for the extension of this work, which had been carried on to a very limited extent for some years previous, the Commission proceeded to enlist the codperation of the School Board to the extent of securing permission to use certain parts of several school buildings and school grounds for the establishing of community centers and playgrounds. Although the Commission arranged to pay the janitors gen- erously for the additional work entailed and agreed to assume all respon- sibility for any damage to buildings other than ordinary wear, the cost of light, heat, and water, found upon investigation to amount to about $1000 a year (the school board’s annual appropriation that year being $1,260,000) led a conservative minority of the board to withhold for more than a year the granting of permission to use additional school buildings for com- munity activities. The fact that school buildings in Utica, in the construction of which their use for other activities than those of the conventional school curriculum has not been taken into consideration, make the supervision of activities of this nature difficult, was also a factor in the reluctance of the school board to have the buildings used for this purpose even by another duly authorized municipal department. Among these difficulties was the absence of assembly halls and gymnasia in many of the buildings, or, where they existed, their location being such that, with the absence of doors in corridors, the shutting off of those parts of the buildings not in use was impossible. Location of toilet facilities and drinking water requiring the throwing open of an entire building is also a problem which will be met satisfactorily only by providing, in the original planning of a building, for the partial use of the plant for com- munity purposes. An admirable example of foresight of this nature is seen in the new schools recently constructed in Schenectady. Of the five school buildings, the grounds of which are being used at the present time by the Department of Recreation as playgrounds, not one is so constructed as to allow toilets and drinking water to be shut off from the rest of the building. These are not therefore available to those using the playgrounds. Another problem where after-school activities are conducted by an agency other than that which is responsible for the construction of school buildings is the inadequate size of recreation areas adjacent to schools, or, where the grounds are adequate, the unfortunate location of the building in the center of the area. I am reminded of big brother Bill who was admonished by his mother to give little Johnny half the bed. Bill did as he was told but slept in the middle and Johnny had to take his half on both sides. As most of Utica’s thirty school buildings “sleep in the middle” only five of our 1488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION On ee fifteen playgrounds are located on school grounds, and, of these five, a more advantageous location of the building was possible in most cases. The opinion still held by a certain number of school board members, though fortunately a-steadily diminishing minority, that school buildings should be constructed and maintained as well solely for the education of children, and furthermore that this education should be confined largely if not entirely to the stereotyped ‘3 R” variety, is undoubtedly the greatest obstacle in the path of wider use of schoolhouses. ‘The persistence of this antiquated idea, aside from being’ one of the chief reasons for the.dual direction of after-school activities in so many cities, is also the greatest complicating influence. As an instance of this, a request by the Recreation Commission for the use of showers otherwise idle throughout the year in one school building two afternoons a week during July and August for school children under the supervision of playground directors was granted only by a bare majority vote of the schoo! board. In another case where a playground is located on a school ground, the use of a small side entry-way is permitted for the storage of the playground equipment but access to the building is denied. Thus, in the event of an injury to a child, water, use of telephone or other convenience has to be secured through -the generosity of neighbors. In another instance, three match scratches on the wall of a stairway leading out of a school building prompted an investigation of the conduct of com- munity activities. This idea, that school buildings are solely for school children, when shared by janitors, teachers, and even by school principals adds infinitely greater complications. One manifestation of the resentment toward those who would profane the sanctity of the schoolroom by its use by others outside of school hours in Utica has been the circulation of petitions among uninformed residents of a community in the attempt to prevent the opening of a building as a community center or to cause it to be closed afterwards. So deeply has this affected various subordinate school employees in Utica that a personal visit to the mayor to register a protest against this sacrilege has not been deemed too drastic. We have also found obstacles to the dual administration of after-school activities in Utica originating outside the city. I refer to a State law in New York which prohibits any person being simultaneously on che payrolls of more than one city department. This prohibits payment by the Recrea- tion Commission of. teachers or janitors already on the payroll of the Department of Education for additional work in connection with after- school activities. Were this work conducted by the same department, as in the case of the evening schools, this difficulty would not arise. Now, I hope none of my hearers will construe this paper as an indict- ment of our School Board, our teaching staff, or even our janitors in Utica. We have without exception a School Board composed of men and women of rare ability all of whom are highly esteemed in the community, and a majority of whom heartily endorse the program of after-school activities being conducted by the Department of Recreation. We are also proud DEPARTMENT OF THE WIDER USE oF SCHOOLHOUSES 1489 of the personnel of the Utica schools, from the superintendent down to the humblest employee not excepting the janitors. Among the more than five hundred employees in our school system an overwhelming majority are with us and with their codperation I think I am safe in saying that a very definite start has been made in the wider use of school buildings in Utica. I was asked to discuss difficulties in the dual direction of after-school activities and, rather than theorize on what I may have read or heard on this subject, I have given you actual facts regarding some of the difficulties which have confronted us in Utica during the past few years. THE VIRGINIA COOPERATIVE EDUCATION ASSOCIATION —ITS INFLUENCE ON THE COMMUNITY THROUGH THE WIDER USE OF SCHOOL PLANTS MRS. E. FENNO HEATH, MEMBER EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE COOPERATIVE EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, AND COUNTY PRESIDENT OF PATRONS’ LEAGUES IN ELIZABETH CITY COUNTY, VIRGINIA The Southland of this Nation with which the average reader is familiar, through history, story, and song, is that of plantation life, with negroes singing in the cotton fields or strumming their banjos by the cabin door. In those days of the Old South there were three predominant factors, the home, the church, and the state, and by them all conditions and all classes of people were influenced and controlled. After the Civil War conditions were changed and a fourth factor appeared, that of community life, which was to be far-reaching in its effects, for included in this big factor are the sub-divisions: public roads, public libraries, public health, and public schools. It is now universally recognized that good roads are necessary because progress travels only where there is a good broad highway. Virginia is an ‘agricultural State, the. products of the soil being the chief source of revenue. It has been my pleasure to travel thousands of miles through its one hundred counties and address thousands of its people. To reach these different sections it was necessary to pass through portions of five bordering States— North Carolina, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Maryland, and the District of Columbia. In these 100 counties I have seen cotton in all stages of production from blossom to bale, tobacco being grown, picked and cured, field after field of corn, some with the slender green shoots: just showing, others offering their ripening ears, peanuts growing, shelled and made into nutlet; have seen coal mines, coke ovens, and smelters in full operation, huge trees felled and converted into the various forms of lumber, portions of them being ground into pulp and the pulp made into paper, and I found it was difficult to convey these products to market because of poor roads. Fifteen inland counties are without railroads, and eighteen with less than twenty-five miles of them. When you consider what this means you cannot blame those who live in the country for being attracted to the 1490 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ~ cities and towns because. of the better advantages obtainable for their chil- dren. At present we are working in Virginia to get our people to vote for good roads, for we realize we cannot fully develop the other sub- divisions of our community life unless we have proper roads over which to convey the materials and people for building and utilizing public libraries, disseminating the knowledge of how to keep well, and making use of edu- cational facilities. Each State has its own peculiar problems to solve. One of Virginia’s greatest is its illiteracy. In educational affairs Virginia ranks forty-third among the forty-eight States. This illiteracy is caused almost entirely . by the negro, the mountain white and the isolated population. There are only 50.1 per cent white children and 36 per cent of the negro children in school. The negro situation is being very nicely solved by philanthropists of the North and West providing funds for the support of the Hampton (Va.) Normal Institute. This noted school trains negroes for leadership and has produced Booker T, Washington, Major Robert Moton, and others of lesser note who have founded schools which have colored teachers and community workers to teach and lead their own race. The mountain people of the South are a distinct and typical group of American citizens; in fact, they are the most distinct and the most typical of all groups and classes in America today. Perhaps you have never realized that the mountains of the South constitute a territory as large as New England, with the State of New York thrown in for good measure. An incomplete census of 1910, the latest available at present, shows over five millions of natives living within the confines of the Southern mountains, and probably since that time the number has very largely increased. The tragedy of the mountaineers is the early marriage of girls from eleven to thirteen years of age and the large families; a woman of twenty will often be the mother of six or more children. Perhaps that is one of the reasons these people are so poor. It is an interesting fact that these people are the actual lineal descendants of those hardy warriors and true patriots of the Revolutionary War, and no other section of the United States can show so large a percentage of people descended from colonial stock. Many years ago a well-known educator said, “There is a mountain part of Old Virginia, though the world and the leading families of Virginia seldom think of its mountain counties,” but we are glad to be able to tell you today that -statement is no longer true. During the World War we found that in one Virginia class of 961 boys examined for the army 487 could neither read nor write. These mountain boys, sturdy and sunburned, strong in body but untrained in mind, who previously had been scarcely ten miles from home, had never seen an air- plane, a battleship, a steam engine, or a train of cars, went to war. Their mothers said, “It’s terrible fur, but his Country needs him. He sure can shoot straight ; I reckon them Germans will find that out for I teached him myself to shoot the wild animals about here.” I talked with one boy DEPARTMENT OF THE WIDER Use oF SCHOOLHOUSES 1491 eighteen years old who had attended school only two weeks and yet he went to war and fought in behalf of a country that had not treated him as it should, for our forefathers intended that all of our boys and girls should be taught liberty, democracy, equality, and loyalty through book education and public schools. Since these boys have come back they have sought an education, and how the women and men are working to aid them! One county, Page, has organized over 40 leagues and it is like a fairy tale to hear the things they are doing. One old woman who had twenty cents a week for spending money gave up her snuff and tobacco to help buy books for her grandchild. These women who dip snuff and smoke a corn- cob pipe would be shocked to see “a sure-nuft” lady smoke a cigarette. One mother was so anxious that her girl should be trained for a teacher that she ploughed a large field, planted the seed, cut the sugar cane, and by using her own body in place of her horse (which had become sick) worked the machinery to grind the stalks and then boiled the juice to make the sorghum. It was six months’ hard work but she was happy because it gave her daughter a year’s schooling. While passing over a lonely country road I saw a large crowd standing outside of the doors of the little school house which was also used for a church. A funeral service was just closing. The body of an old teacher was being carried to its last repose. Above the sobbing I heard a voice saying, “Her worn out frame of seventy-two years will soon rest in the grave, but she is not dead, she still lives in the children that she has sent out into the world from this school house. Her teachings shine forth from three pul- pits, several court rooms, seven medical offices, two hospitals, and an im- proved community.” ‘These are the people who have taken for their motto Hand in hand for God and school. We are proud to report that our second vice-president, Dr. McConnell of the Virginia Codperative Education Association has taken for his life work the founding and carrying on of a normal school at East Radford to train the girls from the isolated districts in order that they may be able to go back and teach among their own people. The aristocracy of Virginia has always been highly educated because they have had the benefits of governesses, tutors, private schools, colleges, and universities. It has been a comparatively short time since they have _ sent their children to the public schools. Our system has improved rapidly since 1904 when some of the prominent educators realized that cooperation of parents and teachers was necessary to make the public schools a success. These people from all over the State met in Richmond and promised to give their culture, influence, and money to help raise the standard of edu- cation so that even the humblest might have an acknowledged place in the world. The Coéperative Education Association was conceived and planned with the school house as a community center for the district and every school to have a league. We now have 1600 leagues with 40,000 mem- bers. This year in presenting the eighteenth annual report we have just cause to be proud of the constructive work done by these community leagues. 1492 NATIONAL EpucaATION ASSOCIATION Four hundred thousand citizens were brought together to discuss and study their various educational and civic problems. The great need of our people is information, and the school houses, the real temples of democracy, are used not only for the instruction of the children during the school hours but during evenings and holidays for addresses, public discussions and entertainments of various kinds, thus broadening the mental horizon and deepening the social and civic interests of our citizens. Those of us who are directing affairs do not promote any especial plans because each community has different interests, but we strive to stimulate interest and suggest practical ways and sources of information and help, that other like minded groups have utilized for their several communities and found helpful: for instance, during the war the statement was made and proved, “It is nine times safer to be a soldier in the trenches than a baby in the cradle.” Hence our motto—‘“100 counties—100 school nurses’—for we believe in not only looking after the children who are ill but’ in teaching the parents whose children are well to keep them well. President Harding has said, ‘“The will of the people should flow upward rather than the will of those in temporary authority to flow downward,” and Lincoln said the Government should be of the people, by the people, for the people, and the people of conservative Virginia voted an over- whelming majority for compulsory education. Our Coéperative Education Association is likened unto a wheel. The rim is the association, the hub, the Community League, the spokes connect- ing the hub and the rim are better codperation, better recreation, better schools, better health, better highways, better homes, better agriculture, better churches, and all of these topics were used during the Second Rural Life Campaign, the Rural Life Committee being organized and set to work by the Codperative Education Association. There are many school houses that would not have been built and many educational goals that would not have been attained but for the leagues and now there is added this agency that is seeking to enlist all governmental, religious, and social agencies to make life brighter and more attractive to the agricultural pro- ducers of the commonwealth. ‘The first meeting was called by Governor Westmoreland Davis, May 17-18, 1921, in the Hall of the House of Delegates, Richmond, and 692 delegates registered during the conference. This year seventy-eight counties participated. The ancient Greeks had an athletic contest that they called the torch race. Each contestant carried a torch and the first to reach the goal with his torch still burning was the winner. ‘This was a difficult feat, but there was always a relay to seize the lighted torch and “carry-on” if a runner was unable to continue the race. The ancient game symbolizes the Co- operative Education Association. Those of us who have been carrying the educational torch flaming high with color will soon have to entrust it to others, therefore We are preparing the children of Virginia to “carry-on.” Daniel Webster said, “The welfare of a Republic lies in the education DEPARTMENT OF THE WIDER USE oF ScHOOLHOUSES 1493 of its children.” ‘This year we have started a department in our Richmond office called ‘“The Junior League.” The principles are: (1) love of country and home; (2) love of school; (3) care of health; and (4) self-improve- ment. ‘The purpose is to teach good citizenship. Lincoln said, “When I die may it be said of me by those who know me best, that I always plucked a thistle and planted a flower where a flower would grow.” ‘The Patrons Leagues of Virginia are striving to pluck the thistles of illiteracy, vice, and uncleanliness, and to plant the beautiful flowers of education, virtue, and good health. I was requested to tell you something about the League work in my home county, Elizabeth City. Educationally that county ranks number one in the list of the State’s 100 counties, and the George Wythe League, located near my home, leads all the rural leagues in the State. You may be interested to know that beginning April 30, 1607, John Smith tarried two or three days at Kecoughtan, afterward in May, 1620, renamed Eliz- abeth City. In 1634 Benjamin Symmes granted land, etc., for the main- tenance of a free school for the white children of Elizabeth City, and “Kequtan” the first free white school in the Western Hemisphere. In 1659 Thomas Eaton established a similar school in the same locality, and at present there is a combination Symmes-Eaton school still drawing funds from money left by these two men. George Wythe, born in our county in 1726, was the first American Chancellor, first Professor of Law at William and Mary College, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. In 1776 he gave a large en- dowment fund to found a school in the district that is now named for him, and our school is known as the George Wythe School. When the women of Virginia were recently given the power to vote, we of Elizabeth City County undertook and put over, with the help of the men, bond issues, which resulted in the erection in our county of eight beautiful school build- ings for both white and colored children. It mattered not that we had to break up a political machine to do this for we women realized that our motherhood did not begin and end within our own homes, but that we were responsible to Virginia; and the main reason we now care to vote lies in our desire to give the next generation the benefit of better opportunities than exist at present. You can see that our league is very democratic, because we believe that the object of the Patrons League is to advance the social, civic, and school interests in the community, and our membership includes ministers, lawyers, doctors, mechanics, and day laborers who meet upon a common level and work for a common good. ‘The welfare of our children is the watchword of every day and hour—all else is secondary and we expect to see in Virginia an improved people, good roads, public libraries, and good health developed through the influence of the schoolhouse as a community center through coédperation of teachers and parents. When the children of my neighborhood heard that I was coming to the National Education Association they asked me to tell you about our flower gardens, the mother who learned to sing while washing dishes, and Johnny Jones’ mother’s new hat. About five years ago I noticed that nearly every 1494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION one in our district planted vegetables only, so when I ordered seeds for my own flower garden I purchased enough to give away plants for transplant- ing. People now come from miles around to see the continuous flower gardens cultivated by the children of the neighborhood, and one lady from the North was so impressed with this expression of beauty—our pictures made with the brown earth for our canvas, our trusty little trowels for our brushes, and our seeds for colors—that she has written an article about it to read before the National Garden. Club Association. Johnny Jones is a newsboy. His mother has a large family of girls and boys. She is young and pretty, but she was so tired of washing dishes three times a day that once she felt almost ready to drown herself in her dishpan. She has a very sweet voice and now she practices scales with the glasses, octaves with the silver, and songs when she scrubs the pans. She has learned to read notes, count time, and not long ago sang a solo at our Mothers’ meeting. She painted her washboard blue, and is going to paint her next one rose color because it is so much nicer to wash the clothes on something pretty. Her children carry home their little things from school, such as a drawing exhibited before the class, a book from the school library, a little bag of candy or cakes, purchased with money saved from carfare by walking home; they tie these little gifts, of no great value, with brilliant ribbon (that teacher gives them) and lay them on the kitchen table. Johnny’s mother came to the league the other day in a new hat that he earned for her to wear for that express purpose. Perhaps there are other boys as proud as this one, but I doubt it, and surely no other mother could be happier, for Tis the little things and the common things and the things we do each day; *Tis the little sign and the little song and the common words we say ; That round at last to the perfect whole. For life is but this, my dear: A summing up of the common things that makes the common year. Oh! the little things and the common things are the things that make the day The common sun and the common rain and the grass beside the way: ; The song of a bird in the swaying bough, the flashing of soft brown wings Are all but a part of a perfect whole, God’s beautiful common things. Index [Names of authors are Academic, vocational, and _ personal guidance of boys and girls in our high schools (H. E. Stone), 1235 Act of incorporation, 1 Activities of the U. S. Bureau of Edu- cation, The (JoHN J. TicERrT), 475 Actual results of the year (CHARL O. WILLIAMS), 482 Apair, CorNELIA S. Report of commit- tee on financing delegates to the rep- presentative assembly, 344; report of committee on participation of teach- ers in school management, 546; report of committee on the status of the classroom teacher, 570 Apvams, Manet E. Teaching the deaf child, 598 Adapting the school plant to the curricu- lum (CHarRLEs L. Spain), 1352 Adenoids and tonsils, 665 Adjustment of elementary education to the project method, The (James F. Hosic), 824 Administration and taxing unit, The most effective (Linneaus N. Hinss), 487 Administrative officers and boards of education, 1229 Adult education, 940 Advantages involved in extending the scope of faculty participation (JosePH A. LEIGHTON), 896 Advantages of the one-story school plan, The (Dwicut H. Perkins), 1359 Advisory committee of superintendents, Report of (Mary D. BRADFORD), 333 Affiliations, State and local, 151 After-school activities, The dual direc- tion of, 1488 After-war recovery in the textbook pub- lishing business (CHARLES H. SEAVER), 795 Agency for training teachers in service, The teachers’ institute as an, 1141 AGNEW, JR., “THOMAS. Socializing the elementary-school course of study, 874 Aucer, Joun L. The practical nature of an education for teaching, 1084 American Association of University Women, National aspects of the (AureLia H. REINHARDT), 761 American education, Present-day ob- jectives of (JoHN J. TicErT), 201 American education, Progress in, 482 set in SMALL Capirats| American education, The hope and the result of (CHarRL O. WILLIAMS), 378 American education, The outstanding issues in (HOMER H. SEERLEY), 473 Americanization— wise and unwise (Owen A. Hopan), 906 American Legion and the National Education Association, Report of the joint advisory committee of the (Henry J. Ryan), 303 American Legion, Peace-time program of the (Atvin M. Owsvey), 220 American Physical Education Associa- tion, Committee on women’s athletics of the, 1095 American teachers’ colleges, Report of the committee on (CHARLES Mc- KENNY), 363 American woman teacher, Preliminary report of committee on the status of the (Anna L. Force), 564 AnpeRsON, Mary. Women in industry, 707 Awnpress, J. Mace. The mental health of young children, 810 ANDREWS, FANNIE F. The teaching of democracy, 446 Annual report of secretary of National Council (ADELAIDE S. BayLor), 470 Architect and the superintendent, 1353 Arguments for and against the super- vision of instruction, The (CHARLES A. WAGNER), 1438 Arousal of interest on the part of the people in their own schools, The (Gerorce S. Dick), 489 ATHEARN, Wattrr S. Protestantism and democracy, 517 Athletics in rural schools, 1085 Atwoop, Watiace W. What should the geography of the grades include? 1064 Auditor’s report, 66 Awakening of latent hearing by means of musical sounds and _ vibrations, The (Jennie M. HENpDERSON), 604 AyYpELOTTE, FraNK. The outlook for cultural education, 1317 Bacuetor, W. C. Difficulties in the dual direction of after-school activi- ties, 1488 Baciey, WiuiaM C. Report of the editorial council, 329 Barnes, WALTER. English—its relation to the “ten essentials,” 448 [1495 | 1496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION , : Baytor, ADELAIDE S. Report of prog- ress of the committee on vocational education, 451; annual report of the secretary of the National Council, 470; report of sub-committee on con- solidation of rural schools, 493; re- port of progress of committee on problems of vocational education, 555 Bearing of sex-education upon char- acter, The (T. W. Gattoway), 416 Bennett, L. J. The use of tests and measurements in rural schools, 1158 Bennion, Mitton. Report of progress of committee on character educa- tion—the sanctions of morality, 457 Benson, CHARLES E. The output of professional schools for teachers that enter the rural service, 1173 BenTiey, J. H. Junior high-school buildings, 400 Beverince, J. H. Evidences of progress in education as indicated in better -provision for the physical welfare of the child, 499; Report of the execu- tive committee of the Department of Superintendence, 1458; Is expendi- ture of city school funds for ‘adult education justifiable? 1466 Biology and hygiene, 1240 BLakeE, KaTHERINE D. The new out- look, 215; Report of the committee of the National Council on changes needed in the elementary school course, 525 Buiss, D. C. The superintendent and standardized tests, 1428 Board of trustees, Minutes of, 89 Books for boys (A. B. p—E Mitie), 1018; suggested list, 1024 Boyce, Etta R. Changing conceptions of kindergarten supervision, 974 Braprorp, Mary D. Report of the ad- visory committee of superintendents, 333 Briccs, Tuomas H. Objectives of - secondary education, 1121; the pro- fessionally trained high-school prin- cipal, 1286 Broome E. C. The need of a national organization for educational service, 1337 Broome, Epwin W. The physical education in the school program, 1088 Brown, Rosert M. Objectives in the teaching of geography, 1065 Bruner, H. B. The superintendent and the course of study, 1431 Bruyn, GERTRUDE, and Mason, JosEPH- INE. Report of investigation into factory class programs in New Bed- ford, Massachusetts, 958 place of country Bryn Mawr summer school for women workers in industry (Hirpa W. SmitH), 713 Buffalo, Financing education in, 1453 BuRNHAM, ERNEST. President’s ad- dress—-Resources in rural education, 1102 BuRNHAM, WrLLtiAM H. Health and the school, 539; The mental hygiene of the school beginner, 654 Business Education, Department of, minutes, 575 Business training, 585 Business Division, 120 BUTTERWORTH, JULIAN E. Some con- tributions of the New York rural school survey, 1186 By-laws, 5 Calendar of meetings, 15 CALLAGHAN, Mary. Report of the fol- low-up work of 197 open-air class children in the Washington school, 632 CAMPBELL, EDINA. shorthand, 581 Capen, S. P. The need of a national organization for educational service, 1335 Carison, PHitip E. Report of the sub- committee on pensions, 287 CarRNEY, MaseL. National responsi- bility for the improvement of rural schools, 238 Carr, JouN W. Preliminary report of committee on teacher welfare, 572 Carter, Mrs. Epwarp S. The spirit of library service, 1011 Cary, C. P. Final report of the com- mittee on State administration of schools, 359 Catholicism to democracy, Present con- tributions of (AucusTiINE F. Hickey), 522 CerTaIn, C. C. Report of committee on library problems—the school library as a problem in architectural design, 1280 Changes needed in the elementary school course, Report of the committee of the National Council on (Katu- ERINE D. BLAKE); 525 Changing conceptions of kindergarten supervision (Exta R. Boyce), 974 Changing conceptions of the kinder- garten as the outgrowth of new in- sight (CATHERINE R. Watkins), 970 Changing conceptions of the kinder- garten in teacher training (LUELLA A. Pater), 977 Character developed by student organi- zations, 1273 Putting the short in INDEX 1497 Character education—the sanctions ofConservation of the eyes of school chil- morality, Report of progress of com- mittee on (Mirron BENNION), 457 Character training (EucENE R. SMITH), 1268 Cuase, DanieL. Rural group athletics and what it means, 1085 Chazy consolidated rural school, 1137 Chemistry, The teaching of high- school, 1247 Child hygiene, Department of, minutes, 591 Child’s own reading, The (Freperic G. MELCHER), 1039 Citizenship, Education for, 934 CLARK, B. Preston. Opening remarks, 949 Crark, Lini1an P. Outstanding achieve- ments and present difficulties from the teacher’s viewpoint, 948 Crark, M. G. Why maintain the present salary schedules? 1434 Classroom, Democracy in the (EFFIE MacGrecor), 212 Classroom teacher, Report of the com- mittee on the status of the, 570; The work of the N. E. A. and the, 834 Classroom teachers, Department of, minutes, 683; Professional standards for (Jessie A. SKINNER), 198 Classroom teachers of large and small communities, Codperation between, 688 Copy, Frank. Remarks on _ factory classes, 967 College and university in a democracy, (Henry W. Hormess), 245 College curriculum promotes ship, 737 College faculties, for women members of StayT), 771 College of liberal guidance in the, 696 Collegiate schools of business, 589 Colorado consolidated schools, 1135 Commercial courses of secondary schools, 589 Commercial education, The outlook for, 1306 Committees, List of N. E. A., 28 Communicable diseases in schools, How to reduce the morbidity from, 648 Community coéperation in school health work (CourTNEY DINWIDDIE), 638 Community high school, The small (E. M. Puiiuips), 1124 Community leagues of Virginia and their contribution to rural education (GrorceE W. Guy), 1203 Community music, 1056 Compensatory mechanism in _ status thymico-lymphaticus, A (WALTER TIMME), 661 scholar- Retirement systems (Grace A. arts, Vocational dren (GeorRGE S. DERBY), 671 Consideration to be taken into account in the stimulation of graduate work for women (Louise Pounp), 769 Considerations governing the prepara- tion of floor plans for women’s dormitories (BLANCHE GEARY), 717 Consolidated rural school library, The (RuTH B. DRAKE), 995 Consolidated schools of the mountains, valleys, and plains of Colorado (C. G. SARGENT), 1135 Consolidation of rural schools, Report of sub-committee on (ADELAIDE S. Baytor), 493 Consolidation of rural (LEE L. Driver), 1207; SNYDER), 1224 Consolidation, supervision, and admin- istration of a county system of schools (AGNES SAMUELSON), 229 Contents of a course in physics for girls (WALTER G. WHITMAN), 1255 Continuation schools in Massachusetts, Recent accomplishments in the (ANNA A. Ktoss), 560 Continuity of education, The Gwinn), 459 Contribution of physicians in forty-two States to the health work in the schools (JoHN M. Dopson), 424 Contributions of part-time education in schools, ‘The (J. BuELL (Ua Mb Los Angeles (SusAN M. Dorsey), 558 Cook, KATHERINE M. The education of young children in rural communi- ties, 828 Cooper, FRANK I. school plant, 1486 Coéperation between classroom teach- ers of large and small communities (Ropert C. Moore), 688 Corsin, ALBERTA. Method of obtain- ing legislative appropriation for women’s dormitories at Kansas in- stitutions, 728 Correlation of commercial courses of secondary schools with courses of- fered in collegiate schools of business (CuHarLes F, RitTENHOUSE), 589 Corson, Davin B. The _ elementary- school principal from the viewpoint of the superintendent, 852 Coscrove, HeLeN W. ‘The stimulation of outside reading among _high- school pupils, 1032 County superintendency, 1169 County superintendent’s problems, Re- port of the committee on (Lee L. Driver), 293 County system of schools, Consolidation, supervision, and administration of a (AGNES SAMUELSON), 229 Wider use of the 1498 NaTIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION County unit of high-school consolida- tion, The (A. F. Harman), 1171 Course of study, Sub-committee report on the (Davin FELMLEY), 548; The superintendent and the, 1431 Cove, W. G. The new education, 183 CraM, Frep D. Tests and measure- ments in rural schools, 497 Cultural education, The outlook for, 1317 Curse and cure of the county superin- tendency, The (ELLEN B. McDona_p), 1169 Daily newspaper in the school, The (O. S. Rice), 1006 Dakin, W. S. Training for rural schools, 1154 DAvEeNrPorRT, FrReDERICK M. Financial needs of higher education, 1380 Deaf child, Teaching the (Mase. E. supervisors ADAMS), 598 Dean of women, Apportionment of time of, 775 Deans of women, Department of, pro- gram of meetings, 693 Delegates of second representative as- sembly, 169 DE Mitte, A. B. Books for Boys, 1018 Deminc, Roserr_ C. Outstanding achievements from the viewpoint of the State, 942 Democracy and Judaism, 511; and Protestantism, 517; and Catholicism, 522 Democracy in the classroom MacGrecor), 212 Democracy, Protestantism and (WALTER S. ATHEARN), 517 Democracy, The teaching of (FANNIE F. ANDREWS), 446 Democratic awakening and profes- sional organization, The (Cuar. O. WitiamMs), 208 Democratic awakening in adult educa- tion—an opportunity, The’ (FRANK P. Graves), 940 Dental conditions, The relation of nutrition to (Percy R. Howe), 624 Departments: Business Education, 575; Child Hygiene, 591; Classroom Teachers, 683; Deans of Women, 693; Educational Publications, 795; Elementary Education, 809; Elemen- tary School Principals, 851; Higher Education, 887; Immigrant Educa- tion, 905; Kindergarten Education, 969; Library, 987; Music Education, 1047; National Council of Education, 349; Normal Schools, 1063; Physical Education, 1085; Rural Education, 1099; School Administration, 1203 % Science Instruction, 1239; Secondary Education, 1267; Superintendence, (EFFIE 1295; Vocational Education and Practical Arts, 1465; Wider Use of Schoolhouses, 1483 Dersy, Georce 8. Conservation of the eyes of school children, 671 Developing the elementary school as a social unit (Ip—E G. SarGEANT), 860 Development of factory classes in Mas- sachusetts up to date (GrorGE F. QuimBy), 951 Dick, Grorce §. The arousal of in- terest on the part of the people in their own schools, 489 Difficulties in the dual direction of after-school activities (W. C. Bacu- ELOR), 1488 Dinwippiz, CourTNEY. Community co- operation in school health work, 638 Discussion of Mr. Driggs’ talk of keep- ing pace with the reorganization of elementary education (CHARLES G. THOMAS), 802 Dovson, JoHN M. Contribution of physicians in forty-two States to the health work in the schools, 424 Does the college curriculum promote scholarship? (Lucy M. Sarmon), 737 Dormitories and social buildings, The ' planning of, 715 Dormitories, Gifts for, 731 Dormitory that is a home, A (AGNES E. WELLS), 721 Dorsey, Susan M. The profession ap- preciates. foundations early estab- lished in Massachusetts and her present interest in education, 205; Contributions of part-time education in Los Angeles, 558 Downey, M. J. Outstanding achieve- ments and present difficulties from the viewpoint of the city director, 945 Drake, RutH B. The rural school library, 995 Driccs, Howarp R. Keeping pace with the nation-wide demand for reorgan- ization of elementary course of study, 800 : Driver, Lez L. Report of committee on consolidated county superintendent’s _ problems, 293; The consolidation of rural schools, 1207 Durriztp, E. T. Virginia’s (Minn.) building program, its aims and voca- tional work, 1417 Early recognition and proper care of heart disease among school children (Ropert H. Hatsey), 668 Editorial council, Report of the (WituiaM C. Baciey), 329 Editorial Division, 131 INDEX 1499 SS i ee ee es a ee Se eee ee Educational accomplishments, Great (R. G. Jones), 381 Educationdl finance inquiry, 1362 Educational interest in Massachusetts, 205 Educational message for 1922 (ALBERT E. WInsuHip), 193 Educational progress in the United States, Recent (JoHN J. TicERT), 373 Educational progress, 942, 943, 944, 945, 947, 948 Educational publications, of, minutes, 795 Educational service, National organiza- tion for, 1322, 1330, 1334, 1335, 1337, 1339, 1344 Educational surveys, Report of progress of committee on (A. E. Winsuip), 456 Educational waste, The elimination of (Homer H. SEERLEY), 351 Education for citizenship SHIELS), 934 Education for teaching, The practical nature of an, 1084 Education in its proper environment (Mary E. Sasin), 1137 Education of our __ illiterates, (Tuomas E. FINEGAN), 264 Education of young children in rural Department (ALBERT The communties, The (KATHERINE M. Cook), 828 Education, The continuity of (J. M. GwINNn), 459 Effective coéperation between the pub- lic library and the public school (BertHA M. McConkey), 1002 Elementary curriculum as presented in normal schools, The (F. W. WricuT), 1074 Elementary education, Department of, minutes, 809; Revision of, 338 Elementary course of study, Reorgani- zation of, 800, 802 Elementary principal- as a professional leader, The (C. E. Marston), 880 Elementary school as a social unit, The, 860 Elementary school course, Changes needed in, 525; socialized, 874 Elementary-school principal from the viewpoint of the superintendent, The (Davin B. Corson), 852 Elementary school principals, Depart- ment of, program of the Chicago meeting, 851; Boston meeting, 884; Some objectives of the department of, 852 Elimination of educational waste, The (Homer H. SEERLEY), 351 Employment certificate issuance, Prob- lems and standards of (E. N. Mar- THEWS), 334 ENGELHARDT, N. L. Important elements in the development of a school-build- ing program, 1346 English—its relation to the “ten essen- tials’ (WALTER BARNES), 448 Evidences of progress in education as indicated in better provision for the physical welfare of the child (J. H. Beveridge), 499 Executive committee, Minutes of, 80 Iyxtent and control of rural child labor, The (CHaArLEs E. Gippons), 1217 Extra-curricula activities, Regulation of (CAROLINE GROTE), 752; What ones do you consider of sufficient impor- tance to justify their existence and how may we keep them in a subordi- nate position? (GERTRUDE S. KINGs- LAND), 778 Eyes of school children, Conservation of the (GrorGE S. DERBY), 671 Factory classes in Massachusetts, 951; in New Bedford, Mass., 958; in South- bridge, Mass., 963; remarks on, 967 Faculty control in college, 887 Faculty participation, Extending the scope of, 896 FELMLEY, Davin. Sub-committee report on the course of study, 548 Field Division, 117 FILBEY, EMERY. Vocational an economic necessity, 1472 Final report of committee on health problems in education (CHARLES H. KeEyYEs), 535 ; Final report of the committee on State administration of schools (C. P. Cary), 359 Financial needs of education in cities (Mark L, THOMSEN), 1372 education Financial needs of higher education (FrepertcK M. DAVENPORT), 1380 Financial needs of rural education (ArTtHUR M. Hype), 1367 Financing adult education, 1318, 1466. Financing delegates to the representa- tive assembly, Report of the commit- tee on the (CorRNELIA S. ApairR), 344 Financing the public schools, 1362, 1367, 1372, 1380, 1386, 1452, 1453, 1454 FInecAN, THomas E. ‘The education of our illiterates, 264 Fisuer, E. C. Your most perplexing problem, 1452 FLINNER, IRA A. Rating students on the basis of native capacity and accom- plishment, 839 Foote, Joun M. A state program of instructional supervision, 1149 Force, ANNA L. Preliminary report of committee on the status of the Amer- ican woman teacher, 564 1500 NaTIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION Foreign relations, Report of committee on (Aucustus O. THoMaAs), 312 Foreigner and libraries, 1001 Foundations early established in Massa- chusetts and her present intérest in education, The profession appreciates the (Susan M. Dorsey), 205 Fresh air, diet, and rest for selected pupils (CARLISLE REED), 626 FuLLER, RAcHEL ANNE. The helping teacher in New Jersey, 1198 Fundamental problems of home making in the high school (ANNA E. RICHARD- SON), 1465 Gatitoway, T. W. The bearing of sex- education upon character, 416 GARBER, FREDERICK W. Solving the problem—the architect and the super- intendent, 1353 GEARY, BLANCHE. Considerations gov- erning the preparation of floor plans for women’s dormitories, 717 General Federation of Women’s Clubs, The relation of the college woman to the (Mrs. GreorceE W. PLUMMER), 758 General sessions, program of, 38; ad- dresses at Boston, 183 Geography for rural schools (DoucLas C. RIDGELY), 1070 Geography of the grades, content of, 1064 Geography, Teaching of, 1065 GIBBONS, CHARLES E. The extent and control of rural child labor, 1217 Gipson, THomas L. Music in the rural schools, 1047 Giass, James M. The junior school program of studies, 386 GODFREY, JR., Epwarp S. How to re- duce the morbidity from communica- ble diseases in schools, 648 Gowans, E. G., and JENsEN, C. N. Physical fitness for school admission, 611 Graduate work for women, Stimulating (LouisE Pounpb), 769 Graduate work by women, Some results olen Ole GRAVES, FRANK P. ‘The high- democratic awakening in adult education—an op- . portunity, 940; To what extent are we warranted in purchasing educa- tion for adults from funds levied for the training of children of school age? 1318 Great educational accomplishments (R. G. JoNEs), 381 GREENE, D. CrossBy. Tonsils and ade- noids in children, 665 GREENWOOD, GRACE. How to obtain money for dormitories by private gifts, 731 Grore, CAROLINE. Regulation of extra- _ curricula activities, 752 GRUENBERG, BENJAMIN C. The relation of physical education to social hy- giene, 1091 Guy, GrorceE W. Community leagues of Virginia and their contribution to rural education, 1203 Gwinn, J. M. The continuity of edu- cation, 459; How we are selling the public-school program to our City, 1454 Hate, Ftorence M. Libraries and rural schools, 992 Hatt, Mary E. The pupils’ contribu- tion to the success of the school li- brary, 1018 Hatszy, Ropert H. Early recognition and proper care of heart disease among school children, 668 Harman, A. F. The county unit of high-school consolidation, 1171 HartTwe.t, S. O. Problems of financ- ing education—how they are being solved in my city, 1453 Hays, WILL H. ing pictures, 252 Heads of halls, Organization of the work of (EpitH S. Turts), 725 Health and the school (Wim11am H. BuRNHAM), 539 Health education, Training teachers for, 593; The importance of subject content in (C. E. A. Winstow), 606 Health in rural schools, 634 Health in schools, What the women are doing to promote (Mrs. Ira CoucH Woop), 425 Health, Justice and equality for child (Tuomas D. Woop), 421 Health of young children, The mental, 810 Health problems in education, Report of the committee on (Tuomas D. Woop), 325; Final report of com- mittee on (CHARLES H. Keyss), 535 Health supervision, The responsibility of public schools in (CHaRuEs H. KEENE), 615 Health work in the schools, Contribu- tion of physicians in forty-two States to the (Joun M. Donson), 424 Heart disease among school children (Rosert H. Harsey), 668 Heatu, Mrs. E. Fenno. The Virginia coéperative education association— its influence on the community through the wider use of school plants, 1491 Helping teacher in New Jersey, The (RacHEL ANNE FULLER), 1198 Improvement of moy- INDEX HENDERSON, JENNIE M. The awaken- ing of latent hearing by means of musical sounds and vibrations, 604 Hickey, AuGusrine F. Present con- tributions of Catholicism to democ- Eacy,, 522 Higher education, Department of, min- utes, 887 High-school consolidation, The county unit of, 1171 High- -school opportunity for country children, 1214 High-school principal, The profes- sionally trained (THomas H. Briccs), 1286 Hines, Linnazus N. The most effective administration and taxing unit, 487 Hopan, Owen A. Americanization- wise and unwise, 906 HOFFACKER, GEORGE L. ing for business, 585 HorrMan, J. S. Real supervision for rural schools, 1167 Hotmes, Henry W. The responsibility of the college and the university in a democracy, 245 Home-making in the high school, 1465 Hope and the result of American edu- cation, The (CHARL O. WILLIAMS), 378 Hosic, James F. The adjustment of elementary education to the project method, 824 Howe, Percy R. The relation of nutri- tion to dental conditions, 624 ~ How may the dean best apportion her time among the academic, advisory, and social side of college? (ANNA L. TANNAHILL), 775 How may the necessary funds for pub- Intensive train- lic education be provided? (EpwiIn R. A. SELIGMAN), 1386 How shall adequate public library service be established where none now exists in the Nation (Joy E. Morcan), 988 How shall the problem of the immi- grant mother be solved? (CLARA B. SPRINGSTEED), 928 . How the public library helps the for- eigner make his American contribu- tion (ERNESTINE Rose), 1001 How to obtain money for dormitories by private gifts (GRACE GREEN- woop), 731 How to reduce the morbidity from communicable diseases in _ schools (Epwarp S. GODFREY, JR.), 648 How we are selling the public-school program to our city (J. M. Gwinn), 1454 Hughes, Charles E. Message from (AnpREw F. West), 217 1501 Husspanp, RicHarp W. Vocation and the college of the liberal arts, 696 Hutcuinson, ALLEN C. Physics boys, 1260 Hype, ArtHur M. Financial needs of rural education, 1367 Hygiene as a part of biology (Grr- TRUDE WEEKS), 1240 for Ideals of public education, 1393, 1400, 4403, 1407 Illiteracy, Report of committee on adult (Cora W. STEWART), 453 Illiterates, The education of (Tuomas E. FINEGAN), 264 Immigrant and the library, 1001 Immigrant education, Department of, program of meetings, 905; Socialized, 914 Immigrant mother, Problem of the, 928 Importance of subject content in health education, The (C. E. A. WinsLow), 606 Important elements in the development of a school-building pregtam (New 1: ENGELHARDT), 1346 Improved medical faspecdou of schools (Leroy A. WILKES), 645 Improvement and preparation of teach- ers while in service (PETER A. Mor- TENSON), 195 Improvement of moving pictures (WILL He Hays); 252 Improvement of the teaching profes- sion through tenure legislation, The (CHarL O. WILLIAMS), 685 Incorporation, Act of, 1 IncLis, ALEXANDER. The need of a national organization for educational service, 1322 Intelligent electorate, Our need of an (James E. RussELL), 258 Intensive training for business (GEORGE L. HoFrracker), 585 International peace, 189 Is expenditure of city school funds for adult education justifiable? (J. H. BEVERIDGE), 1466 ITTNER, WILLIAM B. Mooted questions in the school-building service, 1425; School architecture that encourages wider use, 1484 our Jensen, C. N. and Gowans, E. G. Physical fitness for school admission, 611 Jessup, W. A. The need of a national organization for educational service, 1344 Jones, Oxtve M. Professional training for teachers of city schools, 194; Juvenile delinquency as a_ social factor in the elementary schools, 869; 1502 NaTIonaL EpucaTion AssociaTION oe le The need of national organization for educational service, 1339 Jones, R. G. Great educational ac- complishments, 381 Judaism to democracy, (Louis I. Mann), 511 Junior extension work as developed through the public schools (W. J. WricuT), 1177; (Z. M. Smiru), 1182 Junior high-school buildings (J. H. BENTLEY), 400 Junior high-school libraries, 1027 Junior high-school program of studies, The (JAMes M. Grass), 386 Justice and equality for child health (THomas D. Woop), 421 Juvenile delinquency as a social factor in the elementary schools (Oxive M. JONES), 869 Relation of KEENE, CHARLES H. The responsibility of public schools in health super- vision, 615 Keeping pace with the nation-wide de- mand for reorganization of elemen- tary course of study (Howarp R. Driccs), 800 KELLey, James H. State aid for teach- ers’ salaries, 235 Keyes, Cuartes H. Final report of committee on health problems in edu- cation, 535 Kivpatrick, Wittiam H. New ideals in education, 683 Kindergarten and primary education, 819 Kindergarten education, of, minutes, 969 Kindergarten Progress, 970 Kindergarten supervision, 974 KINGSLAND, GERTRUDE S. Extra-cur- ricula activities—What ones do you consider of sufficient importance to justify their existence and how may we keep them in a subordinate posi- tion? 778 Koss, ANNA A. Recent accomplish- ments in the continuation schools in Massachusetts, 560 Department Lapp, Jesstz S$. Recreation and the uni- versity mixer, 732 Latent hearing awakened by musical sounds and vibrations (JENNIE M. HENDERSON), 604 Larurop, EpirH A. and VANDEWALKER, Nina C. Report on social hygiene, 345 Legislative appropriation for women’s dormitories, 728 Legislative commission, Report of (Grorce D. StTRaAyER), 305 LEIGHTON, JosEPH A. Advantages in- volved in extending the scope of faculty participation, 896 Lipsy, Freperick J. The far-reaching results of the Washington confer- ence, 189 Libraries and librarians (SHERMAN WILLIAMs), 998 Libraries and rural schools (FLORENCE M. Hate), 992 Libraries and the foreigner, 1001 Library Department, minutes, 987 Library service for the nation, 988 Library service, The spirit of, 1011 Library work. in normal schools to fit students for their work as teachers (Mary E. RicHarpson), 1043 Linpeman, E. C. Some unsolved prob- lems of rural education from the viewpoint of sociology, 1110 List of committees, 28 LoMMEN, GEORGINA. The teachers’ in- stitute as an agency for training teachers in service, 1141 ; Lowe, Etmo C. The planning of dormi- tories and social buildings, 715 McAnpbREW, WILLIAM. Outstanding achievements from the viewpoint of the superintendent, 943 McConatuy, OsBourNE. School music and the community, 1056 McConkey, BertHa M. Effective co- operation between the public library and the public school, 1002 McCormack, Mary G. A practical school program in nutrition, 625 McDoyatp, A. A. The one-story school, 1423 McDonatp, ELtten B. The curse and cure of the county superintendency, 1169 MacGrecor, EFFIz. classroom, 212 McKeEnny, Cuartes. Report of the committee on American teachers’ col- leges, 363 McNaucut, Marcarer S§S. Report of the commission on the revision of elementary education, 338 McSxkimmon, Mary. A new type of leadership to carry out the new poli- cies, 242 McWittiams, Mrs. R. F. Relations to other organizations, 765 Democracy in the Managing a science club (Morris MEISTER), 1246 Mann, Louis I. The relation of Judaism to democracy, 511 Marston, C. E. The elementary prin- cipal as a professional leader, 880 MarTIN, FREDERICK. The prevention and correction of speech defects, 594 Mason, JOSEPHINE D., and BrRuyN, GEr- TRUDE. Report of investigation into INDEX 1503 a a factory class programs in New Bed- ford, Massachusetts, 958 Massachusetts and education, 205 MarttuHews, E. N. Problems and stand- ards of employment certificate is- suance, 334 Measuring capacity of pupils and the efficiency of schools by means of tests (LincoLn Owen), 835 Medical inspection of schools, Improved (Leroy A. WiLkgs), 645 MeisTer, Morris. Managing a science club, 1246 MELCHER, FREDERIC G. The own reading, 1039 Mental health of young children, The (J. Mace Anoprgss), 810 Mental hygiene of the school beginner, The (WittiAM H. Burnuam), 654 Message from Honorable Charles E, Hughes (AnpREW F. West), 217 Method of obtaining legislative appro- priation for women’s dormitories at child’s Kansas institutions (ALBERTA Cor- BIN), 728 Methods for promoting ideals of scholarship among average students (Peart R. Wasson), 745 Minutes of representative assembly, 47; executive committee, 80; board of trustees, 89 Mooret, Ropert C. Coéperation be- tween classroom teachers of large and small communities, 688 Mooted questions in the school-build- ing service (WiLL1AM B. ItTNeR), ~ 1425 Morcan, Joy E. How shall adequate public library service be established where none now exists in the nation? 988 Mortenson, PeTer A. Improvement and preparation of teachers while in sery- ce, 195 Most effective administration and tax- ing unit, The (Linnazus N. Hings), 487 Moving pictures, Improvement of (WILL Hy Hays), 252 MuERMAN, J. C. ‘Transportation of school children at public expense, 495 Music education, A modern viewpoint of (ErRNest A. SMITH), 1058 Music education, Department of, min- utes, 1047 | Music in the rural schools (THomas L. Gipson), 1047; (EveLyN C. Perry), 1055 Musical sounds and vibrations, The awakening of latent hearing by means of (JENNIE M. HENDERSON), 604 National aspects of the American As- sociation of University Women (AureLIA H. Remnwarpt), 761 National Council of Education, minutes of Chicago meeting, 349; minutes of Boston meeting, 460; officers and members, 467; report of secretary, 470 National Education Association and the American Legion, Report of joint ad- visory committee, 303 National responsibility for the improve- ment of rural schools (MaBeL Car- NEY), 238 Native capacity and accomplishment, Rating students on the basis of, 839 Need of high-school opportunity for country children, The (WiLu1amM M. RoBInson), 1214 Need of national organization for edu- cational service (ALEXANDER INGLIS), 1322; (GerorGE D. Strayer), 1330; (A. E. Winsuip), 1334; (S. P. CaPEN), 1335; (E. C. Broome), 1337; (OLive M. Jonzs), 1339; (W. A. Jes- SUP), 1344 New education, The (W. G. Cove), 183 New ideals in education (WiLtiaM H. KILPATRICK), 683 NEWLON, JEssE H. Report of the com- mission on the codrdination of re- search agencies, 317 New Orleans school publicity, 1454 New outlook, The (KaTuerine D. BLAKE), 215 New policies, A new type of leadership to carry out the, 242 New type of leadership to carry out the new policies A (Mary McSxim- MON), 242 New York rural school survey, 1186 Next step in school supervision, The (E. E. OBBRHOLTZER), 1439 NIcHOLs, FREDERICK G. ‘The outlook for commercial education, 1306 Normal health standard, Ohio’s effort to bring children up to a (T. Howarp WINTERS), 677 Normal schools and the elementary cur- riculum, 1074 Normal schools, Department of, minutes, 1063 Nursery schools of England, The (Grace OWEN), 982 Nutrition and dental conditions, 624 Nutrition, A practical school program in (Mary G. McCormack), 625 OBERHOLTZER, E. E. The next step in school supervision, 1439 Objectives in the teaching of geography (Ropert M. Brown), 1065 Objectives of secondary (Tuomas H. Briccs), 1121 education 1504 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION O’BRIEN, ELEANOR J. Placement prob- lems, 576 OsriEN, F. P. Problems and methods in the organization of rural commu- “nity high schools, 1126 Officers for 1921-22, 17; for 1922-23, 22 Ohio’s effort to bring children up to a normal health standard (T. Howarp WINTERS), 677 OHLER, GEORGE W. Safe economies consistent with improved standards of textbook taking, 804 One-story school, The (A. A. McDon- ALD), 1423 Open-air class children in the Washing- ton school (Mary CALLAGHAN), 632 Opening remarks (B. PRESTON CLARK), 949 Opportunities in junior high-school li- braries (LAURA G. SMITH), 1027 Organization of the work of heads of halls (EpirH S. TurrTs), 725 Our need of an intelligent electorate (James E. RussELL), 258 Outlook for commercial education, The (FREDERICK G. NICHOLS), 1306 Outlook for cultural education, (FRANK AYDELOTTE), 1317 Outlook, The new (Karuerine D. BLAKE), 215 Output of professional schools for teach- ers that enter the rural service, The (CHARLES E. BENSON), 1173 Outside reading among high-school pu- pils, The stimulation of, 1032 Outstanding achievements and present difficulties from the viewpoint of the The city director (H. E. Stone), 944; (M. J. Downey), 945 Outstanding achievements from _ the’ viewpoint of the State (RoBerT C. DEMING), 942 Outstanding achievements from _ the viewpoint of the superintendent (WILLIAM McAnnprews), 943 Outstanding achievements and present difficulties from the viewpoint of the teacher (HaAzeL R. PorrTer), 947; (LILLIAN P. CLARK), 948 Outstanding issue in American educa- tion, The (Homer H. SEERLEY), 473 Outstanding needs of rural life today (GrorcE A. Works), 225 OweEN, Grace. The nursery schools of England, 982 OweN, LINCOLN. Measuring capacity of pupils and the efficiency of schools by means of tests, 835 OWEN, WILLIAM B. Report of the com- mittee on sources of revenue, 323 OwsLey, ALviIN M. Peace-time program of the American Legion, 220 PALMER, LueLLA A. Changing concep- tions of the kindergarten in teacher training, 977 Parenthood, Training for (ELIZABETH A. Woopwarp), 533 Park, Maup W. The women of Amer- ica and the democratic awakening, 216 Parker, EpirH C. Story telling: its re- lation to literary appreciation, 1016 Participation of teachers in school man- agement, Report of the committee on (HarLAN UPDEGRAFF), 404 Part-time education in Los (Susan M. Dorsey), 558 PauL, Francis H. J. Student organi- zations and the development of char- acter, 1273 Peace, International, 189 : Peace-time program of the American Legion (Atvin M. OwsLey), 220 Pensions, Sub-committee report on (PHILIp E. Carson), 287 Perkins, DwichHt H. The advantages of the one-story school plan, 1359 Perry, Evetyn C. Music in the rural school, 1055 PHILLips, E. M. The small community high school, 1124 Physical education, Department of, minutes, 1085; in rural schools, 1088 Physical education to social hygiene, The relation of “(BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG), 1091 Physical fitness for school admission (C. N. JENSEN and E. G. Gowawns); 611 Physics for boys (ALLEN C. HurtcHIN- son), 1260 Physics for girls, Contents of a course in, 1255 : Physical welfare of the child, Evidences of progress in education as indicated in better provision for the (J. H. BEVERIDGE), 499 Place of physical education in the country school program, The (Epwin W. BrooMeE), 1088 Angeles Placement problems (ELEANOR J. O’BRIEN), 576 Planning of dormitories and_ social buildings, The (ELtmo C. Lowe), 715 PLUMMER, Mrs. Georc—e W. ‘The rela- tion of the college woman to the Gen- eral Federation of Women’s Clubs, 758 Porter, HAzeL R. Outstanding achieve- ments and present difficulties from the viewpoint of the teacher, 947 Pounp, Loutsz. Consideration to be taken into account in the stimulation of graduate work for women, 769 INDEX 1505 Power, LroNArp. Some objectives of the department of elementary-school principals, 852 Power, THomas F. Report on factory classes in Southbridge, Massachusetts, 963 Practical nature of an education for teaching, The (Joun L. Atcer), 1084 Practical school program in nutrition, A (Mary G. McCormack), 625 Preliminary report of committee on the status of the American woman teacher (ANNA L. Force), 564 Preliminary report of committee on teacher welfare (JoHN W. Carr), 572 Preparation of teachers in health educa- tion, The (C. E. Turner), 593 Present contributions of Catholicism to democracy (AUGUSTINE F. HICKEY), 522 Present-day objectives of American ed- ucation (JoHN J. TicerT), 201 Present-day tendencies in education and their relation to the kindergarten and primary departments (EUGENE R. SmiTH), 819 President’s address—Resources in rural education (ERNEST BURNHAM), 1102 Prevention and correction of speech de- fects, The (FREDERICK Martin), 594 Prippy, Besstz L. Relation of the dean of women to the professional life of the student, 788 Primary education, Kindergarten and, 819 Principles underlying the relations be- tween faculty and administrative of- ficers in college and university con- trol (WALTER R. SMITH), 887 Private gifts, How to obtain money for dormitories by (GRACE GREENWOOD), 731 Problems and methods in the organiza- tion of rural community high schools (F. P. OBrien), 1126 Problems and standards of employment certificate issuance (E. N. MATTHEWS), 334 Problems before the commission in charge of the educational finance in- quiry, The (Gerorce D. STRAYER), 1362 Problems of financing education—how they are being solved in my city (S. O. HarTweELL), 1453 Profession appreciates foundations early established in Massachusetts and her present interest in education, The (Susan M. Dorsey), 205 Professional leader, The elementary principal as a (C. E. Marston), 880 Professional life of the student, Relation of the dean of women to the, 788 Professional organization, The demo- cratic awakening and (CHarL O. WILLIAMS), 208 Professional standards for classroom teachers (JessrE A. SKINNER), 198 Professional training for teachers of city schools (OLIve M. Jongs), 194 Program of general sessions, 38 Program of studies, The junior high- school (JAMEs M. Grass), 386 Progress in education, 482 Project method, The adjustment of ele- mentary education to the, 824 Protestantism and democracy (WALTER S. ATHEARN), 517 Psychological aspect of vocational work in colleges, The (AcNnes L. Rocers), 707 Public education, Funds for, 1386 Public library and the public. school, 1002 Publicity for schools, 1445, 1454 Pupils’ contribution to the success of the school library, The (Mary E. Hatt), 1018 Purposes of the committee on women’s athletics of the American Physical Education Association and its prog- ress up to the present (CYNTHIA M. Wesson), 1095 PUTNAM, HELEN C. Report of the com- mittee on racial well-being, 562 Putting the short in shorthand (Epina CAMPBELL), 581 QuimBY, GEORGE F. Development of factory classes in Massachusetts up to date, 951 Racial well-being, Report of the com- mittee on (HELEN C. Putnam), 562 Rating students on the basis of native - capacity and accomplishment (IRA A. FLINNER), 839 Reading for children, 1039 Real supervision for rural schools (J. S. HOFFMAN), 1167 Recent accomplishments in the continua- tion schools in Massachusetts (ANNA A. Kuoss), 560 Recent educational progress in the United States (JoHN J. TicerT), 373 Record and Accounts Division, 139 Recreation and the university mixer (Jessie S. Lapp), 732 Recreation, Outdoor, 1244 ReepD, Car iste. Fresh air, rest for selected pupils, 626 Regulation of extra-curricula activities (CAROLINE GROTE), 752 REINHARDT, AURELIA H. National aspects of the American Association of Uni- versity Women, 761 diet, and 1506 NaTIONAL EpucATION ASSOCIATION Relation of administrative officers to boards of education (GroRGE D. STRAYER), 1229 Relation of nutrition to dental condi- tions, The (Percy R. Howe), 624 Relation of the college woman to the general Federation of Women’s Clubs, The (Mrs. Greorce W. PLuM- MER), 758 Relation of the dean of women to the professional life of the student (Bessie L. Prippy), 788 Relation of Judaism to democracy, The (Louis I. Mann), 511 Relations to other organizations (Mrs. R. F. McWILuiAMs), 765 Remarks on factory . classes Copy), 967 Reorganization of elementary course of study, 800 Reports: adult illiteracy, 453; Amer- ican teacher’s colleges, 363; auditor, 66; Business Division, 120; changes needed in the elementary school course, 525; character education, 457; consolidation of rural schools, 493; county superintendents’ problems, 293; course of study, 548; Editorial Coun- cil, 329; Editorial Division, 131; edu- cational surveys, 456; executive com- mittee of the Department of Superin- tendence, 1458; Field Division, 117; financing delegates to the repre- sentative assembly, 344; foreign rela- tions, 312; health problems in education, 325, 535; legislative, 305; National Education Association and American Legion, 303; participation of teachers in school management, 404, 546; pensions, 287; problems and standards of employment certifi- cate issuance, 334; problems of vocational education, 555; racial well-being, 562; Division of Records and Accounts, 139; research agencies, 317; Research Division, 146; revision of elementary education, 338; rural education, 289, 353; salaries, 275; school library as a’ problem in architectural design, 1280; Secretary of the N. E. A., 93; Secretary of National Council of Education, 470; social hygiene, 345; sources of reve- nue, 323; state administration of schools, 359; status of the American woman teacher, 564; status of class- room teacher, 570; superintendents’ advisory committee, 333; teacher welfare, 572; teaching of democracy, 430, 505; tenure, 279; treasurer of the N. E. A., 70; vocational educa- tion, 451. Report of advisory committee of super- intendents (Mary D. Braprorp), 333 (FRANK .Report of committee on American teach- ers’ colleges (CHARLES McKEnny), 363 Report of commission on the coérdina- tion of research agencies (JESSE H. NEWLON), 317 Report of commission on the revision of elementary education (MarGaret S. McNaucur), 338 Report of committee on adult illiteracy (Cora W. STEWART), 453 Report of committee on county super- intendents’ problems (LEE L. Driver), 293 Report of auditor, 66 Report of committee on financing dele- gates to the representative assembly (CorNELIA S. ADAIR), 344 Report of committee on foreign rela- tions (Aucustus O. THomas), 312 Report of committee on health problems in education (THomMaAs D. Woop), 325 Report of committee on library prob- lems—the school library as a problem in architectural design (C. C. CER- TAIN), 1280 Report of committee on participation of teachers in school management (Har- LAN UPbDEGRAFF), 404; (CoRNELIA S. ADAIR), 546 Report of committee on racial well- being (HELEN C. Putnam), 562 Report of committee on resolutions, 43 Report of committee on rural education (Joun F. Sims), 289 Report of committee on sources of rey- © enue (WILLIAM B. OweEN), 323 Report of committee on teaching of democracy (A. Duncan Yocum), 430, 505 Report of committee of the National Council on changes needed in the elementary school course (KATHERINE D. BLAKE), 525 Report of committee of the salaries division (Myra L. Snow), 275 Report of editorial council (WitLiam C. BacLey), 329 Report of executive committee of the Department of Superintendence (J. H. BEveRIDGE), 1458 Report on factory classes in South- bridge, Massachusetts (THomas F. PowER), 963 Report of investigation into factory class programs in New Bedford, Mas- sachusetts (GERTRUDE Bruyn and JOSEPHINE D. Mason), 958 Report of joint advisory committee of the National Education Association and the American Legion (HENRY J. Ryan), 303 Report of legislative commission (Grorce D. STRAYER), 305 INDEX 1507 Report of progress of committee on character education—the sanctions of morality (MitToN BENNION), 457 Report of progress of committee on educational surveys (A. E. WINSHIP), 456 Report of progress of committee on vocational education (ADELAIDE S. Baytor), 451, 555 Report on social hygiene (EpitrH A. Laturop and Nina C. VANDEWALKER), 345 : Report of sub-committee on consolida- tion of rural schools (ADELAIDE S. Baytor), 493 Report of sub-committee on pensions (Puitre E. CaRLson), 287 Report of sub-committee on (HARLAN UPDEGRAFF), 279 Report of the follow-up work of 197 open-air class children in the Wash- ington school (Mary CALLAGHAN), 632 Representative assembly, Delegates of second, 169; minutes of, 47 Research agencies, Report of the com- mittee on the codrdination of (JESSE H. Newton), 317 Research Division, 146 Responsibility of public schools in health supervision, The (CuHarLes H. KEENE), 615 Responsibility of the college and the university in a democracy, The (Henry W. Howmes), 245 Resolutions committee, Report of, 43 Results of the Washington conference, The far-reaching (FrepericK J. Lippy), 189 Retirement systems for women mem- bers of college faculties (GrAcE A. STAYD 5 770 Revision of elementary education, Re- port of the commission on (Mar- GARET S. McNaucnrT), 338 Rice, O. S. The daily newspaper in the school, 1006 Ricwarpson, ANNA E. Fundamental problems of home making in the high school, 1465 Ricuarpson, Eruer. Socializing the method, content, and procedure, 914 Ricwarpson, Mary E. Library work in normal schools to fit students for their work as teachers, 1043 Riwcety, Douctas'C. Geography for rural schools, 1070 RitTENHOUSE, CHARLES F. Correlation of commercial courses of secondary schools with courses offered in col- legiate schools of business, 589 Rosinson, Witt1aM M. The need of high-school opportunity for country children, 1214 tenure Rocers, AcGNnes L. The psychological aspect of vocational work in colleges, 707 Rose, ERNESTINE. How the public li- brary helps the foreigner make his American contribution, 1001 Rural child labor, The extent and con- trol, of el207 Rural communities, The education of young children in, 828 Rural community high schools, Prob- lems and methods in the organization of, 1126 Rural education, Department of, Chi- cago minutes, 1099; Boston minutes, 1197; Financial needs of, 1367; Re- sources in, 1102 Rural education, Report of committee on (JoHn F. Sims), 289 Rural education, Semi-final report of the committee on (JoHN F. Sims), 353 Rural education, Some unsolved prob- lems of (E. C. LinpeMan), 1110 Rural group athletics and what it means (DanreEL CHASE), 1085 Rural life today, Outstanding needs of (Georce A. Works), 225 Rural school, Geography in, 1070 Rural-school health service, An effective (AucusTa C. TURNBULL), 634 Rural school library, The consolidated, 995 Rural schools, Libraries and, 992; Music in, 1047, 1055; National re- sponsibility for improvement of, 238; Physical education in the, 1088 Rural school supervision, 1167 Rural schools, Tests and measurements in, (FRED D. Cram), 497 Rural service, Teachers for, 1173 Rural teachers’ Plattsburg, A (AucGus- Tus O. THomas), 1140 RussELL, JAMES E. Our need of an in- telligent electorate, 258 Ryan, Henry J. Report of joint ad- visory committee of the National Education Association and the Amer- ican Legion, 303 Sabin, Mary FE. Education in _ its proper environment, 1137 Safe economies consistent with im- proved standards of textbook mak- ing (GrorcE W. OHLER), 804 Salaries division, Report of committee of, (Myra L. Snow), 275 Salary schedules, 484, 1434 SaLmMon, Lucy M. Does the college curriculum promote scholarship? 737 SAMUELSON, AGNES. Consolidation, supervision, and administration of a county system of schools, 229 1508 NationaL Epucation ASsociATION SARGEANT, InE G. Developing the el- ementary school as a social unit, 860 SARGENT, C. G. Consolidated schools of the mountains, valleys, and plains of Colorado, 1135 Scholarship among average students, Promoting ideals of (PEARL R. Was- SON), 745 School, Health and the BurnHAM), 539 School administration, Department of, minutes, 1223 School admission, Physical fitness for, 611 (Wittiam H. School architecture that encourages wider use (WiLLIAM B. ITTNER), 1484 School beginner, The mental hygiene of the (WiLL1AM H. Burnuam), 654 School buildings, Junior high (J. H. BENTLEY), 400 School-building program, Important el- ements in a, 1346 School-building service, Mooted ques- tions in the, 1425 School health work, Community co- operation in (CourTNEY Dinwippie), 638 School library as a problem in archi- tectural design, 1280 School library, Success of, 1018 School librarians, Training for (RuTH Topey), 1037 School management, Participation of teachers in, 546 School music and_ the community (OspourNE McConatuy), 1056 School plan, The advantages of the one- story, 1359 School plant and the curriculum, 1352 School plant, Wider use of, 1486, 1491 Science of outdoor recreation, The (WILLIAM G. VINAL), 1244 Science instruction, Department of, min- utes, 1239 SEAVER, CHARLES H. After-war recov- ery in the textbook publishing busi- ness, 795 Secondary education, Objectives of, 1121; Department of, minutes, 1267 Second representative assembly, min- utes of, 47; delegates of, 169 Secretary’s report, 93 SEERLEY, Homer H. The elimination of educational waste, 351; The out- standing issue in American education, 473 Selected pupils, Fresh air, diet, and rest for (CARLISLE REED), 626 SELIGMAN, Epwin R, A. How may the necessary funds for public education be provided? 1386 Selling the schools to the public (H. B. Witson), 1445, 489 « » Sex-education Semi-final report of the committee on rural education (JoHN F. Sims), 353 upon character, The bearing of (IT. W. GatLoway), 416 SHAFER, GEorGE H. Subject matter in the teachers’ college curriculum, 1081 SHIELS, ALBERT. Education for citizen- ship, 934 Shorthand, Putting the short in (EpiIwa CAMPBELL), 581 Sims, Joun F. Report of committee on rural education, 289; Semi-final re- port of the committee on rural educa- tion, 353 SKINNER, JEssIE A. Professional stand- ards for classroom teachers, 198 SmiTH, Hitpa W. Bryn Mawr summer school for women workers in indus- CLs 0/13 SmitH, Ernest A. A modern viewpoint of music education, 1058 SMiTH, EUGENE R. Present-day tenden- cies in education and their relation to the kindergarten and primary depart- ments, 819; Character traming, 1268 SMITH, Laura G. Opportunities in junior high-school libraries, 1027 SmiTH, WALTER R. The principles un- derlying the relations between faculty and administrative officers in college and university control, 887 SmiTH, Z. M. Junior extension work as developed through the public school, 1182 Snow, Myra L. Report of the commit- tee of the salaries division, 275 SNYDER, J. BUELL. Consolidation of rural schools, 1224 Social hygiene, Report on, 345; The re- lation of physical education to, 1091 Socializing the elementary-school course of study (THomas Acnew, JR.), 874 Socializing the method, content, and pro- cedure (ETHEL RICHARDSON), 914 Solving the problem—the architect and the superintendent (FREDERICK W. GARBER), 1353 Some contributions of the New York rural school survey (Jutian E. Bur- TERWORTH), 1186 Some objectives of the department of elementary school principals (LEonarp Power), 852 Some results of graduate work by women (Marion TALBOT), 770 Some unsolved problems of rural educa- tion from the viewpoint of sociology (Enc LINDEMAN), 1110 ‘ Sources of revenue, Report of the com- mittee on (WiLLiam B. OwEN), 323 SPAIN, CHartes L, Adapting the school plant to the curriculum, 1352 INDEX 1509 SPAULDING, FRANK E. What has this country reason to expect by way of culture, efficiency, and good citizen- ship in return for the cost of operat- ing public education, 1400 Special honors plan at Smith college, The (HELEN WricHT), 750 Special teacher in the grades, (WILLIAM W. WALTERs), 864 Speech defects, The prevention and cor- rection of (FREDERICK MARTIN), 594 Spirit of library service, The (Mkrs. Epwarp S. CarTeER), 1011 SPRINGSTEED, CLARA B. How shall the problem of the immigrant mother be ‘solved? 928 State administration of schools, Final report of the committee on (C. P. Cary), 359 State aid for teachers’ salaries (JAMES PSE LEY) 255 State and local affiliations, 151 State program of instructional super- vision, A (JoHN M. Foore), 1149 The Status thymico-lymphaticus, A com- pensatory mechanism in (WALTER TIMME), 661 StayT, GrAcE A. Retirement systems for women members of college facul- ties, 771 STEWART, Cora W. Report of commit- tee on adult illiteracy, 453 Stimulation of outside reading among high-school pupils, The (HELEN W. CosGROVE), 1032 Stone, C. H. The teaching of high- school chemistry, 1247 Stone, H. E. Outstanding achieve- ments and present difficulties from the viewpoint of the city director, 944; academic, vocational, and _ personal guidance of boys and girls in our high schools, 1235 Story telling: its relation to literary ap- preciation (EpiITH C. PARKER), 1016 STRAYER, GeorGeE D. Report of legisla- tive commission, 305; The relation of administrative officers to boards of education, 1239; The need of a na- tional organization for educational service, 1330; The problems. before the commission in charge of the edu- cational finance inquiry, 1362 Student leadership (LuLu E. Wirr), 783 Student organizations and the develop- ment of character (Francis H. J. PAuL), 1273 Sub-committee report on the course of study (DAvip FELMLEY), 548 Sub-committee report on the status of the classroom teacher (CorNELIA S. Apair), 570 Subject matter in the teachers’ college curriculum (Grorce H. SHAFER), 1081 Suggestive list of books for boys, 1024 Superintendence, Department of, Chi- cago minutes, 1295 Superintendent and standardized tests, sDhe (DEC yeB riss)ie428 Superintendent and the course of study, The (H. B. Bruner), 1431 Superintendent, his view of the ele- mentary school principal, 852 Supervision of instruction, 1438, 1439 TALzBotT, Marion. Some results of grad- uate work by women, 770 TANNAHILL, ANNA L. How may the dean best apportion her time among the academic, advisory, and social side of college? 775 Teacher training for kindergartens, 977 Teacher training and library work, 1043 Teacher welfare, Preliminary report of committee on (JoHN W. Carr), 572 Teachers’ college curriculum, Subject matter in the, 1081 Teachers of city schools, Professional training for (OLIvE M. Jongs). 194 Teachers’ institute as an agency for training teachers in service, The (GeorcInaA LOMMEN), 1141 / Teachers’ salaries, State aid for (JAMES H. Kevey), 235 Teachers while in service, Improve- ment and preparation of (PETER A. Mortenson), 195 Teaching of democracy, Report of the committee on (A. Duncan Yocum), 430, 505 Teaching of democracy, The (FANNIE F. ANDREWS), 446 Teaching of high-school chemistry, The (C. H. Stone), 1247 Teaching the deaf child (Mase, E. ADAMS), 598 “Ten essentials,’ English—its relation to the (WALTER BARNES), 448 Tenure legislation, Improving the teaching profession through, 685 Tenure, Report of sub-committee on (HARLAN UPDEGRAFF), 279 Tests, measurements, 835 Tests and measurements in rural schools (Frep D. Cram), 497; The use of (L. J. BENNETT), 1158 Tests, Standardized, 1428 Textbook making, Improved standards of, 804 Textbook publishing business, 795 Tuomas, Aucustus O. Report of com- mittee on foreign relations, 312; A rural teachers’ Plattsburg, 140 THOMAS, CHARLES S. Discussion of Mr. Driggs’ talk on keeping pace with ’ 1510 NaTIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the reorganization of elementary edu- cation, 802 ; Tuomeson, W. O. What has this country reason to expect by way of culture, efficiency, and good citizen- ship in return for the cost of oper- ating public education? 1393 THOMSEN, Mark L. Financial of education in cities, 1372 TicerT, JoHN J. Present-day objectives of American education, 201; Recent educational progress in the United States, 373; The activities of the U. S. Bureau of Education, 475; What has this country reason to ex- pect by way of culture, eficiency, and good citizenship in return for the cost of operating public education, 1403 TimMME, WALTER. A compensatory mechanism in status thymico-lym- phaticus, 661 Tosey, Rutu. Training for school li- brarians, 1037 Tonsils and adenoids in children (D. CrosBy GREENE), 665 To what extent are we warranted in purchasing education for adults from funds levied for the training of chil- needs dren of school age? (FRANK P. GRAVES), 1318 Training for business, Intensive (Georce L. HOFFACKER), 585 Training for parenthood (ELIZABETH A. Woopwarp), 533 Training for school librarians ToBey), 1037 Training supervisors for rural schools (W. S. Eakin), 1154 Training teachers in health education (C. E. Turner), 593 Transportation of school children at public expense (J. C. Musrrman), 495 Transportation service, 1207 Treasurer’s report, 70 Turts, Epira S. Organization of the work of heads of halls, 725 TURNBULL, AuGcusraA C. An effective rural-school health service, 634 Turner, C. E. The preparation of teachers in health education, 593 (RUTH U. S. Bureau of Education, The activi- ties of the (Joun J. TIGERT), 475 UppEcRAFF, HARLAN. Report of the sub-committee on tenure, 279; Report of the committee on participation of teachers in school management, 404 VANDEWALKER, Nina C., and LATHROP, EpirH A. Report on social hygiene, 345 VinaL, Witt1am G. The } science * of outdoor recreation, 1244 Virginia codperative association—its influence on the community through the wider use of school plants, The (Mrs. E. FeNNo HeaTH), 1491 Virginia’s (Minn.) building program, its aims and vocational work (E. T. DUFFIELD), 1417 Vocational education, Report of prog- ress of the committee on (ADELAIDE S. Baytor), 451, 555 Vocational education and practical arts, Department of, program for Chicago meeting, 1465; Boston minutes, 1471 Vocational education an economic ne- cesity (EMERY FILBEY), 1472 Vocational guidance in colleges, 696 _ Vocational work in colleges, The psy- chological aspect of (Acngs L. Rocers), 707 Vocation and the college of the liberal arts (RicHArD W. HusBanpD), 696 WaGNER, CHARLES A. The arguments for and against the supervision of in- struction, 1438 WALTERS, WILLIAM W. The teacher in the grades, 864 Washington conference, The far-reach- ing results of the (FREDERICK J. Lipsy), 189 Wasson, Peart R. Methods for pro- moting ideals of scholarship among average students, 745 WartkKINS, CATHERINE R. Changing conceptions of the kindergarten as the outgrowth of new insight, 970 WEEKS, GERTRUDE. Hygiene as a part of biology, 1240 Wetts, Acnes E. A dormitory that is a home, 721 Wesson, CynTu1A M. Purposes of the committee on women’s athletics of the American Physical Education Asso- ciation and its progress up to the present, 1095 West, ANDREW F. Message from Hon- orable Charles E. Hughes, 217 What has this country reason to expect by way of culture, efficiency, and good citizenship in return for the cost of operating public education? (W. O. THomson), 1393; (FRANK E. SPAULDING), 1400; (Joun J. TIGERT), 1403; (WiLL C. Woop), 1407 What should the geography of the grades include? (WaLLtace W. Ar- woop), 1064 What the women are doing to promote, health in schools (Mrs. IRA Coucn Woop), 425 WHITMAN, WALTER G. Contents of -a course in physics for girls, 1255 Why maintain the present salary schedules? (M. G. CLarK), 434 special INDEX Wider use. of school houses, Depart- ment of the program of meetings, 1483 Wider use of the school plant (FRANK I. Cooper), 1486 Wickes, Leroy A. Improved medical inspection of schools, 645 WiuuiaMs, CuarL O. The democratic awakening and professional organi- zation, 208; The hope and the result of American education, 378; Actual results of the year, 482; The im- provement of the teaching profession through tenure legislation, 685 WILLIAMS, SHERMAN. Libraries and li- brarians, 998 Witson, H. B. the public, 1445 Winn, Acnes S. The work of the National Education Association as viewed from the standpoint of a classroom teacher, 834 Wiwsuip, ALBERT E. Educational mes- sage for 1922, 193; Report of progress of committee on educational surveys, 456; The need of national organiza- tion for educational service, 1334 Winstow, C. E. A. The importance of subject content in health education, 606 Winters, T. Howarp. Ohio’s effort to bring children up to a normal health standard, 677 Wirt, LuLu E. 783 Women in industry (Mary ANDERSON), 707 Women of America and the democratic awakening, The (Maup W. Park), 216 Selling the schools to Student leadership, Ii Women’s athletics, 1095 Women’s dormitories, Floor plans for, 717; Legislative appropriation for, 728 Women workers in industry, Bryn Mawr summer school for (Hitpa W. SMITH), 713 Woop, Mrs. Ira Coucu. What the women are doing to promote health in schools, 425 Woop, THomas D. Report of commit- tee on health problems in education, 325; Justice and equality for child health, 421 Woop, Witt C. What has this country reason to expect by way of culture, efficiency, and good citizenship in re- turn for the cost of operating public education? 1407 WoopwarD, ELIZABETH for parenthood, 533 Work of the National Education Asso- ciation as viewed from the standpoint of a classroom teacher, The (AGNES S. WINN), 834 Works, Gerorce A. Outstanding needs of rural life today, 225 Wricut, F. W. The elementary cur- riculum as presented in normal schools, 1074 Wricut, Heren. The special honors plan at Smith college, 750 Wricut, W. J. Junior extension work as developed through the public schools, 1177 A. Training Yocum, A. Duncan. Report of the committee on teaching of democracy, 430, 505 Your most perplexing problem (E. C. FisHER), 1452 AT abiteradroge a ribie a5... say ae i etistiiiti id ke + is om? 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