This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the information in books and make it universally accessible. https://books.google.com Library of the University of Wisconsin N S I A IW SCO UNIVERSITY OF MADISO ٣ ٠ ١٠١٠ / ٠١ / N LIBRARY ITY UNIVERS OF WIS 1000 CONSIN LIBRA RY - MADI SON ADDRESSES AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES HIS building is owned by the National Education Association and has been used as its national head- quarters since August, 1920. It is located at 1201 Six- teenth Street, N. W., five blocks north of the White House and diagonally across the street from the home of the National Geographic Society. The building is well adapted to the needs of the Association. It is a beautiful four-story structure, 85 by 42 feet. The heavy walls are of reinforced concrete and a fine quality of brick. The columns and finish are of heavy oak. The rooms are large and well lighted. The building is of colonial design and holds its own in a good degree with the beautiful and substantial buildings of the National Geographic Society across the street. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Addresses and Proceedings OF THE FIFTY- NINTH ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT DES MOINES, IOWA JULY 3-8 1921 VOLUME LIX 1921 Published by the Association SECRETARY'S OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. SCONSIN UNIVERSITY WI MA DI YOF SO N N- 13-49 LIBRARY Composed and PrintedBy The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. 252322 JAN 23 122 IK 8NGT 1921 Editorial Note There are certain features of this volume of proceedings to which special attention may well be called. 1. It is the first issue since the Association has been on a repre- sentative basis and, therefore, reflects renewed interest in the purposes and administrative machinery of professional organization. The reports of the Secretary and the President are especially significant in this con- nection. Renewed interest in organization is also evident in the pro- ceedings of a number of departments, for example, the Department of Rural Education, the Department of Superintendence, and the Library Department. 2. Reduced printing costs have made possible a larger number of pages in this volume than those that have been published since the be- ginning of the war. 3. The volume is published somewhat earlier than heretofore. It is believed that the advantage of having the material in circulation will more than offset the disadvantage of preparing so large a mass of ma- terial within a short time. 4. The arrangement of the material within the volume is as follows : (a) Introductory matter. (b) Material coming before the Association itself : (1) Addresses of welcome and response. (2) General addresses. (3) Addresses on the American Program in Education. (4) Reports of committees. (5) Reports of officers. (6) Affiliated Associations . (c) National Council of Education. (d) Material for the various departments, which are arranged al- phabetically, according to the significant words in their names. Under each department, the order is usually: ( 1) minutes, (2) addresses, in the order delivered, (3) reports of committees . 5. Other material. 6. Index. While this arrangement usually brings together material on the same subject, there are several exceptions. For example, there is excellent material on rural education, not only under that department, but also, under the National Council and the Department of Superintendence. V vi NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The precise time and place of the delivery of any address may be learned by reference to the minutes of the body before which it was given. Most of the addresses contained herein are abstracts or summaries. Aside from the financial reason for keeping the material within the com- pass of one large volume, it is believed that the addresses are more widely read and, consequently, more influential in their shortened form. The courtesy of the speakers in sending abstracts of their papers promptly and the co-operation of the officers of the departments are hereby acknowledged. Without their help, it would not have been pos- sible to assemble such a large and varied mass of material for early pub- lication. It should also be noted that a large share of the work on this volume has been done by my assistant, Jessie M. Robbins. JOY ELMER MORGAN, Editor. Contents PAGE I Act of Incorporation By-Laws 6 Calendar of Meetings . 16 Officers for 1920-21 19 Secretary'sMinutes of General Sessions . 23 26 Rules of Representative Assembly Report of the Committee on Resolutions 26 GENERAL SESSIONS Address of Welcome-Kendall . 31 Address of Welcome-McClenahan 33 Response to Addresses of Welcome-Chandler 34 Educating the Other Half-Stuntz 37 Education and Americanization-Ryan . 38 The Parenthood of the State-Lindsey 42 Social Hygiene in the Schools-Barker 54 How to Secure Results through Professional Organization-Chamberlain . 55 Education of the Women of the United States-Reinhardt . 65 AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AsRelated to the Work of the Principal : I. Zmyrhal 74 II. Sexson 77 As It Is Related to the Work of the Classroom Teacher: I. Winn 78 II. Mathews 83 III. MacGregor 84 As It Is Related to the Work of the Normal Schools and Teacher-Training Insti- tutions: I. Wright 87 II. Kelly 89 III. Keith 93 IV. Kirk 96 What Part Shall the Colleges and Universities Play in the American Program in Education: I. Coffman 99 II. Cutter :: 104 What Shall Be the Program in Education for City School Systems in View of the Objectives of the American Program in Education ? I. Condon . 108 II. Gwinn 109 III . Mortenson III IV. Gowans . 115 vii viii NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE The State Program in Education and Its Bearing upon the National Program in Education: I. Finegan . 116 II . Reavis 122 III . Johnson 125 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Editorial Council . 128 Commission on Reorganization of Elementary Education : I. McNaught 131 II. Jones 135 Report of Committee on Sources of Revenue 138 Preliminary Report of the Committee on Visual Education 139 Report of Committee on Salaries 140 Report of Committee on Tenure 145 Report of Committee on Pensions 155 Report of Committee on Health Problems 157 Report of Committee on Illiteracy 159 Report of Legislative Commission 159 Report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education 163 Report of the Committee on Thrift Education 167 Report of the Commission on Coördination of Research Agencies 169 Reports of Committee on Foreign Relations 176 Report of the Committee on Expenses of Delegates 182 REPORTS OF OFFICERS Report of the President on the Program and Development of the Association . 184 Secretary and Headquarters' Staff : I. Report of Secretary-Crabtree . 208 II. Report of Department of Records and Accounts-Hixson 221 III. Report of the Field Secretary Department-Magill 223 IV. Report of the Business Department-Erlandson 228 V. Report of the Editorial Department-Morgan 235 Treasurer's Report, June 1, 1920, to May 31 , 1921 -Adair 239 Thirty-Fifth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees, June 1 , 1920, to May 31 , 1921 243 Report of the Auditor 246 Report of Executive Committee 249 State and Local Associations Affiliated with the National Education Association 251. 1 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION ATLANTIC CITY MEETING Secretary's Minutes 269 The Expansion of Education-Seerley 272 The Most Important Thing in American Education-Hunter 274 The American Teacher-Crabbe 281 Participation of Teachers in School Management-Updegraff 284 Teacher Councils-Ortman 293 Conference on Elementary-School Course-Minutes 301 Survey for Aristocracy or Democracy-Winship 302 Reorganization of Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Grades-Judd 303 Minutes of Open Forum on Teacher Progress by Collective Organization-Jones 305 CONTENTS ix PAGE The Health Crisis in Education-Wood 306 Daylight in the Schoolroom-Jackson 308 Thrift Education-Chamberlain 315 Discussion: I. Straus 316 II. Kimball . 321 III. Dempsey 323 IV . Barnard 325 V. Harris 328 VI . Oberholtzer 331 VII. Blake 331 DES MOINES MEETING Secretary's Minutes 332 Officers and Members . 335 The Struggle for Power in American Educational Systems-Seerley 337 Educational Progress During the Year-Gwinn 340 Address before the National Council-Tigert . 341 Preliminary Report of the Committee on Citizenship and Character Education- Bennion. 344 Discussion: I. Jones. 346 The Place of Religious Sanctions in Character Training-Phillips 347 Teacher-Training and Demonstration Schools-Sims 350 Report of Sub-Committee on Consolidation of Schools-Baylor 352 Improving Rural Schools by Standardization-Lathrop 354 Rural Recreation and Social Life-Campbell . 355 Tests and Measurements in Rural Schools-Cram 357 CanAdequate Financial Support Be Secured for Rural Schools ?-Towne 358 Second Report of Progress of Committee on Racial Well-Being-Putnam 362 State Administration of Schools-Butterfield . 362 ASurvey of the Survey-Winship 363 Report of the Committee on Changes Needed in the Elementary-School Course- Blake 364 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 369 TheArticulation of Secondary and Higher Education in Business-Ruggles 369 Qualifications for Teaching Commercial Subjects in Secondary Schools-Knipprath 373 Coöperation between Business Houses and Business Schools-Hamilton . 376 DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE Secretary's Minutes 377 An Efficient Plan for Control and Prevention of Communicable Diseases in Schools-Wood 378 Health Supervision of School Children on a State-Wide Basis-Knight 379 School Health Service in New York State Howe 384 A Teacher's Opportunity from a Health Officer's Viewpoint-Jones . 386 New Standards of Physical Growth and Their Use in Nutrition Classes Baldwin 391 Certain Factors in the Respiration and the Circulation in Children, and Their Intercorrelations-Bray 392 The Course of Study in Hygiene Reduced to Its Lowest Terms-Brown . 393 X NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE Vitalizing the Teaching of Hygiene-Gregg 394 A Plan for Scoring the Behavior Difficulties of School Children-Evans 395 Teaching First and Second Graders Health Habits-Powell 396 Physical Examination of Pre-School Age Children with Nutritional Expert in Attendance-Delamater 396 Wiping Trachoma Out of the Lincoln Public Schools-Wolfe 397 DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Secretary's Minutes 399 The Teacher's Responsibility to the Board of Education-Fitzpatrick 400 Desirable Working Conditions More Attractive Than Salary-Colby 402 The School Building in Its Reaction on the Teacher's Work-Gardner 404 DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN Secretary's Minutes 407 Health Instruction and Health Supervision-Welsh 410 Position and Responsibility of Trained Women in Education-Dorsey 413 The International Federation of University Women Comstock . 416 Fundamental Ethical Problems of Today-Wasson 417 Does the College Emphasize Service for Others to the Detriment of Personal Development-Purington 418 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS Secretary's Minutes 421 How to Improve Textbooks-Sensing the Demand-Dill 421 Informing the Public of Relative Costs of Classroom Materials-Holton . 425 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 427 Limitations of the Project-Charters 428 How Can the Project Be Safeguarded ?-Shields 430 A Project Basis for Social Study in the Upper Grades-Long 432 Mathematics, the Project Instrument-Lindquist. 435 Limits of the Project-Fox 437 Abstract of the Report of the Committee on Elementary School English-Hopkins 440 The Contribution of Elementary School toward Better Health Living-Baker 442 The Elementary School and the Readjustments of the Next Ten Years-Sargeant 444 How a Test May Be Used to Improve Instruction in Reading-McBroom 446 The Use of Scientific Measurements as a Basis for Instruction-Reed 448 The Use of Scientific Measurements as a Basis for the Improvement of Instruc- tion -Knight 450 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Secretary's Minutes 453 DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 455 The All University Freshman Year-Bass 456 The Required Course in Citizenship for College Students-Loeb 456 DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION Statement of Organization . 460 CONTENTS xi DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION PAGE Secretary'sMinutes 461 Report on Two Meetings-Vanderwalker 462 The Unity in Aims and Principles of the Kindergarten and Early Grades-Wood 463 Methods and Equipment-Dobbs 465 Suggestions for Deriving Standards of Achievement of Kindergarten Children- Franzén . * 467 LIBRARY DEPARTMENT Secretary's Minutes 471 By-Laws 473 Joy Reading in the Elementary Grades-Zachert . 476 The Normal School Library-An Educational Institution-Kerr 482 ThePurpose of the School Library-Williams 488 The Relation of the High-School Library to the Other Departments of the School- Chamberlayne 492 Stepping-Stones to Correct Taste -Noble 496 The Part of the Public Library in Public Education-Milam 501 Report of the Committee on Normal School Libraries-Kerr 502 DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 507 Preparation of Music Supervisors-Shall They Have a Balanced College Educa- tion ?-Kirk . 509 DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS Secretary's Minutes 515 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 517 MoralAspects ofPhysical Education-Holmes 518 The Relation of Public Playgrounds and Recreation Centers to Our National Ideals ofDemocracy-Nash' 519 Universal Physical Education-A National Necessity-Caulkins 521 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION ATLANTIC CITY MEETING Secretary's Minutes 523 Resolutions 525 Constitution and By-Laws 527 Improvementof the Village School-Deffenbaugh . 531 The Waitsfield Experiment-Dana 535 Training County Superintendents and Rural Supervisors in Service-Ayer 539 Supervision for Growth-Newbury 544 Financial Support for Rural Schools-Baker . 547 Some Fundamentals of Rural Community Organization-Sanderson 549 The Continued Emergency in Rural Teacher Supply and How to Meet It- Lathrop . 552 Initial Steps in the Development of Rural-Education Departments in Normal Schools-Browne . 557 xii NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE Stimulating Interest in Vocational Agriculture through Junior Project Work- Blackwell 560 Stimulating Interest in Vocational Agriculture through Junior Club Activities in the Schools-Clark 563 Boys' and Girls' " Four H" Clubs and the School-Kendrick 564 To What Extent Should Rural Teachers Participate in Making Courses of Study ?- Holloway 566 The Course of Study in Montgomery County-Brogden 567 Principals Underlying the Rural Elementary-School Curriculum-Dunn . 570 The Preparation of Teachers for a Democratized Rural School-Root 572 Supervision for Growth-Spencer 572 Rural School Democracy through Efficient Administration-Cook 575 Community Service of the Democratized Rural School-Evans . 577 The Negro in Rural Education and Country Life-Dillard 580 Report of the Committee on Comparative Instruction in One-Teacher and Con- solidated Rural Schools-Foote . 583 Report of the Committee on the Distinction between the Administration and Supervision of Rural Schools-Dunn 584 Report of the Committee on the Preparation of Rural Teachers-Carney 589 Report of the Committee on a Working Program for Smith-Lever Extension and Vocational Education Forces in the Various States-Mann 592 DES MOINES MEETING Secretary's Minutes 600 Platform 601 The Relation of the Village to the Rural-School Administration and the County Unit-Selke 604 Consolidated Schools in Middle Western States-Dick 606 A National Program for Consolidation-Campbell 609 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION ATLANTIC CITY MEETING Secretary's Minutes 617 Federal Aid for Public Schools-Bagley 618 Safety to Life in Schoolhouse Planning: I. Fleming. 623 II. Robinson 626 III. Challman 627 IV. Cooper 629 V. Healy 630 The Comprehensive School Building : I. Clerk 630 II. Perkins 632 III . Ittner 633 IV . Hartwell 636 V. Macomber : 638 DES MOINES MEETING Secretary's Minutes 641 Best Current Practices in School Architecture-Donovan 642 Curriculum Organization and the School Plant-Anderson . 648 Equipment for Vocational Education-Thomas 649 CONTENTS xiii DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS PAGE Secretary's Minutes 653 Educational Sidelights-Preston 653 - ApprovedMethods in Americanization Work-Razovski 655 HowMay Parent-Teacher Associations Best Coöperate with the Public Schools Hillis 661 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Secretary's Minutes 663 SocialHygiene in the Public Schools-Gruenberg :::: 663 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 667 Tentative Report of the Committee on Secondary School Library Problems- Certain . 667 Socialization of the Six-Year High School through the Organization of Student Activities-Fowler 672 How to Live a Hundred Years-Barker 673 Segregation in Ability Groups as a Means of Taking into Account Individual Differences-Bracewell 674 Sex Education for Secondary Schools-Gruenberg . 675 A Square Deal for the Brilliant Pupil-McDaniel 676 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Secretary'sMinutes 679 The Helping Teacher in New Jersey-Decker 688 The Importance of the Rural School Harding 692 The Aims of Rural Education-Bagley 694 The Rural School-The Great Problem in American Education-Burnham 699 The School Derelict-Kelly 701 Some Ideals and Accomplishments of the Rochester School System-Weet 703 Some Ideals and Accomplishments of the Newark School System-Corson 707 The Ideals and Accomplishments of the Seattle School System-Cooper . 714 Theodore Roosevelt as a Book Lover-Robinson 719 TheAmerican Program in Education and the Des Moines Meeting-Hunter . 722 An Invitation to Des Moines-Minkel 725 Best Use of the Superintendent's Time-Van Sickle 727 How Shall the Superintendent Spend His Time ?-Meek 728 Best Use of the Superintendent's Time-Wilson . 733 The Best Use of the Superintendent's Time-Williams 738 The Probable Future of Education in the United States-Its Policies and Pro- grams-Snyder 743 • The Reconstruction of American Education-Coffman 750 Schooling of the Immigrant-Thompson . 758 What One Representative American City Is Doing in Teaching Americanism- - Cody ? 759 The Civic Training of Young America-Dunn 765 Improving Public School Teaching-Dorsey 768 Improving Teachers in Service-Scott 773 The Greatest Need of the Schools-Better Teaching-Jessup 779 : Analysis of Learning Processes and Specific Teaching-Judd 783 xiv NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE National Aid for Education-Towner 786 • Waste in Education-Bonner 795 How May the Public Understand What Service the School Is Rendering the Community ?-Finegan 803 Local Influence of the Russell Sage Foundation Ranking of Montana's Educational System-Elliott 806 The Status of the Superintendent-Chadsey 812 Fundamental Principles of Grading Teachers' Salaries-Evenden 817 Merit Promotion of Teachers-Knapp 820 AMassachusetts Plan of Grading Teachers' Salaries-Wheeler 822 Foundation Principles for Grading Salaries-A Pennsylvania Plan-Downes . 823 The Rating of Teachers-Hervey 825 A Plan of Reporting the Results of Educational Measurements to Parents-Allen 827 Is the Junior High School " Delivering the Goods " ?-Affirmative-Remy 833 Is the Junior High School " Delivering the Goods " ?-Negative-Ward . 835 Relation of Scholarship and Growth in Scholarship to Merit and Pay-Corson 837 Relation of Years of Experience to Merit and Pay-Willard 839 Salary Differences, If Any, Based on the Rank or Class of the Teacher: I. Ballou 840 II. Newlon 841 Relation of Difficulty of Position and Quantity of Work to Pay-Weet 843 How Shall Merit Be Expressed in Salary Schedules ?-Cammack 844 The Participation of State and Nation in the Support of Local Schools-Potter 847 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICAL ARTS ATLANTIC CITY MEETING Secretary's Minutes 851 DES MOINES MEETING Secretary's Minutes 851 Notes on the Addresses Given at Des Moines 853 DEPARTMENT OF THE WIDER USE OF SCHOOLHOUSES Secretary'sMinutes 858 The Plan Whereby the People Have the Means of Knowing the Truth about Our Country-Stewart 858 862 The Schoolhouse and the Immigrant-Morgan National Education Association of the United States 1857-1870 THE NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. PURPOSE-To elevate the character and advance the interests of the pro- fession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. The name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the "National Educational Association. " 1870-1907 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, "National Education Association," which was changed to "National Educational Association," by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the "National Educational Association." The charter was accepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Con- vention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSO- CIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled : SECTION I. That the following named persons, who are now officers and directors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: *Nathan C. Schaeffer, *Eliphalet Oram Lyte, *John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews, of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, *George B. Cook, of Arkansas ; Joseph O'Connor, *Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; *Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut ; *George W. Twitmyer of Delaware; *J. Ormond Wilson, William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the *Deceased. 1 2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION District of Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida ; *William M. Slaton, of Geor- gia; *Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, *Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, *Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, *Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois ; *Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana ; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory ; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa ; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, *A. V. Jewett, * Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas ; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; *Warren Easton, of Louisiana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot, *Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts ; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan ; *William F. Phelps, *Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, *James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri ; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska; *Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire ; *James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey ; *Charles M. Light, of New Mexico ; *James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray But- ler, *William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina ; *Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio ; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Okla- homa; *Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon ; Thomas W. Bicknell , Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina ; Moritz Adelbert Lange, of South Dakota; *Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas ; David H. Christensen, of Utah; *Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont, Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington ; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin ; *Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico ; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii ; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by the name of the "National Education Association of the United States," and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein con- tained. SEC. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organization or consolidation, to wit : the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools ; third, of Elementary Education ; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Train- ing; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education ; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education ; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction ; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department ; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education ; the powers and duties and the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its by-laws . SEC 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or *Deceased. ACT OF INCORPORATION 3 to be sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent juris- diction; to make by-laws not inconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the Constitution of the United States; to take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, con- vey, hire, or lease the same for the purpose of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. SEC. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Co- lumbia, which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other pur- poses of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing in- come, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or in- vested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation ; provided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corporation ; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. SEC. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members-viz., active, associate, and corresponding-whose qualifica- tions, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the by-laws of the corporation. SEC. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board of Trustees. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-Presi- dent, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Education Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the by-laws of the corporation. The Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows : the President of the Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chair- man of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, to serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for the Board of Directors in the inter- vals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legis- lation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be givenby said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association 4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION at which they were elected, they shall elect one trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resigna- tion or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership. SEC. 7. That the invested fund now known as the "Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association," when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the principal of such Perma- nent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two-thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommendation of the Board of Trustees , after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Associa- tion for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. SEC 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia ; provided, That the meetings of the corpora- tion, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the by-laws. SEC. 9. That the charter, constitution, and by-laws of the National Educa- tional Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new by-laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Association shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the "National Education Association of the United States" ; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation ACT OF INCORPORATION 5 heretofore known as the National Educational Association incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Edu- cational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia ; and, provided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Associa- tionand its corporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty- first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District of Columbia. SEC. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired ; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. SEC. 11. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. SEC. 12. That said corporation may provide by amendment to its by-laws that the powers of the active members exercised at the annual meeting in the election of officers and the transaction of business shall be vested in and exercised by a representative assembly composed of delegates with the provisions of the by-laws adopted by said corporation. Sections 1-11 were passed by Congress and approved by the President June 30, 1906. They were accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Edu- cation Association of the United States by the active members of the National Education Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. Section 12 was passed by Congress and approved by the President of the United States May 13, 1920, as an amendment to the original act of Incorporation. Itwas accepted and adopted as an amendment to the Constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members thereof in an- nual session at Salt Lake City, Utah, July 9, 1920. 6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BY- LAWS (Complete as amended at the Annual Business Meeting of the Representative Assembly, Des Moines, Iowa, July 8, 1921. Amendments made at the Des Moines meeting are in italics) ARTICLE I-MEMBERSHIP SECTION I. The membership of the National Education Association of the United States shall consist of three classes, Active, Associate, and Corresponding, whose qualifications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. SEC. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work at the time of their becom- ing members. SEC. 3 The annual dues of an active member shall be $2.00, which shall entitle him to attend all meetings of the Association and its several departments, to receive the Journal free, and, on application, to secure all publications of the Association at a price fixed by the Publication Committee, which shall be the approximate cost. By the payment of annual dues of $5.00 an active member shall receive, in addition to the Journal, without application or other condition, the volume of Proceedings and all other regular publications of the Association, including reports of committees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. SEC. 4. All life members and life directors shall have all the rights and privileges of active members without the payment of annual dues, and shall receive free without application or condition the publications of the Association. SEC. 5. Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not actively engaged in the profession of teaching, but interested in the promotion of education. The annual dues of an associate member shall be the same as the dues of an active member and he shall have the same rights and privileges ex- cepting the right to vote and hold office. SEC. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board of Directors as Corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall not at any time exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the publications of the Association. SEC. 7. The annual dues of all members shall be paid at the time of the annual meeting of the Association or shall be sent to the Secretary on or before November 1. An active member failing to pay his dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privileges of membership and after being in arrears one year shall be dropped from the list of members. SEC. 8. The membership year shall be the same as the fiscal year of the Association, from June 1 to May 31, inclusive. New members may join at any time, and the membership of those joining between March 1 and June 1 shall extend to the end of the following membership year. Those joining after January 1 may, if they so elect, have their dues apply to membership for the following year. SEC. 9. The Secretary of the Association shall furnish each member of the Association a Membership Card, declaring him to be a member of the National Education Association for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such en- titled to all the rights and privileges granted by the Charter and By-laws of the Association. SEC. 10. The right to vote shall be limited to active members of the Associa- tion whose dues are paid. The right to hold office in the Association or in any BY-LAWS 7 department shall be limited to active members whose dues are paid. The right to vote and hold office in the Council shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Each active member shall have one vote. ARTICLE II-ELECTION OF OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEM- BLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS SECTION 1. The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed as hereinafter provided. SEC. 2. The President, Vice-President, Treasurer, and Directors of the As- sociation shall be chosen by the Representative Assembly by ballot, at the annual business meeting, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the terms for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. SEC. 3. The State Teachers Association . or Educational Association of a state, territory, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each Affiliated State Association shall be a state unit in the organization of the Na- tional Education Association and as such shall be entitled to representation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Association shall be $10.00 for each delegate to which said state shall be entitled, with a maximum of $100.00. Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the Volume of Proceedings, reports of com- mittees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. SEC. 4. A local educational association or teachers' organization within a state, territory, or district may affiliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be a local unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled to representation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated Local Association shall be $5.00, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the Volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. SEC. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both state and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and support of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such affiliated association and its members in so far as such interests come within the pur- pose and object of the National Education Association as set forth in its Char- ter. The Secretary of the National Education Association shall, with the advice and approval of the Executive Committee, make such arrangements for mutual co-operation between the National Education Association and the State and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interests of the teaching profession. SEC. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association, up to five hundred such active members, and thereafter one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. SEC. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one dele- gate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. SEC. 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the election of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but one Affiliated Local Association. SEC. 9. The officers of the National Education Association as named in the Charter and the State Superintendent or Commissioner of Education of each state, territory, and district, shall be ex officio delegates to the Representative Assembly. The President of the Association shall preside at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly and the Secretary of the Association shall keep the records thereof. In case of a tie the President shall cast the deciding vote. SEC. 10. Delegates shall file their credentials with the Secretary of the Asso- ciation on blanks furnished by him for that purpose not later than ten days before the beginning of the annual meeting. The Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credential Committee, when appointed, with such information thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Association. The Repre- sentative Assembly shall be the final judge of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meetings of the Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertain- ing to the Association. The Representative Assembly shall adopt rules of procedure which shall not conflict with the Charter and by-laws of the Associa- tion. It shall recommend an equitable plan for paying the expenses of delegates to the annual business meeting of the Association. SEC. 11. The officers shall be permitted to hold meetings other than for business purposes and expenses therefor shall be provided. ARTICLE III-DUTIES OF OFFICERS SECTION 1. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association. In his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association, and, with the approval of the Executive Committee, shall determine the time and place of the general meeting of the Association and of the various departments not definitely fixed by these by-laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in the programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized by the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Directors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, BY- LAWS 9 he shall become first Vice-President for the ensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication. SEC. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Association as provided in the articles of incorporation and the by-laws, and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, shall be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and, in the absence of direction by the Executive Com- mittee, shall be under the direction of the President, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer, shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors , or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings of the Board of Directors, or on the approval of the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association, of the Board of Directors , and of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary of the Board of Directors, and amember of the Committee on Publication. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than July 1 prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all money, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish, nor distribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Publication Committee. SEC. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direc- tion of the Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall pay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees ; shall notify the President of the Association and the chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession exceed five hundred dol- lars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirty-first day of May of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than July 1, and when approved by said committee they shall be transmitted by the committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting and to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful perform- nace of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. SEC. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as pre- scribed by Section 6 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council of Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power to fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees ; shall recommend to the Executive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association, the Council of Education, and the de- partments. The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred under author- ity of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee, or the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or Executive 10 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Committee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting for the work of all special committees of research and investigation authorized and provided for at the annual business meetings, shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees) to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. SEC. 5. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arrang- ing for the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of the various departments. The Executive Committee shall recommend to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for investiga- tion or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active membership of the National Education Association or by any of its departments; it shall recommend the amount of money to be ap- propriated for such investigations. When such special committees are provided for and duly authorized by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision of them, shall receive and consider all reports made by them, and shall print such reports, and present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the office of Secretary. SEC. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds of such amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful per- formance of their duties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Associa- tion to the Executive Committee not later than July 1 prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Com- mittee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. It shall choose annually its own chairman and secretary. ARTICLE IV - THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION SECTION 1. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational ques- tions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual meeting on "Educational Progress during the Past Year" ; and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. SEC. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred and twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected. SEC. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the BY-LAWS 11 Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory, nor district in the United States shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council. SEC. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. SEC. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be de- nominated honorary members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association with the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council. SEC. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice- president, a secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secretary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties pertain- ing to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the pro- ceedings of the Council or publication. SEC. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or the by-laws of the Association ; provided, That such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative. SEC. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Coun- cil abolished upon a two-third vote of the Representative Assembly taken at the annual meeting of the Association ; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Asso- ciation. ARTICLE V-DEPARTMENTS SECTION 1. The following departments are now (1921) in existence, to wit : The departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools ; third, of Elementary Education ; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Vocational Education and Practical Arts ; sixth, of Kindergarten Education; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of Secondary Education ; ninth, of Business Education ; tenth, of Child Hygiene; eleventh, of Physical Education; twelfth, of Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School Administration ; fourteenth, the Library Department; fifteenth, of School Patrons ; sixteenth, of Rural Education ; seven- teenth, of Classroom Teachers ; eighteenth, for the Promotion of the Wider Use of Schoolhouses; nineteenth, of Educational Publications ; twentieth, Deans of Women; twenty-first, Department of Elementary School Principals; twenty- second, Department of Immigrant Education. SEC. 2. Each department shall have the right to fix the qualifications of its members for the purpose of electing officers and transacting the other business of the department; provided active members of the Association, and no others, shall be eligible to such department membership, and provided also that all active members of the Association shall be permitted to attend the professional pro- grams and discussions of any department. SEC. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, except the Department of 12 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Superintendence, which may hold its annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined by said department, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the Association. SEC. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the dis- cussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal pro- grams, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session of business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers. SEC. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice- president, and a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their election, be active members of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of president of any of the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the President of the Association. Any other departmental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the president of the department. Any department may provide for the creation of an executive committee and assign to it any duties consistent with the pur- poses of the department, and the Charter and By-Laws of the Association . SEC. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Associa- tion act of the proceedings of the meetings of the department for publica- tion. P ded no department shall establish an office outside of the general headquart of the Association without the consent of the Executive Com- mittee of the Association. SEC. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception stated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section 1 of this article in the order of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each department may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent with the act of incorpora- tion or these by-laws. SEC. 8. A new department may be established by a two-thirds vote of the Board of Directors taken at a regular meeting of the board or by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any annual business meeting ; pro- vided, That a written application for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding annual busi- ness meeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the field of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be estab- lished. A department already established may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two- thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any business meeting of the Association ; provided, That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the preceding year, or at the preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it fails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years . SEC. 9. Any department, by a two- thirds vote of those voting at any regular business meeting, may levy a membership fee to supplement its allowance from the Association. Such membership fees shall be paid to the secretary of the BY-LAWS 13 department who shall transmit them monthly to the Secretary of the Association. Such funds shall be added to the department's allowance from the Association and shall be used for the work of said department only, and shall be disbursed upon the recommendation of the executive officers of the department in the same manner as other funds of the Association are disbursed. T 1 ARTICLE VI- COMMITTEES 2 SECTION 1. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors on the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee consisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a trustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided in Section 6 of this article; and the com- mittee shall report its findings at the meeting of the Representative Assembly. SEC. 2. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association, the state and local delegates from each state shall select one member for each of the following committes : Credentials, Nominations, Resolu- tions, and Necrology. The Committee on Credentials shall receive the official list of the delegates from the Secretary and report thereon to the Representative Assembly. SEC. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the third day of the annual meeting at 9:00 A.M., at a place designated by the Presic ofthe Association, and shall nominate persons, for the following offices the As- sociation to wit : one person for President, eleven persons for Vicin residents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from each state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board of Directors. It shall report to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. SEC. 4. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting of Representative Assembly, and, except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee without discussion. This com- mittee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the purpose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them.. SEC. 5. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the published Proceedings a list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year accompanied by memorial sketches whenever practicable. SEC. 6. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licence to do business as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and compare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of the said accountants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors, at their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association. 14 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ARTICLE VII-MEETINGS SECTION 1. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education, and of each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance with these by-laws. An annual meeting of the Associa- tion and its subordinate bodies may be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two-thirds of the directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee. SEC. 2. The annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly shall begin on the second day of the annual meeting at 9:00 A. M. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting at 10:30 A. Μ . The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announced in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to above in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman, and shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the board by the secretary thereof. ARTICLE VIII- PROCEEDINGS SECTION 1. The proceedings of the Association, the Council, the departments, the commissions and committees, shall be published at the discretion of and under the direction of a committee appointed by the executive committee, provided, That in the opinion of the executive committee the funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. SEC. 2. No paper, lecture, nor address shall be read before the Association or any of the departments in the absence of the author, without the approval of the President of the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the Proceedings without the ap- proval of the Publication Committee. ARTICLE IX-QUORUM SECTION 1. Representatives from twenty-five states and territories shall con- stitute a quorum in all meetings of the Representative Assembly and of the Board of Directors . ARTICLE X-APPROPRIATIONS SECTION 1. Unless otherwise ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meetings, not less than 10 per cent of the gross income of the Association each year shall be set aside for such educational investigations and studies as may be ordered in accordance with Section 5 of Article III . ARTICLE XI -AMENDMENTS SECTION 1. These by-laws may be altered or amended at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly by unanimous consent, or by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly if the alteration or amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announcement of the proposed action shall have been made in the official publication of the Association. CERTIFICATE 15 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the 10th day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States," Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Asso- ciation. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, Presiding Officer IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY 10, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter granted by an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States," passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a veri- fied certificate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by saidact. 2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle contain- ing the title "National Education Association of the United States," and the dates "1857-1907." 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize under the charter granted by the act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4. 1907. CALENDER OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1857-PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) 1865-HARRISBURG, PA. JAMES L. ENOS, Chairman. S. S. GREENE, President. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. Z. RICHARDS, Treasurer. 1858-CINCINNATI , OHIO Z. RICHARDS, President. 1866-INDIANAPOLIS, IND . J. W. BULKLEY, Secretary. J. P. WICKERSHAM, President. A. J. RICKOFF, Treasurer. S. H. WHITE, Secretary. 1859-WASHINGTON, D. C. S. P. BATES, Treasurer. A. J. RICKOFF, President. J. W. BULKLEY, Secretary. C. S. PENNELL, Treasurer. 1867-No session. 1860-BUFFALO , N. Y. J. W. BULKLEY, President. 1868-NASHVILLE, TΕΝΝ. Z. RICHARDS, Secretary. J. M. GREGORY, President. O. C. WIGHT, Treasurer . 1 L. VAN BOKKELEN, Secretary. 1861 , 1862-No session. JAMES CRUIKSHANK , Treasurer . 1863- CHICAGO, ILL. 1869- TRENTON, N. J. JOHN D. PHILBRICK, President. L. VAN BOKKELEN, President. JAMES CRUIKSHANK, Secretary. W. E. CROSBY, Secretary. O. C. WIGHT, Treasurer. A. L. BARBER, Treasurer. - OGDENSBURG, N. Y. 1864 1870-CLEVELAND, OHIO W. H. WELLS, President. DANIEL B. HAGAR, President. DAVID N. CAMP, Secretary. A. P. MARBLE, Secretary. Z. RICHARDS, Treasurer. W. E. CROSBY, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1907 1871-ST. LOUIS, MO. 1881-ATLANTA, GA . J. L. PICKARD, President. JAMES H. SMART, President. W. E. CROSBY, Secretary. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. JOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer. E. T. TAPPAN, Treasurer. 1872 -BOSTON, MASS . 1882- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. E. WHITE, President. G. J. ORR, President. S. H. WHITE, Secretary. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. JOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer. H. S. TARBELL, Treasurer. 1873-ELMIRA, N. Y. 1883- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. B. G. NORTHROP, President. E. T. TAPPAN, President. S. H. WHITE, Secretary. W. E. SHELDON , Secretary. JOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer. N. A. CALKINS, Treasurer. - DETROIT, MICH. 1874 S. H. WHITE, President. 1884-MADISON, WIS. A. P. MARBLE, Secretary. THOMAS W. BICKNELL, President. JOHN HANCOCK, Treasurer. H. S. TARBELL, Secretary. N. A. CALKINS, Treasurer. 1875-MINNEAPOLIS , MINN. W. T. HARRIS, President. 1885- SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. М. R. Аввотт, Secretary . F. LOUIS SOLDAN, President. A. P. MARBLE, Treasurer. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary. 1876-BALTIMORE, MD . N. A. CALKINS, Treasurer. W. F. PHELPS, President. 1886- TOPEKA, KANS . W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. N. A. CALKINS, President. A. P. MARBLE, Treasurer. W. E. SHELDON, Secretary . 1877-LOUISVILLE, KY. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. M. A. NEWELL, President. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. 1887- CHICAGO, ILL. J. ORMOND WILSON, Treasurer. W. E. SHELDON , President. J. H. CANFIELD, Secretary. 1878-No session. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. 1879-PHILADELPHIA, PA. 1888- SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. JOHN HANCOCK, President. AARON GOVE, President. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. J. H. CANFIELD, Secretary. J. ORMOND WILSON, Treasurer. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. 1880-CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. 1889-NASHVILLE, TENN . J. ORMOND WILSON, President. ALBRT P. MARBLE, President. W. D. HENKLE, Secretary. J. H. CANFIELD, Secretary. E. T. TAPPAN, Treasureг. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. 16 CALENDAR OF MEETINGS 17 1890-ST. PAUL, MINN. 1899-LOS ANGELES , CALIF . J. H. CANFIELD, President. E. ORAM LYTE, President. W. R. GARRETT, Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. E. C. HEWETT, Treasurer. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. 1891-TORONTO, ONT. 1900-CHARLESTON, S. C. W. R. GARRETT, President. OSCAR T. CORSON, President. Е. Н. Соок, Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. CARROLL C. PEARSE, Treasurer . 1892 - SARATOGA SPRINGS , N. Y. Е. Н. Соок, President. 1901-DETROIT, MICH . R. W. STEVENSON, Secretary. JAMES M. GREEN, President. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. L. C. GREENLEE, Treasurer. 1893-CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of 1902-MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Education) WILLIAM M. BEARDSHEAR, President. ALBERT G. LANE, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. CHARLES H. KEYES, Treasurer. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. 1903-BOSTON, MASS. 1894 -ASBURY PARK, N. J. CHARLES W. ELIOT, President. ALBERTG. LANE, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. W. M. DAVIDSON, Treasurer. J. M. GREENWOOD, Treasurer. 1904 - ST . LOUIS, мо. 1895-DENVER, COLO . NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER, President. JOHN W. Cook, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. MCHENRY RHOADS, Treasurer. 1896-BUFFALO, N. Y. 1905-ASBURY PARK AND OCEAN NEWTON C. DOUGHERTY, President. GROVE, N. J. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, President. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. JAMES W. CRABTREE, Treasurer. 1897-MILWAUKEE, WIS . CHARLES R. SKINNER, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. 1906 No session. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. 1898-WASHINGTON, D. C. 1907-LOS ANGELES , CALIF . J. M. GREENWOOD, President. NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. I. C. MCNEILL, Treasurer. J. N. WILKINSON, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1908- 1908-CLEVELAND, OHIO 1915-OAKLAND , CALIF . EDWIN G. COOLEY, President. (International Congress of IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. Education) ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Treasurer. DAVID STARR JORDAN, President. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary. 1909-DENVER, COLO . GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. LORENZO D. HARVEY, President. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. 1916-NEW YORK, N. Y. ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Treasurer. DAVID B. JOHNSON, President. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary. 1910-BOSTON, MASS . GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. JAMES Y. JOYNER, President. 1917-PORTLAND , ORE . IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. ROBERT J. ALEY, President. ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Treasurer. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary. THOMAS E. FINEGAN, Treasurer. 1911-SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. ELLA FLAGG YOUNG, President." 1918- PITTSBURGH , PA. IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. MARY C. C. BRADFORD, President. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Treasurer. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary. A. J. MATTHEWS, Treasurer. 1912-CHICAGO, ILL. CARROLLG. PEARSE, President. 1919-MILWAUKEE , WIS . IRWIN SHEPARD, Secretary. GEORGE D. STRAYER, President. KATHERINE D. BLAKE, Treasurer. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary. A. J. MATTHEWS, Treasurer. 1913-SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH . 1920- SALT LAKE CITY , UTAН . EDWARD T. FAIRCHILD, President. JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, Pres. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary. GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. A. J. MATTHEWS, Treasurer. 1914 - ST. PAUL, MINN. 1921- DES MOINES , IOWA JOSEPH SWAIN, President. FRED M. HUNTER, President. DURAND W. SPRINGER, Secretary. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary. GRACE M. SHEPHERD, Treasurer. CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer. National Education Association of the United States OFFICERS FOR 1920-1921 GENERAL ASSOCIATION FRED M. HUNTER. ... President.... Oakland, Calif. J. W. CRABTREE. Secretary. Washington, D. C. CORNELIA S. ADAIR .... Treasurer. .Richmond, Va. VICE - PRESIDENTS JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, State Supt. Public Instruction .... Olympia, Wash. ANNIE C. WOODWARD, High School Somerville, Mass. E. C. BROOKS, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Raleigh, N. С. JEAN E. HEIGES, 12 Oak Apartments .... .1 Salt Lake City, Utah JOSEPHINE HAMMOND, 843 North 4th Street..... Steubenville, Ohio S. A. BAKER, State Superintendent of Public Schools . .. Jefferson City, Mo. E. F. CARLETON, Superintendent City Schools ..... Eugene, Ore. CARRIE R. KEEVER, State Department of Free Schools. Charleston, W. Va. MARY D. BRADFORD, Superintendent of Schools.. Kenosha, Wis. J. H. WAGNER, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .... Santa Fe, Ν. Μ . L. P. BENEZET, Superintendent of Schools... Evansville, Ind. WILLIAM JARDINE, President Kansas Agricultural College ... Manhattan, Kans. BOARD OF TRUSTEES CARROLLG. PEARSE... ... President State Normal School Milwaukee, Wis. WALTER S. SIDERS.. Superintendent of Schools .... Pocatello, Idaho AGNES E. DOHERTY. Central High School St. Paul, Minn. OLIVE M. JONES.. Principal New York, N. Y. FRED M. HUNTER. .. Superintendent of Schools .... Oakland, Calif. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FRED M. HUNTER. President Oakland, Calif JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON . Vice-President Olympia, Wash. CARROLL G. PEARSE .... Chairman Board of Trustees ... Milwaukee, Wis. CORNELIA S. ADAIR .... Treasurer Richmond, Va. T. E. FINEGAN .... ... Member by Election Harrisburg, Pa. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors Ex Officio FRED M. HUNTER, Oakland, Calif. CARROLLG. PEARSE, Milwaukee, Wis. JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, Olympia, Wash. J. W. CRABTREE, Washington, D. C. CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Richmond, Va. Life Directors ALZY, ROBERT J........... Orono, Me. JORDAN, DAVID STARR ... Leland Stan- BICKNELL, THOMAS W..... Providence, R. I. ford University, Calif. BOARD OF EDUCATION ... Nashville, Tenn. JOYNER, JAMES Y...La Grange, N. C. BRADFORD, MARY C. C... Denver, Colo. MARSHALL, T. MARCELLUS . Stouts BROWN, ELMER ELLSWORTH . New York, N. Y. Mills, W. Va. BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY.New York, N.Y. PEARSE, CARROLL G... Milwaukee, Wis. CLAXTON, P. P........... Washington, D. C. PRESTON, JOSEPHINE CORLISS.Olympia, Wash. COOK, JOHN W.... ..... Dekalb, Ill. SKINNER, CHARLES R......... Albany, N. Y. COOLEY, EDWIN G............. Chicago, Ill. STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION OF ILLINOIS CORSON, OSCAR T... Columbus, Ohio STRAYER, GEORGE D... New York, N. Y. ELIOT, CHARLES W........ Cambridge, Mass. SWAIN, JOSEPH Swarthmore, Pa. GRAHAM, H. A. Mt. Pleasant, Mich. TAYLOR, A. R........ ..... Decatur, Ill. HARVEY, LORENZO D....... Menominee, Wis. TEACHERS' INSTITUTE ... Philadelphia, Pa. JOHNSON, DAVID B. Rock Hill, S. C. WHITE, CHARLES G...... Menominee, Wis 19 20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State Directors Alabama. C. B. GLENN, Assistant Superintendent of Schools .... Birmingham Arkansas . C. O. CASE ... Phoenix Arizona ... J. R. JEWELL, Dean College Education, University .... Fayetteville California . WILHELMINA VAN DE GOORBERG, 1606 Mt. Royal Ave... Los Angeles Colorado . H. B. SMITH, Secretary C. E. A. , 532 Commonwealth Bld Denver Connecticut . MARY CROSBY MAHONEY, 405 Coram Avenue .. Shelton Delaware.. A. R. SPAID, Commissioner of Education. Dover Florida... F. A. HATHAWAY, County Superintendent of Schools ... Jacksonville Georgia . M. L. BRITTAIN, State Superintendent of Schools ....... Atlanta Idaho.. THEODORE B. SHANK, Superintendent of Schools ....... Moscow Illinois. R. O. STOOPS, Superintenlent of Schools . Joliet Indiana . H. LESTER SMITH Dean School of Education, University Bloomington Iowa.. L. H. MINKEL, Superintendent of Schools ... Fort Dodge Kansas. I. E. PEARSON, Superintendent of Schools ... Kansas City Kentucky . CORA WILSON, Stewart . Morehead Louisiana . J. M. GWINN, Superintendent of Schools . New Orleans Maine. H. A. ALLAN, State Rural Schools Inspector ....... Augusta Maryland. WILLIAM BURDICK, Superintendent Phys. Education McCoy Hall. Baltimore Massachusetts ...... MARY MCSKIMMON, Principal Pierce School ... Brookline .. Michigan. THOMAS E. JOHNSON, State Superintendent of Schools Lansing Minnesota . St. Cloud J. C. BROWN, President State Normal School..... Mississippi . E. E. BASS, Superintendent of Schools ... Greenville Missouri . LIVINGSTONE MCCARTNEY, Superintendent of Schools .. Hannibal Montana. Bozeman R. C. CUNNINGHAM , Superintendent of Schools .... Nebraska ... A. J. STODDARD, Superintendent of Schools. Beatrice Nevada . B. D. BILLINGHURST, Superintendent of Schools ...... Reno New Hampshire .... DANIEL W. MACLEAN, Head Master High School... Berlin New Jersey ........ D. C. PORTER, Superintendent of Schools ..... Bridgeton New Mexico ....... E. W. BOWYER, Superintendent of Schools . Clovis New York ...... KATHERINE D. BLAKE, 39 East 85th St..... New York City North Carolina ..... ROBERT H. WRIGHT, Pres. East Carolina T. T. S........ Greenville North Dakota ...... ANNA TIBBETS, Fargo College ..... Fargo Ohio ... W. W. MCINTIRE, Dean School of Education, Ohio Univ. Athens Oklahoma . E. E. OBERHOLTZER, Superintendent of Schools ....... Tulsa Oregon.... A. C. HAMPTON, Superintendent of Schools . La Grande Pennsylvania ....... WM. M. DAVIDSON, Superintendent of Schools ........ Pittsburgh Rhode Island ...... KATHERINE U. PIERCE, 125 East Manning Street...... Providence South Carolina ... GEORGE H. WEBBER, Superintendent of Schools ........ Beaufort South Dakota... E. C. WOODBURN, President State Normal School ..... Spearfish Tennessee .. J. L. HIGHSHAW, Prin. Crockett Vocational H. S...... Memphis Texas . ANNIE W. BLANTON, State Supt. of Public Instruction. Austin Utah ... MILTON BENNION, Dean School of Education Univ. of Utah Salt Lake City Vermont ... CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF, 9 Church Street ...... St. Johnsbury Virginia. NANNIE W. THOMPSON, 130 Second Avenue... Richmond Washington . JENNIE M. FRENCH, 1132 North Oakes St...... Tacoma West Virginia ...... M. P. SHAWKEY, State Supt. Free Schools . Charleston Wisconsin.. J. F. SIMS, President State Normal School .... Stevens Point Wyoming . A. A. SLADE, Superintendent of Public Schools ....... Casper Alaska.. L. D. HENDERSON, Commissioner of Education .... Juneau Philippine Islands ... LUTHER B. BEWLEY, Director of Education ... Honolulu Hawaii.. VAUGHAN MACCAUGHEY, Supt. Public Instruction ..... Mayaguez Porto Rico ... RALPH S. GARWOOD, University of Porto Rico ...... Manila HEADQUARTERS STAFF JOY ELMER MORGAN, Editor 1201 Sixteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. С. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary HUGH S. MAGILL, Field Secretary R. S. ERLANDSON, Assistant Secretary ELIZABETH ARLETT, Assistant Field Secretary HELEN T. HIXSON, Recorder SALLIE HILL, Assistant Field Secretary DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 21 THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President .... HOMER H. SEERLEY, President Iowa State Teachers College Cedar Falls, Iowa Vice-President ...... JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Olympia, Wash. Secretary....... ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Federal Agent for Home Economics Washington, D. C. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS1 Business Education ' President ......... THOMAS A. BEALE, Director School of Commerce and Finance, University of Utah ...... Salt Lake City, Utah Secretary. W. S. PETERSON , Commercial Department, Ogden High School Ogden, Utah Child Hygiene President ..... O. B. NESBITT, School Health Commissioner ...... Gary, Ind. Vice-President ..... H. S. GRUVER, Superintendent of Schools . Worcester, Mass . Secretary. .... ALICE H. COUCH-WOOD, Elizabeth McCormick Mem- orial Fund Salt Lake City, Utah Classroom Teachers President.. SARA H. FAHEY, Teacher of Community Civics, Manual Training High School . Brooklyn, N. Y. Vice-President .. ETHEL M. GARDINER, Teacher in Grade School .... Milwaukee, Wis . Secretary ........ MARGARET RICHARDSON, Grade Teacher ..... Spokane, Wash. Deans of Women President . MINA KERR, Dean of Milwaukee-Downer College Milwaukee, Wis. Vice -President..... GEORGE L. WHITE, Adviser of Women, Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Secretary....... KATHARINE ALVORD, Dean of Women, Depauw University Greencastle, Ind. Treasurer FLORENCE L. RICHARDS, Dean of Women, Winona Normal School Winona, Minn. Educational Publications President.... GEORGE L. TOWNE, Editor, Nebraska Teacher.. Lincoln, Nebr. Secretary. C. W. TABER, Western Manager, Lippincott & Co. Chicago, Ill. Elementary Education President... P. W. L. Cox, Head Master, Washington School.. New York, N. Y. Vice-President ..... MARION S. HANCKEL, Supervisor of Kindergarten Primary Grades Richmond, Va. Secretary......... ANNIE E. LOGAN, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Cincinnati, Ohio Higher Education President.... GUY STANTON FORD, University of Minnesota ...... Minneapolis, Minn. Secretary........ J. J. PETTYJOHN, Assistant to the President, Uni- versity of Minnesota . Minneapolis, Minn. Kindergarten Education President . MARION S. HANCKEL, Supervisor of Kindergarten and Primary Grades Richmond, Va. Vice-President ..... BARBARA GREEN WOOD, Director Kindergarten De- partment, Southern Branch, Univ. of California Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary ...... ANNA LITTLE, Supervisor of Kindergarten...... Dayton, Ohio Arranged alphabetically for convenient reference. 22 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Library Department President ...... SHERMAN WILLIAMS, Chief of School Libraries, State Department of Education ..... Albany, N. Y. Vice-President ..... M. W. POULSON, Associate Professor of Education, Brigham Young University .... Provo, Utah Secretary . MARGARET ELY, Lakeview High School. Chicago, Ill. Music Education President .. P. MELVIN PETERSON, Director of Music ........ Salt Lake City, Utah Vice-President ..... BEN H. SMITH, Supervisor of Music. Denver, Colo. Normal Schools President .......... W. A. LEWIS, President State Normal School .... Hays, Kans. Vice-President ...... C. E. EVANS, President State Normal School ..... San Marcos, Tex. Secretary ...... ANNA M. TIBBETS, Head Department of Education, Fargo College Fargo, N. D. Physical Education President .......... F. L. KLEEBERGER, Professor Physical Education, University of California. Berkeley, Calif. Rural Education President .......... ELI RAPP, Superintendent Berks County Schools Reading, Pa. Vice-President ..... I. B. BALL, State Supervisor Agricultural Education Salt Lake City, Utah Secretary ........ MABEL CARNEY, Professor Rural Education, Teach- ers College, Columbia University . New York, N. Y. School Administration President .......... GEORGE W. GERWIG, Secretary Board of Education Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-President ..... H. A. SMITH, President Board of Education ...... Salt Lake City, Utah Secretary .......... WILLIAM C. BRUCE, Editor, American School Board Journal Milwaukee, Wis. School Patrons President .. MAIDA K. MCMATH, Member Vocational Board of Education Seattle, Wash. Science Instruction President . JOHN C. JOHNSON, Colorado State Normal School Gunnison, Col. Secretary . LOUISE H. SEELEY, Dickinson High School........ Jersey City, N. J. Secondary Education President . CLARENCE T. RICE, Principal High School ........ Kansas City, Kan . Vice-President ..... Guy E. WILSON, President L. D. S. University High School Salt Lake City, Utah Secretary ....... MINNIE J. OLIVERSON, Teacher in High School .... Kansas City, Kan. Superintendence President .... CALVIN N. KENDALL, Commissioner of Education.. Trenton, N. J. First Vice-President E. A. SMITH, Superintendent of Schools ..... Evanston, Ill. Second Vice-President J. M. GWINN, Superintendent of Schools .... New Orleans, La. Secretary...... ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Federal Agent for Home Economics Washington, D.C. Vocational Education and Practical Arts President ........ W. G. HUMMEL, State Director for Vocational Education Olympia, Wash . Secretary .... MARIAN S. VAN LIEW, State Superintendent Home Economics Albany, N. Y. Wider Use of Schoolhouses President.......... RAYMOND F. CRIST, Department of Labor ... Washington, D. C. Vice-President..... I. B. MORGAN, Director Vocational Schools ..... Kansas City, Kans. , Secretary........ MARGARITA SPAULDING GERRY, Member Board of Education .. : Washington, D. C. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTY - NINTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE National Education Association of the United States DES MOINES, IOWA, JULY 3-8, 1921 Educational Sunday Educational leaders spoke in the various churches of Des Moines at their morning services. A general program was given in the Coliseum on Sunday evening. After a short musical program by St. Paul's Boys' Choir, the Right Reverend Homer C. Stuntz, Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Omaha, Nebraska, delivered an address on EDUCATING THE OTHER HALF OF THE WORLD. First Day's Proceedings NOTE. The proceedings here given are arranged as in the official program with proper additions and corrections. Business sessions of the Representative Assembly are so headed. Monday Morning, July 4, 9:30 o'clock REPORT OF THE EDITOR-IN - CHIEF OF THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION- W. C. Bagley, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION-Mar- garet S. McNaught, Commissioner Elementary Education, Sacramento, Calif. , Chairman; Olive M. Jones, Principal Public School No. 120, New York City, N. Y. SYMPOSIUM : THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AS IT IS RELATED TO THE WORK OF THE PRINCIPAL-Ida Lee Woody, Principal Hamilton School, St. Louis, Mo.; J. J. Zmrhal, Principal Herzl School, Chicago, Ill.; Lewis W. Smith, Principal High School, Joliet, Ill.; John A. Sexson, Principal Union High School, Sterling, Colo. Monday Afternoon, July 4, 1 :30-4:00 o'clock AMERICANIZATION PAGEANT BY THE DES MOINES PUBLIC SCHOOLS (1 :30-2 :00) CO-OPERATION BETWEEN THE AMERICAN LEGION AND THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IN PROGRAM FOR AMERICANISM-Henry J. Ryan, Chairman, Americanism Commission, American Legion, New York City. SYMPOSIUM : THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AS IT IS RELATED TO THE CLASSROOM TEACHER-Agnes S. Winn, President Seattle Grade Teachers' Club, Seattle, Wash.; Mrs. Phebe Mathews, West Somerville, Mass.'; Marion Higgins, Teacher in Public Schools (President St. Louis Division State Teachers Association) , St. Louis, Mo.; Marion George, Teacher in Public Schools, Trenton, N. J.; Effie MacGregor, Teacher in Public Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SOURCES OF REVENUE-William B. Owen, President Chicago Normal School, Chicago, Ill., Chairman. 23 24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Monday Evening, July 4, 8:00 o'clock MUSICAL PROGRAM BY THE ARGONNE POST BAND ADDRESSES OF WELCOME-N. E. Kendall, Governor of Iowa, Des Moines, Iowa ; H. H. Barton, Mayor of Des Moines, Iowa ; P. E. McClenahan, State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa ; J. W. Studebaker, Superintendent of Schools, Des Moines, Iowa ; S. M. Wallace, President Iowa State Teachers' Association ; P. B. Sherriff, President Des Moines Chamber of Commerce. PESPONSE FOR THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION-J. A. C. Chandler, Pres- ident College of William and Mary, Williamsburg , Va. ADDRESS-Albert Bushnell Hart, Professor of Government, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Second Day's Proceedings Tuesday Morning, July 5, 9 :00-10 :00 o'clock First Business Session of Representative Assembly REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON VISUAL EDUCATION-Ira B. Bush, Superintendent of Schools , Erie, Pa., Chairman. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SALARIES-D. B. Waldo, President State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich., Chairman. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TENURE-Charl O. Williams, Superintendent Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn., Chairman. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON PENSIONS ( Joseph Swain, President Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa. , Chairman ) ; John W. Carr, for the Committee. Tuesday Afternoon, July 5, 1 :30-4 :30 o'clock The health pageant, MOUNTAIN MEADOW, was given at the East High School from 1:30 to 2:00 o'clock, followed by this program at the Coliseum : SYMPOSIUM : THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AS IT IS RELATED TO THE WORK OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHER - TRAINING INSTITUTIONS- Robert H. Wright, President East Carolina Teachers' Training School, Greenville, N. C.; F. J. Kelly, Dean School of Education, University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kans.; John A. H. Keith, President State Normal School, Indiana, Pa.; John R. Kirk, President State Teachers' College, Kirksville, Mo. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION-Thomas D. Wood, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. , Chairman. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ILLITERACY-Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, National Il- literacy Commission, Frankfort, Ky., Chairman. Tuesday Evening, July 5, 8:00 o'clock A musical program, given by the Des Moines Male Quartet was followed by THE PARENTHOOD OF THE STATE-Hon. Ben. B. Lindsey, Judge of Juvenile Court, Denver, Colo. SOCIAL HYGIENE AND ITS PLACE IN THE SCHOOLS- Charles E. Barker, M. D., Representative International Rotary, Chicago, Ill. INTRODUCTION OF THE NEW COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION-J. J. Tigert, Wash- ington, D. C. Third Day's Proceedings Wednesday Morning, July 6, 9:00-10 :15 o'clock Second Business Session of Representative Assembly REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT ON THE PROGRAM AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ASSOCIATION-Fred M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools , Oakland, Calif. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RULES-William B. Owen, President of the Chicago Normal School, Chairman. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 25 REPORT OF TREASURER TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY-Cornelia S. Adair, Treas- urer National Education Association, Richmond, Va. REPORT OF THE LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION-George D. Strayer, Professor Educa- tional Administration, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y., Chairman. DISCUSSION OF REPORTS PREVIOUSLY MADE INTRODUCTION OF NEW BUSINESS FOR SPECIAL ORDER Intermission of Fifteen Minutes SYMPOSIUM : WHAT PART SHALL THE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES PLAY IN THE AMERICAN PROGRAM OF EDUCATION ?-L. D. Coffman, President University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; Irving S. Cutter, Dean College of Medicine, University of Nebraska, Omaha, Neb.; W. A. Jessup, President University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa ; C. H. Judd, Head School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. REPORT OF COMMISSION ON REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION-William B. Owen, Principal Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Ill., for the Chair- man, Clarence D. Kingsley, State High School Inspector, Boston, Mass . Wednesday Evening, July 6, 8:00 o'clock A musical program by the Chamber of Commerce Glee Club was followed by ADDRESS-HOW TO SECURE RESULTS THROUGH PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION- Arthur H. Chamberlain, Secretary California State Teachers' Association, San Francisco, Calif. ADDRESS-NATIONAL SCHOOL LEGISLATION-Hugh S. Magill, Field Secretary Na- tional Education Association, Washington, D. C. Fourth Day's Proceedings Thursday Morning, July 7, 9 :00-10 :15 o'clock Third Business Session of Representative Assembly REPORT OF FIELD SECRETARY-Hugh S. Magill, Field Secretary National Educa- tion Association, Washington, D. C. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THRIFT EDUCATION-Arthur H. Chamberlain, Secretary California State Teachers' Association, San Francisco, Calif., Chairman . DISCUSSION OF REPORTS AND INTRODUCTION OF NEW BUSINESS Intermission of Fifteen Minutes REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CO-ORDINATION OF RESEARCH AGENCIES-Jesse H. Newlon, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo., Chairman. SYMPOSIUM : WHAT SHALL BE THE PROGRAM IN EDUCATION FOR CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN VIEW OF THE OBJECTIVES OF THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCA- TION-J. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, New Orleans, La.; Peter Mortenson, Superintendent of Schools, Chicago, Ill.; J. W. Gowans, Super- intendent of Schools, Winfield, Kans . Thursday Afternoon, July 7, 2 :00-4 :00 o'clock REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS-A . O. Thomas, State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, Augusta, Me. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PAYMENT OF EXPENSES OF DELEGATES-Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer of the National Education Association, Richmond, Va., Chairman. SYMPOSIUM : THE STATE PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AND ITS BEARING UPON THE NATIONAL PROGRAM-T. E. Finegan, State Superintendent of Public In- struction, Harrisburg, Pa.; George H. Reavis, Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Baltimore, Md.; T. E. Johnson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. 26 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Thursday Evening, July 7, 8:00 o'clock Following a musical program were addresses : EDUCATING THE WOMEN OF THE UNITED STATES-Aurelia Henry Reinhardt, President Mills College, Oakland, Calif. OBJECTIVE VALUES OF EDUCATION-P. P. Claxton, Ex-U. S. Commissioner of Education . Fifth Day's Proceedings Friday Morning, July 8, 9 :00-12:00 o'clock Final Business Session of Representative Assembly REPORT OF SECRETARY TO REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY-J. W. Crabtree, Secretary National Education Association, Washington, D. C. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE-Josephine Corliss Preston. REPORT OF CHAIRMAN OF BOARD OF TRUSTEES-C. G. Pearse, President State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis., Chairman. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS- ELECTION OF OFFICERS- RULES OF THE FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 1921 1. Seating and Organization of Delegates. -The delegates from the several states, territories, and districts shall be seated in a body. Each state delegation shall elect a chairman of the delegation to serve through the annual meeting. 2. Delegates and Alternates. -In the absence of a delegate from any meeting of the Representative Assembly, the alternate shall have the right to vote in his stead. In the absence of a delegate and his alternate no other person shall be authorized to vote in their stead. Where a state or local affiliated association is represented by more than one delegate and alternate, in the absence of any delegate from a meeting of the Rep- resentative Assembly, the delegates from that state or local affiliated association shall select the alternate to act. 3. Debate. In debate on any motion each speaker shall be limited to five minutes unless his time be extended (1) either by unanimous consent (2) or by vote of the Representative Assembly. 4. Voting. No person may cast more than one vote in the proceed- ings of the Representative Assembly. In the taking of a roll call of the Representative Assembly the roll shall be called by states and the chairman of each state delegation shall announce the ayes and noes on the question. 5. Parliamentary Procedure.-Roberts' Rules of Order is adopted as the authority on parliamentary procedure. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in annual convention assembled pledges again its devoted loyalty to American institutions and ideals. We hold it as our first and most important duty to instil these principles in the hearts and minds of those entrusted to our guidance. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 27 We recognize the necessity for the further development of our American program of education. We look to our federal government for such sanction, encouragement, and leadership in education in co-operation with the states as will make possible the realization of our national ideals. We pledge our continued support to the program of service for which this Association has stood and seek to enlist the co-operation of all organizations and individuals who hope through education to develop the highest type of Amer- ican citizenship. As representatives of the organized teaching profession of the United States, we pledge our support to the following principle ciples and earnestly solicit the co- operation of all friends of education in the carrying forward of this program. A PROFESSIONALLY TRAINED TEACHER FOR EVERY CLASSROOM We recognize as fundamental to the development of an efficient school system the requirement that there shall be a well-educated and professionally trained teacher in every American classroom. We urge that increased facilities be provided for the training of teachers, and that the rewards of teaching and the recognition of the profession in the pub- lic service be developed in such manner as will attract to the profession the most competent young men and young women and hold in the profession those who have proved themselves efficient. ESTABLISHED TENURE AND SINGLE SALARY SCHEDULE We strongly recommend that those who have proved themselves competent be made secure in their positions by laws establishing their tenure during the period of efficient service, and that adequate retirement laws be enacted in order to provide for those whose efficiency is lowered by age or physical disability. We urge the adoption of a single salary schedule for all teachers in ele- mentary and in high schools, determined upon the basis of education, professional training, and successful experience. RURAL EDUCATION FINANCIAL SUPPORT We call attention to the failure to provide an adequate program of educa- tion for the children living in the rural areas of our country, and we urge that the educational opportunities provided for children in rural America be made equiva- lent to those offered to children in the most favored urban communities, and to this end we recommend that larger units of taxation and administration than the ordinary school district be adopted, such as the township, the town, or the county. We call attention to the fact that it is impossible to carry forward an American program of education without greater financial support than is now available. We call to the attention of the American people the fact that wise expenditures for schools are not to be thought of as gifts in aid of a worthy charity, but rather as an investment which will pay higher dividends than any other type of public expenditure. We recognize the necessity for larger state distributive funds in aid of the public schools in order that the American ideal of equalizing the burden of sup- port and the opportunities for education be realized throughout our common- wealths. BOARDS ELECTED BY THE PEOPLE TO SELECT ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS We recognize the distinction between the lay control of education and the professional administration of our schools. We believe that the highest type of professional service in the offices of state superintendents or State commissioners ofeducation, of county superintendents of schools, and of city superintendents of schools can be secured by the selection of all such administrative officers by lay boards of education elected by the people. CO-OPERATION WITH THE AMERICAN LEGION AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS We gratefully acknowledge the co-operation of other great national organi- zations in the development and promotion of an American program of education. 28 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION We are glad to co-operate with the American Legion in the establishment of a universal requirement of English as the only basic language of instruction in all schools-public, private, and parochial and we commend heartily their de- mand that thorough-going instruction in American history and civics be required of all students for graduation from elementary and from secondary schools. We welcome their co-operation in the establishment of a longer school year, and in the enforcement throughout the United States of compulsory education to the end of the high-school period. UNQUALIFIED INDORSEMENT OF TOWNER- STERLING BILL We renew our unqualified indorsement of a Department of Education with a Secretary in the President's Cabinet, and federal aid to encourage the states in the removal of illiteracy, the Americanization of the foreign-born, the development of a program of physical education and health service, the training of teachers, and the equalization of educational opportunity as embodied in the Towner - Sterling bill now pending in the sixty- seventh Congress. We are grati- fied to note the development of a nation-wide sentiment in support of the princi- ples embodied in this bill. We unite with the friends of public education through- out our country in urging that Congress give prompt recognition to the primary importance of education in relation to the nation's welfare. We earnestly protest against the submerging of education in any other department of the government or the subordination of education to any other national interest. PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR SERVICE We call upon the teachers of America to unite under the banner of the National Education Association in carrying forward the great program of service to which the Association is committed. We urge professional organization fash- ioned after our American form of government : a local organization of teachers in every community to develop public sentiment in support of education and to co-operate in the solution of local educational problems; a state educational asso- ciation in every commonwealth to develop through state legislation an efficient and adequately supported school system; and the National Education Association which shall include all the teachers of the country to support a national program of education in co-operation with all forward-looking men and women who realize that only through public education can we hope to preserve our priceless Ameri- can institutions . ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF COURTESIES The Representative Assembly records its grateful appreciation for the splendid hospitality tendered the Association by the people of Des Moines ; for the untiring efforts of the chairman and members of the local com- mittee; for the co-operation of the Chamber of Commerce, civic organizations, the press, and the citizens generally, all of which have helped to make this convention one of the most successful meetings in the history of the National Education Association. COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Chairman, GEORGE D. STRAYER of New York. Alabama . ... J. H. PHILLIPS, Superintendent of Schools ... Birmingham Arizona . ..A. J. MATTHEWS, President of the Tempe Normal School of Arizona .... Tempe Arkansas. ANNIE G. GRIFFEY, Primary Supervisor . .Little Rock California . GEORGE M. THIRIOT, Vocational Counselor . Piedmont Colorado . ANNA LAURA FORCE, Principal of the Lincoln School . .Denver Connecticut . LEVI T. GARRISON, State Inspector. Willimantic Delaware. H. E. STAHL, Superintendent of Schools . Seaford District of Columbia . BESSIE B. MULFORD, Critic Teacher .. Washington, D. C. Florida .... F. A. HATHAWAY, County Superintendent of Schools ...Jacksonville Georgia.... KATHARINE DOZIER, Superintendent of Schools, Pacolet Manufac- turing Co. ..... Gainesville Idaho .............J. J. RAE, Superintendent of Schools .... .. Caldwell JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 29 Illinois. DAVID FELMLEY, President of the Illinois State Normal University .... Normal Indiana. .L. N. HINES, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Indianapolis Iowa.. H. E. BLACKMAR, Superintendent of Schools .... ..Ottumwa Kansas.. W. A. LEWIS, President of the State Normal School ... Hays Kentucky. .ELIZABETH V. BOLINGER, Assistant Superintendent of Schools .Harlan Louisiana.. .J. M. SMITH, Professor of Education, Southwestern Louisiana Institute .. Lafayette Maine. AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS, State Superintendent of Public Schools ... ....Augusta Maryland. GEORGE H. REAVIS, Assistant State Superintendent of Schools Baltimore Massachusetts . PHEBE E. MATHEWS .. .Somerville Michigan. FRANK CODY, Superintendent of Schools . .Detroit Minnesota.. ANNE W. ALLEE .Minneapolis Mississippi. .J. C. ROBERTS, Dean College of Agriculture, Agricultural Col- lege Missouri. ..W. H. ZEIGLE, Dean, State Teachers College. Kirksville Montana. .. S. R. LOGAN, Superintendent of Schools ..... .Hardin Nebraska.... SARAH T. MUIR, High School.... .Lincoln Nevada. New Hampshire . JUSTIN O. WELLMAN, Superintendent of Schools ..... Newmarket IDE G. SARGEANT, Principal School No. 10. .Paterson New Jersey.. New Mexico ...... MRS. M. E. GRAHAM ... Raton New York .... GEORGE D. STRAYER, Professor of Educational Administra- tion Teachers College, Columbia University ......... New York North Carolina . ... E. C. BROOKS, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .. Raleigh North Dakota . P. S. BERG, Superintendent of Schools . .Dickinson Ohio. ANNA L. PETERSON, Hughes High School . Cincinnati Oklahoma . ..J. A. MILLER, Principal .... Tulsa Oregon...... C. A. HOWARD, Superintendent of Schools . .Marshfield Pennsylvania. RUBEN T. SHAW, Principal of the West Philadelphia High School for Boys ...... Philadelphia Rhode Island. South Carolina.. ..JOHN E. SWEARINGEN, State Superintendent of Education..Columbia South Dakota ... .D. E. CLOYD, Superintendent of Schools . ..Huron Tennessee.... CHARL O. WILLIAMS, County Superintendent of Schools ... Memphis Texas.. C. E. EVANS, President of the Southwest Texas State .... Normal School . .... San Marcos Utah .... ELIZABETH FITZGERALD, Assistant Principal, West High School ..... Salt Lake City Vermont. Virginia. SAMUEL P. DUKE, President State Normal School ....Harrisonburg Washington. .... R. W. SWETMAN, President State Normal School . .... Ellensburg West Virginia ...........J. D. MULDOON, Supervisor of Rural Schools ........ Shepherdstown Wisconsin. C. P. CARY, Ex-Superintendent of Schools . Madison Wyoming.... ....A. S. JESSUP, Superintendent of Schools . Cheyenne Hawaii... W. E. GIVENS, Principal McKinley High School...... Honolulu . > ! General Sessions of the Association ADDRESS OF WELCOME N. E. KENDALL, GOVERNOR OF IOWA, DES MOINES, IOWA I do not overstate my satisfaction when I say that I am delighted to perform the agreeable office which is now devolved upon me : to extend to the National Educational Association a cordial greeting from the hearts and homes of Iowa. My dear friends, the welcome I express is no perfunctory courtesy, fashioned in formal phrase and pronounced in frigid tone; on the contrary, it is as broad and deep and high as the great commonwealth itself : as broad as her expansive corn fields, as deep as her inexhaustible coal mines, as high as the beneficent heavens which canopy her generous citizenship. It emanates spontaneously from all her people, for they all unite in joyous salutation to the most magnifi- cent assemblage of men and women ever congregated in the Mississippi Valley. We deeply appreciate the distinguished honor you have con- ferred upon us, and we beg you to be assured that our hospitality is as inexhaustible as our climate is intemperate. You are a great company convoked to conserve a great cause. We are proud of the educational system of America from the kindergarten desk in rustic seclusion all along the luminous avenue of erudition to the highest seat of classic learning, and we rejoice exceedingly at the flattering results which they constantly manifest as the fruitful years elapse. We celebrate these nurseries of enlightenment as the primary fountains of a republican democracy, and we recognize that if they were obliterated for a single generation our superb culture would revert to primitive savagery. God bless these redeeming agencies of our threatened civilization ! It is gratifying to observe that throughout our country there is, so far as education is concerned, an irrepressible revival of interest every- where. North and south, east and west, our young men and young women are not content with completing the ordinary high-school curri- cula, but are crowding our colleges and universities to overflowing. They are determined to be adequately equipped for the arduous ad- venture of life, and they have perceived what is now obvious to the dullest discernment that in the relentless competition for preferment the coign of vantage is occupied by the educated man. 31 32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General What is an educated man? We are indebted to John Milton for the epigrammatic definition that he is one " qualified to function in all offices, public and private, in war and peace." If that be condemned as an abstraction and you demand a postulate more concrete, I submit my humble opinion that an educated man is one whose preliminary training has engendered in him the faculty to think, to reason, to decide judici- ously upon rational deliberation, and to act fearlessly after arriving at a decision-in short, one who is fitted for the give and take, the rough and tumble, the knock-down and drag-out of a turbulent world where the most pretentious scholarship commands no premiums unless it can be capitalized into practical advantage. The paramount duty of the teacher is to deliver his student thus fortified. The teacher has another imperative duty of vital importance. He must impress indelibly upon the young intellect of the age that the United States of America is incomparably the best government ever organized by the genius of man; that it is the land of open opportunity, where the loftiest dignities are not contingent upon the accident of pedi- gree or the advantage of patrimony. Would you successfully encounter the rampant forces of discontent in their insidious assault upon our beloved institutions ? Then through your weighty instruction let the youth of the country understand that nearly every man who has been accorded a permanent reputation in American affairs started at the foun- dation without any adventitious aid and climbed to the pinnacle on his own ladder. Through your powerful counsel let it be reminded that almost uniformly the outstanding characters who have attained to emi- nence in the salutary atmosphere of American equality have been boys of modest lineage and meager resources. Through your persuasive direction let it know that George Washington was only a collateral descendant of the aristocratic overlords who feudalized colonial Vir- ginia, that Abraham Lincoln was born in a floorless log cabin in the backwoods of Kentucky, that Ulysses S. Grant was originally appren- ticed to the oppressive privations of frontier farming; that from his commonplace surroundings Washington came up-up past Braddock's defeat, up past Valley Forge, up past Yorktown, up past the presidency, to be first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen ; that from his abject indigence Lincoln came up-up past the rail-split- ting on the Sangamon bottoms, up past the debates with Douglass, up past the White House, up into a crown of martyrdom to be canonized as the liberator of a race and the preserver of a people ; that from his dejected environment Grant came up-up past the hide-tanning at Galena, up past Vicksburg, up past Appomattox, up into international celebrity so illustrious that the potenates of all Christendom eagerly sa- luted his unprecedented achievements. If in the future as in the past the impressive lesson to be derived from these noble characters is prop Sessions] ADDRESS OF WELCOME 33 erly emphasized, the destiny of America is secure throughout all the near and distant ages to come. We renew our warmest welcome to our city and state, and we bid you Godspeed in the deliberations in which you will engage. ADDRESS OF WELCOME P. E. MC CLENAHAN , STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DES MOINES, IOWA It becomes my delectable duty and privilege to welcome the teachers of America to our beloved state. Every legitimate interest in Iowa bids you welcome. Our fair city says come. Twenty-seven thousand Iowa teachers rejoice that they can welcome the distinguished educators of the nation. Business and professional men are pleased with your pres- ence. All Iowa is dressed in her richest garb of green and gold in honor of your coming. The Department of Public Instruction takes pride in the public schools of our state. We have normal-training high schools for the purpose of training teachers for the rural schools. We have a system of consolidated schools excelled by none for the purpose of improving rural life. We have nearly one thousand high schools that have been approved and more than one thousand one-room rural schools that have been standardized. The Department of Public Instruction now has under its super- vision a standard school that directly influences the work of eleven thousand rural schools and has raised the standard of work for two hundred thousand children enrolled in these schools. We now have one hundred ninety-one normal training high schools enrolling more than five thousand would-be teachers for the rural schools. Each year the number of these schools is growing and the number of pupils is increasing. We take much pride in the consolidated school and the increase which is has made in the last two years. More consolidated schools have been voted than in the previous fifteen years . During the past year one consolidated school has been voted for every school day during the year. Each of these districts has five acres of ground and is teaching domestic science, manual training, and agricul- ture and conducting practical work for the purpose of emphasizing rural life. Iowa leads all the states in literacy with only one per cent who fail to read and write. Again, teachers of America, we bid you welcome. We want you to become acquainted with our educational system, to enjoy our beauti- ful parks, to see our Capitol and its grounds. We want your stay in 34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Des Moines to be full of inspiration and hope that you may get many facts that will help you in your educational work for the coming year. Not only the Department of Public Instruction but all Iowa welcomes you. RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME J. A. C. CHANDLER, PRESIDENT OF THE COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARY, WILLIAMSBURG, VA . On behalf of the National Education Association of America, I esteem it a privilege to respond to the hearty welcome that we have re- ceived from the officials of the city of Des Moines and of the state of Iowa. Not only do I wish to thank the speakers for their words of welcome, but also to express the appreciation of the Association for the splendid manner in which the arrangements have been made and for the cordial and hospitable way in which we have been received by the citizens of this excellent convention city. This state is most favorably known for its interest in education. I believe it has more teachers for its school population than any state in the Union. The school population in Iowa is only eighty-one per teacher. The next approach to this record is Montana, I think. I be- lieve that the average sum spent per capita of school population is greater in Iowa than in any other state. It is, therefore, a pleasure and a privilege for the National Education Association to meet in a state and city where so much stress is placed upon matters of education. It is, furthermore, a pleasure for us to come for our meeting to a state that furnishes the Chairman of the Committee on Education of the Senate and a valued member of the Committee on Education in the House. This is a record of which any state would justly be proud. To the member of the Committee on Education of the House of Representa- tives, we feel especially grateful, because he is the champion of House Bill No. 7, the bill to which the National Education Association has repeatedly pledged its allegiance. To all public-school teachers of America the name of Congressman Towner is the slogan for progress in education. The advocates of the public-school system in all parts of America honor him for his untiring efforts to secure for these United States a department of education and for his advocacy of federal aid for schools. We have met here in the city of Des Moines at a critical period in the educational history of America. Everywhere the people are clamor- ing for more education and better training. They are demanding that our schools shall educate and not be content simply with giving the tools of education. The demand is that the children shall be taught so that Sessions] RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 35 the things they learn they will be able to apply in a useful way, con- tributing to law and order and the advancement of our civilization. On every hand we hear that our people are filled with a spirit of dis- regard for law, and that many of the best citizens of the land think of laws as having been enacted for other people to observe rather than for themselves; for example, many are strong advocates of the enforce- ment of the "Volstead" act for other people but not for themselves. Again, we hear that the spiritual element in education is fast dis- appearing; that no longer does the church have any force in educating and training the children but that the schools must take the place of the church and do more for the development of character. Where the church and other social and welfare activities are failing, the school must come in and see that the citizen in embryo will have the ethical training to which he is entitled, and which is so essential in a liberty- loving republic. Again, with the admission of women to all the rights of man and thereby to all the responsibilities of man, much of opportunity for train- ing of children at home has been curtailed, for woman is by our econo- mic conditions in many instances forced to be as much the bread winner of the family as the man. It becomes essential, therefore, for the schools in their endeavor to prepare properly the citizens of the future to meet these conditions of the home and as far as possible to supply the deficiency. All these statements are hurled at us daily by our fellow citizens and frequently they tell us that the schools are utterly failing to do what the state expects of them. Under these circumstances those of us who are believers in the great public-school system of America demand that it shall be given a chance and an opportunity to show results, but that chance and opportunity cannot come unless sufficient sums of money are appropriated annually for the maintenance of a school system that is worthy in every respect the name. With one-seventh of our teachers children, for they are less than twenty years of age, with nearly one-half of them without any professional training, with nearly one-third of them untrained except for the instruction received when they were high-school students, it is a difficult task which the public is demanding of the educational forces of the country. The progressive teachers of America are well trained and qualified for the work that they have been called to do. This great body is asking the country at large to recognize that teaching is a profession of vital importance to the state and nation; that it shall be sufficiently remunerated to justify more persons of worth and merit to select teaching as a profession and to secure the training necessary to prepare them for service of a high type. More brilliant and promising graduates of high schools should be induced to secure the proper train- ing to enter the profession, and the nation must encourage the mainte 36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General nance of many excellent teacher-training institutions and make it pos- sible for worthy applicants to attend at nominal expense. Everywhere the people are asserting that taxation is too burdensome. The federal government has grasped practically every available field of taxation, has made impossible the assessment of adequate income taxes by the state, or taxation on luxuries by the state, or taxation on business activities by the state; so that just at a time when there should be greater expansion in the school system, we hear a murmuring on all sides which almost savors of a reactionary policy. At this critical time when we are scarcely able to say in what direc- tion the American public-school system will be driven, we have met here for deliberation, representing through 600 affiliated organizations some 300,000 or more teachers of America. For our deliberation, we have come to this city, where the public-school system is honored as an effi- cient American institution. In this response it would be unbecoming in me to attempt to outline the policy of this meeting. The program which has been prepared by our able president clearly shows that our plan is to discuss what shall be the program of education in all fields and under all conditions in this broad country of ours. However, I would not be true to my convic- tions if I did not say here that I hope this convention will take a decided stand for participation of every element of America in the full main- tenance of the public-school system. We must recognize that the public school is the great melting-pot for all types of Americans and that it must be supported in a generous way by the locality and by the state, and by the earnest promotion and fostering care of the nation, of which we are all a part. And while, in some respects, the waters-in so far as national consideration of education is concerned are at this time somewhat muddied, I trust that here in Des Moines and in the state from which Congressman Towner comes, we will more strongly indorse the bill, of which he is the whole-hearted advocate, than we have at any time heretofore done. Judge Towner is a worthy champion of a noble cause, and we honor him for the stand that he has taken. May we here, convinced-as I am sure we are that locality, state, and nation should all be linked together in the development and promotion of the schools of our country, give to him our heartiest support. We regret that some of our friends in Washington have been dis- turbed temporarily because of a misconception of the place that educa- tion occupies in the minds of the people of America. But I stand here tonight to tell you that I am not pessimistic about the final outcome. Upon the attitude of this convention depends largely whether our plans for the improvement of the educational system of this country will be pushed slowly or rapidly. If we are optimistic and stand squarely for Sessions] EDUCATING THE other HALF 37 the things in which we believe this spirit will react in such a way as will bring success to us more quickly. If we are lukewarm there will be delay. We must be more than optimistic at this time. To use a coined word, we must be "peptimistic," by which I mean that to our optimism we must add much "pep," a spirit of determination "to hold fast to that which is good" and "fight the good fight." Again, we desire to thank the state superintendent of public instruc- tion, the superintendent of city schools of Des Moines, the president of the Iowa State Teachers' Association, the president of the Chamber of Commerce, the mayor, and his excellency, the Governor of Iowa, for the cordial welcome that they have extended to us. We know that our visit will be pleasant, and that after our deliberations we shall return to our homes better for having been guests of the good citizens of the city of Des Moines and the state of Iowa. EDUCATING THE OTHER HALF HOMER C. STUNTZ, BISHOP OF THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, OMAHA, NEBR. While educators are delving into their own tasks here in the United States of America, it is altogether fitting that they should lift up their eyes and look on other educational systems and see what is being done to educate the other half of our big world. In India-Great Britain has established five full-fledged univer- sities, which, with their affiliated schools, are giving the beginnings of a modern education to one-fifth of the human race. From these univer- sities and affiliated mission colleges and private schools are coming the men who will determine the social and political destiny of that ancient land. Knowing full well that such schools would liberate political forces which would play their streams of criticism upon the government which maintains them, the British Parliament, the Viceroy's Council, and the India Council in London, have marched breast forward believing that knowledge must be better than ignorance for any people. In China-The new Republic, scarcely more than a decade away from its establishment, has laid out the "blue-prints" for a vast system of tax-supported schools and colleges, calling for the pedagogical train- ing of more than a quarter million teachers within a single generation and the expenditure of staggering sums for the erection and equipment of buildings for this vast program. China needs our sympathy and help during these early years of her splendid efforts to rid herself of illiteracy with all its evils . Malaysia with its over fifty million is to be educated. Holland has begun the process from her capital at Buitenzorg in Java, by opening 38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General primary schools and proposes gradually to extend their programs until the millions of Java and Sumatra, West Borneo, and New Guinea have had educational advantages suited to their needs. The Philippines-Here the swiftest pedagogical triumph ever wit- nessed outside of America has been wrought. Our schools beginning there in the fall of 1901, less than two decades have seen such educa- tional transformations as should astonish the world. There are now twice as many Filipinos speaking English as could ever speak Spanish, and the United States has had twenty years, while Spain had three hundred years for this task. Our Duty is Plain-They will need teachers. We should furnish them. They will need adequate textbooks. We should be swift to help. secure them. They will need a social and moral content in their instruc- tion. We should be ready to help supply that content, in all humility and sacrifice. We should co-operate in all ways-through exchange of professors, through periodicals, through deputations sent at their request in consummating the education of the world's other half. EDUCATION AND AMERICANIZATION HENRY J. RYAN, NATIONAL DIRECTOR AMERICANISM COMMISSION , THE AMERICAN LEGION , INDIANAPOLIS, IND . This is a great moment in the struggle of American educators for a more perfect system of education. It is a moment in which is pledged to the teachers of America the co-operation of those who went from their homes in the dark days of 1917 and gladly gave their lives on the field of honor that American institutions might stand firm-the admiration of the world. I wish it were possible for me to acquaint every teacher of America with the fact that the American Legion has no more sincere desire than that of dedicating itself to the welfare of the teacher, student, and school. The school is the foundation of the nation. If the American school fails, America will fail. Education is the mother of civilization. Where there has been no education there has been no civilization . Civilization has come down through the ages in a chariot built by the forces of education. The Old World failed because it lacked a proper system of education and America will fail if it does not direct its at- tention to its schools and determine that a policy of stint in education is false economy. "America is God's last chance to save the world." We can save it only by giving to every boy and girl in America an equal opportunity for education ; we can save it by educating the boys and girls of today who are to be the rulers-the kings and queens of tomorrow. The cataclysmic forces which have been sweeping over the world in recent Sessions] EDUCATION AND AMERICANIZATION 39 years imperiling the foundations of ordered government and the very fabric of civilization are a challenge to man and the part in life God destined him to play. If this nation is not to perish, if it is to take the part its founders made it possible to take in world-leadership, we must get back to first and fundamental principles ; we must ge back to the constitution of our fathers ; we must get back to a life of devotion to ideals. Not as an educator, but as an American citizen, and as one who has seen the youth of the nation in military service, I plead for education in ideals, for patriotism, for service to humanity. I would not decry train- ing for efficiency, neither would I condemn honest gain, nor despise any man who by his own efforts has become rich, but I would show the emptiness and disappointment of mere gain. The big men of the world are not those who live alone for what they can get and keep. No men realize the vanity of riches as do the men who are only rich. The day is past when we ask as the measure of a man's life, "How much did he leave?" Today we ask for one record only, "What did he do for his community, for his country, for mankind ?" A most wonderful example of this spirit was the abounding and forceful life of that American of Americans, Theodore Roosevelt. The pages of American history are adorned with the names of many great men who served with unselfish devotion the country that has immortalized their deeds, but none surpassed in ability, character, and singleness of purpose this great man who was a thunderbolt of Americanism. I speak for education in Americanism, founded upon our Declara- tion of Independence which stands with the Magna Charta, the greatest declaration of human rights the world has ever seen, and the Constitu- tion of our country, called by Gladstone "the greatest single work of the mind of man completed at one time." That Constituion is the noblest and purest on the face of the earth; under it, America has grown from a dreary wilderness into a flower-bed of humanity. Our homes are the fairest in the world, the schoolhouse dots every hill and dale. Our ships are upon every sea, and the fruits of our industry touch every corner of the earth. But this material greatness fades away when we behold America in her spiritual grandeur, when we consider our Con- stitution, and review the character and ability of the men who formed it. Ofthose who framed our Constitution the French minister wrote to his government in 1737, "Europe has never seen an assembly more re- spectable for talents, for knowledge, for disinterestedness, and for patriotism." I plead for a study of the lives of the men who founded our nation that we may honor and follow them. I plead for understand- ing of the principles and of the men who have made our country great, that their examples be not forgotten, and that no sacrifice of ours may seem too great that their works may stand forever. 40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General We must remember that these men who founded our nation had small idea of the magnitude of their work. They knew only thirteen states fringed upon the eastern seaboard. Their vision ended at the Allegheny Mountains. Louisiana, ill defined, was central country, and known as "New France." Beyond, to them, was the "Great American Desert. " They could not dream of a great nation of one hundred mil- lion people, founded upon the principles of democracy and with domain extending from ocean to ocean. But eternal truth knows no boundaries of mere numbers, of people, of breadth of country, and upon eternal truth these men with vision such as the world had never seen founded the United States of America. That vision has not been outgrown. Its strength has been revealed to succeeding generations as we have come to realize the grandeur of its conception. To us it is given to enjoy the fruits of their labor, to live in the edifice they erected; but let us not forget the blood and tears and sacrifice of that labor, nor the doubt and fears in its building, over which only a sublime faith could triumph. It is well that we look to the sources of that faith, the faith that enabled them to face in confidence problems untried and unknown, and which they have handed down to us, that we may meet our prob- lems without fear of ourselves or a doubt in the destiny of America. The foundation of American character was not laid on that fourth day of July 1776. It was in the hearts of brave men and women who crossed the seas in ships that were hardly boats, in perils that only the stoutest hearts could face. And for what ? For freedom to worship God. Its strength was laid in the untiring arm that pushed back the wilderness, and in the hand ready on an instant's notice to defend with the rifle the home which, alone and self-reliant, that hand had built . Our country was established on the rugged, working, fighting, praying character of Colonial America, that feared God and feared nothing else. Inspired by the men whom he led in battle, that great Frenchman, Lafayette, wrote : "From the moment that I first heard the name America I loved her; from the moment that I learned of her struggle for liberty, I was influenced with the desire of shedding my blood in her cause. " These men who inspired Lafayette, whose gallant leader he was, who fought by his side, with whom he would have been proud to die, were colonial Americans. I would call upon teachers to teach and Young America to learn the history of the American colonists, for in those years was nurtured the spirit of our independence, and was born that American determination that stands as a Gibraltar of defense against tyranny and all the enemies of representative government. National independence was not created when first we defied Eng- land on our first Independence Day. It was then declared. It had been the inspiration of American life for a term of years longer than the life of our republic today. The United States of America had ex Sessions] EDUCATION AND AMERICANIZATION 41 isted for only one hundred and forty-four years, a mere breath in the world's history. But when this republic was founded in Philadelphia the colonists had lived much longer than that and it was colonial America that produced the men whose names we worship and whose work we admire . When Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, moved in the first Congress, and John Adams, of Massachusetts, seconded the motion, "that these United colonists are and of right ought to be free and independent states," the character of the men of the New World was revealed, not in its youth, but in its perfection. In their words sounded the voice of a freedom that generations had brought forth. It was no new spirit of revolution, but the heart of colonial Virginia that spoke when Patrick Henry asked " Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ?" It was an American in all his manhood who spoke when James Otis in the old State House in Boston set forth his Bill of rights. The scholarly Jefferson, who wrote our Declaration of Independence, the brilliant Hamilton, to whom more than all others was due the adoption of our Constitution, were not men made by the circumstances of the times; they were the product of a century of freedom. The men of Lexington and Concord on that nineteenth day of April did not go forth to their first battle. They were veterans of a hundred wars, the Minute Men of a generation. Facing the regulars of England, their thin line on Lexington Green fought in the spirit of their forefathers who had fought that there should be Lexington Green and not a wilderness. It was the occasion, and not the spirit of American freedom, that was new. That spirit has not been dimmed by years, nor weakened by adversity. The men who turned back the British at Lexington and Concord were the fathers of the men whose thin line stopped Pickett's charge at Get- tysburg, and they in turn lived to see their つけ sons in the same thin line and in the same determination that might should not make right, roll back the Hun from Paris and save the world for men and not for tyrants. Unchanged and immortal I would make the spirit of American independence and of American liberty the inspiration of every school- house in the land. And in all that I taught I would insist first and for- ever that devotion to American ideals is the foundation of our country's future and the future of the world. This glance into American history reminds us of the things which are dearest to our hearts, the things which tell us why we are Americans . We have inherited the greatest blessings any government has ever be- stowedupon its people. The American Legion proposes to preserve and safeguard that government; but what is more and of greater importance it means to see that all the people are given a greater opportunity to learn of that government and its history so that when the citizens of 42 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General tomorrow stand forth, faithful to America's cause, ready to serve her and to sacrifice for her, they will be able to say : "We learned at school to love our country." THE PARENTHOOD OF THE STATE DEN B. LINDSEY, JUDGE, JUVENILE COURT, DENVER, COLO . If it were not necessary for the protection of the child, it is doubt- ful if the family-the oldest of our institutions-would have ever been realized. From the child-its rights, needs, and necessities-came those cohesive forces in the development of our civilization-the home, the school, the church, and, finally, the state itself. These institutions, as much as the natural parents, constitute the everlasting arms for the protection of the child. Gathered from the experience of the ages, there must be certain rules of human conduct, prescribing what is right and prohibiting what is wrong. There must be some power established by the majority and acknowledged by all, with authority to see that these rules are respected and obeyed. That power is the state itself. The state is not our mountains and plains, rivers and resources, or our farms and fields, mills, and factories ; it is not our great buildings, broad streets, and great cities. The state is primarily nothing more than the people. And people in their beginnings are children. Thus, after all, the state, going back to its origin, is nothing more nor less than a child, or children in the aggregate, even though most of them be grown up. The state, then, in dealing with the child, is dealing with itself. Not since the days of Roman slavery have parents owned their children. Indeed, the trend of civilization would at times seem to bring a reversal of the ancient doctrine of the ownership of the child by the parent to the ownership of the parent by the child. In any event, it is through the child and for the child and on behalf of the child that the state has undertaken and, perhaps more and more, will continue to undertake to direct the parent in the interest of the child. If you have any doubt about it, consider for a moment our compul- sory school laws whereby the state says to the parent: You shall send your child to school, or you shall keep him out of the factory or work- shop, with details as to how the "shall" may be enforced. And woe be unto the parent who, making claim to his own rights, takes issue with those of the state. A fine or the jail may be the penalty. Indeed, the ultimate doctrine of the relation between the state and the child may assume something of the following declaration. We, the people, or, in our aggregate capacity-the state-permit you, the parent, to retain Sessions] THE PARENTHOOD OF THE STATE 43 the custody of and the responsibility for your child, not so much be- cause we recognize it as yours, but because it is our desire to do that which is for its best interest; and since the instincts of nature and age- long experience teach us that in the great majority of cases the best place for the child is in the custody of its father and mother, living together as man and wife, in an institution we call the family and the home, we leave it with you. And so with you, Mr. Parent, there in thebosom of the home we shall keep the child, not so much to satisfy the love or cravings of your paternal heart but rather best to safeguard the rights and best interests of the child itself. But woe to you, Mr. Parent, if you shirk ; if you fail to do your full duty by that child so that its mind body, and soul may partake of that nourishment necessary to give it strength. We will compel you to perform that duty where you are care- less, but we will help you where you are helpless. For, concludes the state, we are doing all of this in the interest of your child and my child, and for that child, after all, is I and I am only seeking my own salvation and since self-preservtion is nature's first law, my first duty is to the child. Surely, such a declaration of the state-such a responsibility on its part for the child need no more alarm a parent than patriot or citizen. Only the highest type of parenthood will guarantee the highest type of citizenship. It is also a joint parenthood, as it were, with the same high purposes in view----the education, health, morals, strength, and life of the child-or, in other words, of the state itself. The public must be educated to see that, from a different angle, though a no less import- ant one than that of the natural parent, the state itself must thus assume responsibilities of parenthood. In a word, with the hazards of a chang- ing civilization for which the child is not responsible, but which places new perils or dangers in the way of its chances for health, strength, and life, the state must become its super-parent. And we shall see that this does not in any way lessen the duties of natural parents or the responsibilities of homes. Both parenthoods will have their proper place, rights, and functions without the danger of weakening either, but, when properly understood, the certainty of strengthening both. If you have any further doubts about the state being super-parent, perhaps recent wars may again remind and convince us. For when the state was imperiled, did we dare question its right to call its children at the early age of eighteen to its defense ? It mattered not what may have been the will or wish of the parent. We have no desire to ques- tion this supreme right of the super-parent-the state to this call upon its children, and if not responding willingly, to take them from the arms of the mothers that bore them and for its preservation to send them to the far-flung battle fronts of the world. But may we not NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General 44 challenge that right as being unjust and disloyal to the child if it is not reciprocal ? May the state thus continue to call upon its millions of children to sacrifice their all-their very lives for its preservation if it is to refuse to provide not only education but, what is more important, in every case of necessity, health, food, and shelter for that child in the helpless years of its life when it is, through no fault of its own, so often imperiled. While for centuries the state has thus freely called its children to its defense, and for equal centuries have they responded with the devotion of priceless youth, how tardily, how grudgingly, with what painful reluctance, has the state yielded to the agonized cry of the helpless needy of the world's childhood for reciprocity ? Down through the ages, it permitted its children to wander in ignor- ance, yielding only gradually, one step at a time, to the cry for enlight- ment. Only the favored children of the few, the rich and powerful, received the benefits of education. It was these few this powerful minority that opposed the demands of the great majority to compel the state to guarantee the benefits of free education to every child, whether rich or poor. The rights of free men wrested from the barons or the powerful privileged, propertied classes at the Runny- medes of the world have not been half so important as the rights of childhood, wrested from the same forces, to be educated at the expense of the state without regard to race, creed, property, position, or previ- ous conditions of parental servitude in the handicaps of fate or fortune. That was the first great victory for the child in securing from the then reluctant state its acknowledgment of parenthood. It was ac- companied not only with hostility, but with contempt and scorn by the conservative. They dubbed free schools "ragged schools" because in their beginnings they were only for the ragged children of the poor. But the first step in the struggle was to wrest from the property-con- trolled state the acknowledgment by the state of its super-parental re- sponsibility to educate all of its children. The details, the administration could be left to the ages for fruition after all of the experiments on every road to perfection. The next step in this struggle for the recognition by the state of its super-parenthood concerned the morals of the child. Until within the lifetime of most of us, the state acknowledged no responsibilities for the morality of its children except within that brief period when seemingly they were not regarded as human beings, on the assump- tion that they were incapable of reason until the age of seven. Ifit concerned their property they were regarded infants until they were twenty-one. But when they violated that moral code intended in their case mostly for the protection of the rights of property, after the age of seven, they suddenly became men and women and the state refused Sessions] THE PARENTHOOD OF THE STATE 45 to recognize them as children. For they were hailed before the same courts under the same laws for the punishment of men and women who violated its code of morals. As late as 1824 in the best-known tribunal of the then English-speaking world-the Old Bailey Court in London- boys as young as nine and twelve were frequently sentenced to be hanged for the most trivial violation of the state's laws ; and a mother eighteen years of age who violated the law merely to the extent of tak- ing a bolt of cloth from a shopkeeper in which to wrap her half-starved, half-naked baby was taken to Tyburn prison and there hanged by the neck until she was dead. The state's duty to the owner of the bolt of cloth seemed more important than its duty to the child. All of this was without any thought or acknowledgment of the parenthood of the state for the child, but rather the stupid idea of the duty of the state to protect the property of the individual without regard to the rights of the child. I need not more than briefly refer to the movement, promoted most in this generation, to wrest again from the reluctant state its acknowl- edgment of parenthood for the morals of the child, as well as the educa- tion of the child, in the establishment of its children's or juvenile courts. As in the case of its education, this victory for the child has been won with the now well-nigh universally accepted theory that the state's duty to the erring child is analogous to that of the natural parent to aid, to educate, to correct, to redeem, to save-in a word, to help and not to hurt, to uplift and not to degrade, to love and not to hate, because it is dealing with its child as well as your child, since the responsibility is joint and parenthood is supreme. And again, as with the education of the child, the details, the administration, the methods are yet to be worked out. Only with time, practice, and experience in the administra- tion of any great principle can we hope to move toward perfection. I would like to refer for a few moments to the much discussed problem now before us as educators, whether in school or court, where we carry out the super-parenthood of the state, as to just how it is to be done. Since the work of the state's parenthood is so much more administrative than judicial since most of the work for children may be termed educational, where is the function of the school going to end and the court's going to begin ? Shall we confine ourselves to these two institutions, create entirely new ones, or add new functions to those we have? One of the safest guides to my mind in this regard is at all times to remember that we serve the same principle, the same master--the state. We are equally its agents to perform certain of its functions for the child, its child, your child, and our child. And may I venture the suggestion that in the end we shall find the best hope in the solution of this difficulty not so much in what department-for example, the school principal's room, or the probation officer's room 46 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General certain parts of this administrative work is to be done, but rather, in what person is going to do it. The difficulty calls mostly for per- sonalities, rather than departments, for human understanding as much as where the understanding is to be applied. What we need most is a new kind of artistry. I would call it human artistry and its dispenser a human artist. We need human workers even more than social work- ers. We would not think of calling upon one to decorate the canvas, to put life into cold marble, or to evoke melody from brass or wood unless that one were known for his skill, his artistry, his ability as it were, to make dumb things speak. It must become our duty to build up a system with such a call and reward as to attract and develop men and wonten who shall know how to play upon human instruments. They must be specially trained and equipped for that kind of human service, just as the teacher, the lawyer, or the doctor, for deep down in every human soul is the image of God if we only know how to bring it out. Human artists must be discovered, encouraged, developed, and employed to take part in the greatest of human functions in suppres- sing the worst and bringing out the best in human beings in the plastic state of childhood when character can be formed and then it shall never need to be reformed. Again, we must not forget that under our present civilization we must look to the constitutions and the law of the states for the protection of the rights of parents, no less than the rights of children and the rights of the state itself. All of those have legal rights. Force is back of all government and force cannot be used except under what we call the forms of law. And however much we might wish it were otherwise, the days of force have not passed. There must be some rules for its application. So we cannot dispense with the use of the courts. But it is the work of the person more than the in- stitution that counts. The human artist must be wonderfully if not fearfully made. He must above all things be a just judge, whether teacher or lawyer. He may be at the head perhaps of some new institution that is yet to be evolved, coming largely at first from your profession and mine, meet- ing at a zone somewhere verging even into some other profession. In- deed in the human artist of the future, we may find something of the lawyer, the teacher, the preacher, the doctor, and perhaps a mix- ture of some other things that numerous sciences suggest that I would not now care to mention lest it would seem that our quest for the superman to represent the super-parenthood of the state should be a hopeless task. We might scarcely hope now to expect to find all of these needed accomplishments in one person, but rather, continue to draw upon the various specialists whose services are being more and more enlisted by the state in the service of the child. Sessions] THE PARENTHOOD of the STATE 47 But all things come to those who wait, and we may yet expect the appearance of the great human adjusters of the moral and physical distempers of the children of the state. Who knows what the marvel- ous chemistry of personality may not yet disclose ? What strength, what genius, what yet undreamed of possibilities may not come from all the new psychology, psychistry, or psychopathy in our search for hidden springs vibrating to unseen forces and touched by unseen fingers in the strange realms of human fate and destiny. Surely we are on the threshhold of great discoveries. I heard Mr. Edison say once that there were millions of cells in the human brain but only a few hundred of them had been developed, and perhaps thousands of years yet ahead of us would be needed to add a few score to the few hundred we have already explored. I also heard him say but for our ignorance there would be no "bad" children, and that the average child of twelve in academic learning should know as much as the average college graduate, which, he qualified, with a twinkle in his eye, "might not be saying very much." And now I wish to consider the third, but to my mind perhaps the most important of the trilogy of great responsibilities in the parent- hood of the state for the child, and though last in the struggle in order of importance, perhaps it should have been the first. I refer to the re- sponsibility of the parenthood of the state for the health of the child. This means we must add to the old gospel a new determination to suffer little children to be no longer the victims not only of ignorance but the poverty or helplessness of their parents. Education, morality, health-make your own order as to the importance of the three, but you will find in the end that one depends upon the other. That might all be very properly considered as one as, indeed, in time they may be. The health of the child must, necessarily, also mean the feeding of the child-the housing of the child. Surely children neglected or unfortun- ate in this regard can receive only a part if any of the benefits of edu- cation. A child may not be sick and yet be far from being the pos- sessor of that most precious of all gifts, good health. Morality has a small chance on an empty stomach or in a malnourished body. I might refer here to some of these types as defined by that distin- guished specialist, Dr. William P. Emerson of Boston : Type 1. This boy is not himself. He is discouraged, handicapped by his poor nutrition, weakened mentally and physically so that he strikes back aim- lessly as though with one reckless effort he would register his protest. He feels as though the world were against him-abused. He is spurred on con- stantly by teachers and others to keep him up to standards made for those stronger than he. Type 2. This boy is suffering from inflammatory processes as diseased adenoids and tonsils and from the toxic products of digestive disturbances and overfatigue. Such a boy is poisoned by these toxins and therefore is really a 48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General sick child. With this impaired physical condition and retardation in growth goes also a clouded mental outlook and mental retardation. Type 3. This type is a product of lack of home control and discipline- the ungoverned, untrained child, not necessarily vicious but apt to be weak and undeveloped in character. As you know, from this type we have a con- siderable proportion of the occupants of our prisons and reformatories, as Dr. A. Warren Stearns says : "An appreciable proportion." The correction of malnutrition in these types not only brings about a physical transformation but a mental transformation. The five chief causes of malnutrition are physical defects, lack of home control, overfatigue, faulty food habits and improper diet and faulty health habits. If the wastage in our schools and courts in their work for the education and morality of the child, because of its malnourishment and neglected health, could be estimated in dollars and cents the amount would be so staggering as to be unbelievable. It might serve to arrest that unfortunate opposition of conservatism and property so that it would more cheerfully yield to this extension of the parenthood of the state for the very reasons that it has heretofore maintained it, namely, in the interest of less taxation in the end. There is no extravagance so criminal as parsimony in the state's taxation and expenditures for the care and protection of its youth. Unhealthy, underfed children are more dangerous than uneducated children. General Pershing recently declared (if press reports are correct) that the physical con- dition of the young men of this nation, as disclosed by their examination during the war, was a disgrace to the nation. I believe we are safe in making the same statement as to the children in our schools. Surely home and school training are more important than military training, and the best guaranty for a soldier we can be proud of is the proper care of the child not during military age but in the periods of infancy, long before that age. We may well believe that the state itself, through the great majority of those who compose it, has no more desire to shirk its responsibilities for the health and feeding of the child than it has for the education of the child. The age-old difficulty stands in the way: the everlasting struggle between human rights and property rights. Instinctively, as of old, the great, powerful, corporate, privileged, and propertied in- terests of this country are likely to block the way to the full extent of their Machiavellian methods and world-old power. It is a stupid and ignorant policy and the most expensive in the end. Yet it has always been so and perhaps always will be, so long as the powerful minority which owns most of the wealth of the nation seems thus compelled through ignorance, selfishness, or greed to resist the demands of the majority who produce the wealth of the nation, to have that wealth burdened with the taxation necessary to make effective the parenthood of the state for its children. But for humanity we must convince and Sessions] THE PARENTHOOD OF THE STATE 49 shame property. We must again show the expense and crime of mediocrity, of feeble mindedness and defectiveness, of weakness or de- pleted strength through disease and ignorance. We must show that nations measure their own health and strength only by that of their children. We, in the children's courts, perhaps even more than you in the schools are constantly facing certain inconsistencies in the state's at- titude in this regard. As an example from perhaps thousands of a somewhat similar type of cases brought before me, may I refer to the following : A boy of fourteen was arrested for invading a neighbor's basement and taking the electric batteries that controlled the doorbell. His antisocial tendencies were due to the temptation to rig up electric apparatus in his barn. Such an offence we know was burglary. While technically only the high-spirited boy who braved the dangers of in- vading the cellar could be convicted in a court, several others not so bold were involved. Technically, the state had set up this rather ex- pensive proceeding for the protection of that doorbell. We are not questioning its wisdom in this regard. But we do question limiting its service to a mere remedy of vengeance in dealing with the culprit to protect the doorbell. Of course, in our new procedure, the importance of protecting the doorbell was secondary to concerning ourselves with any physical or mental defects among this group of children as they pass before us. The boy who committed the actual crime in this partic- ular case was nothing more than a high-spirited, healthy, human animal possessed of an unusual amount of initiative, courage, determination, and intelligence. Of course, it was misdirected. He was easily straightened out. But some of his accomplices who lacked the initiative to direct the enterprise, but failed in the courage to carry it out, were de- cidedly unhealthy specimens. This was also true of some of the wit- nesses as for example, a little girl. Observation and experience were enough to classify her as fourteen years of age chronologically, eighteen biologically (or physiologically) and, with the examination of the psychologist, twelve years of age mentally or psychologically. For girls have three ages. I remember telling the mother of that girl that what she needed to be most concerned about in this case was not the burglary of the battery from the house, but the girl under her roof. She was at first inclined to be indignant, then puzzled, but I hope grate- ful upon our disclosing to her in confidence, after getting the truth psychologically, that the girl had been guilty of immorality with two of the boys. It was not at all difficult either to suspect or prove these facts, yet the mother suspected nothing nor could she have verified her suspicions had any arisen, all due to her ignorance. The state can surely no longer in such a case limit its efforts merely to protecting the doorbell or punishing the child culprit, who tampered 50 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General with it. But since now we all admit this and that, the state must en- large its functions. It would seem to me that either the school de- partment or some institution manned by skilled experts, closely in touch with the school, should have been able to have furnished the court with a complete report, chart, and record of health and different ages of all of these children. Perhaps the boy who committed the burglary was the least of all the children involved in need of the aid of the state ; or, if he was, why should it be necessary that he should first become a burglar before the important work in this case could be put in motion ? And why was it not just as important to know about the child witnesses as to know about the culprits. And if the function of gaining this knowledge and doing this work is to be left to the court, of what real value shall it be to the citizenship if it is limited to those who are forced upon its attention through the violation of intended laws for the protection of property and not for the saving of children ? It seems to many of us, dealing with these children in courts, as rather absurd that in much of the work being done there for them should be limited to such children or that the courts themselves should have to seek the experts or secure the equipment for its being done. Child- ren who come to courts in the American cities are mostly average children. Perhaps twenty-five per cent or thirty per cent are in some way defective. If that is true or whatever the truth is in this re- gard-is it not equally true with reference to most school children ? It does not follow at all, as some seem to believe, that the child commit- ting an act in violation of the laws for the protection of property or morality (especially sex morality with which we are being called upon more and more to deal) is necessarily sick or mentally defective. Some of the healthiest and brightest children commit offenses against prop- erty and sex morality just as some of the healthiest and ablest business men commit offenses against justice through profiteering and in com- merce and government and in their sex and domestic relations. Will the papers permit you to escape the sex and divorce scandals ? Our youth do not overlook them. And we have found by a special survey of sex morality among young people, commonly known as of high-school age, that perhaps most of these offenses are commit- ted by those who are not mentally defective, but are physiologically overage and whose intelligence quotient is above, rather than below, standard by psychological measurements. For example, from a recent survey, we find eighty per cent to ninety per cent of all girls of this age, who are exposed to disease or motherhood through improper sex con- duct, matured at the early age of eleven or twelve, most of them at eleven. We have discovered that such children are generally from five to ten times more tempting to the opposite sex than those who mature, for example, at fifteen or sixteen, and therefore are under greater pres Sessions] THE PARENTHOOD OF THE STATE 51 sure for the preservation of their virginity. They are in need of more sympathetic understanding and education and an equipment of more will power and self-control. They are not so bad as they are ignorant. Perhaps there is not one mother in a hundred that knows these simple facts; if known, they would be of inestimable value to parent or teacher in the care, control, and direction of girls. In the present state of our civilization may we not well question if over ten per cent of mothers are by education and training equipped as they should be for the proper care of children ? Certainly they are not as compared to what they might be and in the future will be if the state does its full duty by them. What right I ask has the state to permit the child to suffer through the ignorance or misfortune of its natural progenitors ? Until it performs its full duty by the child in this regard, it is far more responsible for its youth for the crime and immorality that may exist among them. For whatever may be said of the alleged growing indifference to morals and ideals among our youth, it is not half so bad as that of their elders, their progenitors. The best record for morality in this country is undoubtedly among the youth, the worst among the adults. And if we could turn some of the current discussion and appre- hension about the morality of our youth into more concern about that of our adults we would come nearer finding solutions for our defects and our difficulties. It might be a good thing to start schools for parents, and even teachers, and put high-school boys and girls in charge to tell them the truth about the morals of children. There is not the slightest doubt in my mind that far more is to be learned from them as to the facts we have to deal with. But seriously, my friends, the state is under greater responsibilities for its children today than ever before. To perform that duty we must have, in every city, its children's build- ings to house their health, moral, and dental clinics, with its doctors, specialists, and scientists, its human artists with their services as free to the children of the state and their parents as those of the teachers in the schools, and to those buildings with all their equipment, children must go to have their health looked after if not with the same daily regularity of attendance at school, at least with periodical frequency. Here every case could be considered under three heads: its psychology, its physiology and its sociology. Parents, as well as children, must share our confidence and assistance. And all this may be done without infringing upon the religious beliefs, rights, or conscientious scruples of anyone. There may be cases where the interests of children may be more important than their rights. Rules and laws concerning diet and health must be just as freely taught to children as the three R's and the doctor should always be just as accessible and free to them as to NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General 52 the teacher. The state must just as cheerfully bear these expenses in the one case as in the other. The parenthood of the state must include its duty to see that the child is well-born. By marriage laws it must forbid, as far as possible, the bringing of children into the world unless they come from parents at least free from the age-old deforming diseases. After its birth, the state must guarantee that the child shall not be the victim of the poverty, ignorance, or misfortune of its parents. Why should innocent children suffer because we are told several millions of their parents will be jobless this winter through the stupidities or injustices of our economic system ? The crime of the state will be against the child when it permits it to become the victim of conditions over which it has no control, but for which society and civilization are to blame. The great majority of our criminals now dealt with in courts are our youth, and the great majority of that youth are criminals because of the indiffer- ence, ignorance and may I say, criminality of the state itself. We justly punish many a parent for the crime of contributing to the de- pendency or delinquency of a child. But the criminality of the state itself in this regard is far greater than that of the parent. Judges, if they only knew the causes of the evil things they deal with, through the bodies of people, should blush with shame every time they sentence a youth to the penitentiary or the gallows. The relation of the very early years and formative periods of infancy to morality and crime must be better understood. The most important period in the life of an individual is probably between the ages of two and ten, and the time to save a boy bandit may be the nine months before or the nine months after his birth. We must have maternity laws that will guarantee, as far as possible, that every child shall have a fair chance for a decent coming into the world. If this is paternalism, then all of your free school system is paternalism; and if safeguarding the rights of the state's best asset, its children, is paternalism, then, in the name of justice and decency, give us more of it. We have the common experience in every city of the example of five children of a wealthy family for whom, from kindergarten to university, the state has paid over $25,000 for their free education, and the five children of a poor widow who need to be fed even more than they need to be educated, and for whom the expense of education is wasted because of this neglected condition which makes them incapable of receiving its advantages. It is not the purpose of the parenthood of the state to usurp the function of the home or to permit the natural parents to shirk, but rather to see that the home performs its functions where it is careless and that it is helped where it is helpless so that no child shall suffer Sessions] THE PARENTHOOD OF THE STATE 53 only because of poverty and ignorance. For these things the child is not to blame. The state must preserve the home for the child. Institutionalism is the curse of childhood and the success of the parenthood of the state will be measured largely by its depletion of institutionalism and its strengthening of "homeism." For real strength and life, mothering is J as important to childhood as breathing. Every child must have its natural or foster mother. To secure these rights for the child, we must not call our legislation, "mothers' pension laws" or "laws for the relief of needy mothers" because the duty of the state is not for the mother, but for the child. And this doctrine will find a ready response from the sacrificing, patriotic motherhood of this country, asking nothing for themselves, but everything for the children. We need, of course, to define the conditions under which the child shall be entitled to receive from the state the benefits of the parenthood that it is otherwise denied. The state may make the mother one of its agents in the dispensing of its aid for the health, feeding, and housing of the child, just as it makes the teacher its agent in dispensing its aid for the education of the child. Mothers' pension laws, widows' pension laws, mothers' compensation laws, or bills for the relief of needy mothers are confusing and smack of charity and not justice because they tend to depart from the fundamental purpose of the state, which is primarily to help the child. Do not forget that the child must, if need be, die for the state, but it is far better that it should live for the state. The helping of the mother is only an incident to the helping of the child, as the paying of the salary of the teacher is only an item in the dispensing of the state's wealth for the education of the child. We might as well call the authority for paying their salaries " teachers' pension laws" ; they are merely the agents of the state in dispensing the state's aid for the state's children in schools or homes. Some difficulties in the scheme or plan for the administration of the parenthood of the state for the child need cause us no great con- cern. It can never be successfully employed against the justice of that parenthood. It is only a matter of time when it shall be worked out between the various agencies and agents of the state best to subserve the best interests of the child. Although some progress has been made through small beginnings here and there, we have yet to wage and win the fight for the health, feeding, and housing of the child. In this struggle, we plead for the help and support of the educators of the Nation. Since the demand comes so much from them, and these begin- nings have been mostly with them, no doubt its support will be mostly by them. Indeed there is no more influential body of men and women in this land for the advancement of the cause of the child than the teachers themselves. The mere bringing of the child into the world is 54 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the least important of all the responsibilities of parenthood. It is the education, directing, and care of the physical and moral health of the child that counts most. For this we shall probably have to depend most upon that super-parenthood of the state administered largely by the teachers of this country. It is a terrific responsibility as well as a magni- ficent opportunity. More and more does it call for co-operation, for or- ganization, and for that sincerity and enthusiasm needed to weld this great organization into one mighty, militiant order, insisting upon the rights of the child. It is our chief hope for the salvation and preserva- tion of the state itself. In conclusion, may I suggest that we need in this country a great awakening-a campaign for a better understanding of this whole ques- tion of the state's parenthood for the child. We need to interest our Chambers of Commerce and the various business men's clubs, as well as the parent-teachers' organizations in the justice of our pleas for the child. We have made some progress but not nearly enough. I believe that the hearts of the business men of this country are right, and just as they responded with great patriotism and loyalty for the state when it was imperiled, we may expect that the same loyal response for the nation's childhood when it is imperiled. The Master said of him who would do an injury to one of these little ones, that it were better that a millstone be hanged about his neck, and that he be cast into the uttermost depths of the sea. That injunc- tion was not limited to parents. It extends to states. And woe be unto that state, that through its forces of ignorance, stupidity, and greed, shall be false to its children. For in being false to them, it is hanging the millstone about its own neck, and plunging itself into the uttermost depths of discontent, lawlessness, disorder, destruction, and death. SOCIAL HYGIENE IN THE SCHOOLS CHARLES E. BARKER, M. D., REPRESENTATIVE INTERNATIONAL ROTARY, CHICAGO, ILL . The great world-war has opened the eyes of all thinking persons in our country to the tremendous importance of giving the rising genera- tion adequate and correct information concerning sex matters, and our chief tasks now are to find out what are the best methods of imparting this knowledge. A large percentage of our young men who were examined for war-service were found unfit physically, because of youth- ful indiscretions, which were largely the result of either total ignorance or misinformation concerning sex and sex-relations. While we should do everything possible to prevent these matters from becoming common topics of conversation, especially among children, yet our past policy of Sessions] PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIÓN 55 silence in this realm, which has been nigh universal, has only brought disaster and misery in its wake. Here is a perfect illustration of "Nero fiddling and Rome burning," and surely the time is ripe for a change of tactics. The public schools, or rather the public school teachers, are the log- ical instruments for leading in such a needed and sensible reform, and the time has come when some sort of a constructive program in this field should be planned and, in so far as possible, carried out. I wish to make it clear here and now, that I am opposed to the teach- ing of social-hygiene by textbooks and classes in the grade schools. The ideal place to teach these matters to young children is in the home by the parents, and here is where the Parent-Teacher Association and kindred organizations can do a great deal to interest fathers and mothers in communities as to the importance and wise way of doing this. The grade teacher can find out in some tactful way if the parents of any child in school are either unwilling or unable to give sex information, and where this is true, obtain the parents' consent to the giving of such in- formation in a quiet, sane way. The situation as to boys and girls of high school age is very differ- ent. The time has now arrived when these youths can be placed in segregated groups according to sex, and the whole subject of social hygiene taught to them from the psychological, as well as from the physiological standpoint. I hope to see the day when every high school in this country will have a man and woman teacher, who are thoroughly trained to teach this subject in a sympathetic and scientific manner. That will be a happy day for our land. HOW TO SECURE RESULTS THROUGH PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN , EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. No subject has more fully occupied the attention of your speaker during the dozen years past than that of the professional organization of teachers and the many attendant problems. The difficulty he ex- periences in speaking to you grows out of his nearness to, and intimate touch with, all phases of the subject. The study devoted to the prin- ciples underlying the science of organization in general, the weighing and evaluating of the tangible results that have been secured through organized professional forces, and a deep interest in the advancement of the most worth-while professional organization everywhere, are offered as his justification for accepting the urgent invitation of our President to speak upon the topic assigned. 56 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General That you may follow what I am to say and make application to your own specific problems and conditions, kindly keep in mind that it is not the purpose of the speaker to magnify the particular organization he represents. The whole trend of this great meeting of the National Education Association is to the end of a wider social democracy. This, we hope, is the ideal underlying the development of the National Edu- cation Association, the refining details of whose organization will come with time and experience. It was the thought of our President that there could at this time be brought before us with profit a statement of the results actually secured from organization along democratic lines. In this connection, President Hunter undoubtedly had in mind not alone California, where the aggregate results have perhaps been more far-reaching than those secured elsewhere. He had in mind as well Iowa and Missouri and Minnesota and Colorado and Illinois and those other states where such wonderful results have been secured. As the first state to effect a truly democratic form of organization, California has suffered sometimes the results of her own mistakes . Others have profited by her experience. Our weaknesses are still many ; our de- velopment sometimes halting. With some of the principles here laid down as essentials to the securing of results you are as familiar as the speaker. Some of the things enumerated as accomplishments you will have done better than we. Some of the problems before us you have already solved. With reference therefore to professional organization, whether local, state or national, let us first inquire as to the chief reason for the ex- istence of such organization. It may be stated at once that the chief reason for such organization is that it may help to preserve the integrity of the American school. This statement will savor of heresy to those who have thought of teacher organizations as having for their chief function the securing of the needed salary increase. That teachers are underpaid is a calamity. That as a result of this shortsighted policy incompetent and immature teachers are certificated or schools closed and children deprived of education, rightfully theirs, is a crime. Organi- zation may result, to be sure, in securing salary increase. But in the final analysis society as a whole, rather than the teachers only, must receive first consideration. Professional organization will result in safeguarding through the school the future of American citizenship and the perpetuity of American institutions. Let us put the matter in another way. Frequently the legislators throughout the country and many progressive, substantial citizens-men and women who have at heart the best interests of the schools, as they understand them-have come to look upon teachers' organizations as existing mainly for selfish interests and personal gain. Your speaker was recently smilingly characterized as the "leader of the greatest teach Sessions] PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION 57 ers' combine in America." While intelligent and sympathetic, his con- tact with certain members of our profession had led my friend to take a narrow and wholly provincial view of the place and purpose of teach- ers' organizations. He believed the reasons advanced by them for support of their organization must be identical with those advanced by teachers everywhere. Not increased salary or personal preferment but betterment of the social order must be the actuating motive for the uniting of teachers in groups or associations. Professional organization of teachers is therefore justified only as such organization tends toward the betterment of the social, the civic, the intellectual, the moral atmosphere of the community and the state. The teacher is, first of all, a citizen. With all, he is a public servant . As such, the obligations are not one-sided. They flow in both direc- tions. If the community owes much to the teacher, more indeed than any probable salary increase will liquidate, the teacher has, as well, ob- ligations toward the state, made more apparent by the recent war. The teacher must understand fully his responsibilities and obligations. The recognition that has been accorded him by the community (partial and inadequate in many instances) must be met on his part by a spirit of fuller service; more adequate preparation and understanding of the community's problems and the desire to co-operate in all that makes for progress in the social, industrial, commercial life of which he is a part ; improvement during service through study and research; the develop- ment of the real things in education rather than the husks or the forms made sacred through tradition. The teacher who is not animated, first and last, by the spirit of public service, would better be out of the pro- fession than in it. The professional organization of which we speak exists that through it and through participation in its activities may be made possible more complete and intelligent service of the teacher to the school, to society, and to the state. FIVE CHIEF FACTORS Five chief factors enter into the securing of the most complete re- sults through professional organization: first, general participation of the teachers in the membership and activities of their organization ; second, a complete working harmony or union of interests of the mem- bers; third, adequate funds to properly finance the organization ; fourth, a central clearing-house and responsible executive officer ; fifth , an official mouthpiece or journal published by the organization. 1. General participation . The first requisite to the securing of re- sults is general participation by teachers in the activities of the organi- zation. Only as teachers assume the responsibilities of membership can adequate or most complete results be secured for society, the organi- zation, or themselves. As pointed out by President Cox of the Cali- 1 58 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General fornia Teachers Association, the tendency should be to bring the largest possible number of persons into a deliberate study and discussion of the problems of the association. The organization, however, if properly foundationed, needs today the individual teacher much less than does the individual teacher need the organization. Organizations of teachers are effected, not that they may dictate or dominate. At least these should not be causes leading to organization. The more thoughtful desire, as do lawyers or engineers or stock raisers, to keep abreast of the times- to lead the times ; to learn from others and to contribute something for the benefit of others. They realize that the enthusiasm and inspiration that comes from numbers meeting together is an asset with which to reckon. They further realize that in the matter of improved methods, more just and sensible selection of textbooks and materials and equip- ments, more adequate salaries, and improved legislation that shall make for advance in all fields of educational endeavor, it is the collective and cumulative influence that counts. Individuals may initiate ; numbers create public sentiment, and public sentiment is the greatest result getter in the world. All progressive school people, whether administrators or classroom teachers, should see clearly the advantage and necessity of meeting upon a common ground for the discussion of common prob- lems looking toward a common good. "The ridicule and jest that has been directed against the impotency and impracticability of the teacher is due,” says Superintendent Keifer of Bellefontaine, Ohio, "alone to his inability to get together with his fellows on a constructive program." Superintendent Keifer contends that the first essential to effective work is a " statewide enrolment em- bracing not a 30 per cent, but a 100 per cent membership of those en- gaged in the teaching profession. " A 100 per cent membership and a full treasury, whether in national, state, or local association, are to be desired; but these are less important than that the organization be based on real democratic prin- ciples and that the members be animated by ideals, not of class-minded- ness, but of social service. 2. A working harmony. The coming together of teachers in groups or meeting in an association does not necessarily imply an effec- tive organization. Results are possible only when the individual mem- bers, the various committees, or group elements are integrated and function as would the parts of a machine or the several departments in a successful business or commercial enterprise. Nor does this state- ment carry with it the implication that all must think alike. Democ- racy does not mean uniformity; it means unity through individuality. The various teaching groups must thresh out their particular problems . The needs or desires of a given group may, probably will, be colored by the needs or desires of other groups. Those in a given territory Sessions] PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION 59 must elect delegates thus to secure representation in a legislative body or council of a larger section or geographical division. These divisions or sections, made up from the teaching personnel in counties, cities, and towns, or clubs, or other local units, must exert their directive policy through representatives chosen to a state-wide council; and so on from the state to the national body. The main point for consideration is, whether all teachers in a State meet in one group or annual convention or whether the state association is made up of geographic units, that there be in force a plan of repre- sentation that shall reach throughout the counties to the most remote parts of the state. Those teachers who are unable to attend any business or other meeting of the association must know that because of there being in operation a truly democratic plan of choosing the delegates thereto, they have complete representation at such meetings. Any form of cohesive organization has been well-nigh impossible because of lack of co-operation and sympathy on the part of the various elements in the profession. Misunderstanding has been at the root of this difficulty. Supervising officers upon the one hand, and members of the teaching staff upon the other, have not always understood the point of view of their fellows. More than this, within their own ranks classroom teach- ers have not been united. In speaking of superintendents and teachers, President Coffman says: Neither talent nor stupidity belongs to either class. They are found in both. Between teachers and superintendents there should be co-operation, not division; union of efforts, not separation; collective, not divided, responsibility. This has actually been achieved in many places, but it must be an accomplished fact in more before the future of the schools is secure. The difficulty which arises when groups begin to think in terms of their interests or grievances is that they will emphasize their rights to the neglect of their duties, their privi- leges to the neglect of their obligations, their wishes to the neglect of their responsibilities. i Individual differences must therefore be subservient to larger com- munity interests. Having thoroughly considered the needs of their par- ticular group or locality, the recommendations should be passed up by the members through their representatives to the larger body, state-wide or national, for final action. In this way local opinion may be crys- tallized in state-wide action, and state sentiment may find expression through national channels, although in no wise lessening local autonomy or states' rights. Schools, children, education, must be considered rather than special interests or persons representing special types of schools or special subjects. Here as elsewhere under the right plan of repre- sentation, majority rule is democratic. 3. A sound financial policy. In order that substantial results may be secured from professional organization, the same principles that are in force in the world of sound business must be made to apply in or 60 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General ganization for purposes educational. In the business world it is less a question of what the thing will cost than it is of the returns to be se- cured on the investment. Any organizaton of teachers to be a success must be backed by a business-like as well as by a professional adminis- tration. Unless the association is properly financed results are slow, partial, and inadequate. We are constantly made aware of what could be accomplished through concerted action and with funds sufficient to carry on campaigns from a central source. Where each of several local groups attempt to do the same thing, there is duplicaton of effort and an expenditure of money and energy far beyond what would be necessary if the work were properly centralized. Superintendent Stoops, formerly of Joliet, writing in the April, 1921 , Journal of the National Education Association on " Organization of State Associations," gives expression to some fundamental facts that may be applied to any type of organization, local or national. He says : We must organize active local units centering in a vigorous state association which shall in turn carry its share of activity in the National Education Associa- tion. We must not affiliate with any other organization whatever, and accord- ingly, we must so finance our association as to enable it to stand alone with no other objective than meeting the manifold needs of a rapidly growing public- school system. Members of our craft frequently murmur at the imposition of what is considered an exorbitant membership fee in their associations. Says the Inter-Mountain Educator in speaking editorially of the state asso- ciaton : The fee ought to be at least five per cent of one month's salary. A member of a labor union pays from $12 to $30 a year to his organization. A rotarian pays an annual fee of from $15 to $20. Even such social organizations as lodges, clubs , etc., have annual dues of three, five, and ten dollars or more. Merchants, manufacturers, and employers are organized into powerful organiza- tions for the mutual benefit of the members of their individual associations . As a result of their organization and of liberal financial backing they command consideration. Teachers, also, if fully organized and soundly financed, may command respectful hearing. What could be done with this money? A secretary could be employed, giving full time to his work. He could easily conduct an employing agency for the members on a purely cost basis. He could organize a constructive program looking to adequate teachers' salaries. He could direct the legislative program of the association. With a working fund as described above, the association could launch into the field of public finance and school taxation, and make itself felt. With such a backing it would not be said that the school teachers had no driv- ing force. To handle a constructive program, money is needed. A concrete case, in illustration of the imperative need for funds to carry on work in the interest of teachers, is in point. An actuarial study was needed in a certain state to determine sources of revenue and the integrity of the fund underlying the teachers' retirement salary. Through ruling of the attorney-general, the state board of education found itself Sessions] PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION 61 without authority to appropriate funds to finance the work. Fortunately the state organization of teachers was able, not only to finance this ac- tuarial work, but, by so doing, secured the approval of the state board of education and the board of control, and by this cordial co-operation and unity of action demonstrated anew to the members of the legislature the strength of organized educational forces. Since, through organization, results are accomplished that would be impossible through teachers working individually, there is needed a more liberal policy of financing professional organizations. Proper business management will bring large returns, professional and financial. Here as elsewhere what is needed is the budget system and more money better spent. 4. Central office and executive head.-Anything worth doing is worth doing well. If there is to be general participation in the activities of the organization; if a working harmony is to prevail; if the members are to assess themselves and adequate funds are made available to carry to successful completion the plans of the association, there must be some executive head charged not alone with the responsibility of carrying out the mandates of the association but with powers of initiation of plans and policies. This central office, or clearing-house, using California as typical, ties together the several geographic units in the larger territory; carries on an extensive correspondence with officers of the state association and of section or local organizations and with members ofcommittees who are at work upon assignments or reports ; maintains an audit and accounting department for all moneys coming to the asso- ciation direct or through the treasuries of the local sections, and of all disbursements for whatever purpose; keeps complete alphabetical files of all members, both of sections and for the state as a whole ; makes available for officers of sections, county and city superintendents, pro- gram committees of teachers or other clubs, or others who may desire institute speakers or conference leaders, a list of those available through- out the country, together with their subjects; issues from time to time bulletins, pamphlets, monographs of interest to the profession, such as revised sets of by-laws, directories of educational organizations, the results of studies and investigations on professional training of teach- ers, the salary question, tenure, proceedings of conferences, etc. There are available for reference in the secretaries' offices the latest books for text, supplemental, and reference use. Complete files of the more im- portant educational magazines published in the United States are ready for inspection. The office is in constant touch with the state educa- tion department, the superintendent of public instruction and his as- sociates, the state board of education, and county and city superintend- ents and teachers throughout the state. The executive secretary must, when occasion demands, carry forward a campaign of education with 62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General members of the legislature, the newspapers of the state, and the citizens, clubs, and organizations generally looking toward creating public senti- ment or needful legislation. The office must keep in close touch, through correspondence, study, and investigation, visits and speaking engage- ments, with the forward movements in education, both within and with- out the state. All of this requires an adequate staff of competent men and women. The activities are centralized still further when, as in California, there is maintained a state-wide teachers' registration and placement bureau and an official magazine. 5. An official magazine. The official journal should be edited by or under the direction of the executive officer of the association. Its support should come in part from such portion of the annual member- ship fee as may be available for this purpose, in part from subscriptions outside the membership, and in part from advertising income. Issues should be at regular stated intervals and reflect the educational move- ments throughout the state and nation. It should carry contributions from leading teachers, locally and nationally. This journal, placed in the hands of each member of the association, without charge other than covered by the membership fee, serves as the channel of communication, and to cement together all parts of the state. Full attention must be given to matters of local and state interest, but the magazine must be more than a local news bulletin. Educational principles rather than personalities must be featured. The editors of this magazine, by culling the best from the publications issued in all parts of the country, may keep readers in touch with great national movements, and make un- necessary additional expenditure for magazines of general educational character. One point must be made clear. The educational magazine, such as we are here discussing, is the official mouthpiece, not by adop- tion or selection, but by ownership . To be of the greatest value the magazine must be owned and controlled by the teachers themselves . It thus becomes an intrinsic part of the organization. While dedicated to contain clear-cut policies and well-defined principles and reflecting as an open forun : the views of the organization, the magazine must carry to the readers the unbiased views and personal opinion fearlessly expressed of those charged with its editorial policy. Edited otherwise, the magazine degenerates into a colorless and space-filling sheet, of which kind there are already far too many. SOME TANGIBLE RESULTS The is neither opportunity nor need to dwell upon the results of profess mal organization. Those who have followed developments in the educational world the past decade know. Those who have not be- long to that minority who do not propose to be convinced. Teachers' pensions and retirement salary laws in a number of states owe their ex Sessions] PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION 63 istence primarily to the work and influence of teachers' organizations . Security of tenure, wherever enforced, has been brought about largely through the efforts of organization. Sentiment for a limited class en- rolment, the development of the kindergarten, higher requirements and standards for teachers, increase in the compulsory school age, free text- books, types of vocational education, increased funds for schools and for teachers' salaries-these and other forward movements have found expression through the professional organization. Everywhere the force of numbers and unity of action have been most convincing argu- ments to legislature or school board. In speaking before the Department of Superintendence on the neces- sity of teacher organization, President Lotus D. Coffman recently said : "The very remarkable advance salary legislation in Iowa was due to effective work of the state teachers' association. Specially effective work is being done by the state teachers' associations of Ohio, Michigan, 1 Minnesota and Pennsylvania." There has just been carried to success in California, largely through the united efforts of the organized educational forces, working in complete co-operation with the state education department, the most comprehensive and far-reaching educational program ever en- acted in any state. This program was made the subject of study and discussion through committee reports, the official journal, and con- ferences throughout the state. Emphasis was placed upon important measures only, the organization standing for principles involved rather than for details. Chief among these measures were increased moneys for schools, the improvement of teacher-training facilities, and develop- ment of the normal schools into teachers' colleges ; development of the School of Education at the State University and more liberal financing of higher education ; creation of a system of regional junior colleges ; an improved teachers' retirement salary law, and tenure for teachers. There were a large number of minor measures-bills relating to the commis- sioners of education; traveling expenses of superintendents; budgeting and local tax levies, and publication of financial andhother reports. It is significant that every measure fathered by the California Teachers' Association or that had the endorsement of that organization, passed the legislature and reached the governor's desk. No single measure that failed of endorsement by the California Teachers' Association suc- ceeded in reaching the governor, and only one desirable educational measure before the governor failed of his signature, and this was an amendment to an existing law, upon which so much misinformaton had been circulated as to its financial aspects that a further campainoof edu- の、 cation is needed to bring the measure to perfected form. Our Constitutional Amendment No. 16, carrying an additional eleven-million-dollar appropriation for the biennium, and providing 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General equal educational opportunity for every boy and girl in the state, country, and city alike, was taken direct to the people as an initiative proposal and passed by an overwhelming vote. Campaign material was printed and distributed to educational, civic, social, and fraternal organizations. The support of the press and pulpit was secured. Automobiles carried placards, and picture screens were appropriated to the cause. If our organization, which was responsible for this measure, and financed and directed the campaign, is now sometimes spoken of as the most danger- ous enemy of the taxpayers' association and of certain of our more selfish corporate bodies, should we wither under the criticism, think you ? Never again in California must those who work truly in the interest of the schools be forced to petition upon their knees before legislative or appropriation committee for a square deal for the boy and girl on the prairie, in the mountains, in the forest or mining district, or on the desert's edge. The wealthy city makes contribution to the district now at the limit of assessed valuation. Holdings of timber and oil ranch land now yield up revenue where before they went untaxed. Local taxation, carried to the breaking-point, is now supplemented by a state tax increased from $30 to $60 per unit of average daily attendance and a county tax proportionately increased. Money is now collected where the wealth is and distributed where the children are. And with it all, without talking salaries for teachers, the increased state and county money will provide so that no teacher in the state, however far removed the school may be, need receive less than $1,200 in salary. And if there are still some teachers not entirely competent and whose services are worth less than this minimum of salary, nothing will so soon raise the standards of teaching as will adequate salaries, and the fact that it is proposed to demand superior training on the part of our elementary- school teachers and then pay on the basis of such training and ability, rather than on the superficial basis of the grade taught. For the first time too, we have a complete state system of schools, for if the schools belong to the people, the state should live up to its obligations in support of public education. One other point only need be mentioned. Our registration and placement bureau for teachers, beginning its work in January, 1920, handled over eight hundred individual cases and located more than half this number the first year. At this time on our second year, we have so far exceeded these figures that any prophecy before the opening of school this fall is impossible. Our experience in budget making, based on income and expense, can better be used by others to advantage a little later in the year. Our conception of the province of a professional organization that functions in the interest of the teachers and society at large, is one that shall, on an actual cost plus basis, bring together the worthy teacher and the position to be filled. Only members of the state Sessions] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 65 teachers' association may take advantge of the registration bureau, but we deny this privilege to no teacher outside the state, whether in Iowa or New York. The payment of the membership fee in our association to cover a legal requirement, in addition to the other required fees, en- rols any such teacher and carries to her each month as well a copy of our official journal. Never, as at the present moment, was there such universal interest in all that pertains to the education of the American youth. There is a realization of the importance of those matters that now press for solution. The reorganization of education, the better to meet present- day conditions; the problems of real American citizenship ; democracy in educational administration ; how to secure teachers of adequate train- ing, to achieve higher professional standards ; to guarantee growth during service, and withal to dignify and glorify the profession of teach- ing so as to call to the service the best men and women and promise permanent satisfactions and financial rewards therefore these matters are before all thinking people. To reach the goals indicated, theory and sentiment aside, one thing is absolutely necessary. Teachers must come together in local, state, and national groups and where already ex- isting organizations are weak or ineffective these must be reorganized and strengthened, the better to meet the demands of the new day. The organized educational forces of America, working locally, in the states and as a great national body can, with unity of purpose and under wise leadership, accomplish all reasonable ends to which they may set themselves. With the schools behind them, the 700,000 teachers of America constitute the strongest voting element. Working through the children, the teachers can create a public opinion such as shall easily shape the thinking of the whole people. Used to the right ends, the power of our organizations may exert itself to the upbuilding of citizen- ship, the creating of a national ideal and lead to the common accept- ance of those principles underlying true Americanism that will break down the superficial barriers and class distinctions and make us a united and patriotic people. Professional organization that seeks to secure results that shall ultimately be less far-reaching or inclusive than these is a delusion and a snare. EDUCATION OF THE WOMEN OF THE UNITED STATES AURELIA HENRY REINHARDT, PRESIDENT OF MILLS COLLEGE, OAKLAND, CALIF . The education of the women of the United States is not so much the subject of this address as its object. Behind my effort to show the forces, unconscious and conscious, which have educated and are 66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General educating American women, it is my hope to arrive at conclusions in which will be seen the potential power of woman's education to aid in solving the professional problems with which this National Educa- tion Association is confronted. It is my hope to state more clearly the value of this education reacting on the twenty-five million chil- dren of our schools and on the homes which these children represent. Professionally, it must be remembered that in American schools 95 per cent of all teachers are now women-a momentous fact in itself. Politically, it must be recalled that the Nineteenth Amendment brought, in 1920, twenty-seven million women into citizenship. Besides these well-known facts are the less obvious ones which multiply their im- portance: first, every woman as parent precedes the officer of the schoolroom as the child's earliest and most important teacher ; second, every woman as citizen becomes responsible for the schools as an ex- pression of the state's life, and its chief effort to mold and unify national thought and endeavor. Every woman then must today be given educational opportunity that as a minimum result prepares her for the functions of parent, of teacher, and of citizen. What has been her lot in the three hundred years of our history -"the history of a people whose beginning was a great adventure, and whose life has been a great toil ?" On the whole, one of the happiest, the least hampered by prejudice, the most open to oppor- tunity of the women of any race. From the first year of settlement, working side by side with religious founders of New England, with the first planters of the South, and with the westward-moving home- seekers of prairie and mountain and Pacific Coast valleys, all circum- stances have worked to give her one by one, in harmonious evolution, the opportunity which her time afforded, to do, to learn, and to be an integral helpful part of her generation. There was little machinery arranged for girlhood's education until about one hundred years ago. Her important training lay within the family group where all the activities for the support of life and its comfort took place. From the days of Jamestown and Plymouth, and through all the years that a westward frontier marked new ex- perimentation in agriculture and rural pursuits, the women had in their primitive work the kind of education which best fitted the times of continental development. Slowly the land was explored, forests were cleared, rivers were bridged, acres were planted, and slowly a repub- lican form of government was thought out and fought into being. In 1825 Alexis de Tocqueville on visiting this country wrote : " If I were asked to what the singular prosperity and growing strength of the American people ought mainly to be attributed, I should reply -to the superiority of their women." And these women had been Sessions] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 67 workers at every kind of task from lighthouse-tending to the scalp- ing of marauding Indians. The second chapter in the education of American women opened in the years immediately succeeding the Revolution. Those were the years in which the country was concerned with the making of the Con- stitution; with the founding of party government ; with the estab- lishment of the United States as a country distinct unto itself with relations to other countries; with the development of business that instantly converted villages into towns, and towns into small cities ; those years of debate and political experiment made American women conscious of the need of mental training. They had always been given instruction in religious thought and discussion, and in a variety of occupational activities. Now they began to want knowledge of many kinds, knowledge of history, of politics, of philosophy, and of the beginnings of that new world which science was opening to thinking men, so they consciously worked to found schools and colleges where women might enter to learn. Nor was it easy to achieve. It is dis- concerting to the woman school trustee of today to read the discus- sions in the town meetings of Gloucester as to whether "females, being a tender and interesting part of the population" should have any rights to be pupils in the public town school. Where there happened to be extra benches, they decided to admit them for two hours a day. Almost as disconcerting to women concerned with the report of male illiteracy in the recent draft is the historic fact that in the first half of the eighteenth century, at the moment De Tocqueville was writing to France of the superiority of the American women, fewer than 40 per cent of New England women, called upon to sign legal documents, could do other than make their mark. The inertia of indifference, or, awakened to the thought of it, active disapproval of enlarging the school system to admit girls and women, made slow progress, and in some parts of the country, dis- couraging. Not until 1769 did Boston open its public schools to girls, while the first high school preparing for college, the Girls' Latin School, did not come into being until 1878. In Philadelphia public prepara- tion for college did not succeed in recognition until 1893. In 1832, against the custom of her day, Hannah Adams ventured to frequent the reading-room of the Boston Athenaeum, and wrote of it, "My first idea of happiness and heaven was a place where we should find our thirst for knowledge fully gratified." A different point of view, without doubt, from that of her compatriot of a few decades later as she matriculates at college, asking, "What's the newest and most popular course ?" There does seem a persistent antagonism in some minds between youthful loveliness and well-stored minds. A friend of mine doing graduate work in a New England university 68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General asked the page in the library for a certain volume of the Journal of Romance Philology. "All fiction," answered the lad, "will be found in the Linonian. " The women pioneers in educational organization have of late years had their due share of recognition. And, as we look on the results of their efforts, not only at Mount Holyoke and Troy, but over our whole land, we bow to Catherine Beecher, to Emma Willard, and to Mary Lyon, for the truth that was theirs, for the vision they saw, for the faith with which they worked. They are heroines, of which modern girlhood should be as proud as of Hannah Dustin, of Haverill, fighter of Indians, Mary Draper, of Lexington, maker of ammunition, and Eliza Pinckney, Carolina pioneer in agriculture and friend of George Washington. The year 1789 is memorable in educational history. Partly because of their later beginning, the Midwestern and Pacific States never argued the rightfulness of sending girls to the district school or acad- emy. One might say that in the Middle West, the school bore the relationship of the church in New England. It was the earliest center of social life and was as the church had always frankly been, co-educa- tional. To the honor of Oberlin be it remembered, it printed invita- tions to lady students of good character as early as 1833, but few women had the leisure or preparation to enter for another generation. For the rest it remains to call attention to the Morrill Act of 1862 which made possible in every State a public university, where men and women alike might freely go to study what they chose and as they chose, but it was not until after the war, that was then being fought out in national anguish, that tradition was outgrown, and women's desire and time was liberated for general higher education. Andrew D. White calls the Morrill Bill "the most beneficial measure ever proposed in any country." The newer states most needed these universities, most quickly took advantage of the land grants, organized their state colleges and state universities, and adjusted the public-school curriculum to prepare boys and girls for the higher institutions. In the Atlantic Coast states, matters went on with little change. Massachusetts had had Harvard since 1636; Connecticut names Yale's first birthday in 1701 ; while King's College and Virginia University and others had been preparing men for positions in church and state for generations. They saw as the only solution for women's educa- tional need, foundations on a separate basis, and depended for their students on the privately endowed academies rather than on the gradu- ates of the developing public-school system . It is significant of the slow adjustment in education that two weeks ago in New Haven I heard the new president of Yale, in his inaugural Sessions] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 69 address, ask the alumni : "How can Yale best serve that interest which it has in common with all American universities-the public- school system of the United States ?" By the way, it is nearer my subject to nariate that last week in Cambridge, for the first time in the 285 years of its history, Harvard University conferred academic degrees upon women that of Master of Education in the graduate schools of education. Yale University admitted women into its gradu- ate department thirty years ago. But let me go back to the point of the establishment in New Eng- land of women's foundations for education. Having become success- ful students they yearned to become teachers ; first it was in the ele- mentary field, later the secondary, and finally in collegiate work and in administration. Coincident with this, the possibility of missionary service seized their imagination, and Atlantic Coast colleges for women have sent their graduates as pioneers into all non-Christian countries east and west for well-nigh a hundred years . The third step in woman's opportunity for action, to be followed by educational adjustment which the ability of the leaders made a shining desire for the many, was the spontaneous participation of women in the nation-wide abolition debate of the forties and fifties . In vain they were admonished by many to be seen and not heard, in matters that were as political on the one hand as they were ethical on the other, and not a subject of family council. Undaunted, by word of mouth and word of pen, Lydia Marie Child and Lucretia Mott and Harriet Beecher Stowe argued that neither family life nor national life would be safe under the blight of slavery. They even saw that its so-called economic value was a sham. With the good woman's intuitive recog- nition of wrong, a group of brilliant women united in prosecuting the American institution of slavery. War has always been a liberator of women from the traditions of their day and so the Civil War-that mighty struggle of kinsmen to define the principle of human liberty, that strife which cost the young Republic a million lives and ten thousand million dollars-called women into forms of work which had previously occupied their brothers, and which they had been scarcely conscious of desiring to enter. Unself- consciously they had worked at hunting, planting, spinning, weaving, and sewing in the days of the colonies, becoming with remarkable ease teachers of an unnumbered public. In the necessities and cruelties of the war which followed they became healers of the wounded, busi- ness women, collecting and spending vast sums for food, clothing, shelter, and medicine for thousands upon thousands of soldier kins- men, learning (in a word) the secret of organization which was in the next few years to convert them into employers, executives, administra 70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General tors within new economic and community groups as they had been in the smaller family groups of the past. Memory is short, and governmental statistics have few readers. Nowadays it is repeated in press and rostrum that only in the twentieth century has woman in general and the American woman in particular had an opportunity to prove economic or professional capacity. From the day of Proverbs 31 and the Semitic heroine who "considereth a field and buyeth it; with the fruit of her hands she planteth a vine- yard" from that distant day to the days of the girlish founder of Haddenfield, woman has expressed herself in terms of her environ- ment and at least partly in terms of her economic ambitions and abili- ty. In a readable little book printed in 1863 in Boston the writer enumerates four hundred tasks at which women were gainfully em- ployed, though her classifications of work are her own. But the government census of 1860 and 1870 tells a kindred tale, and in Marian Talbot's more scientific vocational study, which is of easy access, she estimates that in 1900, women were at work in 295 of the 323 recog- nized occupations. At that time, twenty-one years ago, out of twenty- five million women five million were gainfully employed outside their homes. The industrial and social changes following the Civil War, in- fluencing American life, diminishing household tasks, and putting not new economic problems but problems in a new economic form before women for solution, are a commonplace of American history. Home in- dustries of cloth-making, sewing, preserving, were centralized in factories resulting in women leaving the individual kitchen for the "plant" . The development of mechanical appliances, telephone and telegraph, sew- ing machine and typewriter, required hands to make them and hands to use them. And the hands that since the beginning of the world have made and repaired the necessary articles for food and shelter within the home, were in increasing thousands upon thousands, the hands of women. Factories multiplied, and cities grew. In 1790, only 3.35 per cent of the entire population of our country lived in cities of over eight thousand ; in 1900 the percentage had grown to 35.17; today over half our people are urban. As one visualizes the multiplication of industries, which the dis- coveries of steam and electricity and the boundless mineral and vege- table resources of this continent have made possible, it is not strange the men have constructed factories and railroads, ships and docks, estab- lishing a world-wide trade. They have left to women the school and the office-women have not usurped them; business has always paid aman more in money, and today proportionately more than ever. Note that in 1880, not two decades after women were welcomed into teaching, only 42.8 per cent of all teachers were men; ten years later, 34.5 per Sessions] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 71 cent; in 1900, 29.7 per cent; in 1905, 26 per cent and today-look around this hall. What a magnificent chance women teachers have ! What are you going to do with it ? But I must remind you of one other important agency in her own education which women worked out, and which she is still using-an agency educational in purpose, though for years it indirectly influenced legislation and since 1920 is directiy doing so. I mean the woman's club movement which had been smiled at, tolerated, or ignored, until during the world war, Washington learned it could muster for its service ten million women who had learned to coöperate in altruistic organizations. The women who united to work for abolition of slavery preceded these who united in early efforts to obtain political suffrage for women. Then in the fifties the Boston women began the effort to house and help the first scantily paid factory girls, and later their collective effort became the Y. W. C. A. In 1874 other women joined hands because they believed in temperance, and look at the Eighteenth Amendment ! In the eighties Jennie June (Jane Cunningham Croly) thought that women out of school should still study, and so Sorosis started clubs. Iowa leads in club women with 39,000 members and 761 clubs in the General Federation. Do you know what this means educationally to women of today and what it means to their homes, and to others for whose betterment this great organization is endeavoring to work? Forgetting for the moment national art clubs, press clubs, pen women's clubs, the many strictly professional organizations ; forgetting clubs for ennobling our ancestors or, through eugenics, for improving our descendants-let me adhere just to the General Federation with whose council I met in Salt Lake City three weeks ago. The delegates represented 1,800,000 members. They have more voluntary workers in their departments of civics and health and education than the two political parties. A delegate from New Mexico reports a woman member on every school board and commission in the state ; California, Nevada, Utah, and Oregon report the increase of endowment funds where income is loaned to needy college students. Colorado reports $40,000, and Iowa the capital for five hundred loans. Louisiana, with its unique struggle against poverty and illiteracy, reports through an energetic little dele- gate, fifty thousand school children saving as wards of club women, and the success of an educational insurance policy originated by the clubs of which $300,000 worth of policies had been sold. Reports from a score of states on the institution of new voters' day, of Patriotic Sabbath on the Sunday preceding the Fourth of July, of Americanization work in town and country, of commercial centers, and of county meetings. California women were working to save the Red- 72 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General woods, the Minnesota women amending forestry enactment, and all southern states working for more roads and better roads, with shade trees along the way. A delegate from Massachusetts reported on the model school which it maintains in Georgia. Surely the club woman has done more than anyone else to wipe out sectionalism . As one listened to city reports, one realized how different to a man and to a woman is the appeal of the city. To the former it is first a business opportunity ; to women, even those that have an industrial task within a municipality, it is a group of homes, a mammoth housekeeping problem, with schools to study in and parks to play in. The club woman knows about the 450,000 foreign-born women in New York and even in the Arizona sunshine is asking what America can mean to them, crowded into high, dark rooms, in the back streets of a foreign city whose language they do not understand ? What can life -years of such life-mean with their crowded factory tasks and their recreation in the emotional unreality of the films. What is the difference between the immigrant Maria Krovotskey and the pioneer Mary Draper or Anne Forrest ? Came they to give or to gain, to build or to tear down, to coöperate or to stand apart ? Members of the National Education Association, you have scanned with me the story of the American woman and the training afforded to her by her times. Have we won the point of view that was my objective when we began? Let Hannah Adams step out from the Boston Athen- eum and look out with us over the modern woman's heritage. Her Boston is no longer the hub of the new Republic. New Orleans lies 1,400 miles to the south. The modern municipality of Chicago lies 1,100 miles from the nation's capital and Manhattan talks over a wire to San Francisco 3,000 miles to the west. By the state, county, or city, education is now possible to girls and boys alike from kindergarten to professional schools. And may one learn everything ? The original three R's of the school curriculum have widened to in- clude sciences, technical studies, vocations of commerce and administra- ton. There are industrial schools and classical schools. There are fresh-air schools, vacation schools, and continuation schools. Health has been a recognized right of every school child for a dozen years and recreation privilege has multiplied playground, park, and athletic field. The crippled, the blind, the deaf, the feeble in mind, are cared for in their own schools. Surely were Hannah Adams living now she would say, "The American woman has in this magnificent preparation for her education and activity her happiness and heaven." You and I know that even machinery for our education, and the opening of new industry and profession is not all of life. And within our profession of teaching we need to learn from these women who Sessions] EDUCATION OF WOMEN 73 havehelped to make our nation, if we shall build as well as they. If we believe that in the best sense education is the most sacred concern, indeed, the only hope of a democratic nation, we shall work with at least the energy and efficiency of lay club women, and we shall realize the present aim of this Association of our common profession to "create a Department of Education." We shall know that proud as we are of our profession, the average child between birth and reaching his majority is with his teacher but 4per cent of the time, and we are not all of his influence for learning. We shall remember that Woodrow Wilson said years ago that education consists of the vital assimilation of knowledge and the mode of life of the individual is nine-tenths of the digestion . Mode of life, indeed ! That brings us to the institution of the home. Teachers know better than anyone else that a child entering school is already the result of good, bad, or no teaching. The American home must be one distinct objective of American teaching. If the child is the first objective of teaching, the home is the second. It is not only the immigrant mother that sends us children whose mode of life paralyzes education. James T. Tufts describes another sort, less easy to excuse -"the educated woman who is apt to feel vaguely that the whole house- hold life, once the center of all industries and the place where dis- coveries and invention had their chief seat, is now no longer a field for the exercise of intellectual powers of the highest order. This leads to the depreciation of such occupations, to strain in the family life, to the neglected child, to the divided and empty home." It is no small task, this of the American teacher in our heterogeneous population of today. But with one proviso I am unalarmed. I do not tremble at fifteen million foreign-born people. From the beginning there have been problems of aborigines and cosmopolitan populations Five million illiterates ? Bad-but Lincoln's mother could not read Unemployment ?-Poor business ? Restlessness ?-Unfortunate, but the weariness and anguish of war does not vanish in a night. These things will pass. What of the American woman ? Has she the faith of the Puritan mother, the fearlessness of the pioneer woman, the in- dustry of those who planted and wove, the vision of those who worked for mental rights, and the selflessness of such as gave their dearest for Colonies or Union or world-democracy ? What kind of knowledge dries up the springs of character ? What sort of education fails to unify the powers of the individual and cuts off work of hand or mind from the vital source of life ? The United States recognizes more fully than all countries the individuality and humanity of woman, not because of constitutional amendment, but because the idea is inherent in our civilization, and Emerson insists, •"Civilization is the power of good women." Surely as far as the light 74 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of the bayberry candle of Priscilla Alden shall glow the light held by modern womanhood, and we shall work gladly at our builder's task building the nation in which we believe-we, parent, teacher, citizen- knowing with the wisdom of three hundred years , The tutelary genius of mankind Ripens by slow degrees the final state That in the soul shall its foundations find And only in victorious love grow great, Patient the heart must be, humble the mind, That doth the greater births of time await. THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AS IT IS RE- LATED TO THE WORK OF THE PRINCIPAL J. J. ZMRHAL Last year I was called by the government of the new Republic of Czechoslovakia to come over and suggest needed school reforms. Czecho- slovak educators had heard much of America's advances in educa- tion and wanted to learn from America. I am proud to say that I did not disappoint them but at the same time my role as a school re- former has been an extremely hard one because of certain unlovely school conditions here. I had to explain why so many of our country schools have untrained teachers ; why it was that United States is not the first but ninth among the countries of the world as regards the support of education: Just think of the situation for a moment. There is the Czechoslovak Republic, robbed by the Austrian autocracy, weak- ened by war, looking for help to us; but with a trained teacher in the smallest village and with her teachers among the best-paid public offi- cials, while we, the greatest and richest republic in the world, are still struggling toward that ideal. During the first two years of its inde- pendent existence in the territory taken over from Hungary, a territory thoroughly neglected educationally by the Hungarian government, the Czechoslovak government organized over four thousand elementary and thirty-five secondary schools, and two universities. The school principal occupies a peculiarly advantageous position in education because ( 1) he is associated daily with the classroom teach- ers and hence is bound to affect their professional life and standing to a considerable degree ; (2) he is close to the people and has therefore great opportunities to influence public opinion ; and (3) he has at his disposal an ideal laboratory in which to advance investigation of educa- tional problems. He can use these advantages first of all to effect the first point in the American program, namely, a competent, well-trained teacher in every school position in the United States. There are two ways in which to do it, first, by acting upon his teachers, and second, by influ- encing public opinion. Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO THE principAL 75 The school principal's work with his teachers is his greatest oppor- tunity. He gets all kinds of teachers, well educated, fairly well edu- cated, and untrained. A school principal thus becomes a teacher of teachers, an educational leader or trainer, or both, according to the particular position he fills. This is his work par excellence, whatever else he may be called upon to do. Moreover, the principal has much to do with attracting men and women of character and ability into the service. No one can inspire teachers about their profession so easily as a school principal and no one can disgust them with it so easily either. His attitude permeates everything in his school and reaches the pupils from whom new teachers eventually have to be recruited. A drawn, worried face, showing fear and unhappiness, is a poor advertisement for the teaching profession. A school principal cannot perform miracles and make happy those of his teachers who are determined to be wretched, but in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred his own attitude will be reflected in the attitude of his teachers and pupils. We must have happy, enthusiastic, contented teachers in our classrooms, proud of their profession, if we are to attract talented men and women to teaching. I say teachers should be proud of their profession. Would that there were more of this pride! Instead, school people almost apologize for being teachers, as if theirs were not the art of arts, the most funda- mental calling of all and one which conditions the welfare of every commonwealth ! This is largely due to the fact that almost anybody can teach somewhere in the United States, regardless of his fitness and ability. While this deplorable condition prevails we can hardly be proud of our calling. There cannot be much hope of higher social status of the teacher when to get a position as teacher all that is necessary is to find the proper teachers' agency. A good high-school education and at least one year of normal-school training should be the absolute minimum, and anyone having less should not be permitted to teach any- where in the United States. Both teachers and principals should use their influence to bring about this reform. But the principal ought to do more than that. He should use his position of vantage to make it clear to his constituents what a peril to them, their children, and their community inferior teachers are found to be. His opportunities are tremendous and need only be used. He has a thousand and one opportunities to enlighten, to inform, to re- shape, public opinion. He can do this indirectly through his pupils and directly on such occasions as graduation, school entertainments, par- ents' meetings, and through the school publication. Perhaps I am pointing out the obvious, but it is appalling how little these opportun- ities are used to win the public to the cause of education. I gathered the other day various papers and magazines, published by schools, but 76 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General not one of them had an article, of which the ostensible purpose was to enlighten the public on any phase of education. Again, take the sta- tistics as to what the principals do with their speaking opportunities; you will find that they relinquish their rostrums to big men of the business or professional world who will enlighten the audience on politics, patriotism, finance everything but education. And yet, I have found by actual experience that these audiences would rather hear a discourse by the school principal. The objection that the general public would be bored by speeches dealing with educational problems is not founded on facts. It is much more likely that the educators who say this are bored. If they lack the necessary enthusiasm, they cannot expect their constituents to warm up. It is our business as educators to be active volcanoes, to be enthu- siastic about our profession, to be aggressive. I have nothing but wholesome contempt for some of our pedagogues who hang on to their jobs by their teeth, who are inexpressibly bored by the work they are doing, and then whine about the ungrateful world, which does not ap- preciate the valuable work they are doing. Just a word about the principal's necessary contribution to the thorough investigation of educational problems. Professor Rugg in his article entitled " Needed Changes in the Committee Procedure of Recon- structing the Social Studies" describes an important committee report on the curriculum in history and civics as "merely experience and theories of single individuals" and complains elsewhere in the article that "in no one of these reports a fundamental discussion of the basis of selection and of the placement of materials is given" and pleads that "materials should not be recommended generally until tried in a con- siderable number of public schools." Professor Rugg is right when he says that there is too much opinion and too little of the actual fact upon which our educational procedure, our curricula, are based. We are coming to see more and more the absolute necessity of the educational experts working hand in hand with the practical pedagogues if we are to progress and if the investigations are to mean anything. Educational experts should be of more direct influence upon the schools and their development. They are scientific investigators of education and educational methods. They possess the special advantage of being able to apply consistently and thoroughly scientific methods to their investigations, but they lack for the most part a laboratory large enough to work in. A practice school is not enough. Often the deductions based on observations made in a practice school do not fit all cases and only injure the prestige of those who have made them and weaken the confidence of teachers in the field in the judgment of the specialists having their seats in the universities. The jealousies, misunderstandings, and lack of harmony between them and the practical Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO The princIPAL 77 pedagogues have, no doubt, their roots in the fact that the laboratory of these investigators is limited to one institution, attended by favored pupils, instead of reaching out to the common schools. I believe that there will not be the needed close co-operation in the investigations themselves until the lay schools situated elsewhere, outside the university campus, shall be an essential part of the field of investigation. The key to the situation is the principal. He, if anyone, can collab- orate with the specially trained expert, he, if anyone, is the connecting link between the ideals of the theorist and the practical worker in the classroom. The cause of education would gain far more if the principal were to do some of this sorely needed scientific work in co-operation with outside investigators. I cannot conceive of an efficient principal who is not vitally inter- ested in scientific investigation of his chosen profession, and who does not conduct or assist in conducting some of those investigations himself . At present there are perhaps a great many who could conduct inde- pendent investigations. Yet it is preferable to co-operate with men specially trained for the work, first, because of their special training and second, because of the additional advantage of bringing the theoretical and the practical pedagogues into a closer relationship. Wemust rid ourselves of an idea, still prevalent in many places, that the principal is a sort of shepherd dog or a time-keeper or clerk. The principal's time is too valuable to be spent on routine work and mechan- ical reports. He is entitled to sufficient clerical help that he may func- tion (1) as leader of teachers and if necessary their trainer and in- structor, (2) as a student and collaborator in scientific investigation of education, and (3) as a molder of public opinion on education and its problems, through both written and spoken word. No one worthy of the name educator should be deficient in putting his ideas clearly and forcibly before his teachers, before his constituents, before even his pupils, who after all are the most impressionable of all ! THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AS IT IS RELATED TO THE WORK OF THE PRINCIPAL JOHN A. SEXSON, PRINCIPAL LOGAN COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL, STERLING, COLO . For more than one hundred years educators have urged upon boys and girls the advisability and the availability of a high-school education. Realizing that the high school as a tax-supported institution has been and is, on trial before the American people, principals have labored incessantly on two problems, viz., (1 ) a course of study for the high 78 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General school of real practical value to a student body composed of many types of ability and manifesting a wide variety of aims; (2) to induce increasingly large numbers of elementary school graduates and other eligible groups to enrol in high school. That much progress has been made toward the solution of the first problem is evident everywhere. Much, however, remains to be done. The response to the effort to increase enrolment has exceeded fond- est expectations. High schools everywhere are deluged with students. Existing buildings are overcrowded, competent teachers are almost priceless, equipment is inadequate in amount and obsolete in character in the face of the demands of the new curriculum, while communities heretofore indifferent to high-school advantages are joining in a Tam O'Shanter race to provide high-school advantages for all the children. In the face of these facts the American program in education is definitely related to the work of the principal in so far as it aids in acquainting the people of America with the challenge of America's youth "Provide the high schools and we are ready to go." THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AS IT IS RE- LATED TO THE WORK OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHER AGNES S. WINN, EX-PRESIDENT SEATTLE GRADE TEACHERS' CLUB, SEATTLE, WASH . No act of the Association has made such a direct appeal to teachers as its adoption of a definite service platform. According to the January Journal, The platform properly begins with the most vital element in a system of edu- cation-the teacher-a competent, well-trained teacher in hearty accord with American ideals, in every public-school position in the United States. It recog- nizes the serious obstacle that immature, transient, and untrained teachers place across the path of educational progress. No one is more ready to help solve this problem than the progressive teacher herself. She is glad the day has arrived when leading edu- cators are demanding that teaching be made a real profession, that our schools be manned by scientifically trained people who look upon teach- ing as a life-work, and that these ends must find a place in a large and constructive program of education. But is there any reason why those who give to the problems of the classroom the same intensive study as the successful physician, lawyer, engineer, and business man give to their work should not be compensated and recognized com- parably with them? The compensation must be great enough to pro- vide for professional growth, for a competency against the period of non-employment, and to promote happiness and contentment among the teachers . Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO CLASSROOM TEACHER 79 It is futile to talk of increased expenditures for the training of teachers until the facilities now provided are used to their capacity, and whether they are so used depends upon whether teaching is made at- tractive. Everyone admits that greater social recognition and a more justcompensation are two of the strongest factors that must be reckoned with in elevating the profession, but another problem that must be given the most serious consideration is that of tenure. Although salary and pensions have much to do with making the vocation a permanent one, tenure is fundamental to the efficiency of the schools, for our most capable young people will not choose a life-career that offers no reward for experience and faithful service and carries with it uncertain- ty of appointment and promotion. Satisfactory tenure can be secured only through the strongest kind of team work by teachers, administra- tors, and legislators, for teachers alone cannot make teaching a pro- fession. Much depends on legislative enactment. I wish to emphasize here another factor that enters largely into the problem of keeping men and women of character and ability in the profession, i, e., conditions of service. Thousands of splendidly trained teachers leave the schoolroom every year after one or two years of ex- perience, and why? Because they found they were unfitted for their task? No ! Because of lack of help, sympathy, and vision of the prin- cipals and supervisors entrusted to guide them through these first trying years. Rather than yield to autocratic methods and surrender their self- respect they seek another calling. Many a so-called leader is himself ill-prepared and unsympathetic toward modern methods and often ob- jects even to the teacher taking part in activities outside of her own school because of the added recognition it may bring the teacher. Many excellent teachers of years of experience have been driven out of the profession through jealousy, personal grievances, or perhaps misrepre- sentation, and we find many of them among our most successful men and women in the business world, often using their influence to keep others from choosing this calling. So if the National Education Associa- tion would carry out its platform it must use its influence to have placed in executive positions men and women of broad, constructive leadership to whom any teacher may look for justice and inspiration. Had the National Education Association accomplished nothing more the past three years than creating public sentiment in favor of equal salaries for equal service to all teachers of equivalent training, ex- perience, and success, it would have justified its existence. In many places this principle has become a living reality, and every progressive community is looking forward to the day when the old differential be- tween groups will be abolished and a single salary schedule adopted. The constant demand for better-trained teachers will have its full share in bringing this about. Nothing will do more to break down "group 80 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General consciousness " and make for a united teaching profession than the recognition of this principle. Such a schedule would accomplish five definite things. 1. It would give to the elementary schools, that part of our public- school system which serves all the children from all the people, an even chance of choosing the most highly skilled teachers. 2. It would break down the time-honored aristocracy of high- school caste and unite the teaching body of a community into a profes- sional force which would command the respect of school boards and citizens. 3. It would remove the economic barrier and would encourage every teacher to seek the place to which she is best fitted and in which she can render the maximum service to the community. 4. It would stimulate professional growth of teachers in service and encourage those who have not had the advantage of college or university to work toward this end or pursue some line of study that would better fit them for the work in which they are engaged. 5. It would create among teachers a sense of justice and fair play, releasing their full energies for expert service. The carrying out of this great national program is of vital concern to every teacher in the country, but it is difficult to prove to the rank and file that our National Association is really working for their uplift and advancement. As a representative of one of the large teachers' organizations of the country and as a student of organization work, I am convinced that our first task is to strengthen our local organizations. If we can get the teachers to see what can be accomplished through united effort at home, then we may hope to get them to look beyond local problems to state and national ones. Progressive administrators welcome this effort on the part of teachers themselves to live and to work together in harmony and co-operation for the betterment of the profes- sion. It may be of interest to you to hear what Seattle teachers are trying to do. We are so far from the center of things that it often takes longer for our work to become known. About two years ago the leaders of the Seattle Grade Teachers' Club began to realize that as one of the largest women's clubs of the city our club must reach out and take a more active part in the civic life of Seattle. We had proved to ourselves the value of professional organiza- tion, and early in our history had affiliated with the City Federation of Women's Clubs. But were we contributing our full share to awaken the community to a realization of its responsibility toward the schools ? Accordingly, a school-betterment program was carried out by the joint professional service committees of the grade and high-school organiza- tions. The results were most gratifying. The Educational Committee of the Chamber of Commerce began to assist the teachers in their salary Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO CLASSROOM TEACHER 81 campaign and in other ways. Members of both organizations joined the Chamber and are now working on various committees. The Seattle Times opened a "department of education" in order to give the public school news. Work with the other clubs of the city was carried on consistently, two of our members being given full time to attend the monthly meetings of the Federated Clubs. We responded to every reasonable call that was made upon us which proved to the public that our interests extended beyond our own school problems. And what were we doing within our own ranks to create interest in all of these activities ? First, we launched an intensive membership campaign which resulted in a practically 100 per-cent membership, reaching almost to the one-thousand mark. Then we began mobilizing our forces, our aim being to put as many members as possible at work. The standing committees were made representative of the various schools. Advisory committees were elected by the teachers of each grade. In large buildings the number of representatives was increased, giving more members an opportunity for active service. These repre- sentatives were charged with the responsibility of keeping the teachers of their building informed on all club activities, including the time and place of meetings, and of making all collections and reports for the building. Often representative meetings were held between the monthly meetings. Interest and enthusiasm in the monthly meetings increased, which was soon followed by increased attendance. We now realized thatwith the constant expansion of our aims and objectives some means of communication with the individual members, with outside organ- izations, and with similar clubs in other cities must be provided, so the Seattle Grade Club Magazine was launched. This has proved to be one of the club's greatest assets. With the activities of the club con- stantly increasing, the necessity for headquarters next presented itself. Beginning in a small way, we now have a club home. The president, now relieved of much routine work by the appointment of an executive secretary, can use her time in building up the organization. The work of our club is carried on through nine departments or stand- ing committees. This year the president organized the executive board ofninemembers into a cabinet, each one of whom was made responsible for one department. About three hundred of our members are now actively working in some capacity, and the others we hope are actively interested. It would have been impossible to carry on this work had we not recognized the value of co-operation with the administration . Through this spirit of co-operation in the Seattle schools and will- ingness to work with outside organizations one of the biggest projects for spreading the gospel of support for home industries was carried out this spring, including a "Northwest Products Exhibit." A committee 82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General from the schools worked with a similar committee from the Chamber of Commerce. Local plants were visited by the students, the trips providing live material for English, history, geography, and science classes. The schools worked out slogans, posters, exhibits, and interest- ing projects. Northwest products were featured in the lunchrooms. Teachers took an active part in staging the exhibit. This is just a summary of the work of the Seattle teachers. Through the monthly and quarterly publications of similar organizations through- out the country we keep in touch with the work of their members, and we know that they too are working along lines that will raise the profession to a plane where it inspires public confidence. In many cities we find the teachers actively engaged in Americanization work, child welfare, or working with the legislature on tax problems. Molding pub- lic sentiment and advertising the work of the schools is the big job before us at the present time. Active participation of teachers in shap- ing school policies through councils or central committees can but result in better schools if the desire for this springs from the teachers themselves . If we are going to look to our National Association for inspiration and leadership, it is also duty to keep its officers informed on the activities of our local clubs. This the Seattle Club has tried to do. Our correspondence and friendly relations with our National Association have been of great help. So every teacher who would have a part in this national program must be a member of a local teachers' organization, a state teachers' association, and the National Education Association for "the essential strength of the Association under its new organization lies in the vigor of its component units. The influence of each of these adds to the pow- er and prestige of the central body, each unit partaking of the strength of all the others." The Association, then, has an important service to per- form in promoting teachers' organizations. The pledge of the Associa- tion to carry out the foregoing principles would be futile unless it recognized that the biggest step toward this is "the unification and federation of the educational forces of the country in one great pro- fessional and the promotion of the highest welfare of the nation." It would be impossible to carry out this national program without the support of the nation. The Towner-Sterling Bill, written to meet the national need for better schools and better teachers, is another im- portant step that has been taken to carry out this comprehensive pro- gram. When education has been lifted to its rightful place in a separate department with a secretary in the President's cabinet, it will be only a beginning of what may be accomplished by the educational forces of the country working under its leadership. With the revelations of the Great War before us, we know that education can hardly be kept in its place as keystone of the American system unless its full powers are Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO CLASSROOM TEACHER 83 co-ordinated. Are we as classroom teachers shouldering our full responsibility in this national legislation ? The classroom of the public schools of America are the only com- mon meeting places of America's children at work. Right ideals of work and service are inculcated there. Public-school playgrounds and recreation centers are the only common meeting places of America's children at play. Respect for the rights of others is inculcated and enforced there. The classroom teacher is the only person who holds the true key to the mystery of making young Americans work and play together without trespassing on the other fellow's rights the greatest skill ever required in a democracy. She is the true leader, the real guide. Consequently, greater stress must be placed on classroom work and recreation, and I emphasize again the fact that greater recognition and compensation must follow. THE AMERICAN PROGRAM in educATION AS IT IS RE- LATED TO THE WORK OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHER PHEBE MATHEWS, HIGH SCHOOL, SOMERVILLE, MASS . Public sentiment is everything, so Abraham Lincoln said many years ago, and with public sentiment nothing can fail. Today, as never be- fore, the public is looking to the schools for better citizenship and are we making good? Business men are demanding that the products of our schools shall think straight. The public and the business men are reasonable in their demands. Teachers must be more than teachers. They must mingle with other workers and be interested in social and civic work of the city or town in which they live. A teacher must think in terms of city- wide, state-wide, and nation-wide problems. She is not only helping all teachers but is helping herself. The teacher who lives and thinks alone stands in her own light. Education should be put on a business basis. Neither the states nor the nation have paid proper heed to the needs of the schools. Our first business is to create a new sentiment for our schools. Our people must be led to see that the schools are no longer the second line of national defense, but they are the first line of defense. Upon the stability of that line depends the safety of the present generation and the happiness of our posterity. We must make the people feel that every dollar in- vested in the schools is not only present happiness but future security.. We as classroom teachers must heed the call and create a sentiment which will demand adequate support for our schools. The officials of the nation's schools are not hired to save money for the nation, state, or city, or for the corporations which may have excessive political power. The officials of the schools are not in office to report that they are saving the taxpayers' money. 84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Publicity and loyalty to our Republic will put our schools on a sub- stantial basis. Publicity is a splendid panacea for our fears. The world- war taught us that our people will tax themeslves any amount for a cause which they believe to be a worthy one. We are in a progressive age. The airship has supplanted the stage coach, and the electric light has eclipsed the tallow candle of our forefathers. Increased efficiency means smaller classes, better equipment, better prepared teachers, and these cost more money. We all agree that the public school has made marvelous progress in recent years. The people are recognizing the fact that our public school is the greatest socializ- ing institution in America and is capable of rendering great service to the nation. Today we as educators are assembled on this glorious day of our national independence to take counsel and to render thanks to the National Education Association for allowing us the great privilege of meeting so many distinguished men and women of letters. Let the classroom teachers realize what the Association does and has been doing for years and you will not have to ask her support as it will be given willingly. When we know that we can express an opinion and have a function besides paying our dues you will find the N. E. A will not need to ask the second time for support. How can we ever thank such men as Dr. Claxton, who has worked in season and out of season for eleven years for the cause of education ; Dr. Winship ; my own home-city gentlemen whom we all love and respect, Dr. Strayer, Presi- dent Hunter, J. W. Crabtree, and Hugh Magill, and I might go on with a great many more but I know you know the ones who have tried to emphasize the importance of the value of the classroom teacher. THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AS IT IS RELATED TO THE CLASSROOM TEACHER EFFIE MAC GREGOR, TEACHER IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN . We have recently introduced, through various avenues of education, what is terıned Americanization, for the purpose of establishing American ideals in every individual American resident. The greatest American ideal is that of democracy. The greatest American has defined democracy as being "a government of the people, by the people, and for the people." It would be useless to attempt a more inclusive definition. When the Pilgrims landed they were "the people" and they had de- finite ideas as to what their government should include. They par- ticularly sought religious freedom and the American people continued the quest with such avidity that of late we find writers asking for a Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO CLASSROOM TEACHER 85 new morality. Now what we need is not a new morality but to admit to ourselves that there is but one, and that there never has been but one morality. Some things are fundamental and morality is one of those things. If we do not fit the rule the fault is with us not the rule. We need to realize that after all a democracy is that form of government which gives the individual the greatest amount of freedom in which he may prove that the second commandment is not only possible but practical. Today it is very evident that there is much confusion concerning our greatest national ideal, that of democracy. If we accept democracy as a national idcal, then every citizen should put forth every effort to bring that ideal into effect. There is no American institution that more nearly demonstrates the national ideal than the public school. Just as the ideal has not been perfectly realized in the government so it has not been perfectly realized in our public schools but good citizens do not abandon their government because it has not yet attained perfection. Instead, they look for some place to do "their bit" toward the improvement of their government. It is not possible that a democratic form of government can suc- ceed without being supported by a democratic educational system. Just as the athlete develops certain muscles by the constant use of those muscles, so an ideal is gained by the constant application of that ideal. Our public schools are the source of application of the democratic ideal. Our public-school children in turn, become "the government of the people, by the people, and for the people." It is to be hoped that the American program in education will soon include some definite campaign whereby the public school may become not only popular but may come to be considered an essential experience in the life of every American citizen. In speaking of his work in Europe Mr. Hoover recently said, "We have fed in all fifteen million children. I would rather have the American flag flying in the hearts of those little children than over any citadel in Europe, for these children are the men and women with whom your children and mine will have to deal twenty years hence. These children carry in their little hands today the safety and hope of civiliza- tion." The children of the public schools in our country today "carry intheir little hands" the demonstration of the democratic ideal. Will the American people fail to realize the importance of support to so vital a democratic institution ? The classroom teacher has been admitted to have been one of the great national assets during the last great national trial. We had been commonly criticized by other nations for employing so many women in the training of our growing boys. It was said that our boys would not "measure up" when it came to a real test of manhood. And what 86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General was the result? Well, we have been criticized as a nation for several other things during the war, but no one ever heard that the American army did not "measure up." We, teachers of the classroom, admit our share in their success, not because we would take from their glory, but that we would add to it by continuing our work as American instructors to American men. Not only as instructors did we contribute during the war. We served as a great, if not the great channel of patriotism for it is a well-known fact that "a little child can lead" when all others fail. Through the children in the public schools the Liberty Loan drives, the Thrift Stamp drives, the Red Cross drives, and all other war drives were not only popularized but were made highly successful. We class- room teachers discovered that we were real channels through which patriotism might flow to the public. We had hardly been aware our- selves how valuable we were but we found that it was our privilege to prove that " a little child never fails to lead them. " Even though we proved that we could deliver somewhat successfully the "three R's" besides adding our bit as to patriotic service, still we found that the American public was not ready to hand us our earned and much-needed financial gain. We found we had to educate the public to the fact that while the teaching profession, as the medical profession and several other professions, is somewhat missionary it is not entirely so. In my own city of Minneapolis we have recently carried on a campaign for an increase in millage for the purpose of maintaining the past and present standard of the Minneapolis public schools. Minne- apolis has a new charter form of government. The old charter was retained as it stood, but it became necessary, because of the change in time, that six amendments be added to that charter. Now each of these amendments could be carried only by a three-fifths majority of all the votes cast so you can readily see that some strenuous publicity was necessary. Amendinent No. 1 had to do with the millage concerning the public-school maintenance, and amendment No. 2 with the millage for public library support. Amendments No. 1 and No. 2 were unan- imously carried because they were sufficiently advertised. The teachers' organizations of the city, joined by the support of citizens who were awake to the crisis, contributed enough money so that these two amendments were brought to the attention of every voter in Minneapolis and these very worthy amendments were added to our charter and the public schools and the public libraries of Minneapolis may continue as previously. Through the reorganization of the National Education Association it is hoped that not only will the classroom teacher be brought into closer relation with the American program in education but that Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO Training 87 American education and the American public will be brought into closer co-operation. The classroom teachers are deeply grateful to the keen- sighted men and women, in the field of education, who saw this need and met it. We believe, now, that we will serve as a much broader and deeper channel in our national service through our appreciation of our professional strength and efficiency, made possible by our National Education Association. Let every teacher put his or her "shoulder to the wheel" to give the National Education Association a 100 per-cent classroom teacher membership. We would remind the American public that we are professionally organized, that we may be of greater service in our share of proving that after all, a democracy is that form of government which gives the individual the greatest amount of freedom in which he may prove that the second commandment is not only possible but practical. 1 THE AMERICAN PROGRAM in education AS IT IS RELATED TO THE WORK OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS ROBERT H. WRIGHT, PRESIDENT EAST CAROLINA TEACHERS TRAINING SCHOOL, GREENVILLE, N. C. The channel of human affairs is changing and "Only the bat-minded men are blind to the big fact which underlies and envelopes all other facts of our time, that the universal social order is in a process of change at the present hour. In every continent and country and clime and condition there is unprecedented stir and unrest among the people. Old ways of doing things, old allegiances, and old standards of value are being given up for new. The transformation of organized life that is now taking place everywhere is really profound. It reaches out into every department of human interest. An understanding of this pheno- menon is the first duty of every thoughtful person who would be alive to his own era." This new condition places upon the school people a very grave, serious responsibility. Traditions have been swept away, the accepted is questioned, and the established is not stable. We have gone through a period when the whole world was organized to convert love into hate and faith into doubt. Nations were organized on these destructive bases. We were taught to doubt, to hate, to destroy. Today you and I live in a period of confusion that of necessity must follow years of such activity, and this confusion is world-wide. The schools must find the way out and must lead the present generation of youth into ways of organized con- structive intercourse. 88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Our sense of civic righteousness is being tested as never before. Men are saying, "This law is not intended for me, therefore, I will not obey it. " We have forgotten that when it becomes a law it is binding upon all. There are no special privileges for any select group of self- styled superior individuals. While it is law it is binding upon every good citizen, and the test of good citizenship is the spirit with which the individual obeys the law and assists in its enforcement. Are we to correct this evil? It depends upon what the teachers say. So I might go on through all the phases of human endeavor finding the evil and looking for the remedy. The answer in each case is the same, " It depends upon what the teachers say." If my thesis is correct, and I am positively sure it is, the greatest responsibility that rests upon any group of people in our civilization today rests upon those men and women who labor in institutions which train teachers for the schools. It is the truth that makes men free, and the untrained teacher cannot carry the truth to the present generation of children. Ignorance is our most dangerous and our most expensive luxury. The trained teachers, working with other right-minded men and women, will save our civiliza- tion if it is to be saved. Any state in our union, our nation, or any other nation, failing to see how vital are well-trained teachers in piloting the ship of state, will drift upon the rocks and there be left to the furies-a tempest coming out of an ignorant and superstitious people. Strong indeed must that ship be if she withstands the tempest. Russia today is upon the rocks and it will take the co-operative endeavors of the allied nations of the world to save her from herself. Mexico is fighting against the same waves though they are beating upon her from a different angle. Men and women of America, are we going to save this nation ? Our men in Congress and our Chief Executive do not yet see how vital to our country's safety is the present educational measure before Congress. If they could see how vital it is, the bill would be enacted into law within ten days. The passing of the Towner-Sterling Bill will not save the situation ; it will only pave the way for you and for me to do the work. It will be a means of helping. It will be national recognition of the vital necessity for public education. It will encourage those who labor, and it will approve of the efforts being put forth. It will say to the world "Democracy recognizes universal education as essential to the safety and stability of democratic government." This much at least we are entitled to, but the work must be done by you and by me after this bill is enacted into law. The task that lies before us today is the most worth-while task ever given man to do. We who train teachers must never let up until every American boy and every American girl-red, yellow, black, or white- is in a good public school, taught by a well-trained efficient teacher. Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO TRAINING 89 "A good public school for every American child, good enough for the best of us or it is too poor for the worst of us" should be our slogan. Remember, citizens of America, you cannot get the best for your child until you are willing to give the best to my child, and the un- trained teacher is not good enough for my child. Democracy makes me want to give your child the best. THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AS IT IS RELATED TO THE WORK OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHER- TRAINING INSTITUTIONS F. J. KELLY, RESEARCH PROFESSOR AND DEAN OF UNIVERSITY ADMIN- ISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS. The American program of education demands at least the follow- ing six things of teacher-training institutions : 1. That they accept as students only persons with sufficient phys- ical strength for the task, with high intellectual ability, with adequate training in general culture, and with careful preparation in the pre- professional sciences. 2. That the teacher-training curricula be on a plane at least as high as the curricula of other professional schools such as medicine and law, and that these curricula vary in content so as to prepare specifically for the different types of work in the teaching profession. 3. That teacher-training institutions join with other educational agencies in discouraging from entering the teaching profession those who contemplate but a short term of service as a teacher. To this end, a tuition charge, comparable with tuition charges for other curricula such as medicine, should be charged by teacher-training institutions. However, since teaching is a public service, paid for from the public treasury, this tuition should be payable in bankable notes which would be cancelled by service as a teacher, over a certain period of years. 4. That teacher-training institutions have definitely associated with them some of the best public schools of the state where clinical service as a teacher-in-training may be rendered under typical public-school conditions, and with adequate expert supervision paid for by the teacher-training institutions. 5. That certain teacher-training institutions (at least one in each of the larger states) maintain experimental schools and other agencies for purposes of research in the fundamental educational sciences. 6. That because institutions supported by the public cannot go far ahead of public opinion in a democracy, carefully worked out programs of public enlightenment on the subject of education and teacher qualifications be carried out among the people. 90 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Any one of the foregoing six propositions might well occupy the full time of this symposium if it were discussed at length. It is, in fact, dangerous to state such theses without defense. However, I shall confine my discussion to the fifth proposition, namely, that agencies for research should be maintained. I choose this one, not because it is assuredly the most important, but because inasmuch as I represent a school of education in a state university, this demand for research makes a strong appeal to me, stronger perhaps, than to the other speakers on the program. I hope, too by this choice to avoid much overlapping with other discussions of the hour. The demand for research facilities in education rests upon two propositions : First, education is built upon the social sciences of psychology, sociology, economics, and political science. Since these social sciences are so little developed as yet, any profession built upon them must be constantly changing in its so-called "established princ- iples." To guide this constant change, there is need for the most careful and consistent research. Second, the research should be carried on by educational institutions as a part of the work of public educa- tion. Today research is the key to supremacy in most lines of business. Manufacturers of electrical goods, rubber goods, oil products, pottery, silk, or what not, depend more upon some unique device or process for the superiority of their output than upon accuracy of workman- ship. Accordingly they set up expensive laboratories quite independ- ent of their factories, employ high-salaried experts to busy themselves in attempting to discover some better way. During the war even though man power was at such a premium, the Chemical Warfare Service set up great research laboratories and called into them thous- ands of young men and put them to work on finding the best way. Whether in peace or war, it is recognized that money lavishly spent in developing science and in making correct applications of the latest developments in science is good business. If this is true in industries, resting mainly upon the physical sciences of chemistry and physics which are relatively well advanced in their development, how much more essential is research in education which rests upon the social sciences which are barely past the swaddling-clothes stage in their development ? By the very nature of the case we are in all probability making far more grevious mistakes in our educational practices than are the manufacturers in their industrial practices. Furthermore, our use of any but the best devices is far more costly in human happiness than is the use of second-rate processes by manufacturers. The failure of industry to take advantage of research is immediately registered in business. A railroad which guesses that 60-pound rails will stand the load of the modern locomotive, soon finds out the error Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO TRAINING 91 by flattened rails or train wrecks. It pays the railroad in dollars and. cents to put some experts to work in the laboratory to test out the various sorts of steel rails as to composition, shape, weight, and cost, before they replace the old rails. In education, unfortunately the case is different. Mistakes are not so easily seen. A little less than the complete development of a child's physical, mental, or spiritual possibilities is not so obvious as a railroad wreck. Neither is the educational failure accompanied by financial ruin. However, in the great social evolution going on today no one will question that the discovery of "the best" in education is as significant as the discovery of "the best" in industry. Granted, then, the soundness of the demand for research in educa- tion, why must we insist that it be carried on by educational institutions as a part of the public-school job ? Essentially, the answer is the same as that applying to all public education. It is for the public good that education be universal, there- fore, the public establishes a compulsory educational system, and pays for it. Similarly, is is for the public good that education be based upon the best possible proof of all of its principles, therefore, the public should provide for research in education and pay for it. How then may this research be most effectively carried on in our scheme of education? In the first place, all teachers should be more imbued than most of them now are with the spirit of inquiry. This will impose a change upon many teacher-training institutions. Teachers are accused of being a group of closed-minded folk, when they should be the most open-minded of all professional people. Teacher-training institutions can do much to change this point of view. In the second place, many units of our educational organization, such as cities and counties, should maintain research departments as a few of them now do. This development needs careful guarding, however, because few peoples as yet are so well trained in the broad social-science field, and in the technique of investigation, as to be qual- ified to pronounce a principle proved or disproved. Under adequate safeguard these departments of research in city and county school systems, will do much not only toward the advancement of truth in education but toward keeping the spirit of research alive in the whole teaching population. Inthe third place, tearher-training institutions should make a definite place for research in their curricula. This is the main contention of this paper, and the only reason for my part in this symposium. There is, so far as I know, fewer than a half-dozen schools definitely experimental in their nature, maintained as a part of state-supported teacher-training institutions in this country. Furthermore, there are few teacher-training institutions which support a bureau of research to fos- 92 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General ter studies by men and women in the public-school field, and allow such field studies to apply as a part of the requirements for an advanced de- gree. Professors of education are too largely concerned still with in- quiring into present practice and too little concerned with devising the means of putting principle to the test and measuring the results. I believe that every fairly populous state in the union should main- tain at least one experimental school such as is maintained by the College of Education of the University of Iowa. In that school the teachers have their groups of children just as public-school teachers have, but they view the choice of both subject-matter and method with complete open-mindedness. Under the leadership of the professor of education they plan out what will constitute an adequate test of some educational principle, and then proceed to carry out the test over whatever number of weeks, months or years may be required. For this, careful measures of progress are essential. Then, when a pronouncement finally comes from that school as to the limits within which a given principle is sound, we all have confidence in the truth of that pronouncement. I hope the time will soon come when the main content of our journals, and text- books, too, which claim to be really professional, can have the sort of check which an experimental school affords. Next to providing experimental schools, the most important means of fostering research in education is to encourage independent field studies for credit by graduate students in education. As standards of requirements are raised, teachers of experience add to their professional training. We have at the University of Kansas this summer more than sixty superintendents, principals, and teachers who are candidates for a master's degree with a major in education. Other schools here repre- sented undoubtedly have many times that number. It is the intention of these people at the Unversity of Kansas to complete the requirements by attendance at summer sessions. Now it is our belief that the most important part of their graduate study can be done during the year between the summer sessions, if the school of education takes seriously its obligation to foster research. During the summer session group conferences and individual conferences with these people are held and the problems available for study by them in their respective public school positions outlined. The necessary readings preliminary to the inde- pendent study are listed and the correct technique of investigation worked out. Then throughout one of the two years intervening be- tween the three summer sessions required for the Master's degree, the student is enrolled for field work in the graduate school. One professor of education is in general charge of these research projects going on throughout the year, but all of the members of the staff regard the assistance called for by these field students as a legitimate claim upon their time, and each criticizes the progress and results of the studies falling in his own particular field. Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO TRAINING 93 THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AS IT IS RE- LATED TO THE WORK OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS JOHN A. H. KEITH, PRESIDENT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, INDIANA, PA. The American program in education means that the public school shall become adequately effective as the chief agent of our collective effort in maintaining and advancing civilization. This, in turn, means that the scope of the public-school system shall be so broadened and organized that illiteracy, alienism, and ignorance of the fundamentals of health and civic responsibility will disappear forever; that public edu- cation shall be so extended that each may have the opportunity to learn what he wants to know; that both educational opportunities and the burden of supporting them shall be equalized. The American educational program can never be realized, no matter how much money we spend on other things, unless our teachers are qualified to realize that program in and through the work of the school- room. To realize the great socializing work of public education de- mands knowledge, insight, tact, skill, and trained personality of a rare and wholesome type. The occupational aspect of teaching demands salary as an inducement to enter upon it and to remain in it. This salary must become large enough to stand as a competitive bid for talent, large enough to afford a selection from those who feel the call to teach. A few favored and public-spirited communities have already done this andhave thereby shown that it can be done. Such outstanding successes prove conclusively the desirability of making it unanimous and universal. It would seem that a state that desires to perpetuate and advance itself would so carefully care for, select, and honor its teachers as to make their selection a matter of the greatest difficulty. This will actually be done everywhere as soon as the public appreciates and understands the work and mission of the public school. In the preparation of teachers who are equal to the great task of making real the ideals of our program, the normal schools occupy a strategic position. They are limited in many ways, but they are also in a position to understand and appreciate the public demands for trained teachers and to adjust their regimen to this demand as best they can with the students and means that are available. No normal school has unlimited financial resources, and, while it may be true that some schools could make better use of the funds they now have, it is equally true that every normal school could do a much better piece of work if it had more funds at its disposal. So far in our history, no state has prepared an adequate number of teachers for its public schools. The program we are thinking about de- mands "a competent, well-trained teacher, in hearty accord with Amer- icanideals, in every public-school position in the United States." It is a 94 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General stupendous demand, for it involves no less than trebling the output of all our teacher-preparation institutions. It simply can not be done unless public opinion can be roused by something no less significant than federal subventions. Education began in this country as a family responsibility. It then became a community responsibility, and for more than a half century it has been recognized as a state responsibility. State responsi- bility has not lessened family or community responsibility in the least. What we now need is a national sanction which is more substantial, more tangible, and more helpful than words of fulsome praise. If the nation, as a nation, is benefited by the work of the public school, the nation, as a nation, should participate in payment as well as in benefit. Such participation is at once aid and sanction. The American program in education demands that teaching shall be- come a real profession. A real profession of teaching demands at least four years of specialized preparation beyond a four-year high school. Such an extended preparation would demand, at our present financial level, an average annual salary of at least two thousand dollars. This would be cheaper in the long run because it would be better than what we are now getting in this country for about eight hundred dollars. If we consider this matter on the four-years-of-preparation basis instead of the present two-year basis, it is evident that the present teacher- preparation facilities of the country would have to be increased from five to sixfold. This sixfold increase in facilities would demand a pro- portionate increase in funds available. The American program in education, therefore, places the normal schools of the country in a peculiar position. These schools realize the demands upon teachers in the public schools and they know what the preparation is which prospective teachers ought to have. And they will do everything in their power to hasten the day when adequate prepara- tion will be given to every teacher. Meanwhile, a very practical problem confronts them. It will require ten years, at least, with every teacher- preparation institution working at 100 per cent of its capacity, to have a teaching force every one of whom shall have had at least two years of preparation beyond a four-year high school course. The capacity of the normal schools of the country, with their present buildings and equip- ment is about 100,000 students. On a two-year basis, not more than 50,000 of these could be graduated. By means of summer sessions, extension classes, and correspondence work, the equivalent of 25,000 additional graduations could be accomplished. This theoretical limit of 75,000 graduates a year could not be reached at once, for it would de- mand a salary inducement to young people that is not found everywhere and a co-operation on the part of school superintendents in sending capable young people into the normal school, that is quite generally lack- ing. All of us must realize that the normal school, in fact, if not in law, is an integral part of the public-school system. Superintendents M ON NG Sessions] PROGRA -RELATI TO TRAINI 95 and principals should endeavor to discover teaching talent and send it on to the normal school. Vocational guidance that overlooks teaching isworsethan short sighted. Wehave heard much in recent years about making the conditions of teaching attractive to young people. The conditions surrounding the preparations of teachers must likewise be made attractive. Normal schools have been justly criticized on this score. There is more involved in this matter than the mere pleasure or good times of students while in attendance, and post-graduate devotion to ALMA MATER. Many com- munities need to re-establish that genuine sociability which the division of labor and the automobile have destroyed. A training in social life in a normal school should prepare one to be a teacher of sociability. There is as great need of this ability as there is of the ability to teach reading. The present necessity for working largely on the two-year level in- stead of on the four-year level gives to the normal schools an oppor- tunity of organizing advanced work which their graduates may take in summer sessions after some teaching experience and with difficulties en- countered fresh in mind. Tohave a group of such teachers come back to the normal school for help on their real problems would be most helpful to them and to the school itself. The work of such a group in primary reading, for example, would be more beneficial to the normal school teacher of that subject than postgraduate work in it at a university. Out of such classes should come the materials to be used in the four-year courses to which we all look forward. When one considers the whole gamut of school activities from this point of view, it is not difficult to conclude that present necessity is a blessing in a very thin disguise. There are also involved in this proposal great opportunities for co-operation, for intelligent serviceableness of the normal school to the public school, a serviceableness already too long delayed. The normal schools recognize their responsibility in connection with the American program of education. They must become more helpful to teachers of all kinds, their isolation must end, they must serve and they must lead; but their leadership must come through their service. And fundamental, in this connection, is the question as to whether the normal schools shall become institutions devoted to the technique of teaching to such an extent as to lose sight of the great fundamentals which we sometimes call the principles of education. Technique is developing so rapidly of late that there is a strong tendency to devote the entire time of the student to it and to neglect those ideas and ideals that orient and anchor the teacher. If we yield entirely to this tendency, we shall have a teaching force analogous to the "lock step of the public school." Wecertainlywant the teaching well done, but we ought to want it done intelligently. 96 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General The normal schools, must, therefore, interpret the meanings of edu- cation to their students, and, in a wider sense, to their communities which are the several states. They have a distinct duty in "such an awak- ening of the people to a realization of the importance and value of edu- cation as will elevate the profession of teaching to a higher plane in public esteem and insure just compensation, social recognition, and permanent tenure on the basis of efficient service." They must, inevi- tably, have a philosophy of education and a philosophy of life. Without this, these schools become mere training schools; with it, and adequate training, they become institutions for the preparation for teachers. The difference between training and preparation for teaching must be kept constantly in mind by school officials and by institutions engaged therein, in order that the American program in education may succeed. The normal schools will not fail in the future in this matter. Therefore, the normal schools find themselves in hearty accord with the American program in education. They welcome it as a common platform on which the parent, the community, the school officials, the teachers, the state, and the nation may meet and counsel together. They recognize its clarion call to a service that is both old and ever new, a better teacher, a better school, a better community, and a better world. Civilization must be re-created by each generation, and this can be directed wisely only by teachers of insight and power. The prepara- tion of such teachers is the part of the normal schools in the realization of the American program in education. THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AS IT IS RELATED TO WORK OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS JOHN R. KIRK, PRESIDENT OF THE STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KIRKSVILLE, MO . Is there an American program in education ? Probably not. Are there beginnings of an American program ? Probably so. There are certainly forty-eight or more programs in education for and within our American states. But no two states are much alike in such programs and no state holds itself under obligations to recognize the program of any other state. One feature in the alleged preparation of teachers appears to be American in scope but not in spirit. I refer to the preparation o teachers for vocational high-school agriculture under the Federal Boar for Vocational Education. This is a unique program which fev people seem to understand. It had origin in benevolent effort to provide preparation of teachers of agriculture through normal schools It began with the Burkett Bill more than fifteen years ago. After man- years and much manipulation it took form in the Smith-Hughes Bill Sessions] PROGRAM-RELATION TO TRAINING 97 About three years ago on the anniversary of Washington's birthday, the Philadelphia Public Ledger quoted the speech of the preceding night, made by the vice-chairman of the Federal Board, to the effect that "the democracy of Jefferson was dead," and "there was coming a centralized control of education in Washington such as Alexander Hamilton never dreamed of" and to the further effect that the states would be told by the Federal Board what they would have to do. The vice-chairman seemed not to be taken seriously, but the Board meant business. They have centralized the control of the vocational high-school teachers of agriculture. They have given substantial monopoly of the preparation, or pseudo-preparation, of high-school teachers of agriculture to one institution in each state and have provided that the funds for such preparation of teachers in each State shall not be appreciably divided. It turns out that they have selected for their favor the one institution that is probably least adapted to the preparation of teachers of any kind and the one that seemingly cares least for the exemplification of good teaching practices. But there seems to be nothing that anybody can say or do that will in any way make a dent in this political American program in education. I think the program of the Federal Board for Vocational Education cannot well be called American. It is more nearly European. It is quite autocratic. It illustrates the seeming purpose of the vice-chair- man as quoted in the Public Ledger. We certainly cannot see, as yet, any wide-reaching American pro- gram for the preparation of teachers. There are great movements in many states that betoken an ultimate drawing together and unitizing of the teacher-producing forces of the country. We may well believe that the democracy of Jefferson is not dead. We may well hope that even the Federal Board for Vocational Education may ultimately join the forces of democracy and both give and receive a square deal. There begins in all the States to be appreciation of the fact that the teachers in the elementary schools ought to be as well prepared and as well paid as any teachers. Nearly everybody believes that the high- school teacher should be professionally prepared. Some people in al- most every state believe that college professors should have professional preparation and not continue violating the well-known principles of teaching. There is a pretty general impression that the best teaching is likely to be found in the elementary schools; the next best in the high schools; and frequently the poorest in the colleges. There is the promise of an awakening among the professors themselves. There is a growing consensus of judgment that pedagogical courses in four-year high schools are premature and largely ineffective. There is universal disposition to place the qualifications of teachers in normal schools on a par with those of college faculties. In the scholarship and 98 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the salaries of faculty members, the value of libraries and laboratories in the normal schools, normal colleges, teachers colleges, and schools of education there is universal and well-planned elevation of standards. There is gradually coming about better understanding among all the teacher-producing institutions. In one state by voluntary agreement the university and five state teachers colleges have uniform require- ments, qualitatively and quantitatively, for entrance to the Freshman class and for the bachelor's degree. These six institutions are all inspected annually by the same committee and exchange credits at par. There is general disposition to get together in many national organizations as illustrated by the American Association of Teachers Colleges organized less than six years ago with five charter members . Last February the Association had sixty-nine members. Recently Massachusetts, California, Minnesota, and many intervening states transformed their old-time two-year normal schools into four-year, degree-conferring colleges for teachers. At the present time there are approximately ninety degree-conferring, four-year colleges for teachers bearing the titles normal school, teachers college, or normal college. Many of them are in transition stages. All of them are raising standards, definitely reorganizing their curricula and attaining higher efficiency in the special service which they are designed and destined to render. There is encouragement and indication of wholesome trend shown by the recent annual report of the conservative Carnegie Foundation which long stood firmly against anything for normal schools excepting the traditional standards and formulas brought from Germany eighty years ago. The Foundation now recommends that normal schools drop the old name and become colleges for teachers. It recommends that the preparation for teaching in elementary schools be put upon the four-year college basis and that there be the same requirements for teachers in elementary schools as for the teachers in approved high schools . This does not mean studies in exactly the same subjects. It means uniform requirements, quantitatively and qualitatively. Per- sonally, your present speaker takes a great deal of satisfaction in ob- serving that the Carnegie Foundation , along with some other powerful groups in education, has seen the light. The suggestion is ventured that the recent arguments for the four-year curriculum found in the report of the Foundation might have been found some dozen years ago in the bulletins of a well-known normal school in the Middle West . Whatever the American program may be, no intelligent, close- observing American can now doubt that if any person among teachers now needs and always has needed a college education it is the teacher of the sixth-grade children in the elementary schools and the teacher of the other children in the elementary schools. The judgment and Sessions] PROGRAM-COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 99 conscience of intelligent people now recognize and demand that the salary of the college bred and professionally prepared elementary teacher shall not be less than the salary of the high-school teacher. Both judgment and conscience demand that salaries of teachers shall be measured by the capability and the professional preparation of teachers and not by the grade, class, group, or type of children the teacher happens to be appointed to instruct. Somehow, sometime, therefore, in the not distant future, we shall no doubt be forming, unitizing, and putting into operation for nation- wide use, a sane, effective, and widely variable American program in education for the preparation of American teachers. WHAT PART SHALL THE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES PLAY IN THE AMERICAN PROGRAM OF EDUCATION? L. D. COFFMAN, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MIN NESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. State universities since they were first established have been re- garded as part of the public-school system. There have been occasions when the relationship was more theoretical than real. Universities have at times attempted to isolate themselves, to set up highly artificial en- trance requirements, and to administer their affairs without reference to the other units of public education. The barriers thus established did not lead to friendly discussion. Senatorial courtesy rather than a spirit of mutual helpfulness usually characterized the conferences of the representatives of the various units. But wherever the spirit of disunion and separation has arisen, it has not survived long. Nothing has contributed more to a friendly relationship between the various units than the increased attention that education is receiv- ing just now. Students are flocking to school as they never did before. High schools are increasing in number, and the number of students in them is increasing rapidly. State universities are deluged with new- comers. Their growth is due partly to our theory of education. We have consistently maintained that the doors of the schools should be free and equally open to all from the kindergarten to and through the university. Their growth is due partly to the new interest in education which the war aroused. But there is another cause much more funda- mental than either of these, and that is the growing recognition of the unusual complexity of the problems this generation has to face and to solve. It is a significant fact that each generation has raised the levels of training for its successors ; it has done so because the social, econo- mic, and political problems of each succeeding generation have been more difficult than those of the preceding generation. Progress could 100 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General have been assured in no other way. The very safety and security of democracy depends upon high levels of trained intelligence; the more complex, the more intricate the problems become, the higher these levels of trained intelligence must be. The problems of this day and generation are almost overwhelmingly difficult. They challenge the intelligence and imagination of everyone. Humanity recognizes this and it is sending its children to school that they may be properly equipped to solve these problems. But whatever may be the cause of the increased interest in the schools, their growth has forced the attention of everyone upon them in a new way. Clearly some reorganization is as necessary as it is desir- able. To go on providing for indefinite numbers of students in the various schools without taking an inventory of the aims and forms of organizations of the whole system of American education, including the university, is to perpetuate a system that must sooner or later break of its own weight. There are certain principles which I believe to be perfectly clear and to be generally accepted. One is that the road to the university should be as free and as equally open to all as possible. The other is that everyone who is qualified to attempt a higher education should be privileged to do so. Whenever universities place unnecessary and artificial limitations upon their registration, they will become aristo- cratic in form if not in nature. They will be in danger of ceasing to be the creative agents of democracy and may become the agents of class and station. Both the program of American education and the philosophy of the American people have been opposed to anything savoring of this. While the principles of American education are clear and bold and deep-scated in the hearts and affections of the people, there are certain important relationships between the universities and the high schools that may be worked out to the mutual advantage of both. One of these involves a clearer definition of the function of each. No adequate attempt has been made to do this. Years ago when the universities were young and small and ambitious they did a lot of elementary and high-school work. They taught arithmetic, grammar, spelling, and penmanship. These subjects have disappeared, but the high-school sub- jects still remain. They were introduced to attract students. This is no longer necessary. Many of the universities are devoting a large share of their time and attention to instruction in subjects on the secondary level. Desirable as this may have been once, it is no longer, or will soon no longer be necessary. Courses in beginning English, beginning Latin, and elementary mathematics will soon disappear from university bulletins. The situation at the University of Minnesota is fairly typical. Last year there were eighty sections in beginning English and more sections in beginning French than there were in the entire Law School. Sessions] PROGRAM-COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 101 The practical question arises, "What is to be done about the matter ?" At once several answers suggest themselves. I am assuming, of course, that no one, or practically no one, will question the desirability of universities freeing themselves from all work that is not strictly of university grade. One simple expedient would be for universities to provide this work for a limited number of years in their extension de- partments, the students paying fees sufficient to support the courses. This would mean that when students come to the university without elementary German and finding it a prerequisite to the curriculum of the professional school they desired to enter they would register for it in the extension department. This step would be purely temporary. In the course of a few years, as students receive better advice on vocations in the high schools this arrangement should cease. There is another plan which is worthy of more serious consider- ation and this is actually giving credit toward a degree for approved high-school work. This suggestion may seem revolutionary, but let us see what the facts are. The University of Chicago and the University of Minnesota have been experimenting with it for some time. Students who have carried certain work in the University High School at Chi- cago may enter Junior mathematics in the university; others may enter Sophomore courses in the modern languages. Students who have com- pleted the regular course in the University High School at Minnesota may enter advanced courses in mathematics in the university. And the interesting fact is that the students carry their university work with credit to themselves and to the university. Why should they not ? They are taught by teachers who in most cases are fully the equal and fre- quently superior to those that they would have in small colleges or in the university. Should this plan be extended, and this is conceivable, it should be made to apply only to approved or standard schools. The question will naturally arise as to who will approve the schools. Shall it be done by the university or by the state department of public instruction ? It is clear to everyone who is conversant with the drift of the times that inspection of high schools by state departments of public instruction is steadily increasing, and that inspection by universities is steadily de- creasing; but if the university is to give credit for a degree for work carried in high school, then there must be a more intimate contact than there has been in the past between the university and the state department in this matter of inspection as well as in determining the standards for the certification of teachers . For those who insist that this scheme is theoretical, idealistic, and impracticable, let me remind them again that every state university is graduating students, one-fourth of whose collegiate work is on the secondary level. I have not said that the adoption of this plan would 102 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General shorten the student's educational career, but even that could be done. Suppose, for example, that thirty-two semester credits are required for graduation from high school, and thirty-two from college. Suppose that the gifted student comes to college with thirty-six semester credits. Is there any good reason, providing the extra credits earned in high school will fit into his college program, why he should earn more than twenty- eight college credits for graduation ? But the question is not a mere mat- ter of credits. It is a matter of attainment and ability to achieve. To be classified on this basis would place a premium upon achievement an end highly desirable in these days of loose thinking and superficial am- bitions. There is another practical suggestion that I should like to make, and that is as the Freshman and Sophomore years disappear from the universities, as I feel certain they will in the next twenty-five years exactly as the academies did during the last twenty-five, there must follow a complete and genuine reorganization of the whole public-school program below the university. Instead of the public schools adding the Freshman and Sophomore years, adding them as thirteenth and four- teenth years, they can, through an effective reorganization of the materials of instruction and forms of administration , accomplish for the bright student in twelve years what he is now spending fourteen years upon, and do it better than it is now being done. This also is an end devoutly to be wished, not merely in the interest of economy, but in the interest of better education . Should the changes come to pass, universities will be in a position to function more nearly as true universities. Their courses will be mapped out with definite objectives in view, and they will co-operate with other units of public education in mapping out those courses. They will be places for research, free discussion, and independent study. It may be asked what the changes that have been suggested in this paper have to do with the program of American education. The answer is-everything. They are at the very center of the program. I have assumed the generally accepted aims-free, universal education, removal of illiteracy, physical training, a competent teacher in every school, training in citizenship ; these aims are not likely to be modified in our time. But the means for realizing them will be the subject of continual discussion. The necessity for them will be accentuated by the growing size and growing cost of the present cumbersome and outworn system. The principles upon which a sound program of American education should be based are clearly understood and accepted. They call for two things: training in intelligent followership and training in intelligent leadership. The whole system of American education must be organized so as to insure both of these. If the general plan suggested here were followed the university would still train for leadership. Unless some Sessions] PROGRAM-COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 103 such plan is introduced the state universities will soon cease to be places where leadership is trained. As it is they are rapidly becoming institu- tions for mass education. They help to raise the general level of trained intelligence within the state, but men who desire to be trained for distinctive leadership in the respective professions are likely to seek that training in other institutions. State universities, unless conditions are changed, will train many good doctors, but few distinguished surgeons, many good lawyers, but few real students of jurisprudence, many engineers but few professional engineers. Perhaps they cannot and should not do more than this. I think they can and should. Training for leadership in the professions should not reside largely in the private schools of this country. If it must, then the faculties of our state universities will, in the long run, be made up of persons of mediocrity. That will be a misfortune, not merely for the institutions, but for the students who come to thern to be trained for service within the state . There is current a gross misconception concerning the theory of American education. Many believe that equality of opportunity means equalability and unvarying opportunity. There is a sense in which ed- ucation is democratic only at the beginning. All children enter the doors of the public schools, so far as the schools are concerned, with an even chance, but the upper reaches and stretches of education must be and should be earned. The only point that we should keep in mind is that the differences that are emphazied are not due to adventitous circum- stances, but to differences in intellect and in achievement and in ability. A state university should emphasize differences as well as likenesses, inequalities as well as equalities; it should select for opportunity as well as provide an opportunity for all. These purposes can be achieved only by a thorough reorganization. Most of us are too timid to attempt that reorganization. Consequently I fear we shall continue to temporize and compromise with the situation, and to move on year after year, with the registration growing in size and the machinery of administration be- coming more complex. But that does not alter the situation nor does it change the facts. The entire program of American education is on trial. It is being tested and critized in new and untried ways. Its purposes and aims are worthy of our most ardent defense. Its organization is crippled by attempts to preserve traditional distinctions, historical anomalies, and a blind faith in the boundaries of the various administrative units. Shall the schoolmasters of America wait for outside forces and pressure to bring changes-changes which may be hurtful or will they assume some leadership in the matter ? That is the challenge of the day ! Refuse it and we become the unthinking adherents of faith and tradi- tion; accept it and we become the leaders of a new day, the true ex- ponents of a great profession. 104 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General WHAT PART SHALL THE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES PLAY IN THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION? IRVING S. CUTTER, DEAN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, OMAHA, NEBR. The American colleges and universities have a great responsibility in carrying forward a prominent sector of the general educational advance. Upon them devolves the responsibility of fitting the youth of the land for leadership in life. What is the college delivering to society ? A reason- ably careful analysis discloses that the American college has not (to use trade vernacular) been " sold" to the American public. College training except in the professions is not essential to economic or social success. It is desirable and the proper thing, but the public is skeptical as to its absolute value. The daily press and the current magazines are filled with biographical sketches of our great men, bankers, captains of finance, railroad presidents, men of big business-men who mold the thought of the nation-and few are the products of college or university training. A short time ago I heard the president of one of our largest railway systems state that he knew every railway president in the United States, and that he could count those who were college trained upon the fingers of one hand. This individual deplored the fact that he could not induce college men to enter the railroad business because they were not willing to begin at the bottom. They were perfectly willing to accept superintendencies for which they were wholly incom- petent and entirely unprepared. Starting at the bottom the college- trained man will outstrip the other fellow ninety-nine times out of one hundred. This is inevitable. But college training has taken away some- thing while it has given something, and that something taken away must be recovered. To "sell" the college to the people must be the "job" of the college ad- ministrations of today. Our great universities are proud of an enrol- ment of say 5,000 to 8,000 bona fide students. Should not the great state universities plan for an enrolment within the next decade of from ten to twenty thousand or even more ? This will most certainly be true if points of contact with actual affairs are established and the college made indispensable to economic advancement. Points of contact with actual affairs can be made by every university department with but few exceptions. For engineering, law, medicine, agriculture, chemistry, physics, psychology, journalism, commerce, and many others, the contacts are evident and require no elaboration. Too few university departments have so far sought these contacts. There should be a linking of the university department of sociology with every public charity within reach. University departments of psychology must awake to the relationship of applied psychology to psychiatry, and the profound lessons in mental hygiene yet to be learned. Medical Sessions] PROGRAM-COLLEGESș and uniVERSITIES 105 schools must become centers for the dissemination of information on public health and producers of trained workers in all fields touching epidemiology. Departments of history and economics have a vital con- tact in assisting the public to understand and correlate the obscure pres- ent with the lessons of a clearer past. Industrial concerns and business men generally have come to look upon university departments as too theoretical, and have in self-defense retrained college men for their special needs. The establishment of fellowships and the allotment of research funds by industrial concerns in many of our colleges and universities is significant. Of primary importance to the college is the instructor. The college professor in order that he may meet the demands of modern social and economic conditions must forego his dilettanteism and become a man among men. First, that he may bring college ideals and accomplish- ments to the active business world and second, that he may have a new and basic appeal to his students. In order that the colleges and univer- sities may retain the best men, points of contact with actual life-affairs must be established. The man with such a contact multiplies his use- fulness to the university which he serves and brings to his students an entirely new viewpoint. In his larger vision he loses much of his nar- rowness, and dangerous jealousies, previously so threatening, become insignificant. The drain of college professors to the industrial world may be stopped only by making the university position attractive by providing possibilities for mental advancement, by supplying broadening outside allied contacts, and by attaching thereto an adequate financial return. These will retain to the university those essential teachers who are con- structive, inspirational, and sane. To forestall the training of our youth at the hands of educational "seconds" the colleges and universities must co-operate with all agencies striving for better salaries, a more secure tenure of office and a greater appreciation on the part of the public. With business opportunities so plentiful, with financial rewards so much greater, it is becoming increasingly difficult to attract young people to college teaching. The college, of necessity, must demand real teachers, men and women whonot onlyknow the subjects taught but who can really teach. There is a vast difference between the teacher and the erudite individual who is letter perfect in his subjects but who lacks utterly the power to impart knowledge or to inspire his students. Every university has a dozen or so real teachers who love their work and who constitute the bright spots in the student's undergraduate course. The college professor has a wonderful opportunity for service. He is a master of his subject, and if he can retain his sanity is potentially a tremendous factor in molding public thought. Too frequently he 106 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General feels called upon, in the classroom or in the public press, to give utter- ance to absurdities that rob him of public confidence. This tendency arises from his lack of contact with men of affairs. He can be and should be so essentially human that mental poise and balance will al- ways be retained. It would be most salutary if more college instruc- tors could become members of Rotary, Kiwanis, Concord, and clubs of like nature. Great teachers live for and in their students, and he is truly great who leaves four or five normal, human, well-trained men to carry forward his work. It is a serious matter to take four of the most productive years of a young man's life and graduate him, under our boasted elective sys- tem, with a little knowledge of many things but lacking concentration, power to think, and a real grasp of affairs. The first degree in arts or in science must carry with it definite standards of scholarship, notably the ability to write and speak good English, a general knowledge of history-especially American, of economics, biology, and sociology as well as physical science. Conservation of the time of the college student must be considered with great care. To use four academic years, in which to earn one hundred and twenty-five credits when as a rule at least one-fourth of these credits represent "snap" courses, tends to breed slovenly habits of study, and in after years to arouse a mild contempt for the curriculum. Medical graduates of today aver- age twenty-six years of age. This age average should be reduced. For the professional man, the education of life, of experience, is worth far more-is vastly more productive-than the same time spent in addi- tional preparation, perhaps profitable, but not essential. Two years of general college training in arts should be the maximum, permitting the utilization of the major fraction of the third and fourth college years for intensive training aimed directly at the chosen profession or vocation. Students who submit to the college course as one might submit to vaccination must be eliminated from the student body as carriers of a deadly infection. This should be done in order to make way for the virile individual, eager and persistent in his desire for training. Ambitionless students contaminate the entire student body and offer little return to society for the efforts spent upon them. It must be made possible for the poorest boy with brains and ambition to secure college training. I have an abiding faith in the American college boy. He wants to work, given the incentive. Many a lad who strug- gles through the two pre-medical college years succeeds brilliantly when actually launched upon his four years of medicine. Why ? Because the goal has been sighted, and he carries with honor a course 50 per cent more difficult than the average arts course. The favorite American college sport, "gunning for snap courses," will be forgotten in the pur Sessions] PROGRAM-COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 107 suit of real courses, under real teachers, where practical applications arepossible. To make possible the realization of the American program of edu- cation the colleges can and must insist upon some form of regular systematic physical training for all students. This is absolutely essen- tial. Inter-collegiate sports have a definite place in American college life. They breed tradition and college loyalty, but strenuous athletic games can be participated in by but few. A thorough physical exam- ination of all Freshman students and a course of training mapped out for each individual is the desideratum. An important factor in our boasted national security has been the efficiency of the "melting pot." We are now realizing that either the pot has not been of sufficient size or the fire too slow, or perhaps, the flux inadequate. I am inclined to believe that the flux, namely edu- cation, has not been of sufficient quantity and perhaps the quality has been poor. Vocational education now emphasized in the grammar and secondary schools must become a subject for intensive study by college teachers. A study of the character, ability, and capacity of each in- dividual student must be undertaken. The American college will not serve to its fullest until this is done. Too frequently two or three or more years of the life of a college graduate are lost in his struggle to find himself. "What shall you do after graduation ?" Then fol- low several years of indecision. Of these there are hundreds if not thousands among our college graduates each year. The college course has given birth to new ideas and new ideals ; has actually unfitted for some forms of normal employment and in too many instances has failed to point the way. The graduate is employed, but he is conscious that his heart is not in his work, that he is in a state of mental unrest seeking that which he can do with enthusiasm. Another important obligation rests upon the American colleges and universities: that of adding to the sum of human knowledge in all lines of endeavor. This means in every college adequate provisions for research, with able investigators unhampered by heavy teaching schedules. We are fairly launched upon a national educational inventory. The operation of the draft act disclosed a deplorable number of illiterates . A large Americanization program is gathering headway. The revised Towner Bill demonstrates an aroused national consciousness to the absolute need of greater co-ordination of all factors dealing with edu- cation. There can be no marking time in educational thought. The application of efficiency tests to our colleges and universities has al- ready begun. A national survey of American universities has been proposed. It is evident that larger and larger must loom the business control of institutions of higher learning. 108 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General A greater state and national pride in institutions of higher learn- ing will come with increased service to the largest possible number. Adequate financial budgets are bound to follow. A wide publicity relative to the activities of all college departments will make for greater sympathy, a better understanding, and firm moral support. To share in the tax for education becomes a privilege once our citizenship appre- ciates the reason for and sees the results of the expenditure. Shall the college and university sector then move forward, with every evidence of strength, with scores of contacts with real affairs, with business efficiency in all departments, with real leaders-men, in- spirational and sane; with a student army keenly alive to educational possibilites, not enervated by educational ease; with standards high and with service the goal sought? WHAT SHALL BE THE PROGRAM IN EDUCATION FOR CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN VIEW OF THE OBJEC- TIVES OF THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION RANDALL J. CONDON, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, CINCINNATI, OHIO (Telegram to President Hunter) I greatly regret that it is impossible for me to be present to take part in the discussion this morning. In my absence, however, may I in general terms propose for city schools a program as varied and as wide as the needs of city children and of the city itself-an educational pro- gram that shall cultivate social and civic ideals and give a broader and richer personal life; a program that conserves the interest of all the children-the exceptional, the average, and the physically or mentally handicapped ; a program that provides equal and varied opportunities for a liberal education, based alike upon art and industry, with books and things, work and study combined; that recognizes both the cultural and the vocational aims of education, and prepares alike for college and for work, with no narrow preparation for either; a unified program of public education maintained at public expense that gives every child a chance, from the kindergarten to the university, to make the most of himself and best to prepare for the life he is to live and the work he is to do ; a sane and well-balanced program that provides for the education of all children and youth of the city, according to their varied needs, and at the same time makes adequate provision for the recreational, social, civic, and educational activities for all the people. A program that makes good American citizens out of the native and foreign-born alike, all in- spired and controlled by ideals of unselfish service to the city, state, and nation ; a program which has physical education and good health as its foundation, which is controlled throughout by moral and civic purpose; and which is measured in terms of spiritual values. Sessions] PROGRAM-CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 109 May I also express the hope that out of your deliberations at Des Moines may come a greater and stronger National Education Associa- tion-a national association of many departments and many interests, but one unified Association, free and uncontrolled by any group or in- terests ; a genuinely democratic Association, representing and speaking for the united educational interests of the nation. WHAT SHALL Be the PROGRAM IN EDUCATION FOR CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN VIEW OF THE OBJECTIVES OF THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION? J. M. GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW ORLEANS, LA. Objective-A superior teacher in every classroom. There must be established a clear and definite concept of what constitutes a superior teacher. This concept will include the truths that teachers are "born" and "made." A well-defined procedure must be developed for selecting "born" teachers for education and training in the institutions that "make" teachers. Financial and social recognition for teachers must be maue adequate to attract into teacher-training institutions enough of those nature made fit for becoming teachers. The teachers and prin- cipals in the city schools must aid in selecting and in giving vocational guidance to those who become teachers. Teachers must boost and stop knocking the teaching profession before their pupils. Educational experts with full knowledge of the needs of the schools must have absolute authority and power to select and assign all princi- pals, supervisors, and teachers. Selection by school boards or because of political or other non-professional reasons will never reach the ob- Jective. Retention, promotion, and salary increases must at all times be based on efficient service. Tenure laws must not protect the teachers to the detriment of the children. They must make it easy to dismiss inefficient teachers and impossible to dismiss superior teachers. Reliable means for measuring the efficiency of teachers must be provided by school boards . Provision must be made for the training of teachers in service. Principals and supervisors must be trained for their work and not be merely, or for the most part, excellent teachers of long experience. Teachers must have sympathetic supervision by masters of the art of teaching and supervision. There is too much dead timber in principals' positions in many city schools. Colleges must co-operate with schools so that all teachers may be able to get the course they need and receive credit toward a college degree. A superior teacher is a growing teacher and the school system must provide the means and encouragement for growth. The organization of the school must be such as to attract, direct, and hold the teacher in the position where she can do the best work. The 110 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General salary schedule must not cause the desire for pay to attract teachers toward positions they ill suit. A superior teacher with equal qualifica- tions should find the salary highest where she serves best, whether in first grade or high school. Establish the idea that superior teaching in any grade is higher education and leads to highest rewards in pay and honor. Objective-Elimination of illiteracy ; Americanization ; and indi- vidual training for citizenship to an age approximating 18. -To accom- plish these objectives the city schools must have the backing of the law. The law must not exempt from school attendance illiterates and foreign- ers of whatever age and must require continuous education for all up to approximately eighteen years. Ways and means must be established for a continuous survey showing those present in the community who are illiterates and foreign and not trained for citizenship. The city schools and the whole industrial, commercial, and civic life of the com- munity must co-operate to secure these objectives. The qualities of a good citizen must be made clear and all who have to do with making ideals-teachers, priests, clergymen, etc. should be required to come up to the standard and be good American citizens. Foreigners should not be permitted to teach un-American ideals, civic and governmental- whether in press, pulpit, or schoolroom. All needed kinds of schools and class must be operated day and night and all the year round-ful- time and part-time-including instruction, not in military training, but in physical, medical, and health education sufficient to make the indi- vidual physically fit. A system of penalties and rewards as incentives to these classes to meet the required standards should be established and enforced. Objective-A department of education with a secretary in the Presi- dent's Cabinet.-The program of the city school to secure a cabinet position for education is essentially the same as the program of educa- tional interests generally and needs little special consideration in this connection. Obiective-Equalized educational opportunities . To accomplish this objective recognition must be made of individual, physical, mental, econ- omic, and social differences to the end that opportunities for education may be varied to suit the differing needs of the individuals. As good school buildings and teachers must be supplied the slum districts as are supplied the residential millionaire section. There must be strict en- forcement of attendance laws and laws for part-time vocational or other education for young workers up to eighteen years of age, mothers' pen- sion, welfare, and health service must be supplied to the poor, indiffer- ent, and ignorant so as to give the ill-favored as well as the favored child his chance. Free scholarships in high schools and colleges must Sessions] STATE AND NATIONAL PROGRAMS 111 be provided for able boys and girls ; equalized educational opportun- ities, means greater opportunities for the gifted as well as to the sub- normal. WHAT SHALL BE THE PROGRAM IN EDUCATION FOR CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS? PETER A. MORTENSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILI Godmade the country ; man made the town. God wrought with co summate skill and infinite patience through the ages. Man has create cities, almost over night, with no comprehensive plan, no unity, no coherence. He has permitted peasants from distant shores to huddle in tenements under conditions unspeakable ; he has encouraged the massing of groups of foreigners, each colony fostering an alien language, having Old World traditions and little knowledge of community life. Even the well-to-do have accepted the apartment as a substitute for a separate home, until normal family life has become scarcely more than a memory. In the great urban centers, community sense tends to disappear. Each area is but an extension of the adjoining one. Neighborhood con- sciousness scarcely exists when neighbors are not even recognized. The educational objectives sought in such centers are fixed; the programs for their attainment may vary. The foremost objective in all public edu- cation is training for citizenship in its broadest sense. The experiences of the past few years have brought to light certain fundamental national weaknesses. For sixty years, America has been the land of opportunity, not only for the oppressed, politically, but also for those to whom economic opportunity had been denied. Immigrants by thousands have hastened to our shores. Of this migration, the peoples of eastern and southern Europe have recently formed a large part. Having suffered constant repression, their notion of liberty is too often license. Lacking education and the culture which comes through generations of the cultivation of spiritual ideals, their reaction to prosperity is often merely the gratification of the senses. Their experience leads them to value highly the benefits which are conferred on them by this country, but too often they are not equally sensitive to the duties and obligations which accompany citizenship. Having wel- comed them here, it is now our duty to see that they, and more especially their children, receive such training as will enable them to acquire speedily the ideas and ideals for which this country stands :-equality before the law, the duty of the minority to acquiesce in the decisions of the majority, the idea of mutual concession to promote the general good and the principles of fair play must be made a part of the working philosophy of our adopted citizens. In certain large cities, associations of commerce are helping in this work by interesting their own members in opening classes in citizenship for employees on company time. The 112 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General value of such lessons is not only in preparation for citizenship, but in acquiring the ability to understand our common language, to follow directions intelligently, and in gaining a growing sympathy with com- munity ideals. But helpful as this work for adults is, it is the children who must be given a real vision of America, if our nation is to stand secure . The need of more training for those who do not enter the professions has brought about a raising of the compulsory school age. In a num- ber of states, the period of training has been extended by the estab- lishment of part-time or continuation schools. As a result, many pupils are staying in the elementary school, who formerly left as soon as they had completed the minimum requirements demanded by the state. The percentage of pupils entering high school from the elementary school is much greater than was formerly the case. These two facts have given rise to a number of problems. The question of housing, especially in the secondary schools, is an acute one. Not only must space be pro- vided to care for new pupils but since the cost of a modern cosmo- politan high school runs into the millions, some means must be found to care for a greater number of pupils in schools already established through more extended use of buildings. In the past, the high-school pupil was recruited from a somewhat selected group. In the days to come, this group is to be greatly enlarged, probably with some lowering of its average ability. This necessitates, not only a restudy of the con- tent of education, but also of the form of organization in order that there may be better articulation between the several groups through which the school system is now functioning. This increase in numbers also raises another problem. In recent years, the demands made upon the public school by the community have steadily grown. The course of study has been constantly enriched by the inclusion of many subjects which were formerly not considered a part of public-school education. Many so-called fads of a few years ago are now regarded as integral parts of the school course; but more than that, the public demands that special provision be made for ex- ceptional children, such as the blind, the deaf, and the subnormal; that the physical needs of those who are normal be cared for through doctor, nurse, and dentist; that the child who is undernourished or whose parents are prevented by economic necessity from properly providing for him be cared for at the expense of the state. These things are right and should be done, but they add financial burdens. As a result, edu- cational expenditures have increased during the last few years with tremendous rapidity. The amount of support which the community can afford the schools is limited by economic law, and there are many who feel that this limit has been about reached, if not entirely surpassed. In common fairness then, the schools should again study the question Sessions] PROGRAM-CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 113 of what education is most worth while and which, therefore, should be provided at public expense. No one in this day and age, and least of all a school man, would be willing to advocate the denial of educational opportunity to any one, but if by better organization, by the elimina- tion of unnecessary or duplicating effort, by the omission of those sub- jects whose cost is great and whose value is at the same time more or less limited by the nature of the subject itself and by the number of pupils pursuing it, better opportunities can be afforded all the pupils, it is the duty of those who are responsible for the administration of our educational systems to devote the time and thought necessary to accom- plish these adjustments. Another result of the changing industrial conditions of the times is the increasing part that science is playing in everyday life. The wire- less telephone and the heavier-than-air flying-machine-inventions which not so many years ago would have been regarded as epoch-making-are commonplaces today. But not less striking are the modern applications of biology and chemistry in everyday life. It is, therefore, necessary that the average citizen should have at least an elementary understand- ing of the laws and principles which operate in the realm of these various sciences. This means that time and place must be found for the introduction of science work in the elementary school curriculum, thus raising at once the question of what aspect of these various sciences should be taught, how much time should be devoted to their teaching, and what type of equipment, within the financial reach of the ordinary school and the capacity of the average teacher, should be made available. The city school system places great emphasis on the social side of community development. Kindergartens are becoming universal, en- abling little citizens to acquire social adaptation and control. With the bridging of the gap between the kindergarten and the primary grades, themore formal aspects of the kindergarten are being displaced and the gospel of gladness is permeating the primary grades. The substitution of class and community interests for selfish claims and individual emulation is carried forward logically into play and ath- letics and becomes fundamental in community social work. The school system of yesterday placed all the emphasis on training. The self-made man who insisted that workers in industry or commerce could be trained only in apprenticeship and he who insisted that the school alone must prepare workers to enter industry were both wrong. The school can do its part in definite preparation; but that training should be supplemented by industrial or commercial institutions in order that knowledge through experience may grow into wisdom and power. This implies a distinct effort in vocational guidance. The adviser has come, not as a mere ferret, in search of special individual aptitudes ; not as a necromancer or vocational fortune teller. He does seek to co 114 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General ordinate school effort; to make field surveys shed light on child em- ployment, and finally, to establish contacts and articulation between the school and the workaday world. The tremendous increase in the number of pupils and the shortage of trained teachers have made it necessary to employ hundreds whose standards of professional preparation are below those of a dozen years ago. This fact emphasizes the problem of training in service, which in some form or other is always with us, but which at the present time is more acute than usual. How can the results of modern research be made to function in the classroom ? During more recent years, many investigations have been made to determine the steps by which the in- dividual child learns to make certain specific responses to definite situa- tions. One of the great tasks confronting all educators is to find the means to insure that the results of these investigations are incorporated into habitual daily practice. It is one of our immediate tasks to make sure that this knowledge is disseminated throughout our schools, and that the principles and practices which are thoroughly established are made effective in our classroom teaching, for, after all, good teaching is the basis of all true progress. If our schools are to fulfil the task given them, the citizen must be made not only economically or socially efficient-he must be trained in the proper use and enjoyment of leisure time. Art, music, and liter- ature ennoble and enrich life, and their joys and pleasure must be con- stant possessions. Recreation should be a phase of definite instruction. Libraries, museums, and concert halls are filling an increasing place in civic life. More and more these activities are becoming identified with our public schools, and this work should be largely extended. To have a taste for good literature, fine art, and worthwhile music, to find pleas- ure in the competition of games, and to enjoy the wonders of the great outdoors insures an extended measure of happiness to the individual and increased tranquility for the state. Some means must be found for making available the experience of the teaching body when the superintendent of schools is considering educational plans and policies. To interpret democracy to children, teach- ers must themselves understand and appreciate the principles of democ- racy. To grow and do their best work they must see the large problems and the relation which their work bears to these problems. To plan wisely, the superintendent needs the counsel of his entire corps . The teachers' council, rightly conceived, and administered as a help to the superintendent, has come to serve the schools . Finally, the school system must be made to commend itself to the community. In a great metropolitan city the teachers, co-operating with the board of education and numerous organizations vitally interested in and friendly to public education undertook the task of "selling the Sessions] PROGRAM-CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 115 schools" to those most interested in the children. A three-year cam- paign resulted in 150 per cent advance in educational revenues. In a dignified way, the people have been induced to advance from a levy of fourteen million in 1919 to thirty-four million in 1922 for the education of their children. The average community is interested in its children ; it is a part of the duty of a city system, as a professional organization, to lead the way, to interpret the schools to the community. WHAT SHALL BE THE PROGRAM IN EDUCATION FOR CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN VIEW OF THE OBJEC- TIVES OF THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION J. W. GOWANS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WINFIELD, KANS. Theprogram for city schools must be thought out in terms of decades and lifetimes. The present being the foundation period, those who plan the school program should be careful that the foundation is not made of intellectual hay and stubble but rather of those elements which are enduring and which will make the pupil socially efficient. Since the wanderlust is a prominent feature of American life the program should not be provincial but national for the boy of the small town today may be the leader in the metropolis tomorrow. This being true, the programs of all city schools should have certain common fac- tors which make the basic or fundamental program and other factors determined by environing conditions and local needs to complete the educational equation. The modern program will take advantage of the scientific discoveries made by our educational leaders. Individual differences will be noted and courses arranged accordingly. Standard tests and measurements will assist in determining abilities and diagnosing difficulties. In fact, the program must be scientific if the objectives are to be attained. The purpose of American Education is to train boys and girls to do better the worthwhile things which they will do in life. The school pro- gram should furnish training for the many-sided living of tomorrow, in order to have real American citizens. If we succeed in an Americaniza- tionprogram, boys and girls must know America and the civic ideals for which she stands. The epigrammatic statement of one of the colonial fathers, " Only a few are fit to govern and of that few, the fewest are fit," would not so nearly approach the truth if a larger place was given in the school pro- gram for becoming familiar with the local government whether large city or small town, in a city with large foreign population or one with none. The real American works. In the social program, this should be stressed. The fact that "The good American citizen gives honest serv- ice" taught to the whole school will carry over into the industrial life of the future with beneficent effect . 116 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General THE STATE PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AND ITS BEARING UPON THE NATIONAL PROGRAM THOMAS E. FINEGAN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. The President of this Association has requested me to explain to you in fifteen minutes the provisions of seventy-two laws enacted by the General Assembly of Pennsylvania at its recent session, to state how public sentiment was crystallized in support of the legislative program which resulted in the enactment of such laws, and to show how such state program is related to the national program in education. The whole subject of the afternoon implies that there is a national program in education. May we not at the outset inquire if there is such a pro- gram ? What authority is back of such program? Is the program suffi- cient ? Does it need additional support ? This Association, representing as it does every educational interest of the nation, had the vision and the courage to adopt a platform at its annual meeting one year ago which embodies the fundamental features and purposes of a national program in education. This program to be developed in the several states of the union in order that adequate facil- ities may be made available to meet the educational needs of the country marked out a definite and comprehensive plan of action. The platform adopted has been endorsed by many national organizations interested in the civic, industrial, and political affairs of the country; it has been approved by nearly every state educational association in the nation and by thousands of county, city, and other local associations. It has also been uniformly supported by the press of the country. Those who are able to feel the public pulse of the nation on this subject believe that the platform of the National Education Association has the approval of the great majority of the citizens of the country. Its broad features should therefore be regarded not only as the expressed judgment of the educa- tional workers of the nation, but as the prevailing opinion and desires of the people of the country on educational affairs. The educational interests of the nation demand that the people of the country shall give an expression of the opinion which they hold on this subject and of the action which they desire the national government to take. A campaign should be organized by the people of the country which should constitute a popular movement for the general expansion and improvement of educational conditions in America. No action would so clarify the atmosphere on educational needs, so stimulate edu- cational progress throughout the country, as the adoption of a measure by the present Congress giving to education that national recognition which its supreme importance demands and that assurance of Federal financial support which shall make possible the achievements of the Sessions] STATE AND National PROGRAMS 117 primary objectives in education which should be the first concern of the national government. My first plea, therefore, is that state programs in education be given that prestige, power, and influence which would follow from the pro- mulgation of a national program sponsored by the federal government itself. As a school administrator who has been jealous of the preroga- tives and functions of states in the matter of educational control and one who would fight with all the energy he possesses an infringement upon the well-established principle of state control and direction in such affairs, I can see the great advantage that would come to the country at large in the enactment of a measure containing the fundamental features of the Sterling-Towner Bill. Equal educational opportunity cannot prevail in this great democracy until the policy of national co- operation proposed in that measure becomes the policy of this nation in public education. The federal government has always regarded education as one of the subjects under the control of the states, and yet it has from its very beginning recognized the nation's vital concern in education. As early as 1785, in legislating upon the Northwest Territory, the Continental Congress provided financial support to education. Nearly a century ago, 1835, the nation took millions from its treasury and divided these funds among the states for the support of schools. During the last three-quarters of a century, Congress has enacted law after law provid- ing financial support for public education in the states. The sound national policy of financial aid to the states in the support of public education has therefore been established. Congress would render a great service now to the educational interests of the nation if it would relegate to the scrap-heap the majority of these laws, and provide financial support for the execution of a great national program in education which would insure to every boy and girl in the land the completion of at least the eight years of elementary-school work. In the organization of a national program in education, this country must give first consideration to the historic development of our state school systems. Certain fundamental principles have been firmly estab- lished which are nation-wide, and which have been based upon the experiences and struggles of our fathers, who fought for nearly seventy- five years for that support of popular education which now obtains throughout the land. In the early days of our national life, church schools and charity schools prevailed to a large extent. It required a heroic struggle extending over a period of more than half a century to eliminate these influences and to establish schools upon a constitu- tional mandate based upon the inherent right of the child. Under the leadership of Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, and Hannibal Hamlin in New England, of Governor Clinton, and that educational statesman, 118 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Gideon Hawley, in New York, and of Governor Wolf and the great commoner, Thaddeus Stevens, in Pennsylvania, the principle that re- quired children and their parents to wear the badge of poverty and charity in order to receive the benefits of public education was wiped out for all time in this democracy. The evil and offending influences of associating public education with the charitable work of the country should never again be incorporated in the general policy of administra- tion of free schools. t Education in America rests upon the two great principles of our philosophy of life: First, all men are created equal. Second, all men are endowed with certain alien rights, and among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It is under the conditions and considerations I have expressed that the great commonweath of Pennsylvania is working out her educa- tional program. We have interpreted such action to be in harmony with the educational policy promulgated by this Association. We cannot, of course, go into the details of this program and must therefore dis- cuss main objectives to be attained. In the Pennsylvania program, we have constantly had before us the 2,000,000 children of our state. What are their rights? Is the commonwealth giving them the best opportunity possible to obtain an education which will equip them for efficient service in citizenship ? How may that department of the state government charged with educational leadership best serve these 2,000,000 children and therefore discharge its obligation to the people of the state ? A state department must give advice to local officers charged with the administration of the schools. It must render them every service possible. It must, of course, assume the leadership in the educational policy which the state has adopted. However, there can be no greater service rendered than to organize properly on broad and liberal lines the instruction to be given in the classroom. To illustrate, the most important subject in a course of study is English. The great majority of teachers are not prepared to organize the instruction in this field. This should be done by a staff of experts who have had adequate training and large experience. The persons who do this work should be as well prepared for such service as those who are charged with the responsibility of organizing the instruction in English in any college or university in the country. What is true of the subject of English in this respect is true of mathematics, science, art, music, the social sciences, commercial subjects, geography, and of every other sub- ject included in the public-school curriculum. It is as vital to the reputation of the state that these 2,000,000 children in attendance at school-the great majority of whom will receive no other education- shall be afforded courses of study which are sound, scientifically pre- pared, cultural, and efficiently executed as it is important to the reputa Sessions] STATE AND NATIONAL PROGRAMS 119 tion of a university that courses of like character shall be made available to the few thousand students attending such an institution. Men or women chosen for these important positions should be the equal in scholarship, in experience, and in personality of the heads of depart- ments in universities. To obtain such persons salaries must be paid which are equivalent to the salaries paid for similar service in the lead- ing colleges or universities of the country. The Pennsylvania state department has been organized upon a basis expected to accomplish these ends. The vital factor, of course, in the matter of instruction is the teacher. No course of study-no matter how well organized or how it may be adapted to present needs can be made effective without an adequate and qualified teaching staff. Wherever a school or classroom is main- tained, the children required to be in attendance thereon are entitled to an educated, trained teacher. We have no legal or moral right to prescribe a high standard for one section of a state and a low standard for another section. Equal opportunity so far as possible must be pro- vided all children in this respect. Pennsylvania has therefore prescribed a minimum state-wide standard of qualifications for all her teachers. This standard applies to each rural school, as well as to each city school. After September 1, 1927, no person may enter the teaching service in an elementary school in Pennsylvania who has not completed an ap- proved four-year high school course and, thereafter, an approved two- year normal school course, or who does not offer equivalent education and training. High-school teachers must offer graduation from college or equivalent education. Those in the service who do not meet these qualifications are allowed six years in which to satisfy them. Our thirteen state normal schools are in session now, giving summer courses covering nine weeks, and twelve of the colleges and universities of the state are giving similar courses. One-third of all teachers now in the service who do not meet these qualifications are in attendance upon summer schools. The normal schools of the state have been reorganized. Admission requirements are the completion of a four-year high school course. The professional course has also been revised and put upon a two-year basis. These schools have been assigned to the distinct field of training teachers for the elementary schools of the state. A service of greater importance may not be rendered the state by these institutions. The state is giving them liberal support, having appropriated to them the sum of $5,000,000 for the ensuing two years. To obtain teachers possessing these qualifications and to retain them în the service, adequate compensation must be provided. There was, therefore, incorporated into the law regulating the qualifications of teachers a minimum salary schedule and a plan for the payment of 120 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatioN [General annual increments. No teacher is entitled to receive the salary or the annual increments who does not satisfy the qualifications prescribed therefor. Salary and tenure are contingent upon qualifications, constant intellectual growth, and efficient service. In the elementary schools, the salary which an inexperienced teacher is entitled to receive upon enter- ing the service is $1200 per year. Annual increments are provided and from four to eight of such increments are made mandatory. The salaries of these teachers, therefore, range from $1200 to $2000. In rural school districts the salary may not be less than $100 per month. In first-class districts the salaries of high-school teachers range from $1600 to $3600 per year, and in other districts from $1400 to $2400. Provision is made for about three thousand supervisory officers whose salaries range from $2500 to $6000. The authority to certify teachers has been transferred from local superintendents to the State Council of Education, and that body is re- quired to prescribe not only standards of qualification for admission to the teaching profession but also to set up a method of evaluating the services of teachers and of measuring their intellectual growth upon which their right to receive annual increments shall be determined. The school term and the regular attendance of pupils is a matter of importance in the effective service of a school system. We should be looking forward to a ten month's school term in every state in the Union. Pennsylvania has taken an advanced step by increasing the legal school term one month throughout the state. An attendance bureau efficiently manned has been established and in many communities and counties the attendance has been increased 25 per cent. A health bureau has also been established, and through this bureau all phases of the subject of public-school health are being administered. This bureau is also organ- izing an efficient system of health instruction in all the schools of the state. This instruction will be under the name, Health. It will begin in the first grade and extend through the whole elementary and secondary school course. It will be as regular, systematic, and scientific as the in- struction in any other subject in the curriculum. The interest of the state extends to all children of the common- wealth, whether they are in attendance upon public or private schools. There is no valid reason why the authorities of private schools should not work in harmonious co-operation with these charged with the re- sponsibility of the administration of public education. Happily, in Penn- sylvania these authorities united in the enactment of a law which standardizes elementary-school courses, requires the instruction therein to be in English and from English texts, and makes the same manda- tory upon all private as well as public schools. Equal educational opportunity so far as may be possible is the policy of the Keystone state. Discrimination against the rural communities Sessions] STATE AND NATIONAL PROGRAMS 121 has ceased. Schools are to be established throughout rural Pennsyl- vania which shall serve the people of these communities as completely and satisfactorily as the schools of any of the cities serve their constit- uents. A rural school bureau has been established, and Mr. Lee L. Driver, who did a notable piece of work in Indiana, has been appointed as its head. He has four assistants who are trained rural-school men, having had successful experience for several years as county superin- tendents. Nearly 700 one-room schools were closed last year. More than 200 consolidations are under way now. Recently one of the most important consolidations in the country was effected. Nineteen schools-three townships were consolidated. Sufficient pupils and property were brought together to organize a central school which shall contain a kindergarten, a six-year elementary school, a junior high school, a senior high school, and a vocational school, affording home-making, agriculture, and commercial courses. Music, art, and health instruction will be provided from the kindergarten through the high school. This school will be located about one hour's ride from Philadelphia, two hours from New York or Baltimore, and three hours from Washing- ton. When this school is in operation, you are all invited to visit it and bring your friends. We give you notice now that Pennsylvania proposes to have within her borders the most complete, most efficient, and therefore most notable consolidated school in America ! The principle that districts least able to raise taxes because of low property valuations shall receive relatively larger state appropriations has been adopted. The obligation of the state to give adequate financial support to rural schools has been recognized. The state will pay 50 per cent of the minimum salaries which the law compels these districts to pay their teachers. It will pay annually to districts $200, one-half of the cost of transportation. Time will not permit me to go into further description of Pennsyl- vania's educational program. The building plans throughout the state contemplate a seat and a full-day session for each girl and boy in the commonwealth. In short, Pennsylvania has determined to give every child in the state a fair opportunity to obtain the education he desires and to insist that every child shall complete at least an elementary- school course. She further aims to meet every intellectual necessity of her people. A comprehensive plan of Americanization has been adopted. She believes that a man who is too illiterate to serve his country in time of war is too illiterate to serve his country as a citizen in times of peace. She intends to provide the opportunity for every resident of the state to acquire the education necessary to make him a good American citizen and then to insist that he shall avail himself of that opportunity. 122 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General THE STATE PROGRAM IN EDucation AND ITS BEARING UPON THE NATIONAL PROGRAM GEORGE H. REAVIS, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MD . A state program in education is a working plan for meeting the edu- cational needs of the state. It attempts to solve the larger and more important educational problems, not only of the state, but of the nation, within the state, and should cast into definite form the general outlines in which the national program is expressed. The schools are confronted with several problems which are pecul- iarly dependent on the state for solution. I shall discuss three of these which are important elements in any state program. Something must be done by the state-so that the supply of well-trained teachers will eventually become adequate. Means must be devised-by the state-in order that sufficient funds will eventually be available to every section for maintaining the public schools at a high standard of efficiency. A campaign must be continually conducted by the state to educate all the state's people properly to appreciate the value of good schools. The most urgent need of the schools today is an adequate supply of competent teachers. The teacher-training problem is primarily a ques- tion of production. The supply of properly trained teachers is inade- quate because production only fractionally approximates the demand. A vast army of experienced teachers leaves the service each year. But if all the trained teachers entering the service in the past twenty- five years were still in service, it would be necessary to employ a large number of untrained teachers. No state can hope to replace imme- diately its untrained teachers with teachers satisfactorily trained, but certainly every state should at least strive to replace every teacher who drops out with a trained teacher. To attack this problem in a business-like way, a state should de- termine the number of teachers it needs each year, and proceed to pro- duce them. In Maryland, where the county is the local unit of school administration, we have tabulated this loss of teachers, or turnover, by counties and are trying to hold each county responsible for getting enough candidates in training each year to meet its annual turnover. By as much as any county falls short of its quota, some other county must exceed its quota or the state will fall short of its mark. But to place this number of women in training from the counties of Maryland would require all the girls at present being graduated by the four-year high schools in that territory, as the number of girls graduating is approx- imately equal to the turnover in the teaching service. We cannot hope to have all girls graduating enter the teaching profession. Some high- scnool graduates ought not to attempt teaching, and some of those who should enter the service will be unable to do so . It is apparent, there Sessions] PROGRAM-CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 123 fore, that we cannot hope to supply immediately enough trained teachers outside the cities to meet the present annual turnover. This is true for the rural districts of the whole country. But if the towns, villages, and rural districts are to have trained teachers, they must, eventually, pro- duce them. As the schools are improved, a larger number of children • should complete the elementary course while young enough to secure a high-school education, and as the high-school facilities are extended more generally to the rural districts, a larger supply of high-school graduates should be available to train for teaching positions in their home territory. But at the same time that a state is attacking the problem of produc tion, it must endeavor, by making the remuneration for teaching more attractive to those in service, to reduce the annual turnover to a min- imum. Higher salaries may not exert a very large and immediate in- fluence to bring candidates into training, but adequate compensation and goodworking conditions will materially reduce the annual turnover. But salaries cannot be increased to the point where the financial rewards willput all desirable high-school graduates in training. This can be done by lowering the cost of sustenance to normal-school students. InMaryland the state provides room, board, laundry, books, tuition, and all other necessary expenses in the normal schools at a cost of one hundred dollars a year, and this sum is loaned to good prospects who do nothave it. Some states have tried to produce teachers by legislation, saying, that after some future date, teachers with less than a certain standard of training would not be employed. But when the time arrives and enough trained teachers have not been produced, the experiment ends by continuing the schools with the material available, and setting some new future date after which only trained teachers are to be employed, because it is better to have a school taught by the best candidate available than to have no school at all. Although it is impossible to replace immediately the untrained teach- ers now in the service, a state can do much to raise its untrained teachers to a higher standard through adequate supervision, summer-school in- struction, extension courses, and the like. Successful department stores find that it pays to employ one super- visor for each fifteen to thirty clerks. In large telephone exchanges, one operator in eleven answers no calls but directs the other ten on duty. In good hospitals one nurse in seven attends no patients but directs the other six. Five bricklayers will lay more brick if one of them, rather than laying brick, directs the other four. The Maryland program calls for one supervisor for each forty teachers. State-supported extension courses and all teachers with less than a normal-school education are requiredto attend summer school at least once in three years. 124 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatioN [ General The problem of financial support is the perennial problem of school administration. In many school systems it takes so much of the super- intendent's time that he has little left for anything else. The states have thrown too much of the burden of school support on the local unit. Until the federal government appropriates liberally for schools, a state should pay 50 per cent of the total current cost of education, and a part of the school appropriation should be distributed in inverse ratio to the wealth of the local units, so that the poorer units may have school facilities comparable to those in the more favored centers of wealth. A state should not give special help to poor local units until they have made as much effort as the wealthy units, but when a poor district has done this the state should make it possible for the poor unit to have schools comparable with the more favored centers of wealth . A state should make it possible for all local units to carry the minimum or required educational program with the average local school tax rate. Any local tax levied in addition to the average rate for the state should be available for exceeding the prescribed program. In Maryland, the wealthier counties have five times as much wealth as the poorest counties; they spend twice as much on each child, but have local tax rates for schools only half as high as the poorest counties. The local tax rate in the wealthy counties is about fifty.cents on each one hundred dollars actual valuation. In the poor counties it is approx- imately one dollar on the hundred. The average is about sixty-five cents. The Maryland program provides that any county which (with a sixty- five-cent school tax) cannot pay the higher salaries proposed (which shall not exceed 70 per cent of the current expenses, leaving at least 30 per cent of the budget for purposes other than teachers' salaries ) may have enough from the state equalization fund to enable it to carry the program, and all money raised locally in excess of a sixty-five-cent tax may be used to support a higher standard of school facilities than the state requires. This will enable the poorer counties to more nearly com- pete on equal terms with the wealthier ones. But, a state program in education is not complete when it has ana- lyzed the important problems confronting the schools and presented.a comprehensive working plan of school improvement. It must also pro- vide for acquainting the people of the state with the facts on which it is based and the improvements proposed so they can act intelligently on the issues involved. In Maryland we began formulating our program a year and a half ahead of the meeting of the General Assembly and began pre- senting it to the public a year ahead. Teachers' meetings have been held throughout the counties to discuss it, and it has been discussed in patrons' meetings, women's clubs, the League of Women Voters, the granges, and before all other groups where an interested audience could be se- cured. It was the topic for discussion at the recent high-school com Sessions] STATE AND NATIONAL PROGRAMS 125 mencements, and will be presented to the State Press Association, the State Bar Association, and the State Medical Association, with continu- ous newspaper publicity. An effort is being made to commit everybody, from the governor down, to support the program in the coming session of the General Assembly. The old method was to take our needs to the Lord in prayer ; the more modern way is to take it to the people with confidence. STATE PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AND ITS BEARING UPON THE NATIONAL PROGRAM T. E. JOHNSON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, LANSING, MICH . Today every state department is grappling with the problem of how best to improve the schools of the state. Three methods are open. First, we have the compulsory system. Laws are passed by the legislature compelling the local districts to main- tain school for a minimum period of months, to provide high-school facilities or transportation and tuition, to employ only certified teachers, to provide safe and hygienic buildings, and to compel the attendance of all children of school age. Second, there is the system of state aid to secure certain standards, employing teachers of special qualifications, to consolidated schools, to accredited high schools and to districts with a low property valuation. Third, we have the method of publicity by which people are aroused to demand higher standards of the local boards of education. Quite possibly this is the most effective of the three. It is the slowest and hardest, but in the end is sure of accom- plishing results for in our country public sentiment thoroughly aroused and intelligently led is possessed of supreme power. Someone, I think Ellen Keyes, has predicted that the twentieth century would be the age of the child, of human conservation. Events seem to be proving her a true prophet. Public interest is aroused and people are demanding intelligent care and training of the child. This simplifies the problem of the educator. Their interest needs but to be directed and a vast amount of energy is at his disposal. For thispurpose the state department is best suited. A few points may well be stressed at a time and public sentiment crystallized around these few and a constructive prograin will result. To accomplish this the state superintendent must be accepted by all agencies as the educational leader of his state. It is easier for him or for her to act as a rallying point and to encourage this crystallizing process than to insist upon it as a matter of right. The state teachers' association with a representa- tive in every district, the parent-teachers' association, and women's clubs reaching nearly every community, the various luncheon clubs, furnish ready-made the machinery for this type of leadership. Aroused, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General 126 organized, and properly led, these groups can change public sentiment almost overnight. Sometimes it is a local problem. In Michigan, for example, school support can and should always be largely a local matter. Our bonding programs and school budgets are heavy, but there is little complaint, because they are a local matter. If we had many com- munities genuinely inmpoverished this could not be done. Clearly the matter of state aid is one for each state to determine for itself. After popular interest is aroused the next step becomes a legisla- tive one. Either compulsory or persuasive legislation can now be en- acted. In this work it is again essential that all agencies unite. Too often we find several groups each urging a program of its own. Only when all legislation passes to the legislature through the state depart- ment can we hope to secure united support for legislation. Only then can there be achieved that dignified position which will guarantee serious consideration by legislative bodies of educational measures. This year has seen much notable school legislation, particularly in the matters of a lengthened school term, higher qualified teachers, better consolidated schools, and a greater equalization of educational opportunity. This legislation has been of the two types previously discussed and in every case the programs have been adopted only after great publicity cam- paigns, which were as a rule carried to the most remote corners of the state. The success of this method in recent years is too apparent to permit the soundness of the policy to be questioned. Even where legislation has not resulted so favorably, good has come from the agitation of the questions involved. Summarizing, it is apparent that the first duty of the administra- tive head of the school system of any state is diplomatically to center about himself or herself the work of all publicity and legislative activities . These when united should determine the needs of the state both from a state and local viewpoint. Proposed legislation should be framed and then a publicity campaign which will reach every community of the state, both through the school people and other public-minded agencies, should be organized. If money is available this may wel be put into the hands of a tried director with full power. If such funds are not to be had then volunteer committees must do the work That this can be well done through unpaid agencies has been proved many times. The best time to begin a legislative campaign is before the primaries when candidates are willing to make promises. In state close politically this can be extended through the pre-election campaign and the promises thus obtained can be utilized during the legislative sessions. While the various legislative assemblies are in session the pub lic should again be appealed to and if public support is thus gained it wil be possible to bring pressure to bear when budgets for the university normals, and other state educational institutions are being considered Sessions] STATE AND NATIONAL PROGRAMS 127 I have reserved the question of federal policies until the last be- cause this field has been least worked. We are too strongly wedded, both in the north and the south to a belief in states rights to per- mit us to conceive of much compulsory legislation by the federal govern- ment on questions of education. The experiences of the Federal Board for Vocational Education would seem to prove this contention. In the two other fields the national program has a great opportunity. The so-called "Ayres Survey" did a vast amount of good last year. Similar methods of publicity conducted by the federal bureau will do even greater good in the future. Many of us know by personal experience how valuable for publicity purposes have been the regional conferences of the past few years. Comparisons may be odious, but I know of nothing more effective in arousing those people who are shown by these methods in an unfavorable light. The use of "high-spots" studies can be made as valuable as the method of comparison and these features of the regional conferences are of particular value. The second method open to the national government is that of federal aid. The Smith-Hughes Act furnishes us with an example of what may be accomplished by this means. The Towner-Sterling Bill, framed upon the same principles, represents another possible method of aid. We are all familiar with its features and there would be little opposition were it not for the traditional fear of the federal govern- ment absorbing all state activities. States which like Michigan, would pay a greater portion than they would receive are not furnishing the greatest opposition. The future will answer this question, for sooner or later Congress will enact some such law. Now we naturally face the problem of how best to unite these activities into one program which will serve to provide educational facilities of equal value for every boy and girl of our land. On this result rests the safety of our democracy. Our type of government de- mands an education for all its citizens, but after all, is not the question a simple one ? The Federal Bureau or Department of Education should act as the center for all national educational activities. The several states will be studied, the high spots and low spots alike will be revealed, and presented to the states. Counsel as to the most pressing problems will be presented and methods of solution suggested. Federal aid well chosen and wisely administered will help mightily in the process of securing adequate state legislation and local support. The local, state, and national programs naturally dovetail if under proper leadership. Then through it all must run the ideal of service, the ideal of self-abnegation. Then there will be no petty jealousies or strivings. Eachwill be for all and all for each. Such a Utopian ideal is not im- possible if each agency is determined to keep ever foremost a vision 128 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General that vision of an adequate education of the type he most needs for every boy and girl in this broad land of ours. THE EDITORIAL COUNCIL OF THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL Chairman, W. C. BAGLEY, Editor-in-Chief, New York, N. Y. Secretary, JoY ELMER MORGAN, Managing Editor, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. SARAH LOUISE ARNOLD, Dean, Simmons College, Boston, Mass. C. W. BARDEEN, Editor of the School Bulletin, Syracuse, N. Y. KATHERINE D. BLAKE, Principal of School No. 6, New York, N. Y. ANNIE WEBB BLANTON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Austin, Tex. B. R. BUCKINGHAM, Department of Research, State University, Urbana, Ill. KENYON L. BUTTERFIELD, President of the State Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Editor of the Sierra Educational News, San Francisco, Calif. LORETA M. CHESTER, Public School No. 3, New York, N. Y. LOTUS D. COFFMAN, President of the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. SUSAN M. DORSEY, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. LEE L. DRIVER, State Rural School Inspector, State House, Harrisburg, Pa. JULIA FLISCH, Tubman High School, Augusta, Ga. MARY L. FULKERSON, Public Schools, Salem, Ore. CARLTON H. GIBSON, Superintendent of Schools, Savannah, Ga. FRANK GRAVES, Dean of the Department of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadel- phia, Pa. JOHN A. H. KEITH, President of the State Normal School, Indiana, Pa. P. J. MCCORMACK, Superintendent of Schools, LaSalle, Ill. VAUGHAN MACCAUGHEY, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Honolulu, Hawaii. JOSEPH G. MASTERS, Principal of the High School, Omaha, Neb. L. H. MINKEL, Superintendent of City Schools, Fort Dodge, Iowa. JESSE H. NEWLON, Superintendent of City Schools, Denver, Colo. M. V. O'SHEA, Department of Education, State University, Madison, Wis. J. J. PETTIJOHN, Editor of the School Issues, Indianapolis, Ind. CHARLES F. PYE, Secretary of the Iowa Education Association, Des Moines, Iowa. H. W. ROCKWELL, President of the State Normal School, Buffalo, N. Y. CARSON RYAN, Editor of Education Department, New York Evening Post, New York, N. Y. J. W. SEARSON, Professor of English, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. GEORGE L. TOWNE, Editor of the Nebraska Teacher, Lincoln, Nebr. NINA C. VANDEWALKER, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. С. H. G. WILLIAMS, Editor of the Ohio Teacher, Columbus, Ohio. AGNES S. WINN, Public Schools, Seattle, Wash. JOHN W. WITHERS, Dean of the School of Education, New York University, New York, N. Y. ATLANTIC CITY, NEW JERSEY, MARCH 1, 1921 The Editorial Council met at 5 P. M. March 1, 1921, in Room 104, Hotel Traymore. Those present were : W. C. Bagley, editor-in-chief of the Journal of the National Education Association and professor of education, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.; Lee Driver, state director of rural education, Harrisburg, Pa.; Katherine D. Blake, principal, Public School No. 6, New York, N. Y.; Nina C. Vandewalker, specialist in kindergarten education, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.; Jesse H. Newlon, superinten- dent of schools, Denver, Colo.; Agnes S. Winn, classroom teacher, Seattle, Wash.; Carson W. Ryan, school editor New York Evening Post, New York, N. Y.; Joy E. Morgan, managing editor Journal, Washington, D. C. Sessions] EDITORIAL COUNCIL OF THE JOURNAL 129 Dr. Bagley called the meeting to order and explained that the Edi- torial Council was one of three commissions appointed by President Hunter to promote the work of the Association ; that, working under the direction of the Executive Committee and of the Representative Assembly, it was the legislative body in charge of the Journal of the Association. Dr. Bagley asked that a chairman of the Council be elected and upon motion of Superintendent Newlon, Dr. Bagley was unan- imously elected chairman. The managing editor was asked to act as secretary. The section of the Journal devoted to educational advance was es- pecially commended by the Council. Methods of obtaining material for this department were discussed and a motion was passed asking that the managing editor make a special effort to keep in touch with significant educational achievements through secretaries of state associations, state associations, state National Education Association directors, and state su- perintendents. It was also the wish of the Council that in handling news emphasis be placed on work accomplished rather than on personalities . After some discussion as to the nature of the content of the Journal, it was moved by Superintendent Newlon and unanimously carried that it is the purpose of the Journal to promote the policies and plans of the Association ; to give publicity to significant educational advance, and to bring to the members of the Association messages from other organiza- tions interested in education. It was especially suggested that full information be given in the Journal as to the meaning and purposes of the various departments and committees of the Association . On the suggestion of Dr. Bagley, it was unanimously voted that as funds would permit, there be added to the Journal a department de- voted to advances in the science and theory and in particular fields of -education. THE EDITORIAL COUNCIL DES MOINES, IOWA, JULY 3, 1921 The Editorial Council met at 3:00 р. м . July 3, 1921, in the ballroom of the Hotel Savery. Members present were : W. C. Bagley, editor- in-chief of the Journal of the National Education Association, Colum- bia University, New York, N. Y.; Katherine D. Blake, principal of Public School No. 6, New York, N. Y.; Arthur H. Chamberlain, sec- retary of the California State Teachers Association, Sacramento, Calif.; Lee Driver, state director of rural education, Harrisburg, Pa.; Olive M. Jones, principal of Public School No. 120, New York, N. Y.; John A. H. Keith, president of State Normal School, Indiana, Pa.; Jesse H. Newlon, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.; Carson W. Ryan, Jr., school editor of the New York Evening Post, New York, N. Y.; 130 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Nina C. Vandewalker, specialist in kindergarten education, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.; Charl O. Williams, superintendent of Shelby County schools, Memphis, Tenn.; and Joy Elmer Morgan, managing editor of the Journal of the Association, Washington, D. C. James H. Kelly, who as secretary of the Pennsylvania Association is to edit the journal of that Association, was invited to sit with the Council as a guest. Dr. Bagley, as chairman of the Council, called the meeting to order and asked for the minutes of the meeting of March 1, which were read and approved. Dr. Bagley stated that it is the purpose of the Council to make recommendations on general policies to the executive committee and the Representative Assembly. There was general discussion as to the kind of material which the Journal should contain. In the opinion of those present the main pur- pose of the Journal is to keep teachers informed and interested rela- tive to the larger problems in education. Among the subjects especially suggested were the financing of public education, the improvement of elementary education, state programs in education, city programs in education, and questionnaires designed both to collect information and to keep teachers informed of investigations which may be made. There was informal discussion of the relation between the Journal of the National Education Association and the secretaries of state associa- tions and editors of journals of such associations. It was agreed that these paid secretaries of state associations would be the best source of material bearing on the educational situation in various states. The chairman raised the question as to what editorial treatment should be given emergency issues on which the Association has not had an opportunity to pass. It was the judgment of the Council that the editorial staff should be given a free hand in such matters. Several members of the Council stated that the Journal in its pres- ent form was inconvenient to handle and to file. On motion of Dr. Keith it was voted to recommend to the management a careful consider- ation of a change in form to standard magazine size (93/4 by 63/4 inches) . Dr. Bagley then stated that while he greatly appreciated the honor of being editor-in-chief of the Journal he had not been able to give the works as much time as he had hoped, and that he would ask to be re- lieved of the work. On motion put by Dr. Chamberlain it was unan- imously voted to recommend to the Executive Committee and the Rep- resentative Assembly that Dr. Bagley continue his work as editor-in- chief if possible. On motion of Miss Blake, Dr. Chamberlain was instructed to report the action of the Editorial Council to the Representative Assembly and the incoming president. The meeting then adjourned. Sessions] REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 131 COMMISSION ON REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION MARGARET S. MC NAUGHT, STATE COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, SACRAMENTO, CALIF . The commission on the Reorganization of Elementary Education re- spectfully submits to you the following report, the first part of which it is my privilege to present : That such a commission, dealing largely with the activities of the first years of human life, should have been appointed is a recognition by the National Education Association of the high import of the ele- mentary school in its effect upon the life of the individual and the wel- fare of the nation. That the commission should be one of reorganization is evidence of dissatisfaction on the part of the National Education Association with present-day elementary-school conditions. Conditions of life have changed so rapidly and so radically that the schools no longer function adequately toward better living. Moreover the idea of democracy has taken on a different meaning and the feeling that every child should be given not a fair chance but his fair chance is bringing criticism upon all conditions that interfere with his right start. If handicaps exist either in the individual himself or in material or methods provided for his learning, they must be removed. Oppor- tunities in wider and wider range and reaching larger and larger num- bers must be offered as rapidly as scientific research and experiment show us a way. It is because the National Education Association realized the necessity for the elementary school to play its part effi- ciently in the life-drama of a fair chance and wider opportunity that a commission was appointed to help solve the problems so insistently demanding solution. The elementary public school through reorganization should be vitalized, spiritualized, and enlarged. We must teach the children how to earn a living, but we must also teach them the things that make life worth living. We must teach them to be faithful guardians of the city and Nation, but we must also teach each of them to make the best of his own highest powers or talents, to be a well-rounded personality as well as a democratic citizen. We must aim to develop whatever of original genius there is in the mind, for while services of the multitude enrich, it is only through the illumination of creative genius that a nation is made glorious and humanity enlightened. It is obvious that reorganization to reach any of these ends must take account not merely of the subject-matter to be found in textbooks and the manner of its presentation, but of many other conditions that tend either to facilitate or to handicap the learning process. 132 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General In a previous report we have outlined the plan of procedure of the commission. Today we present certain results obtained and report progress upon other investigations begun. Lewis M. Terman, a member of the commission, presents a book in six chapters on Intelligence Tests and School Reorganization. Pos- sibly the simplest and clearest way of describing the contents of the book is to give the table of contents and Dr. Terman's Preface. CONTENTS Chapter I. The Problem .... Lewis M. Terman Chapter II . The Classification of School Children According to Mental Ability ..... Virgil E. Dickson Chapter III . Methods of Individual Instruction in the Adjustment Rooms of Los Angeles .... A. H. Sutherland Chapter IV. Use of the Achievement Quotient in the Classification of School Children ... Raymond Franzen Chapter V. The Use of Intelligence Tests in the Schools of a Small City ..... C. R. Tupper Chapter VI . Significance of Intelligence Tests in Corrective and Adjustment Cases ..... Grace Fernald PREFACE The book is in no sense an inventory of the important experiments now going on in the United States in connection with the use of intelligence and educational tests. Such an inventory would have required entirely too much space and would have involved an amount of repetition which could not have been other than tedious. Instead, experiments have been selected which are typical of the leading methods of readjustment now being attempted in different parts of the country. All of them illustrate important types of procedure, but in- volve varying degrees of generality. At one extreme is the Oakland plan, de- scribed by Dr. Dickson, which affects the entire school enrolment and the entire administrative system. At the other extreme is the work of Dr. Fernald, which concerns itself primarily with individual cases of maladjustment and has to do with pedagogical method rather than school organization. Between these ex- tremes is the Los Angeles work described by Dr. Sutherland. The latter, al- though originally intended to meet the needs of individual misfits, has resulted in the working out of methods of individual instruction which appear to have ap- plicability to children in general. The chapter by Dr. Franzen illustrates in a most interesting way how the results of intelligence and educational tests can be combined so as to serve as a better basis for rating the performance of pupils, and the efficiency of schools. The chapter by Superintendent Tupper shows how much can be done even in a small city and without elaborate reorganization, to improve the classification of children. Progressive educators are no longer interested in arguments regarding the validity of the test method. "After tests, what next?" is now the question which is causing deepest concern. It is hoped that the experiments herein described will have suggestive value, at least for all who are seeking a practical solution for the problems of indi- vidual differences. LEWIS M. TERMAN, Chairman, Sub-Committee on the Use of Intelligence tests in the Revision of Elementary Education. Sessions] REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 133 With its bibliography this book will surely be a practical guide to methods of grouping and adjusting children in the elementary grades. The grade teacher too well knows the handicap of repeaters and misfits of various kinds, even though some of them may be normal or supernormal children. Our present loose method of classification and grouping does not and cannot give a fair chance. Both children and teachers are limited thereby. Elizabeth A. Woodward has made a detailed study of elementary adult education in the United States. Much of this study deals with immigrant education, methods of instruction, financial support, etc. Reports from thirty-two states and eighty cities are embodied. Miss Woodward has gathered a great mass of important facts and has classi- fied and interpreted them. It is new material, much needed, interesting, valuable a report the commission presents with a great deal of satis- faction. Olive M. Jones has made a report on the delinquent child in the public school. This report is a report of facts gathered by one who knew what facts to gather and what kind of report would be of service to teachers in the education of the delinquent and possibly de- linquent child. If time permits I hope she will give you a brief outline of a report that the commission predicts will be far-reaching in its bene- ficial results. Constructive as well as critical, having set forth the facts, it gives definite recommendations based upon them for the pre- vention of delinquency, recommendations which if acted upon will help the grade teacher with the ever present problem of discipline and which will lessen the number of little children and of those approaching man- hood and womanhood who are brought up for trial before the juvenile and criminal courts. Abbie Louise Day, another member of the commission, presents a "thesis" on Minimum Essentials Critically Considered and Bibliogra- phy. This discussion by Miss Day is timely. In the effort to give opportunity, to touch life at as many points as possible, elementary teachers are feeling the burden of too many subjects taught ; and every- where we hear the call for minimum essentials. But what are minimum essentials ? Miss Day's report is a discussion of the subject with per- tinent quotations and a bibliography. Her closing paragraph reads, "This then is our problem, to include as minimum all things basic to life at any given age and to put them into our curriculum for children of that age, describing wide ranges of choice to fit the individual needs. Such curricula must include as Dr. Kilpatrick says, 'ways of doing things' as well as things to be done." These four reports, all looking toward changes that affect the whole structure of elementary education, are ready for printing. 134 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General One other is nearly ready. It is the report of Anna L. Force. Miss Force, with the consent of the commission, asked Clara H. Town to prepare a report on the education of the mentally defective, the blind, the deaf, and the crippled children in the public schools. Dr. Town, having made an exhaustive study of conditions in the United States, was contemplating submitting the report about a year ago, when she decided to study a year at the University of Paris. During the past year she has made additional study in France and in England of school conditions of these handicapped children. Dr. Town having re- turned to America, we hope for her finished report in the near future. As her study has been most thorough, we feel that her recom- mendations will be of high value. Clark W. Hetherington reports progress as follows : Under Physical Education a program for the public schools will be pre- sented which will enable the schools to meet the needs of the child under present day social conditions. The old physical activities of the home and community have broken down under the cramp of modern industrial conditions. The school must now set up a program of physical training which makes the school yard the community social play center of the child. This is the essence of the new program in physical training activities . Associated with the program of activities is a program of teaching standards of living. The opportunities in this connection are important because of the profound influence of physical training activities on the instincts and emotions. Again in the conducting of these activities the teacher is most intimately associ- ated with the child's general physical welfare, and hence the program covers specific points in health supervision. The program which will be proposed will be a practical organization covering these several points. This report Mr. Hetherington expects to have ready by January 1 , 1922. Theda Gildemeister is at work upon a bulletin on the Teaching of English in the Elementary Schools. I present her outline in order to give you some idea of the scope of the work. This bulletin is well under way and we are hoping to give it to you a year from today. OUTLINE Chapter I. General Introduction to the Subject. Chapter II. Listening. Chapter III. Talking or Oral Composition. Chapter IV. Reading ( Literature) . Chapter V. Aids to Reading-Phonics, Dictionary Work, Punctuation, Para- graphing, Grammar, Rhetoric. Chapter VI. Written Composition. Chapter VII. Aids to Written Composition-Penmanship, Spelling, Punctua- tion, Paragraphing, Grammar, Rhetoric, Literature. Chapter VIII. The Study of English and How to train Pupils to Independence in Studying English. Chapter IX. Measuring Gains . Chapter X. Illustrative Lessons or Projects-Arranged by Grades and Topics for Easy Conference. Sessions] REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 135 Chapter XI. School Texts in the Various Fields-Value-Use Made of- Means of Judging. Chapter XII. A Teacher's Book Shelf (on the subject) . Chapter XIII. Reorganization of the Material to Show Work by Grades-for Easy Reference. Chapter XIV. Bibliography. Chapter XV. Index (carefully made with many cross-references ) . Frances Harden presents a preliminary report on home environment. Her report deals with the problem of the economic condition of the home and its relation to the child's progress in school, to retardation, truancy, and delinquency. Commissioner Payson Smith is at work upon the school laws af- fecting elementary education. He presents a report that I wish there were time to read on compulsory school attendance; consolidation of schools, and transportation of pupils at public expense ; salaries of teachers; certification of teachers; physical education; medical inspec- tion. Each of these discussions is followed by recommendations. Since my last report to the Association, Carroll G. Pearse has given us a study on school building and equipment. Learning that there was already a committee at work upon this subject, further study was not considered advisable. Mr. Pearse is planning a year from the present time to have ready a report on teacher training for elementary schools. Georgia Alexander reports progress on a study that she and Dr. Finley are working upon together. RECOMMENDATIONS The Commission recommends (1 ) that the reports of Dr. Terman, Miss Woodward, Miss Jones, and Miss Day be accepted by the Na- tional Education Assocation, and by it be made available in printed form for the study and guidance of the teachers and superintendents of the county. (2) That the Commission be authorized to continue its work. COMMISSION ON REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION OLIVE M. JONES, PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 120, NEW YORK, N. Y. Mrs. McNaught has reported to you on what the Commission has done to date. It becomes my privilege to bring before you the aims as yet unfulfilled, certain recommendations for which we desire your ap- proval, and an appeal for budgetary provision sufficient to bring this report before the public so that it will actually influence action. The American program in education calls upon us to give an equal opportunity for education to every child on our shores, not only for the sake of the child himself, but for the preservation of our national ideals and for the salvation of all of us, of the world, from the chaos which still seems to threaten. Never in history was it so necessary for a body 136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of educators, the duly designated representatives of the teachers of America, to awake to their big responsibility. For many years we have talked about the melting pot and not even we teachers realized that the flame which kept that melting pot boiling was kindled in the public schools and that the fuel which keeps the flame burning is found in the materials and methods of instruction used by teachers in the public schools . Not only to the willing and receptive child must that equal oppor- tunity and systematic training be given but to the unwilling. Not only to the child of parents who seek and desire and strain to give the bene- fits of education to their children, but to the child of parents who look upon their children as liabilities and seek to hasten the moment when they can begin to realize upon their children's earnings. Not only to the child of parents born in this land or loving and adopting its traditions, but to the child of parents who have sought our shores, not as a refuge, but as a pocket-book and who care nothing whether their children be- come worthy American citizens or whether they grow up with foreign ideas and ideals to become a disintegrating force in the greatest country in the world. It is true that we have passed compulsory education laws, but the passage of a law doesn't educate. We teachers must do that. Putting a child inside school walls does not teach him. Preparing tables showing the extent of retardation does not remove the retardation or tell teach- ers how to remove it. Making trivial recommendations as to whether grammar should be taught below the high school or whether history should be taught chronologically or biographically or how much arith- metic should be taught is only just scratching the surface of the ground to be dug. We have failed to meet the challenge of the compulsory education laws just as we have failed to meet the need of the nation created by the inrush of immigration with un-American ideas, difficult to teach because of a foreign tongue. Our courses of study in English are the same as when English was the native speech of all Americans and they take no account of the lack of home background presupposed by those courses of study. We forced children into school and then took it for granted that they must accept gratefully the same type of education, the same sort and degree of education, which had been given for genera- tions to children who accepted it willingly because they hoped some day to go to college. It is to meet this challenge that the Commission on Revision of Ele- mentary Education is aiming all its work. It is but fair to you that you should be told our purpose. The cost will be great, but teachers should lead in showing a comprehension of the situation, and, through the National Education Association's extension and publication of the work Sessions ] REORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 137 already done, teachers will hear the call and the public will know that teachers have risen to meet the nation's need . To illustrate concretely. It is fatal to educate the child of an il- literate, non-English-speaking father, or especially mother, unless we provide instruction for the parent. To do so may give a child an academ- ic knowledge of our history and our literature, but leaves him, oh so often, still foreign in his thinking and doing. Hence the need to secure a wide circulation for the report Miss Woodward has prepared. It deals practically with the problem of Americanization. It tells what can be done; at the same time it calls startlingly to our attention how very littlehas been done, although our papers and our legislatures have talked Americanization daily for five years . Again, it is fatal to give a child academic training, 100 per cent of perfection in every subject of the course of study, unless you teach him the fundamentals of character, of righteous living. You then have placed a dangerous weapon in the hands of a monster. Hence the at- tention given to the study of the education of the delinquent . Mrs. McNaught has told you that I will give you some details of my report on the education of the delinquent child. I did not expect the request and the report is too long to read. I will say, however, that it provides for the separation of the juvenile delinquent so that the normal, well- behaved child is not deprived of instruction by disciplinary problems precipitated upon the teacher by acts of the delinquent boy or girl and so that the delinquent himself may receive the care and specialized train- ing which may save him from commitment to an institution or to prison later. Mrs. McNaught has told you of the work completed, but she has said little of the devotion to the National Education Association mani- fested by the writers of some of those reports, working on them amid the harassments of other labors and offering them for distribution by the National Education Association instead of seeking publication as a business proposition. Thus, while it may seem that there still remains untouched the weighty problem of modification, and modernization, of our elementary- school subjects of study, we have laid the foundation upon which all courses of study in the future must be laid. And these foundations are not the mere material of knowledge, but briefly stated are : (1) A differentiation in courses of study to meet the needs of differentiated children and the needs of a nation which must be welded into a united American people. (2) The prevention of retardation and delinquency instead of stigmatizing the retarded child and merely punishing the delinquent. (3) Recommendations as to subject-matter with maximum and minimum essentials, so clearly understood that the maximum will not become the minimum, in the requirements of teachers, and that 138 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General teachers may develop and train children prepared to meet the emergen- cies of life and to know how to fill in their own deficiencies of knowl- edge as life forces them to become aware of their lack. This sort of preparation is what the public expects of us. The pub- lic has criticized the school's failure to prepare children. We have been angered by the criticism, but criticism which is so constant and so gen- eral must have some foundation. The Commission seeks to learn how to remove such cause as may lie in our elementary school. I am reminded of a small boy in my school. He was very small indeed, not looking more than seven although really ten. He was pop- ular and much liked among teachers and boys, but he was very naughty and difficult to watch. On several occasions, when the boys went out on trips with teachers, he disobeyed commands, ran away, and was lost. So, one day, when the boys were going to the Zoo in Bronx Park, I said that this lad could not go. He wept and pleaded and the teachers interceded, but I stood firm. Finally, the big boys said, "Miss Jones, please let him go, we'll take care of him for the teachers so that he can't get away." In order to fix him with some responsibility, they gave Solly the bat and ball to carry. On the way uptown, on the car, he lost the ball. The boys were furiously angry, and they made him feel their displeasure in the many gentle ways boys use with one another. Solly did not dare to rebel against the big boys, but as he trudged along, still carrying the bat, he was very resentful. Once in the Zoo, he was forgotten. Suddenly, a teacher turned to see a keeper driving Solly on a run out of the Zoo and inquired the cause. Solly had found expression for his feelings by hitting the lion on the head with the bat ! We've been hitting the public, our lion, on the head with the bat with quite as little reason as Solly. Let us now stop losing the ball. Let us fit the children to meet the new demands of new conditions . REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SOURCES OF REVENUE WILLIAM B. OWEN, PRESIDENT CHICAGO NORMAL SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL., Chairman MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE Chairman, WILLIAM B. OWEN, President of Chicago Normal College........ .Chicago, Ill. JOHN H. BEVERIDGE, Superintendent of City Schools .... .Omaha, Nebr. C. P. CARY, Ex-State Superintendent of Public Schools . Madison, Wis. NICKOLAUS L. ENGLEHARDT, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York, N. Y. THOMAS E. JOHNSON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . .Lansing, Mich. MARGARET NOONAN, Harris Teachers' College .. St. Louis, Mo. OLIVIA POUND, High School ... .Lincoln, Nebr. S. D. SHANKLAND, Superintendent of the Andrews Institute for Girls .....Willoughby, Ohio WALTER R. SIDERS, Superintendent of City Schools .... .Pocatello, Idaho JOHN W. STUDEBAKER, Superintendent of City Schools ...... ...... Des Moines, Iowa ARCHIBALD H. WATERHOUSE, Superintendent of City Schools .... ... Fremont, Nebr. Sessions] REPORT on VISUAL EDUCATION 139 The Committee on Sources of Revenue Recommends : 1. That the Association provide by proper legislation and by ade- quate appropriation for the establishment of a bureau or division of school economics in connection with the Secretary' office at Washington . 2. That the head of this bureau or division be a scientifically trained student of economics and statistics. 3. That this bureau inaugurate immediately a continuing service to the affiliated state and local associations with respect to school revenues and finances through the monthly journal of the Association, through bulletins, and more comprehensive studies. 4. That these studies contemplate the development of a compre- hensive standard treatment of the whole subject of school economics. 5. That the Association invite the affiliated state associations to create state committees on revenue to co-operate with the bureau or di- vision at the national headquarters and with the Committee on Revenue of the Association. PRELIMINARY REPORT of the coMMITTEE ON VISUAL EducatiON MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE Chairman, I B. BUSH, Superintendent of City Schools... .Erie, Pa. MAYBELLG. BUSH, Supervisor of City Grades .. Madison, Wis. ERNEST L. CRANDALL, Director of Lectures, Board of Education . New York, N.Y. HOWARD O. WELTY, Principal of Fruitvale School... Oakland, Calif. HERBERT S. WEET, Superintendent of City Schools . Rochester, N.Y. IDA LEE WOODY, Principal of Hamilton School.. .St. Louis, Mo. (Authorized at the Meeting of the National Education Association, Salt Lake City, 1920.) It has been impossible for your committee to have a meeting during the year. The work that has been done has been done through corres- pondence. A program was arranged for the study of the different phases of visual education and much work has been done, but there has not been sufficient time to complete the work. The program agreed upon is as follows : 1. The scope of visual education- Awakening the teaching profession to a fuller realization of (a) The subjects in the curriculum to which visual education can con- tribute, and (b) The agencies contributing to visual education. 2. The establishment of centers for the collection and distribution of visual education ideas and materials. 3. Encouragement of production of visual-education matter scientifically pre- pared for educational use. 4. Encouragement of- (a) Formation of clubs or associations of teachers for furthering the inter- ests of visual education, and (b) Of literature published in its behalf. 140 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General 5. Visual-education resources of a community (a) Recognition and utilization of existing resources (b) Development of possible assets. 6. The relation of visual education to progress and retardation 7. Minimum standards for visual-education program in school systems of representative types. 8. Censoring of the movies through public sentiment. 9. What are the relative values of movie slides and stereographs in classroom instruction ? 10. What are the best methods of use of each ? 11. What practical ways are available and can be made available for securing useful films and slides for schools ? 12. How can we secure films and slides which lend themselves to problem- project teaching methods ? 13. How can films and slides best serve the needs of- (a) Deaf pupils, (b) Dull normal pupils, (c) Non- English-speaking pupils. Your Committee recommends the acceptance of this preliminary report and a continuance of the Committee through another year to complete its work. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SALARIES D. B. WALDO, PRESIDENT OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KALAMAZOO, MICH., Chairman COMMITTEE ON SALARIES, TENURE AND PENSIONS MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE Chairman, FRANK E. SPAULDING, Yale University . New Haven, Conn. FRANCIS G. BLAIR, State Superintendent of Public Instruction ..... ... Springfield, Ill. E. C. BROCKS, State Superintendent of Public Instruction .. ..Raleigh, N.C. JOHN W. ARR, Director of Physical Training . .Frankfort, Ky. ALICE M. USACK, Supervisor of Kindergarten and Primary, Public Schools ..Lincoln, Nebr. JAMES FERGUSON, Principal of High School.. .Chico, Calif. GRACE S. FORSYTHE ........ 20 West 72nd Street, New York, N.Y. J. M. GWINN, Superintendent of City Schools ... .... New Orleans, La. MARGARET HALEY 127 North Dearborn St. , Chicago, Ill . D. B. JOHNSON, President of Winthrop Normal and Industrial College...... Rock Hill, S. C. W. W. MCINTIRE, Ohio University ..Athens, Ohio ERNEST C. MOORE, Harvard University Cambridge, Mass. SARA L. RHODES, Principal Elementary School ... Brooklyn, N.Y. Chairman, Sub-Committee on Pensions-JOSEPH SWAIN, President of Swarthmore College.. ..Swarthmore, Pa. HARLAN UPDEGRAFF, Professor of Educational Administration, University of Pennsylvania .. ..Philadelphia, Pa. Chairman, Sub-Committee on Salaries D. B. WALDO, President, Western State Normal Schoo! ..Kalamazoo, Mich. Chairman, Sub-Committee on Tenure--CHARL O. WILLIAMS, County Superintendent of Schools ..... Memphis, Tenn. Of the public school teachers of the United States 140,000 have had training equivalent to high-school graduation and two years or more of professional training in addition. Of our public-school teachers 560,000 have had less than this modest minimum. America's greatest educa- tional need is a trained teacher for every child. To reach this goal, the members of the teaching profession in America must agree to the following: Sessions] REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SALARIES 141 1. Make use in season and out of season of legitimate effective pub- licity and propaganda. ۱ 2. We ourselves must see to it that needed legislation is enacted which will require a decent minimum of training for all who are per- mitted to enter the teaching profession. 3. Superintendents, principals, and high-school teachers must com- prehend the problem as a whole and exercise such influence that a fair percentage of the best boys and girls in the upper quartile of our high- school Senior classes shall be attracted into the teaching service. 4. The state must provide teacher-training institutions of college rank properly equipped and supported, and numerous enough to insure within a reasonable period-five years-a trained teacher for every child. 5. The public must everywhere accord to the teaching profession a decent degree of social recognition. 6. There will be a shortage of trained teachers until such time as compensation is adequate to make the profession attractive. Adequate compensation must be sufficient to provide- 1. A living, which includes food, clothing, housing, laundry, in- cidental essentials, medical, dental and surgical care, insurance, church, legitimate charity expense, and all desirable facilities for wholesome recreation and the promotion of health. 2. Social and professional growth, including expenditures for so- cial life, including association with the attractive personalities of one's community, reading matter, music, art, expense of educational associa- tions and meetings, travel, and professional training in institions of learning. 3. For a high percentage of all teachers, women as well as men, especially those who have been in the profession five years or more, compensation for the support of members of the family or other de- pendents. 4. An annual surplus for investment. A teacher who has served faithfully and invested thriftily for a period of thirty or thirty-five years should have a living income from investments. The teacher is entitled to a return for the investment of time and cash involved in 1 preparation for professional duties. The average salary in the United States is still pitifully inadequate. It is not sufficient to attract enough high-grade young men and young women into the profession to do the job which must be done. This in- adequacy is not due to national poverty. We are not poor. We are rich. There is indubitable evidence of the ability of the United States to pay adequate salaries to the teachers of our public schools. This evi- dence may be enumerated under four heads. 142 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General 1. Census reports each decade indicate a tremendous annual pro- duction of new wealth, and for the year 1920 an enormous sum total of all wealth. Our total measureable wealth is estimated at the sum of $300,000,000,000. We produce $60,000,000,000 in new wealth annu- ally. Farm values including lands and buildings increased from $30,801,000,000 in 1910 to $67,795,000,000 in 1920. 2. State and federal reports of banks' savings deposits are a definite index to vast accumulations and indicate tremendous wealth. Banks' savings deposits in Michigan stood at $134,924,000 in 1907. In 1920 savings deposits for this commonwealth stood at $525,671,000, an in- crease of 296 per cent. For every single year from 1907 to 1920 banks' savings deposits in Michigan show an increase over the pre- ceding year . 3. Another sure index of rapidly increasing wealth is shown in the net incomes of corporations. In 1910 this total net income for Michigan was $95,666,000. In 1918 this total net income of all corporations in Michigan amounted to $338,729,000. 4. That our ability adequately to support a system of public schools is limited only by our desire for public-school service is clear- ly indicated in our expenditure for luxuries. Edith Strauss, head of the Women's Activity Division of the Department of Justice, during the high-cost-of-living campaign compiled statistics which in- dicate that the average family has been spending $348 a year for luxuries. Included in the total amount is: $2,110,000,000 spent for tobacco ($800,000,000 for cigarettes, $800,000,000 for loose tobacco and snuff, and $510,000,000 for cigars.) The total expenditure for automobiles is put down at $2,000,000,000. The total amount spent for candy is $1,000,000,000, for soft drinks $350,000,000, for chew- ing gum $50,000,000, for perfume and cosmetics $750,000,000, and for furs $300,000,000. It seems to be clear as daylight that we have not reached the limit of wise expenditures for public-school educa- tion when our schools, public and private cost less than one-half of our annual tobacco bill . The cost of living determines in part adequate compensation for salaried classes. According to the National Industrial Conference Board, the cost of living on May 1, 1921, as compared with the cost of living in July, 1914, stood at 165.7. In other words, while there has been a marked decline in cost of living from 1920 to the present time in 1921 , there is still an increase of 65.7 per cent. For food the increase is 52 per cent, for shelter 71 per cent, for clothing 68 per cent, for fuel and light 78 per cent, and for sundries 85 per cent . The estimate of the total increase of 65.7 per cent is based on retail prices of the component elements in the family bud Sessions] REPORT of committee on SALARIES 143 get, weighted according to consumption by average wage earners before the war. According to the Bureau of Labor, the increase in cost of living from December, 1914 to May, 1921, in five large cities was as follows : Chicago ... 78.4 Cleveland .84.7 Detroit .93.3 New York .81.7 Philadelphia .79.8 The main argument for better compensation must now rest upon the general law of supply and demand. The demand for trained teach- ers is greater than at any time in the history of our public-school sys- tem. The effective publicity campaign of the National Education As- sociation, the wholesale exposition in the public press and in standard periodicals of the actual teacher situation in our public schools, has led to the increased demand for better teaching. The public is not yet asking for a trained teacher for every child, but we are rapidly ap- proaching that goal. While the demand has been increasing, the supply is still lament- ably low. The report of the Bureau of Education and the bulletins of the N. E. A. Commission on the emergency in education reveal great masses of immature, untrained, and incompetent teachers in our public schools. The folly of intrusting school children to the incom- petent and the waste due to the large annual turnover in our public- school teaching force call for no discussion before this body. There is appalling waste in a large part of our public-school system due to incompetent teaching. The discussion of this waste must be before the public, and espe- ciallybefore organized groups of men and women in local communities everywhere throughout the American Commonwealth. Through this discussion we must increase the demand for teachers who are fit to do the job. While we must constantly emphasize the importance of training and of adequate compensation to reward the trained teacher, we may ex- pedite matters by legislating the untrained out of the profession. In Michigan a boy or girl eighteen years of age, who can pass a third-grade examination may be certificated to teach after a minimum of six weeks of professional training. Through new legislation, in five years from the present time, no person will be certificated to teach whose training represents less than graduation from an approved high school and one year of professional training in addition thereto. The time has come when by legislative enactment it should be made illegal for a common- wealth to intrust the training of its school children to those who have made no adequate preparation for the work. The competition of the incompetent at the present time unquestionably affects the general 144 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General level of our salary schedules for the nation as a whole, and it seems clear that we must wage an unending fight until victory is won. ' While it is true that salary schedules are not yet satisfactory, speak ing for the country as a whole, it is also true that we have been moving rapidly in the right direction since 1919. While it is true that statis- tics for 359 cities show an average salary increase of but 61 per cent since 1914 and that this increase does not equal the cost of living, it is also true that a major part of the increase came in a two-year period preceding the investigation. In January, 1919, the demand for a minimum salary of $ 1,000 was looked upon as radical. At the present time a high percentage of cities offer a minimum salary of $1200 or more. There has been a marked increase in money compensation in the past two years. Reports from a large number of cities in the United States indicate that there will be no diminution in cash compensation, and that schedules calling for an annual increase are being maintained Cite New York, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Michigan, California. It seems clear to the committee that if we are to attract into the teaching profession a fair percentage of the best boys and girls who are graduating each year from high school, we must insist upon a living minimum salary with a rapid annual increase during the first four or five years of service. It has been clearly demonstrated that we cannot attract enough young people into the profession to keep the ranks filled on the basis of apprenticeship schedules for the early years. It is more important, however, that we shall insist upon adequate compensation for those who have served a decade and have indicated their intention of remaining permanently in the public-school service. -These people constitute the backbone of the teaching force in nearly all communities, and must be paid if they are to be retained at a max imum of efficiency. Their salaries are still too meager. Teachers ac- cumulate dependents with lengthened years in the service. The mature teacher must be more adequately compensated and liberal salary sche- dules should reward extended cultural and professional training. We must have special rewards for the especially gifted teachers. The com- pensation of superior teachers in every public-school system should be recognized more generally in terms of cash . Here and there throughout the country, and for most part in recent years, cities have adopted the policy of paying grade teachers compen- sation equivalent to that paid high school teachers where training, ex- perience, and skill are equivalent. This practice rests on a sound basis. The movement is bound to move rapidly during the next decade and is entitled to our cordial support. In conclusion, the members of this association must make it their business to attract into the teaching profession a fair percentage of the upper quartile from our high-school graduating classes. We ourselves Sessions] REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON TENURE 145 must take a large part in the campaign for adequate compensation. We must have publicity, especially publicity of facts, strong leadership, more thorough organization and a campaign that continues. We must utilize all the organs of publicity including the press, and we must retain the aid of organized groups of men and women in every corner of the land. We must present education as an investment and an insurance, andwe must free ourselves from what has been servitude to low ideals, both as to training and compensation. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TENURE¹ CHARL O. WILLIAMS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SHELBY COUNTY SCHOOLS, MEMPHIS, TENN., Chairman The teaching profession faces no problem to-day so important as that of tenure. The question of tenure strikes at the very heart of our profession. Until sound principles are developed and practical appli- cations are worked out, we shall continue to struggle, as we have in the past, in the quicksands of insecurity and uncertainty, without the power or strength to fight for the adequate recognition of our profession. If education is the foundation of our democracy and the hope of our republic, it is time that we checked forever the pernicious influences which continue to sap our very life and vigor and render our profes- sion impotent ; while its pronouncements go unheeded, its power re- mains relatively unrecognized and its influence all too little felt. Not until the educational interests stand together fearlessly, daring to do right, protected by security of tenure while in the right, and united in the single purpose of serving the childhood of America, will it receive the recognition and attention it merits. Tenure, like all other great movements, began humbly and at first with little support. Investigation shows that the question of tenure for teachers had its beginning in the growing appreciation of the appli- cation of the principles of civil service to the tenure of public officials. Gradually it has gathered impetus and strength until it is now recog- nized as one of the great problems of our profession. It is recognized as the central factor in the question of salaries, certification, and pensions. HISTORY The proceedings of former meetings of the National Education Association, show that the question of the tenure of public school officials was discussed as far back as the year 1885. In that year a com- mittee of this Association submitted an exhaustive report on the sub- ject. At that time, tenure was interpreted to mean the application of the principles of civil service to the teaching profession. The chief argument presented was that "the public-school system should be in- Material for this report was gathered at the headquarters of the National Education Association. 146 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General dependent of personal or partisan influence and free from the malignant power of patronage and spoils." On June 22, 1886, the state of Massachusetts passed an act "Relat- ing to the Tenure of Office of Teachers." This law permitted local school districts to employ teachers for a longer term than one year. In February, 1889, the committee on rules of the Boston School Com- mittee recommended a tenure law that provided for a probationary period of one year, four years of annual elections, thereafter perman- ent tenure removable only for cause after a hearing before the com- mittee. The committee stated as the reasons for such action : 1. Annual election does not attract first class talent to the pro- fession. 2. Annual election in practice has not availed to drop poor, incom- petent, and inefficient teachers. 3. Annual election is not applied to policemen who preserve public peace, firemen who protect property, judicial officers who administer justice, and hence should not apply to teachers who have higher re- sponsibility. 4. During annual elections some of our best teachers have been "black-balled" for insignificant reasons. Up to the present time, tenure laws have been adopted by Massa- chusetts, New York, New Jersey, where all teachers whether in city or rural positions are protected by a statewide tenure law, California, with a permissive law providing indefinite tenure under specified conditions. In 1920, the National Committee for Chamber of Commerce Co- operation with the Public Schools issued a questionnaire to the superin- tendents of cities with a population of 8,000 and over. The third ques- tion was " Is there a teachers' tenure law in your city?" Excluding the cities of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and New York in which teachers are protected by the state tenure laws, only 22 cities of 295 that replied answered the question in the affirmative. These cities are Fresno, Los Angles, San Diego, San Jose, and Santa Barbara, Calif.; Belleville and Chicago, Ill.; Vincennes, Ind.; Lexington, Ky.; New Orleans, La.; Baltimore, Md.; Kalamazoo, Mich.; Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minn.; Great Falls, Helena, and Missoula, Mont.; Omaha, Nebr.; Rochester, N. Y.; Newport, and Providence, R. I.; and Milwaukee, Wis. To these may be added a few cities that did not reply to the questionnaire such as, San Francisco, Calif.; Portland, Ore.; and Pawtucket, R. I. During the past year, several states notably Ohio and Pennsylvania, have agitated legislative enactments on tenure but favorable action was not forthcoming. In most cases this is due to a lack of complete understanding among the proponents of tenure and their failure to present a united support behind an acceptable program. Your committee has felt that any report on this subject would be inconclusive unless it included the following topics: (a) the need for Sessions] REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON TENURE 147 tenure; (b) the length of the probationary period; (c) the basis for removal after the probationary period; (d) the removing agency; (e) the means assuring improvement and safeguards against in- competency; (f) the opinions of prominent educators ; (g) recom- mendations. NEED OF TENURE Probably the question most frequently asked in connection with tenure is, "What is the need of tenure?" Those not yet convinced of the merits of the proposal cite the fact that the number of cases of removal of teachers for cause is slight and suggest that tenure is agitated to favor the incompetent by fortifying them in their positions. A summary of the replies to a questionnaire sent out by the U. S. Bureau of Education in February, 1921 shows that in 528 cities with a population between 5,000 and 30,000, nine hundred seventy-five teach- ers were not re-elected last year. The total number of teachers in these 528 cities was approximately 21,000. This shows that 4.5 per- cent of the teaching staff was not elected. In 80 per cent of the cities, teachers not to be retained were advised definitely not to apply. These figures do not indicate all of the teachers who did not return. It is impossible to ascertain definitely the number of teachers who left the schools of these 528 cities because of indirect suggestions of their un- desirability or through transfers to other cities, arranged in order that they might be saved from the humility of failure of reappointment. Under the annual election plan, there is ever present the feeling of anxiety and uncertainty which robs the conscientious teacher of much of her power and efficiency. It is usually not the poor or mediocre teacher who worries over the success or failure of her efforts and the prospects of reappointment. Our greatest orators, whose nerves are finely wrought, all confess that the anticipation of the success or failure of their efforts creates a great nervous tension that makes the opening of their addresses extremely difficult. They are able in a few minutes, however, properly to adjust themselves to their audience. The finest and best of our teachers suffer greatly under the "hire and fire" system in vogue today. Many an efficient teacher has worked her- self into such a state of nervous fear and worry during the months just before the new contracts are issued that she has been unable to go on with her work. This natural worry combined with the fear in- stilled by donnineering, critical supervisors, makes evident the injustice of such a practice. As a result, not only the teachers but also the child- ren suffer. This pre-election tension, which exists among our best teachers in every community, causes a loss of thousands of dollars through the inability of the teacher under such stress to render the efficient service of which she is capable. 148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General Stability is the basis of any profession. It should be a principle in our profession as it is in others that, when a teacher has finished her apprenticeship in a probationary service to the satisfaction of her em- ployer, she should continue in her employment until removed for cause. In other words, after an acceptable trial period, the burden of removal should be placed upon the employer. This stability of employment is needed in order that the profession of teaching may stand upon a firm foundation. It is doubtless true that our profession does not command the respect and attention it deserves because in the past it has rested so largely upon the quicksands of insecurity, restlessness, and incom- petency due to the temporary character of the work. It is only when our teachers feel reasonably secure in the continuity and dignity of their service in a given locality that they will become a constructive power in the economic and social life of that community. Our teachers and our children are entitled to that sense of security that will make them feel free to plan for the future. Certainty of location will give them an opportunity to purchase property and establish homes. They would then become active and useful citizens directly concerned with the civic problems of the community. They would then aid in its betterment and add to its economic and social develop- ment. Under the present uncertain conditions, teachers not knowing their status from one year to the next, subjected to the fear of removal at the whim of an influential parent, superintendent, or board for any reason whatsoever, are forced to regard themselves as temporary residents. Consequently, they take little or no part in community activities and lose that broadening influence which such contacts develop. Permanence of employment would also result in added advantage to the children and to the community in that a teacher would know that she had time to work out definite school policies and test them through a series of years. It would guarantee to the teacher an independence of thought and action which every superintendent and supervisor seeks to develop. Teachers feeling secure in their position, and not fearing that each spring may necessitate a change, would spend more freely in self-improvement. Stability would produce economies in living costs and permit of much greater self-improvement. It is not the purpose of this committee to dwell long upon other strong but more localized reasons for tenure. Everyone knows of the dangers that arise in an annual election system due to political con- ditions, favoritism, and the influence of unjust yet powerful parents who become temporarily incensed and force the removal of teachers for inconsequential reasons. It is regrettable but true that superinten- dents, supervisors, and principals are often swayed by personal animos- ities, jealousy, and bias to cause the unwarranted dismissal of com- petent fellow-workers in the service. Efficient and conscientious Sessions] REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON TENURE 149 teachers are still summarily removed solely for political reasons. Power- ful political influences are brought to bear and the spoils system still plays its part in the removal and selection of teachers. THE LENGTH OF THE PROBATIONARY TERM The length of the probationary period is a very important element to be considered. This period should not be too long, at the same time, it should be sufficient to determine with accuracy the competency of the candidate. It must bring out not only the adequacy of profes- sional preparation but also the ability of the candidate to apply this knowledge successfully, skill in classroom management ; skill in teach- ing; co-operation; initiative; enthusiasm; industry ; and forcefulness . Her physical condition and health, her moral character and, probably most important, the capacity and desire for growth and the ambition to progress must also be determined. Careful, competent supervision and guidance during this pro- bationary period will do much to safeguard the system from the danger of the incompetent teacher. Of the twenty-two cities reporting a tenure provision in 1920, six reported a one-year probationary period; thirteen, two years ; six, three years ; one, four years ; and one, five years. In Massachusetts, New Jersey, and New York three years are required. The new tenure regulation adopted for the Detroit Public Schools, April 14, 1921, permits a two-year probationary period. A unique provision in this regulation is that a teacher on a continuing contract may be placed upon probation at the end of any semester if the work of this teacher proves unsatisfactory. A three-year probationary period is not too long and it is hardly possible to ascertain with accuracy the merits of the individual suffi- ciently to merit permanent employment in much less than this period. It is true nevertheless that the probationary period can well be shorter if the degree of protection afforded the teacher is lessened. If the regulations make it easy for the Board of Education to discharge a teacher, then it is less necessary to delay conferring the rights assumed in tenure provisions. In order to build up our calling on high profes- sional lines, it seems desirable to test carefully the new apprentices, and to cull out the inefficient before they have time or opportunity to injure either the school system or the children. If this is done, then adequate protection should be afforded those who successfully meet all of the probationary requirements. Might it not be well for the community to recognize officially the completion of the probationary period and the acceptance of the meri- torious teachers into the permanent personnel of the professional staff ? Such recognition might well consist of the public presentation of a certificate and testimonial. 150 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General Our profession is seriously negligent in the adequate recognition of its successful members. We believe it would be a great stimulus to our cause to practice the conferring of honors upon those who have achieved distinction. Such recognition would not only act as an incentive in bringing more worthy recruits into our ranks but would lead the public to a deeper realization of the service rendered by the profession. Some form of special recognition of merit is universally used in all other professions. Why should not the classroom teacher, the super- intendent, or the professor, who has served with unusual ability or who has added to the progress of education in other ways receive the same recognition as the scholar, the physician, the engineer, or the scientist ? Why should not the community, the State, and the Nation officially recognize meritorious service in public education, in the greatest of humanitarian professions, as it does in other lines of endeavor ? Such recognition at the end of a probationary period would inspire and point the way to greater zeal and more confidence in the profession . THE REMOVING AGENCY During the probationary period, there is little question but that the removing power of the board should be strongly preserved. In order that the teaching staff itself may be protected from the danger of weak and incompetent teachers on permanent tenure, it is necessary that high standards of entrance be required. It should be the duty not only of the superintendent and supervisors to study the attitudes and abilities of the probationary teachers with great care and exactitude, but the teachers already on tenure should indorse and encourage the continued maintenance of those professional requisites which protect them from the influence of an incompetent and undesirable element on the teaching staff. Such an element brings discredit to the profession and has interfered with the progress of protective measures for the benefit of a large majority of successful teachers already in the service. The board of education, therefore, should have the right, upon recommendation of the superintendent, to drop any probationary teacher at the end of the school year after a reasonable notice. The notice should be not less than thirty days. The Portland, Oregon, law provides that a probationary teacher shall not be dismissed on account of friction between her and the principal without giving such teacher a fair opportunity with another principal. The teacher might be dropped at any time after a reasonable notice, of not less than sixty days. A written statement signed by the superintendent should be given the teacher stating the reasons for her dismissal. If the deficiency be due to lack of skill in classroom management, removal should not be made until the teacher has been warned and an opportunity given to correct the deficiency. 1 Chapter 3. Laws of Oregon 1913. Section 3. Sessions] REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON TENURE 151 After the probationary period, teachers should be removed only for cause. The causes usually enumerated include one or more of the following: inefficiency, neglect of duty, professional stagnation, in- difference and lack of growth, lack of co-operation, disloyalty, immor- ality, unprofessional conduct, insubordination, ill health and physical disability, or any other reason that would annul a teacher's certificate. The New York law specifies that the teacher shall hold her position "during good behavior and efficient and competent service." The pro- posed Ohio law gave neglect of duty, insubordination, conduct un- becoming a teacher, and immoral or criminal conduct as causes for removal. The Pawtucket, Rhode Island, regulations specify only mis- conduct or incapacity. The Massachusetts law lists no specific reason . Teachers may be dismissed at any time for the causes enumerated above. In all cases, written notices of change are necessary and the teacher is given an opportunity of a hearing to refute the charges. Pending the hearing the teacher may be suspended, and this suspension is without pay if the charge is sustained. Usually the board of educa- tion has the final decision in these matters. New York, New Jersey, and California, however, provide for an appeal to the State superinten- dent or other authority. Portland, Oregon, provides for appeal by the unique method of a trial board of three, appointed by the presiding judge of the circuit court. In all cases where the decision to remove is supported by less than five of the seven members of the board of education, an appeal may be taken by the teachers to the commission. The decision of this special commission is final and conclusive. If five of the members of the board vote for removal, no appeal from this decision can be made. A majority of the board can remove. The questionnaire sent to affiliated units of the National Education Association indicates that the majority of teachers' organizations be- lieve that the hearing should be held before the board of education. A considerable number favor the first hearing before the superin- tendent and supervisory officials. This group usually believes in an appeal to the local board of education. Those favoring the initial trial before the board or superintendent and board would provide for an appeal to the State superintendent of education or his department. A number of suggestions were made that the trial be held before a joint committee consisting of representatives of the board, the teach- ing body, and citizens. Another recommendation was made that a committee of three be substituted, consisting of one representing the board or superintendent, another the teacher, and a third to be selected by these two. Since the board of education is the agency which employs the teacher, it would seem that it should also be the removing agency. The right to employ implies the right to dismiss. The privilege of 152 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General reviewing the action of the board in dismissing a teacher is a funda- înental principle of American democratic justice, and a reasonable pro- tection that should be provided. Since the majority of dismissals are based on technical questions such as neglect of duty, incompetency, inefficiency, conduct unbecoming a teacher, and the like, it seems that the final body of appeal should be in educational work, and yet disinterested. Dr. Kandel, of the Carnegie Foundation for the Ad- vancement of Teaching, states that "the best practice today provides for an appeal to the State superintendent of public instruction." PUBLIC OR PRIVATE HEARINGS The question of whether the hearings should be public or private is a debatable one and the committee would request an opportunity to give this more study. The general practice is to have the hearings private although there seems to be developing a strong tendency to make the matter of privacy optional with the teachers. There are undoubtedly occasions when the nature of the accusations might demand a private hearing in order to protect the teachers, the school system, and the children of the community. On the other hand, publicity serves as a competent check upon hasty and ill-advised action. It may prove a restraint upon judicious and justifiable dismissals, however, and consequently may work to the detriment of the school organization. It is a striking fact that the majority of those answering the questionnaire sent to the affiliated organizations of the National Edu- cational Association indicated a preference for private hearings. Quite a group, it will be noted, also felt that this privilege should be left to the discretion of the teacher accused. It seems that the accusing body should have some right of determination in this matter also since the advisability of presenting evidence might hinge on the kind of hearing granted. If the first hearing were private and the right of appeal allowed, which would be public or private as the teacher requested, perhaps all rights would be safeguarded. INSURING CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL IMPROVEMENT One of the most complex problems is that of insuring continued improvement on the part of the teacher who has been placed on tenure. Inability to find adequate means of protection through progressive improvement and the difficulty of protecting the schools from the danger of incompetent teachers have proved two of the most serious nandicaps in the extension of tenure. Where an employee is assured that her position belongs to her, and especially where a sympathetic public opinion makes it hard to discharge her, there is a grave possi- bility of an accumulation of "dead-wood," teachers whose continued services become a distinct liability to the community. There is no disease so dangerous as pernicious professional stagnation. Few, Sessions] REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON TENURE 153 if any definite steps have been taken to remove this deterring handi- cap. The law proposed by the State Teachers Association of Ohio this year (1921) provided that the superintendent of public instruction shall prescribe and require such study or other means of professional growth from time to time, as a condition of in- definite tenure, as in his judgment shall seem necessary. The said requirements fixed by the superintendent of public instruction shall be the minimum required for all districts of the State but any district shall have the right to establish higher professional requirements for continued and indefinite tenure with the consent and approval of the superintendent of public instruction. This provision was objected to by the teachers and subsequently omitted from the bill. The chief reasons presented against this sec- tion were: (1) It enabled local boards to nullify the tenure law so far as teachers are concerned. (2) Evidence of lack of professional growth could be presented by superintendents who desired to dismiss a teacher without preferring charges. (3) The State superinten- dent should not be projected into the question of the personnel of the teaching force of a community. The Tulsa, Oklahoma, scheme employs the teacher on a yearly basis, and provides that teachers shall follow a four-year cycle during the summer months as follows : one summer to be spent in travel, one in attendance at summer school, one in regular teaching, and the fourth optional. This plan allows the teacher to work out details and does not specify what must be done in any particular year. It merely provides that these four objectives be carried out in the four- year period. The sabbatical year with part or full pay is another plan which will increase the length of teaching service, broaden the viewpoint of the teacher, increase her culture, health, happiness and efficiency, and instil a new vigor and broaden her outlook in every way. Some cities providing the sabbatical year include Cambridge, Massachusetts, which gives one year absence in eleven with half pay; Boston, one year in eight with half pay; Newark, New Jersey, one in eleven with half pay; New Rochelle, New York, one year in eight with half pay ; New- ton, Massachusetts, one year in eight with half pay; Richmond, Vir- ginia, four and a half months after three years service with half pay ; Rochester, New York, one year in eight with half pay, not to exceed one thousand dollars. The method commonly followed, however, is that of giving a bonus for attendance at summer school. Whether the practice should be ad- vocated as anything but a temporary necessity is questionable. If teaching is to be a recognized profession, it must attain such recog- nition through the deserved merit of its members. It seeems that the practice of paying members of a teaching force a subsidy to improve themselves is not the ethical line of procedure. With the low salaries 154 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General being paid at the present time, however, teachers cannot afford to attend colleges or normal schools in summer vacations. Salaries should be adequate to make it amply possible for teachers to improve themselves as they all wish to do. Teachers are as ambitious, if not more so, than the average citizen and aspire to success as much as anyone. They recognize that this success can come only through preparation and continued study. Every inducement should be given the teacher by so arranging her work that she would have ample time for correspondence study, exten- sion work, reading courses, and visiting days. Constructive and sym- pathetic supervision, giving preferment in promotion and additional salary increases for recognized development makes improvement in- evitable. There is no reason why the teacher should not grow more valuable to her city with each succeeding year. Much of the success or failure of a corps of instructors is due to the character and person- ality of their leaders, the superintendent, and his supervisors . The inspiration of a broadminded, intelligent superintendent mo- tivated by high ideals and possessed with ability to lead his staff in a constructive program of education will do much to stimulate the growth and progress of the school system. Such a man or woman will recog- nize and reward merit, will sympathetically guide and direct the inex- perienced and the weaker teachers, for as in business or in any other profession there must be established and maintained that degree of co-operation and confidence without which no enterprise can succeed. THE DANGER OF INCOMPETENCE Incompetence, closely related with the question of insuring growth and continued improvement, can be reduced to its minimum danger through careful, exacting, yet sympathetic supervision during the proba- tionary period. To guard against the dangers of incompetency, the period of probation should be made long enough to test the new teacher in every possible way. Conscientious, skillful supervision from the first, com- bined with personal attention to the probationary group by the super- intendent himself, will help much in solving this problem. Reasonable transfers within grade and between buildings should be allowed. Pri- vate conferences should be held and deficiencies frankly discussed. Un- der such a plan the permanent personnel will not contain a large num- ber of stagnant teachers. A record should be kept each year of the efficiency of every teacher as measured by the supervisor's analyses, records of continued study, and other evidences of growth. Efficiency tests should be given. The larger school systems might well provide teacher-training facili- ties and teacher institutes at stated intervals. Some communities provide that teachers not maintaining the minimum standards of effi- Sessions] REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PENSIONS 155 ciency and in danger of becoming incompetent be placed back to a probationary status for a year before being recommended for dismissal. Incompetence, inefficiency, indifference, lack of co-operation, insub- ordination, and immorality must not be tolerated long. The schools are for the education of our children and we are working under too great a responsibility to permit deficiencies to be long endured. If the privileges of tenure are limited to those having adequate educational preparations, coupled with care in selecting teachers from the probationary group, much of the danger will be avoided. Tenure in the elementary grades should be limited to graduates of a two-year normal school preceded by graduation from a four-year high school . A life-certificate should be granted all such graduates who have two years of acceptable teaching experience. Not less than ten years of successful teaching experience should in any case be substituted for the educational requirements mentioned above. Higher standards should *of course be required for positions of greater responsibility. Graduation from a four-year college should be the standard for the specialized teachers of the secondary schools. National standards of certification should be adopted with minimum requirements which would serve as a basis for tenure regulations. Let us all unite, therefore, with every ounce of energy at our command to place upon the statute books of our several states and communities strong effective tenure legislation which will serve effect- ively to stabilize and dignify our profession and gain for it the recog- nition it merits from the citizenry of our land. Never before has our organization been so closely knit in a deter- mined, unified effort for recognition. Sane, progressive advancement promoted by co-operative effort on the part of members will achieve great and lasting results. In conclusion your committee feels that the importance of the question amply justifies further study and investigation. This is par- ticularly true along the line of a scientific consideration of the relations of tenure to other progressive projects for the advancement of our profession, such as the sabbatical year, national certification laws, uni- form tenure, pensions, and salaries. Very little work has been done in ascertaining the attitude of the courts, and it is essential to lay down definite principles upon which to work. PRELIMINARY REPort of coMMITTEE ON PENSIONS JOHN W. CARR, STATE DIRECTOR OF HYGIENE, FRANKFORT, KY., Chairman Your committee on pensions begs leave to report that it has held three sessions. On account of the illness of our chairman, Dr. Joseph Swain, of Pennsylvania, no meeting of the committee was held prior to Saturday, July 2, 1921 . 156 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Informal reports of different pension systems were made to this committee, and their merits and demerits were discussed. These re- ports and data secured from other sources show continued interest in teachers' pensions in different parts of the country. Several State and local pension systems have been modified and in some instances fundamentally changed within the last three years. The systems of Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York may be cited as examples of systems that have been materially changed within that period. The teachers' pension systems in this country are too new for all systems to be based on the same fundamental principles. But during the last few years careful studies have been made by local committees in several States and cities. The data for some of these studies are now available for the use of this committee. The conclusions reached by these local committees in reference to what are the best types of pension laws do not always agree. Perhaps they never will entirely agree. But the most gratifying thing about these studies is the fact that each committee has sought to find out the exact facts about the particular pension system under consideration, so as to safeguard the interests of the teachers and to promote the interests of the children and the general public. The tendency is decidedly toward greater solvency of pension systems, and therefore better protection of teachers. In 1918, a committee of this association laid down certain prin- ciples which it believed to be fundamental to any sound pension sys- tem. A summary of these principles follows : 1. Concurrent annual contributions of both the teacher and the State and city. 2. The contributions and the pensions should have some relation to salary. 3. Careful estimates should be made of the liabilities on account of teachers with service prior to the enactment of a pension law. 4. Disability allowances should be granted after a reasonable period of service under careful safeguards. 5. In case of death or withdrawal before retirement, a refund should be paid at least of the teacher's contribution with compound interest. 6. Adequate records should be maintained and periodic actuarial valuations should be provided for. The statement of principles has been available to the members of this association for three years, and the principles have been subjected to criticisms of various sorts. Before making a final report on the principles that should underlie a pension system, this committee in- vites the fullest criticism of these principles. In the light of experience Sessions] HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION 157 wherein should they be modified ? What additional principles should beadded? On account of the illness of our chairman, this committee has not done the work it otherwise would have done. Our chairman writes to the effect that his health is greatly improved, and he hopes to be able soon to co-operate with the other members of this committee in formulating an extended and detailed report relative to teachers' pen- sions in the United States . This committee, therefore, recommends that it be allowed to make a further report on this subject in 1922. The committee further re- commends that the sum of $1000, or so much thereof as may be neces- sary, be appropriated for its use. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION. THOMAS D. WOOD, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION , TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, N. Y. The world-war revealed to this country no greater weakness than the neglect of education and the neglect of health. Are the national lessons dependent upon this revelation to be learned or forgotten ? What percentage of improvement has been made during the past year intheprogram of health care and health education of the army of 24,000,- 000 boys and girls in the schools of the United States ? Twenty-one states have enacted special laws for physical education since 1915. Two bills now before Congress make provisions for the health and physical fitness of the nation's school children. It is absurd that our federal government so largely neglects this vital part of the business of the Republic. "Nobody cares about any child except his or her own," is the pithy and more than 90 per cent truthful indictment charged by the veteran principal of a large school. The scattered, partial, spasmodic efforts made at present for child health are hardly more than drops in the great ocean of a nation's need for the real welfare of its children. It is impossible to estimate with accuracy the loss to the nation and to the world caused by failure to conduct a 100 per cent program in the field of child health. Our schools are wasting enormous sums in educating, or trying to educate, the children who are handicapped by ill-health when the ex- penditure of much smaller amounts in a judicial health program would produce an extraordinary saving in economy and efficiency. A dollar spent promptly in a timely, constructive effort to conserve a child's health will be more fruitful for the child and for human society than will a thousand dollars applied twenty years later. The principle of national thrift finds its first and most vital application in the conserva- tion and improvement of the health of the children. 158 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Seventy-five per cent-16,000,000 of the school children of the United States have physical defects which are potentially or actually detrimental to health. Most of these defects are remediable. Very few of them are being remedied. The business of keeping the school children of this country in good physical repair is, as now conducted, a disgrace to the nation. Shall not the children, drafted by compulsory education into our schools, be assured of as skillful and satisfactory care as the soldiers in camp and trench ? No community, no state, no nation can be considered civilized, which fails to furnish an adequate program of child care ; providing for every essential need of health and education for every child. 1. Health examination (physical and mental) of every school child in each year of school life. 2. An efficient program of follow-up health work to insure the correction of all remediable health defects in all the school children. Not 5 per cent of the needed program of health conservation, correc- tion, and reconstruction of the school children in the forty-eight states, is being accomplished at present. 3. Daily health inspection of pupils by parents and teachers with the help of doctors and nurses to minimize and prevent acute and com- municable diseases . 4. A great safety campaign for children of school and pre-school age is a vital necessity. Deadly and ruthless warfare is being waged against child life and health by unregulated traffic and industry, and by failure to provide adequate space and safeguards for normal activi- ties of childhood. Accidents in one year in the United States exact the tragic toll of 20,000 child lives, according to a report recently issued by the Red Cross. Statistics for 1919 show more deaths of children 10 to 14 years of age from accidents than from epidemic diseases. The need of a united campaign for safety by all the schools of the country is imperative. 5. No phase of the program for our men in the world-war produced more significant benefits than the modernized and rational program of physical education which the war training evolved and required. No more significant and essential equivalent of the beneficial by-products of war can be found perhaps for our national program of education than a rationalized program of physical education activities (outdoors when possible)-play, games, sensible athletics, swimming, camping, scouting and the industrial activities involving big muscle movements which are healthful and educative. A sensible and universal program of physical education for all girls and boys was never, in the history of mankind, more profoundly essential than just now. Sessions] REPORT OF LEGISLATIVE COMMITTEE 159 Who, in a position of social leadership and responsibility, would dare to neglect any phase of the health program of education ? Herbert Hoover's words ring true with increasing eloquence, " If we could grapple with the whole child situation for one generation, our public health, our economic efficiency, the moral character, sanity, and stability of our people would advance three generations in one." COMMITTEE ON ILLITERACY Chairman, CORA WILSON STEWART ..... ...Morehead, Ky. FRANCISG. BLAIR, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Springfield, Ill . ANNIE WEBB BLANTON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Austin, Tex. MARY C. C. BRADFORD, Ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction .. .Denver, Colo. ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, Editor of the Sierra Educational News . San Francisco, Calif. JOHN V. CONWAY, Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction . .Santa Fe, N.M. JOHN H. FINLEY, Educational Editor, New York Times ... .New York, N.Y. WIL LOU GRAY, Supervisor of Aduit Schools . .Columbia S.C. T. H. HARRIS, State Superintendent of Education .. Baton Rouge, La. THOMAS E. JOHNSON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . .Lansing, Mich. JOSEPHINE C. PRESTON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . ..... Olympia, Wash. PAYSON SMITH, State Commissioner of Education ..... Boston, Mass. REPORT OF LEGISLATIVE CommissiON GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION , COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y., Chairman MEMBERS OF THE COMMISSION Chairman, GEORGE D. STRAYER, Professor of Educational Administration, Teachers College, Columbia University .. New York , N.Y. MARY C. C. BRADFORD, Ex-State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Denver, Colo. J. A. C. CHANDLER, President of the College of William and Mary . .Williamsburg, Va. RANDALL J. CONDON, Superintendent of City Schools. .Cincinnati, Ohio WILLIAM M. DAVIDSON, Superintendent of City Schools .. Pittsburgh, Pa. THOMAS E. FINEGAN, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Harrisburg , Pa. THOMAS E. JOHNSON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Lansing, Mich. DWIGHT B. WALDO, President of the Western State Normal School . Kalamazoo, Mich. CHARL O. WILLIAMS, County Superintendent of Schools . Memphis, Tenn . AGNES S. WINN, Public Schools .. Seattle, Wash . WILL C. WOOD, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Sacramento, Calif. The Legislative Commission of the National Education Association, created by resolution adopted at the Salt Lake City meeting a year ago, and appointedby President Hunter, held its first meeting in Washington at the headquarters of the Association on September 10 and 11, 1920. Mr. Magill was elected secretary of the commission. This was thought to be particularly appropriate since the Field Secretary of the National Education Association has as one of his important duties the promotion of the legislative program of the Association. After a careful discussion of the work which the commission might hope to accomplish and a consideration of the forces whose co-operation might be expected, as well as the opposition to be met, the commission agreed upon the following detailed outline of work for the year : 160 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General First, that the commission concentrate its efforts on securing a favorable report on the Smith-Towner bill by both committees on educa- tion of the Senate and House during the last session of the Sixty-sixth Congress, which met on December 6, and that if successful in getting the bill out of committees, every effort be made to bring it to a vote. Second, that the Field Secretary be requested to perfect an organ- ization of the friends of the bill in every Congressional district in the United States, and that a state central committee also be organized in every state to promote the passage of the bill. Third, that bulletins be prepared and published under the authority of the Legislative Commission, setting forth arguments in support of the bill. The article which had been prepared by the Field Secretary imme- diately preceding the first meeting of the commission was approved and authorized to be published as Legislative Commission Series Number One . Fourth, that the Field Secretary be requested to get in touch with the leaders of the national organizations that have endorsed the bill and with other civic groups favorable to it, and secure their co-operation in the most effective way. Fifth, that the chairman of the commission be authorized to under- take to carry out a plan suggested by him for the organization of a lay committee of public-spirited citizens to work for the promotion of the bill. Sixth, that the commission co-operate in the promotion of plans for the reorganization of the executive departments of the government, but that it insist that in any such plans for reorganization education should be organized as of primary importance and entitled to Cabinet rank. Seventh, that the commission recommend to the Executive Committee that the proposed Journal of the National Education Association author- ized by the Board of Directors at the Salt Lake City meeting be published at as early a date as possible, and that it be used for the promotion of the Association's legislative program. Such were the plans laid out by the commission at its organization last fall, and we are very glad to report that the commission has met with gratifying success in the carrying out of these plans. Through the efforts of the secretary of the commission a very effective working organization has been developed with representatives in nearly every Congressional District in the United States. State committees have been formed that have worked earnestly and loyally for the promotion of the Educational Bill. The superintendents and teachers throughout the country in response to the call of the commission have done very effective work. The first bulletin published by the commission, Legisla- tive Commission Series Number One, has had a very wide circulation, about twenty-five thousand copies having been sent out. This article Sessions] REPORT ON LEGISLAtive coMMITTEE 161 was also printed in many of the leading educational journals and maga- zines. Special articles prepared by the chairman of the commission were published in many of the leading magazines and in the daily press. The commision has secured wide publicity, the results of which have been very effective in developing public opinion. The chairman of the commission has been able to secure the organ- ization of a lay committee, known as the National Committee for a Department of Education. Mr. A. Lincoln Filene, of Boston, well- known philanthropist, is chairman of this committee, and its member- ship includes many of the most prominent men and women of the nation. This committee has done highly effective work. It has financed its own campaign by contributions from its own members and from other public-spirited citizens who believe in our cause. This committee of laymen has prepared some most valuable literature, hundreds of thousands of copies of which have been printed and dis- tributed. The pamphlet entitled Facts About the Smith-Towner Bill has been particularly effective and has had a very wide distribution. This national committee has also been helpful in securing special publicity and in helping bear the expense of the reprint of the Educa- tional Bill, the House Committee's Report on the bill, and other publica- tions. This lay committee, which has already rendered such valuable service, is continuing its activities in support of the Towner-Sterling Bill. The support and co-operation that has been given our cause by other national organizations interested in the promotion of a Depart- ment of Education has been most gratifying. The interest has widened until it can truthfully be said that millions of the very best people of the country are taking a personal interest in the promotion of our educa- tional bill. The Smith-Towner bill was favorably reported by the Committee on Education of the House on June 11, 1921. The official report of the committee, prepared by Judge Towner, was an unusually strong docu- ment in support of the principles of the bill, and was given very wide circulation throughout the country. A few weeks later a favorable report on the bill was made by the Committee on Education and Labor of the Senate. Owing to the congested condition of legislation during the closing week of the Sixty-sixth Congress, it was impossible to secure final action by either house. At a meeting of the commission held in Atlantic City on February 28, it was agreed that the fundamental principles of the Smith-Towner bill, indorsed repeatedly by the Association, must be preserved, but that it was possible to state more clearly the intent of the measure by repeat- ing in each section providing for an appropriation the provision of the original bill which guarantees state and local control in the management 162 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of the schools. It was also agreed to insert a section creating a national council on education, to consist of the state superintendents of all the states, twenty-five educators representing the different interests in education, and twenty-five persons not educators to be appointed by the secretary to meet once each year to consult and advise with the secretary on matters relating to the promotion of education throughout the Nation. On April 11, at the opening of the special session of the Sixty- seventh Congress, Congressman Towner of Iowa reintroduced the bill in its revised form. A few weeks later it was introduced in the Senate by Senator Sterling of South Dakota. The bill is now known as the Towner- Sterling bill, H. R. 7 and S. 1252. In its revised form the Towner-Sterling bill has received even more enthusiastic indorsement throughout the country than did the original Smith-Towner bill. Soon after the opening of the special session of Congress a move- ment was started for the creation of a Department of Public Welfare, and when the outline for this proposed department was announced, it was found that education was to be included as one of its subdivisions along with a number of other more or less unrelated interests. Feeling that the success of this movement would mean the virtual defeat of the principles for which we had stood, we called upon the educators of the country, as well as the different organizations that have so loyally supported our cause, to express themselves with respect to the de- sirability of placing education in the proposed Welfare Department. A special hearing was held on May 18th before the Joint Committees on Education of the Senate and House, which was conducted by the Field Secretary and at which the educators and friends of education appeared to present their cause. There was unanimous agreement not to oppose the creation of a Department of Public Welfare, if Congress thought best to establish such a department, but firm insistence that if the department were created, education should be taken out of it, and that the friends of education be permitted to continue their efforts for an independent Department of Education. None of those present were able to see any advantage in removing education from its present in- ferior position as a bureau of the Department of the Interior only to submerge it again in the Department of Public Welfare. No further action has been taken on the welfare bill up to the present time. We have had to meet powerful influences that would defeat our purposes, not by direct opposition but by substitution, never- theless, we have preserved our organization and have continued to defend and promote our cause. The members of Congress have come to respect the organized teachers of the country as never before. The members of our profession have come to realize that by working to- gether we can become a great influence for the promotion of the highest ideals of the country. The opposition which we have encountered and Sessions] COMMISSION ON SECONDARY EDUCATION 163 the obstacles which must be overcome should not discourage us. The great cause in which we are enlisted is so vital to our nation that we must all be willing to make the sacrifice necessary to bring about its success. We look into the future with absolute confidence in the righteousness of our cause and in the certainty of its ultimate triumph. The day will come in America when we shall realize the fond hope of Abraham Lincoln that our country "guarantee to all an unfettered start and a fair chance in the race of life ." REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON THE REORGANIZA- TION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION WILLIAM B. OWEN , PRINCIPAL CHICAGO NORMAL COLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL., Acting Chairman It is generally recognized that the American high school is unique among the secondary schools of the world. A few of its characteristics are accidental, but as an institution it reflects some of the finest and deepest and truest ideals of American life. To assist the American high school to become an even better instrument of democracy, the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education was organized by the National Education Association nine years ago, and has been at work continuously ever since. Why is there need for a national commission in this field ? State associations and regional associations, such as the North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges, are achieving important results. Cannot these associations alone accomplish all that is needed? 1 We believe that the experience of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education demonstrates conclusively the desirability, nay more the necessity, for national committees composed of representa- tives from all parts of the country. Without such national committees there is danger that our educational procedures will diverge unneces sarily and unwisely. The commission consists of sixteen committees, and a reviewing committee composed of the chairmen of the sixteen committees and ten members at large. The total membership of the committees exceeds two hundred persons and represents thirty states. The Reviewing committee has a twofold function. It formulates the fundamental principles which it believes should guide the reorgan- ization of secondary education. Its conclusions in this field have been issued in a bulletin entitled Cardinal Principles of Secondary Educa- tion. Its second function is to criticize reports submitted to it by the various committees. As a result of its criticism some of the reports have been revised or even entirely rewritten three or four times. In several fields, the committees have been reorganized, since the original committees were unable to work out their problems. This work of 164 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General thorough and painstaking criticism has made it necessary for the re- viewing committee to hold from one to three meetings each year, each meeting lasting several days. The policy of insisting upon reports consistent with sound educational principles has made it impossible for the commission to issue more than two to four reports in any one year. Up to the present time the commission has completed thirteen reports, twelve of which have been issued by the United States Bureau of Education, and the thirteenth is now in the hands of the printer. The first report was issued in 1915 and dealt with the teaching of community civics. That report has been widely influential in shaping the content and method of one of the newest and most valuable subjects in secondary education. Nearly every recent textbook in this field shows the influence of this report. In 1916 a report was issued on the social studies in secondary education. This report was reprinted in the History Teachers' Magazine and has shaped several of the text- books in European history and in the problems of democracy. In 1917 four reports were issued dealing with English, music, physical education, and moral values. The report on English, which was prepared by a joint committee representing not only the commission but also the National Council of Teachers of English, has been widely adopted as the basis of courses in English and has been indorsed by the North Central Asociation of Secondary Schools and Colleges as the standard both for high-school work and for admission to college. In 1918 and 1919 three reports were issued dealing with vocational guidance, business education, and the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education. Three reports bearing the date of 1920 deal with mathe- matics, science, and agriculture. The science report entitled Reorganization of Science in Secondary Schools contains the contributions of a committee of forty-seven mem- bers. Its issuance was preceded by lengthy discussions and controversies that were almost bitter at times. The report is, however, now acceptable to practically all the disputants and represents a point of view which is both moderate and progressive. The twelve reports already issued vary in length from twenty- four to 181 pages and if bound in a single volume would constitute 611 pages. They represent, however, several times that amount of material, as many of them were rewritten time and time again. The total distribution of these reports already exceeds 200,000 copies. The Bureau has distributed practically the full number that it is allowed by law to distribute free. Additional copies are being printed and sold by the Superintendent of Documents. State departments of education and city superintendents of schools are purchasing reports in quantities and distributing them to high school principals and teachers. Sessions] COMMISSION ON SECONDARY EDUCATION 165 The Superintendent of Documents is co-operating in this distribution by selling the bulletins in quantities at special cost rates. The commission hopes to issue in the near future four reports deal- ing respectively with part-time education of various types, High School Grounds and Buildings, Classical Languages, and Reorganization of Home Economics. In the brief time available it will be possible to mention only a few of the most important conclusions and recommendations of the com- mission. Many of these are contained in its report entitled Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education. The commission emphasizes, throughout all its reports, the im- portance of a clear conception and statement of the aims of secondary education as a whole and of each subject and of each activity within the school. The selection of methods and the organization of content cannot wisely be made until the aims are accurately determined. No subject can retain its place in education unless it contributes to aims that are socially valid. In attempting to formulate the aims of secondary education, the commissionhas selected seven objectives which it holds should determine the organization, administration, and supervision of the school, the subjects to be taught, the methods of instruction and the extra-class- room activities. Their objectives are : ( 1) health, (2) command of fundamental processes, (3) worthy home membership, (4) vocation, (5) citizenship, (6) worthy use of leisure, (7) ethical character . "This commission holds that education is essentially a unitary and con- tinuous process, and that each of the objectives defined above must be recognized throughout the entire extent of secondary education. Health needs are evidently important at all stages; the vocational purpose and content is coming properly to be recognized as a necessary and valuable ingredient even in the early stages and even when specific preparation is postponed ; citizenship and the worthy use of leisure, obviously important in the earlier stages , involve certain phases of education that require maturity on the part of the pupil and hence are indis- pensable also in the later stages of secondary education. Furthermore, it is only as the pupil sees his vocation in relation to his citizenship and his citizenship in the light of his vocation that he will be prepared for effective membership in an industrial democracy. Consequently. this commission enters its protest against any and all plans, however well intended, which are in doprow of 1: omcing vocation and social-civic educa- tion. It stands squarely for the infusion of vocation with the spirit of ser- vice and for the vitalization of culture by genuine contact with the world's work." The commission takes an advanced position with regard to the admission of students to the secondary school. It holds that "the secondary school should admit, and provide suitable instruction for all pupils who are in any respect so mature that they would derive more benefit from the secondary school than from the elementary school." This position throws into the discard the last vestige of the idea that abstract standards are more important than the needs of actual boys and girls. 166 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The commission also recognizes the necessity of rendering some service to those boys and girls who go to work before completing the secondary-school course. It has a report now in the hands of the printer dealing with Part-time Education of Various Types. The commission holds that "a sound national policy dictates the urgent need for legislation whereby all young persons, whether employed or not shall be required to attend school not less than eight hours in each week that schools are in session until they reach the age of eighteen. "Attendance for eight hours in each week will make possible important progress not only in vocational efficiency but also in the promotion of health, preparation for worthy home-membership, civic intelligence and efficiency, the better utilization of leisure, and ethical development. All these objectives are evidently as important for the young worker as for those who remain in full-time attendance at school." Even before the issuance of its first report the Commission broadened its conception of secondary education to include the junior high school period. Its reports are so organized as to be of assistance to the work in grades VII and VIII even in school systems where these grades have not as yet been incorporated into a junior high school or a six-year high school. In discussing the various types of secondary schools now found in the United States, the commission takes the position that the com- prehensive high school, embracing all curriculums in one unified organization, should be encouraged. The principal of the comprehensive high school must be a man of broad sympathies for whom democracy is a ruling passion . In concluding its report on the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, the commission states : "It is becoming increasingly apparent that the problems of secondary education merit much more serious attention than they have received hereto- fore. The study of the best methods for adapting secondary education to the needs of modern democratic life is but begun. The physical, intellectual, emotional, and ethical characteristics of young people are still but vaguely comprehended. Such knowledge of social needs and educational theory and practice as is already available has been seriously studied by comparatively few administrators and teachers. Progress will depend very largely upon adequate professional training of teachers both before and after entering upon service. Plans must be adopted for pooling the results of successful experimentation on the part of individual teachers. To make the reorganiza- tion effective, competent supervision and constructive leadership must be provided in the various fields of secondary education. It is the firm belief of this commission that secondary education in the United States must aim at nothing less than complete and worthy living for all youth, and that therefore the objectives described herein must find place in the education of every boy and girl. Finally, in the process of translating into daily practice the cardinal principles herein set forth, the secondary school teachers of the United States must themselves strive to explore the inner meaning of the great democratic Sessions] REPORT ON THRIFT EDUCATION 167 movement now struggling for supremacy. The doctrine that each individual has a right to the opportunity to develop the best that is in him is reinforced by the belief in the potential, and perchance unique, worth of the individual. The task of education, as of life, is therefore to call forth that potential worth. While seeking to evoke the distinctive excellencies of individuals and groups of individuals, the secondary school must be equally zealous to develop those common ideas, common ideals, and common modes of thought, feeling, and action, whereby America, through a rich, unified, common life, may render her truest service to a world seeking for democracy among men and nations." REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THRIFT EDUCATION ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN , EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF., Chairman . The Committee on Thrift Education was formed in 1915. There has been no meeting of the Council of Education since that date, whether during the N. E. A. or at the Department of Superinten- dence, at which a program has not been presented or a report of prog- ress made. As might be expected, however, in dealing with any phase of educational activity new to the course of study, the first meetings were taken up in a campaign of education. More than this, the com- mittee members themselves had not only to study the problem, in order clearly to give scope and definition to the work, but objectives had to be established and relative values charted. Had the committee followed the line of least resistance and adopted the commonly accepted understanding of thrift, the work would have been easy, and tangible results would have been apparent of them- selves. There was complete understanding, if not of practice, of thrift in its relation to the financial phases of life-the saving and invest- ing of money. School savings, banks, and other similar enterprises were recognized by the committee as being an essential element in training for citizenship. That each individual be not only self-sup- porting but financially independent in old age was recognized as essen- tial in our complete economic development. But the work that the committee cut out for itself was less spectacular than that involving the almighty dollar. It persuaded itself that the field of thrift teach- ing included the larger conceptions of the subject the human aspects, the social phases, the natural conservation features. The committee started with the premise that the American people were wasteful and prodigal in the highest degree. They must be taught indeed how to earn, and save and invest, and they must know how to spend wisely. More than this it was necessary to teach how wasted time may be used for profit and pleasure; how energy now dissipated may be applied to personal and community profit ; how observing the common laws of health and hygiene and mental and moral cleanliness means strong bodies and healthy minds; how human conservation re 168 [Genera NATIONALL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION sults in a race physically fit; and how to conserve the natural resources so commonly wasted-water and timber and fuel and all the rest; how to save these instead of wasting them. This is the field of thrift instruction as understood by the committee. The opening of the Great War and our subsequent entrance into it changed entirely the plans of your thrift committee. The investiga- tions being made and the studies and surveys then under way were put aside. This, however, is not a complete statement of the case. The progress made by the committee clearly showed the possibilities of so applying the principles of thrift as to make a contribution to war serv- ice. With the patriotic participation, therefore, of the members of the committee, numerous members of the Council, and of school people throughout the country, there was carried on, during the first six months of 1917, the most intensive and far-reaching study in the field of agri- cultural preparedness and food conservation. Data were gathered from schools and communities throughout the nation showing the develop- ment of school gardens and how school children were mobilized to assist in harvesting crops that otherwise would have been ruined. There was great economic waste in food stuffs from the producer to the house- hold and innumerable leaks in the home. As a result of the report made at the Portland meeting in 1917, a bulletin was printed and sent broadcast throughout the country. One portion of this bulletin dealt with the adaptation of courses in domestic economy and industrial arts to meet the demands of the war period, and food storage and preserva- tion occupied another section. This bulletin, entitled Agricultural Pre- paredness and Food Conservation, was reprinted in many of its parts by newspapers, farm journals, the popular magazines even, and by edu- cational magazines; and the demand for copies was far beyond our ability to supply. Many county and city superintendents of schools placed these bulletins in the hands of their teachers. During the year following, the committee set itself to study how the application of thrift would aid in the successful outcome of the war. Detailed investigation was made of the whole field of war saving, and the place of the school in this movement. Other studies were carried on in the field of thrift and commercial supremacy, club work and salvage, the war-garden movement, textbooks on thrift teaching, the conservation of humanity, and the school's part in after war conditions. The results of this study were given at the meeting at Pittsburgh in 1918 and published in a bulletin under the caption, Financing the War Through Thrift-Reconstruction Through Conservation. There was even greater demand for this than for the former bulletin and it is used today by thousands of teachers . As a result of the new order of procedure, established by the presi- dent of the National Council of Education, of holding our meetings as Sessions] CO- ORDINATION OF RESEARCI AGENCIES 169 conferences or open forums, the Salt Lake City conference endeavored to lay a foundation for real thrift teaching in the schools. And as a development of that conference, the one at Atlantic City concreted still further the problem of school and community, the adaptation of courses of study to school needs and life-conditions, and how, in an already over-full program of studies, time may remain for instruction in the constructive and humanizing forces of thrift. A subcommittee has been at work upon the problems of human con- servation. The relation of the work of this committee to that of Dr. Wood is clearly seen-sanitation, health conditions, school feeding, home environment, recreation and industrial occupations of children have large place in such a study. Other investigations involve thrift in time and energy-the whole field of economy of time in education ; the wider and more intensive use of the school plant and equipment ; the saving of waste everywhere and the use of the by-product ; the con- servation of natural resources; the direct financial phases of thrift, in- cluding all forms of savings and investments, and proper spending ; the thrift course of study as applied to civics, citizenship, literacy, mathe- matics, and the vocations. Never was the need for thrift, practically applied, so great as at the present time. In city and country, among rich and poor alike, employer and employed, there is the most appalling carelessness and waste. The lessons of the war period seem to be forgotten. To save and to con- serve is too often looked upon as indicating a miserly tendency. To be free and open-handed and wasteful even indicate to the unthinking a large-hearted beneficence. The one who in every way strives to eliminate waste is, at foundation, a good citizen. The hope is expressed that the contributions of the committee on Thrift Education may be such as shall aid in the solution of the fundamental problems confronting the Amer- ican people today. REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON CO- ORDINATION OF RESEARCH AGENCIES MEMBERS OF THE COMMISSION Chairman, JESSE H. NEWLON, Superintendent of City Schools . .Denver, Colo. W. C. BAGLEY, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University . ..New York, N.Y. ANNIE WEBB BLANTON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Austin, Tex. FRANKLIN BOBBITT, University of Chicago ... Chicago, Ill. MARY D. BRADFORD, Superintendent of City Schools . Kenosha, Wis . THOMAS H. BRIGGS, Teachers College, Columbia University ....... New York, N.Y. B. R. BUCKINGHAM, Department of Research, University of Illinois . ..Urbana, Ill . C. P. CARY, Ex-State Superintendent of Public Schools .... Madison, Wis . LOTUS D. COFFMAN, President of the University of Minnesota ....... Minneapolis, Minn. JESSIE E. COLBURN, Public School No. 61 ..... New York, N.Y. ALBERT S. COOK, Superintendent of City Schools.... Baltimore, Md. STUART A. COURTIS, Director of Educational Research, Detroit Public Schools ..Detroit, Mich. J. G. CRABBE, President of the State Teachers College . Greeley, Colo. VIRGIL E. DICKSON, Director of Research, City Schools .... Oakland, Calif. 170 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General JAMES W. GOWANS, Superintendent of City Schools . Winfield, Kans . WALTER A. JESSUP, President of the State University of Iowa .. .Iowa City, Iowa ROBINSON G. JONES, Superintendent of City Schools . ..Cleveland, Ohio PHEBE E. MATHEWS, High School .. Somerville, Mass. GEORGE MELCHER, Director of Research and Efficiency ... Library Bldg., Kansas City, Mo. FRANK G. PICKELL, Assistant Superintendent of City Schools .. .. Cleveland, Ohio EDWIN L. ROUSE, President of the State Normal School . .. Peru, Nebr. CHARLES E. RUGH, Professor of Education, University of California ........ Berkeley, Calif. W. F. RUSSELL, Dean of the College of Education, State University of Iowa .. Iowa City, Iowa J. W. STUDEBAKER, Superintendent of City Schools ... Des Moines, Iowa W. W. THEISEN, Supervisor of Educational Measurements . .Madison, Wis. JOHN W. WITHERS, Dean of the School of Education, New York University .. New York, N.Y. We are entering upon a most important and critical period in the development of public education in the United States. The people have again demonstrated faith in their schools by a most generously increased support during a period of rapidly rising prices. A larger number of citizens are today more keenly alert to the needs of the schools than ever before in our history. The fact remains, nevertheless, that we are passing through a period of business depression and that we are heavily burdened by taxes as a result of the enormous expenditures in connection with the world-war. This generation is bound to feel the burden of taxation throughout its life. We are in the midst of a campaign that is being carried on from coast to coast, through the daily press, through magazines, and on the hustings against high taxes. This campaign has been directed mainly at waste in federal, state, and municipal expendi- tures. With the exception of the perennial complaints of the purely selfish, reactionary, or miserly citizen, the schools have been largely exempt from this attack, but the "tightwad" of the community, the man for whom the almighty dollar is the chief end of existence, has not hestitated to raise his voice even against expenditures for public schools . The schools are in a peculiar situation. We are in the position of an army that has made a great gain in territory and has excellent chances not merely of holding all that it has gained, but of making greater gains, if skill, courage, determination, and speed are used in consolidating the gains already made and in making preparations for the next big drive. We have every reason to be hopeful, provided we have courage and provided we act with intelligence and with rapidity. School executives will be called upon as never before in the next ten years to justify with absolutely reliable facts their requests for larger expenditures and to show results from the money spent. The people will and should support the schools only to the extent that we show results. We need first of all a campaign of education in behalf of the public schools, a campaign based on facts and not upon senti- mentality or ill-considered assertions . No school administration has immediately available today all of the down-to-the-minute data that is needed in presenting a budget to a board, to a tax commission, or to a legislature, or in organizing an Sessions] CO- ORDINATION OF RESEARCH AGENCIES 171 administrative and supervisory force, or in inaugurating a program of mental testing or in outlining any of the major operations of a modern school system. We have done little toward the education of the great public as to what constitutes a modern state school system. A number of constitu- tional conventions have been held in the past ten years, and without doubt, more will be held in the next ten. In a constitutional convention the opportunity of half a century is presented to a state to secure a modern organization of its schools, but the friends and leaders of public education are handicapped because they do not have in usable form adequate data on state school organization to present to that convention, and, above all, because there has been no preparation in the way of a campaign of education over a period of years preceding the convention. I repeat that our great need is a campaign of education in behalf of the public schools. Mind that I say "education" and not "prop- aganda. " My observation has been that propaganda generally plays havoc with facts. It overstates. It appeals to prejudices. Our cam- paign must be conservative. It must be based on facts. Our appeal to the emotions must be legitimate. It must not be overdone. Our cam- paign must be thoroughgoing. It must be aggressive. It must enrol the sympathetic and active support of every teacher in America. The first step in this campaign is the organization and co-ordination of our research agencies in order that the innumerable problems which con- front us may be attacked aggressively, systematically, and without duplication. Every superintendent of schools is sometimes woefully and some- times almost hopelessly handicapped in presenting a budget to a board of education, to a tax commission, or to the city council, because he does not have at his instant command reliable down-to-the- minute data as to the expenditures and the educational programs and the rates of taxation in other cities in the country of the same class as his; because he does not have in ready and accessible form the results of the investigations made by research departments in the various cities, state universities, state departments of education, the United States Bureau of Education, or by the great foundations. Most of the reports sent out by the Bureau of Education and other research agencies are of necessity from one to two years old. Economic conditions and expenditures for schools have changed with lightning rapidity in the past five years. A clearing-house must be established that will get the information to those who need it when they need it. Numerous questionnaires have come to my desk within the past year. Recently I have had telegrams from two cities of the size of Denver asking for information on tax rates and per capita expenditures, on minimum and maximum salaries actually paid, and on other points relative to our school expenditures. Only those who have actually 172 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General dealt with financial statistics (I was about to say only those who have had to present such statistics to boards) know how difficult it is to translate data from one city or state or college into terms that are understandable in another city or state, for the laws governing taxation and school expenditures are as numerous as the states, and almost as numerous as the cities and the schools. Since school closed we have had from a city the size of Denver an extended questionnaire relative to the salaries paid in various types of educational activities in our city. We have answered that questionnaire to the best of our ability, and in answering it we have given in a different form the same information which we have given to a half-dozen other cities within the past year. The possibilities are that the answers which we gave will not be absolutely true and will not be clearly understandable, because statis- ticians have not yet developed in detail a common language and method for use in dealing with these statistics. A vast amount of time, energy, and money are expended on the answering of questionnaires with poor results obtained. The proper organization and co-ordination of re- search agencies will make available data when needed, in reliable form, and at a far less cost than under the present inefficient, slow, and costly methods. Why should every city have to cover the whole range of research ? They are not prepared to do it. Results are ex- tremely unsatisfactory. The amount of duplication of effort is almost beyond belief and entirely unnecessary. Your Commission on the Co-ordination of Research Agencies was appointed to study this problem and to recommend plans for the better organization and co-ordination of research agencies and to recommend such measures as are necessary to carry on efficiently and quickly the research which present educational conditions demand. About a dozen of the members held a preliminary meeting in Atlantic City last February and considered in a tentative way the work of the Commission. At this meeting four important decisions were made : It was voted to ask the National Society for the Study of Education to devote one volume of the yearbook to a report on the use of in- telligence tests in school systems. It was decided to petition Congress to appropriate $30,000 annually for the inauguration in the United States Bureau of Education of a special division to serve as a clearing-house for educational research. It was the sense of the members present at that meeting that the supervision of classroom instruction presents one of the most difficult tasks of the next decade. It was pointed out that a large majority of teachers, even in the cities, have had insufficient training in modern educational methods. Supervisory systems in city schools have been organized on a haphazard basis, and no attempt has been made to determine scientifically how a supervisory staff should be constituted Sessions] CO -ORDINATION OF RESEARCH AGENCIES 173 and organized, what the procedure of supervision should be, and what proportion of the total expenditure in a given school system should go for the supervision of instruction. It was decided, therefore, to recommend to the Association that a committee be appointed to study the problem of classroom supervision and the organization and pro- cedure of supervisory staffs. The establishment of an adequate research agency in the United States Bureau of Education to serve, not merely as an agency of re- search but as a clearing-house and co-ordinating medium for all the research agencies of the country may not be possible in the immediate future. Your commission believes that the National Education Associa- tion can effect a voluntary co-ordination of these agencies that will result in inestimable value to the cause of public education in the present crisis. The development of such a plan will require study and investigation and conference. It is recommended, therefore, that an appropriation be made for the use of this commission to enable it to hold a meeting in the coming autumn for a period of uninterrupted study of this important problem . The belief has been expressed by members of the commission and others that one of the greatest needs is the establishment of a clearing- house by which the problems of research can be relayed to the agency that can do them. A clearing-house must be established that will discover the needs that exist in the various rural, city, and state school systems, and then assign proper agencies to investigate these problems. The final solution of this problem will be found in a federal department of education. The federal government is the only agency that can provide the resources and the prestige necessary to so enormous a task. This is one of the greatest arguments in favor of the Towner- Sterling bill. In the meantime much may be accomplished on a voluntary basis. Before concluding I wish to suggest a few problems as typical of those the commission believes can best be handled only through a better co-ordination of existing agencies. These problems are in the main chosen from the list suggested by members of the commission : 1. There is almost unanimous agreement that the financing of the public schools constitutes the greatest single problem that we shall face inthe next decade, and that just at present this problem almost com- pletely overshadows all others in its importance. There is no existing agency equipped with an adequate staff and adequate funds for making the nation-wide study of school finances that is needed. It has been estimated that such an investigation will require not less than two years of time, the expenditure of from a quarter of a million to a million dollars in addition to the assistance and co-operation of all exist- ing research agencies in the country. 174 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General 2. Closely related to the problem of financing the schools is that of financial control. Many city boards of education do not have com- plete financial independence, and this is a burning issue that needs to be studied. 3. An investigation needs to be made of how best to organize a campaign of publicity and education to enlist the intelligent interest of the public in the support of public schools, particularly in the great agricultural districts. 4. How shall the course of study be adapted to varying conditions and to varying lengths of school terms in rural communities ? 5. On the basis of experience to date, what is the practical value of intelligence tests in the classification of pupils, and how can these tests best be administered in a school system ? 6. What is the situation regarding the recruiting of teachers, and what steps can be taken to attract to the schools their fair share of the best minds of the community ? 7. How should the supervisory staff of a city school system be constituted and organized, and what should be their procedure ? 8. What should constitute the work of the principal of a school? 9. How shall the school health departments be organized and administered and what should health education cost ? 10. One of the great unsolved problems is that of physical educa- tion. There should be an immediate thoroughgoing investigation of this problem by a competent agency. 11. The whole field of vocational and continuation education pre- sents many perplexities that need constant study and systematic reports of progress in various communities . 12. Reference has already been made to the commission's recom- mendations that a committee of the Association be appointed to study supervision. Another of the most important issues in school adminis- tration at the present time is the extent and method of teacher par- ticipation in the determination of school policies. Voluntary teacher organizations have existed for many years in our city school systems. In many instances these organizations have been great constructive forces. Sometimes they have been antagonistic to principles of sound adıninistration and have been led by unbalanced or selfish radical agitators. Frequently boards of education and school executives have assumed a hostile, arbitrary, and unenlightened attitude toward teacher organizations. The result has been that all too frequently there has been friction and injury to the schools. In recent years different kinds of teachers' councils have been organized for participation in school administration. Many of these councils are serving their purposes in a worthy way ; others are destructive forces; some are practically dead. Great confusion as to Sessions] CO-ORDINATION OF RESEARCH AGENCIES 175 the constitution and purpose of these councils exists. Many hold that such councils can be only advisory, while others contend that certain mandatory power should be bestowed on them by law or by rules of the board of education. Between these two extremes there are all shades of opinions. A committee of the Association ought to be appointed to make a thorough investigation of existing councils and of the principles underlying teacher participation in school administra- tion and report to the Association its recommendations. The list of problems is interminable. There is danger that the mere mention of a few may lead to an underestimation of the enormity of the research problem of the country. And it should not be forgotten that a quick and regular dissemination of the results of research is for the administrator quite as valuable as the compilation of the informa- tion. Information loses its administrative value when the decision is made before the necessary authoritative information is available. The National Education Association has been reorganized on a delegate basis. It has become in truth a great national education association. What greater task does this organization face than that of making public education a science and a profession ? If that is to be done, the facts must be made available upon which to base a scientific and a professional procedure. Our great schools of educa- tion are very adequately supplying the facts in the strictly scientific fields, such as psychology, methods of teaching, statistical method, administrative principle and method, and even in the development of courses of study. The great necessity is to make available in every community the facts that will enable the teachers themselves and the public to understand what the real needs of the schools are from the standpoint of financial support, organization, and administration. With such facts available, the National Education Association may begin in earnest the greatest task which confronts it that of arousing the teachers to a keener sense of their professional obligations and of educating the people to a clearer understanding of the great truth that public education is not only a national problem but the greatest national problem that confronts the American people. The power of the National Education Association must be organized and directed to the achievement of these ends. Your commission can only hope to make a contribution in one rather limited field, but we believe we can per- form a real service, provided funds are made available for the work. We, therefore, report progress and recommend : ( 1 ) that the sum of three thousand dollars be set aside for the work of your commission for the coming year in order that we may undertake to investigate how the research agencies of the country may be better co-ordinated ; and (2) that a committee be appointed to study the constitution, organiza- tion, and procedure of supervisory staffs in school systems. 176 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General REPORTS of committee on foreigN RELATIONS MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE Chairman, AuGUSTUS O. THOMAS, State Superintendent of Public Schools ......Augusta, Me. CAROLINE ARMITAGE ...... 57 Madison St., Somerville, Mass. E. W. BOWYER, Superintendent of City Schools .. .. Clovis, N.Μ. ABBIE L. DAY, University of Nevada . .Reno, Nev. W. K. DWYER, Superintendent of City Schools ..... .Anaconda, Mont. JAMES W. GOWANS, Superintendent of City Schools . Winfield, Kans . JOHN W. MCCLINTON, Superintendent of City Schools . .. Pueblo, Colo . ZENOS E. SCOTT, Superintendent of City Schools . .Louisville, Ky. This committee was appointed by Mrs. Josephine C. Preston . Your committee on foreign educational relations is confining its activities during the first year of its existence to a survey of the several organizations which have for their purpose the carrying on of inter- national relations, to a study of the various fields represented by each, and to the particular kind of work which the National Education Association may reasonably undertake. Among the important agencies we find the following: ( 1 ) the Section of Education of the Pan-American Union; (2) the National Bureau of International Educational Correspondence ; (3) the Ameri- can University Union in Europe ; (4) the Pan-Pacific Educational Association ; (5) the United States Bureau of Education ; (6) the Institute of International Education ; (7) the American Council on Education ; (8) the Junior Red Cross; (9) the International Y. M. C. A .; ( 10) the Inter-church World Movement ; ( 11 ) the American School Citizenship League. The large number of organizations now in the international field indicates a growing demand for a better understanding and closer relationship, for a community spirit among the nations, and for universal ideals. The various purposes set forth justify this educational enterprise. Communications at hand from representatives of many countries expressing pleasure in the movement and a cordial desire to co-operate indicate a welcome to our undertaking. In some organizations the object is to secure information and the extent and purposes of the processes and attitudes in education, in others it is to discover the practices of citizenship in the various nations represented. The section of education of the Pan-American Union has given attention to the task of arousing the interests of the students and teachers, and of educational institutions of all the Americas in establish- ing mutual cultural relations. The Pan-American Union has through this section facilitated the exchange of teachers with Latin-American countries. It has sought to keep in touch with advanced educational movements in the several countries. The National Bureau of International Educational Correspondence , organized by Peabody College, has established an exchange of cor Sessions] COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS 177 respondence between students in schools of Latin-American countries with those in the United States. The American University Union in Europe was designed to meet the needs of American college and university men in war service in France, Great Britain, and Italy. They looked from the beginning to the development of a permanent institution to attract American college men to other countries for graduate study and to serve as an agency for the creating of a better understanding of the United States in Europe. It is interesting to know that Dr. George E. MacLean, formerly chancellor of the University of Nebraska, later president of the Iowa University, is director of the Union. To July, 1919, the Union through its various offices enrolled 35,000 American college men, representing 530 American institutions of learning. At the present time the union is undertaking the exchange of professors and expects by another year the abnormal conditions of the overcrowded British and American universities may be in a measure passed and that the beginning of a stream of exchange may take place. As an indication of the trend of international comradeship in education it should be observed that the director of the Union is recognized by the American Embassy and Consulate General as an educational embassy and consulate. The Pan-Pacific Educational Conference which meets in Honolulu inAugust purposes to secure information concerning the nature and the extent of the practice of citizenship in the twenty-two nations invited to participate. This is a union or an association of nations in operation which seeks results by the spiritual processes of an inter- change of information and the promotion of good will among the nations participating. The United States Bureau of Education has recently established a division of international research and study which connects in an official way with active movements and attitudes and which is sure to be of great value to our country. The Institute of International Education was organized after the Armistice for the purpose of enabling the United States and foreign countries to understand each other better by means of educational agencies. It was specifically intended to furnish foreigners with in- formation concerning educational matters in the United States and Americans with similar information about education in other countries . The American Council on Education was established upon the entrance of the United States into the war, when the colleges and uni- versities of this country undertook to assemble their resources for the support of the government in carrying on the war. It has since been continued to promote co-operative action in matters of common 178 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General interest to the educational bodies represented, including educational relations with other countries. The Red Cross and the International Y. M. C. A. are great organizations which have brought the nations together under one banner of humanism and spiritual good will. The Interchurch World Movement also seeks the development of spiritual values of far- reaching importance, while the American School Citizenship League strongly advocates an International Bureau of Education in conjunct- ion with any association or federation of nations which may be the outcome of the present or future international negotiation in the interest of world-peace. The era of world-fellowship into which the association of nations is to lead us, demands a new kind of education. If we are to work together we must understand each other, not merely in language but in institutions and national traits of character. Human under- standing has not been able to master and to explain the difference of races, those traits which grouped together constitute national character. What we should know is that there is a place in the world for many races and many nationalities and that we should teach them to respect each other. In developing an international mind we should not forget that it is our duty even yet to be nationally minded. The fact that we teach the broader sympathy and universal good will does not mean that we are to throw down the boundaries and unities of national life. With all the teaching calculated to produce a better understanding among the nations of the world, Americans must be American-minded still, and while we are teaching the spiritual values in world-terms, national patriotism must be more strongly urged. The tendency of the day to promulgate various brotherhoods based upon occupation as in the Soviet is destructive of national lines and should not be tolerated by the molders of national thought. The flag must ever be supreme and the one great flag. There is a general feeling of satisfaction among the nations, as expressed in various communications which we have received since the appointment of this committee, that the National Educational Associa- tion is interesting itself in behalf of an international program. It is entirely fitting that America should accept the leadership in such a movement. Circumstances have forced her to the forefront among nations. She stands among nations today, not as an experiment in democracy, but as the exemplar of government of the people, for the people, and by the people. We are the richest nation on the globe and have every reason to hope for the future in a material sense. We have only 6 per cent of the world's population ; 7 per cent of the land; yet we produce 20 per cent of the world's gold, 25 per cent of the world's wheat, 40 per cent Sessions] COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS 179 of the world's silver, steel, and iron, 50 per cent of the zinc, 52 per cent of the coal, 60 per cent of the aluminum, copper, oil and cotton, 75 per cent of the corn, 82 per cent of the automobiles. We refine 80 per cent of the copper and operate 40 per cent of the world's rail- road lines ; but wealth is only an incident in American life. We are a liberal people and the first to turn in charity and kindness to the unfortunate of the whole world. America thought more of humanity than of wealth when congress voted $100,000,000 to the suffering people in other lands. Today America is on the horizon of every hope that Europe has. The Great War was sufficient to demonstrate our altruism, that we fought not for dominion, nor increased power, but for justice and for humanity and in the words of our war president, "To make the world safe for democracy." The rise and fall of diplomats will not change the truth of these statements and the American people will not submit to have it said of them that they went to war for any selfish purpose. When the war was over we continued the lesson of national comradeship and while we contended against autocracy we knew, "The only full and final object of all endeavor upon earth is the development of the human soul." Millions of our "guests abroad" all over middle Europe have learned a lesson of international sympathy which the world cannot forget. John H. Finley, former commissioner of education of New York, proposes that the financial debt Europe owes to America be cancelled through conversion into an educational fund for the teaching in schools everywhere that international and interstate good will be furthered, which the feeding of the starving and undernourished children of Europe has illustrated. America boasts, therefore not of her wealth, natural and acquired through her courage, industry, and frugality, but of the bigness and openness of her heart. It is entirely fitting also that the National Education Association of the United States should be the instrument of means in promul- gating a world-movement for universal education among free peoples ; for the inculcation of spiritual values; for the promotion of inter- national good will, for a better understanding among the nations, and for instruction which may lead to universal peace. The National Education Association with its seventy-five thousand members, the most influential organization which meets anywhere, with its power to shape the policy of education that in turn directs the current of civil- ization, cannot afford to neglect its responsibility. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Your committee recommends therefore the holding of an inter- national congress of education in connection with the 1923 session of the National Education Association, and that through our consular 180 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General service invitation be extended to the nations to send respresentatives. Your committee believes that an International Education Association is desirable as a permanent organization. 2. We should teach world-civics. Our young people should under- stand the relations of one government to another. In connection with our geography and history especially we should teach our system of international communication, our diplomatic and consular service, why representatives are sent from one country to another, our means of interchange of products, our merchant marines, the purposes of navies, concessions such as coaling stations, the rights of harbors, general inter- national agreements, the meaning of passports, and treaties. This should be done especially in grammar grades and junior high schools. Our textbooks should have correct information. Investigations seem to show that the average American student's idea of the peoples of other countries is found almost entirely from his elementary school textbooks and that this idea is often inadequate. For example, some of our textbooks in speaking of the Latin-American republics represent them as "mostly Indians," uneducated, unprogressive, with no emphasis on the fact that there is a considerable body of highly cultured white persons. This fact is resented. The same is true of instruction re- ceived by children in other lands relative to America. We are some- times depicted to other people by certain types, as Indians, cowboys, and money changers which do not represent the true American. It is only when emergency arises that the children and even the adults of other lands get a true impression of our real character. 3. Erroneous ideas of the United States, as of other countries, are spread by films. In other countries as here the "movies" are the most popular form of entertainment. Most of the American films that are exported to other countries, I am informed by their rep- resentatives, depict the lawless, immoral elements of life and create a very unfavorable and untrue idea of the people of the United States. Many of these pictures could not be shown here. It is charged also that there are in pictures shown in America, imported for the purpose of propaganda, things that deprecate the people of rival countries. We should use our influence against exportation and importation of these most powerful agents of defamation. 4. The exchange of teachers is also a potent means of creating good fellowship and of correcting false notions. The influence of the intelligent teacher is incalculable and as our teachers come to know and understand our neighbors, and as they come to know and trust us, the distrust and prejudice will begin to disappear. 5. The interchange of students which is now taking place cannot be discounted. The large number of American schools offering Sessions] COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS 181 scholarships is a bow of promise. Foreign students in American colleges and normal schools are given most cordial welcome-there are now 15,000 of them and we have every reason to believe American students will receive the same good will. 6. Encouragement should be given to the movement now under way for the exchange of letters between school children in the different countries. The broadening effect of such correspondence is evident. There should also be a liberal exchange of periodicals especially among institutions of higher learning. Even yet the world is in nervous collapse from which it will require years fully to recover. Our material structure is unable to stand alone. The nations are sorely afflicted and realize that materialistic standards are inadequate. The hope of the world today lies in the inculcation of spiritual values. The nations of the earth are struggling under a great load of debt. Capital and credit have lost their former power. The great question of universal import today is how the bur- den can be borne. We have no international system which begets efficiency. The doctrine of reciprocity must prevail. Ninety-three per cent of the money raised by the United States government is for war and the contingencies of war. In this advanced age it would seem elemental to go on with backs bent without a deter- mined effort for relief. Let us begin now to teach the children these great virtues which are as potent in national life as they are to indi- vidual life. Let us teach in our schools the world over that the material things of life cannot stand alone, but spiritual values are the world's reliance. The nations have put upon the children of the world today onehundred eighty billions of dollars in war debts, $26,000,000,000 in America, upon American children. Are they in turn to increase the burden for our children's children ? Truly has it been said, " The sins of the fathers are visited upon the children even unto the third and fourth generation." A message from Germany, which led the world in the inculca- tion of the war spirit, states she is trying to find for herself a new soul. The following message from Leipzig is especially interesting and per- tinent: Our ancient regime did not approvingly see the entrance of the common people into the school. The imperialistic mind imposed its decrees upon us unresisting ones. Now our German people, since the revolution of 1918, have gained their freedom. Our usual customs in pedagogical practices have now come to an end. Our Constitution of 1919 requires that we shall teach in the spirit of brotherhood. We are endeavoring to make the basis of our instruc- tion, not the doctrine of war but the gospel of brotherly love. We are working for the upbuilding of a revival of learning and for the creating of a new soul. This new soul is the spirit of freedom and brotherly love among the nations of the world. 182 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General There ought to be in the world today sufficient spiritual force to bring together our leading powers and most enlightened peoples in an effective agreement to disarm, that the militaristic age may pass away. The old civilization taught the individual to protect his own rights ; the new civilization will teach him to respect the rights of others. The old civilization taught the individual to take care of himself ; the new civilization will proclaim the equality of all before the law. The old civilization has by force of arms governed other peoples; the new civilization will by influence and example incite all other races to a desire for self-government. The old civilization car- ried its flag into other lands and defended it with forts and garrisons ; the new civilization will implant its flag within the hearts of those who love freedom. We believe America exemplifies these princi- ples which begot the commandment, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor." On the wall of the Tower of London is a strange figure. It is made of swords and bayonets and is fashioned into the form of a flower. Someone has called it the passion flower. Too long it has been the international flower. But the world is making progress and blood atonement seemed necessary to convince men of the utter futil- ity of making ambition and avarice an excuse for war. Today we cannot justify the bloodshed except in defense of a right already as- certained, and then after all peaceable means have been exhausted. We call a man great who will die in defense of his rights, but there is a still greater man and there is a still higher ground. He must be greater who will die rather than trespass upon the sacred rights of another. It was Carlisle who said "that thoughts were stronger than artillery parks," and at last molded the world like soft clay; that behind thought was love. Armies and navies are impotent to stop love, and thought inspired by love will yet rule the world. Books and the schoolmaster will shape the destiny of tomorrow. As our schools so shall the world be and destiny is controlled by the teacher. Let the nations unite in their efforts to find the "new soul" in education, the brotherly love and the universal peace, and the rival- ry of nations will be not to see which will injure the other most but which can hold highest the torch that guides the pathway of the human race. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON EXPENSES OF DELEGATES Chairman, CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Treasurer of the N. Ε. Α... 1606 Grove Ave. , Richmond, Va. E. C. BROOKS, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . .. Raleigh, N.C. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary of the N. E. A. 1201 Sixteenth St., Washington, D. C. AGNES E. DOHERTY, Central High School . ... St. Paul, Minn . OLIVE M. JONES, Principal of Public School No. 120 ....... New York, N.Y. JOSEPHINE C. PRESTON, State Superintendent of Public Instruction ......... Olympia, Wash . Sessions] EXPENSES OF DELEGATES 183 Since its appointment in October the committee has been investigating the methods of financing delegates used by other national organizations and making a systematic canvass of individual teachers and teachers' organizations, affiliated and unaffiliated, for suggestions on the subject. Miss Doherty presented a very comprehensive report on national organiza- tions. She found that in most instances the local organizations paid the ex- penses of the delegates. Where the expenses of the delegates were paid by the national organizations the dues are high. Many suggestions have been received from clubs and individuals. Among them were the following : First, That the local association pay the full expenses of its delegates, pro- vided that the meetings be held in different parts of the country. Second, That boards of education be encouraged to bear the expenses of both the delegates and the superintendent. Third, That the N. E. A. , the local association, and the school boards each bear one-third of the delegates' expenses. Fourth, That the N. E. A. create a fund by laying aside twenty-five cents from each membership fee as a delegate fund. Fifth, That the N. E. A. create a delegate fund by adding from ten to twenty-five cents to the individual dues for that purpose. The committee brings to you the following report and urges you to accept as your first service to the Representative Assembly the presentation of this matter to your local and state organizations. The Committee Recommends : First, That each local affiliated association adopt a budget system, paying from its treasury both state and N. E. A. dues . This plan is in use in many cities, among them Seattle, Washington, Oakland, California, and Richmond, Virginia. In Virginia no person may become a mem- ber of his state association except through his local association. This committee suggests that you go a step further and add N. E. A. dues to your budget. By this plan the membership of the N. E. A. would be increased, the expenses of collecting dues and sending out membership cards would be minimized, and the local and national associations co-ordinated. Second, That the N. E. A. pay some part of the expenses of State and local delegates. Third, That the affiliated associations (state and local) arrange for the pay- ment of the rest of the expenses of their delegates. The committee makes no recommendations as to how the N. E. A appor- tionment may be met. It is estimated that the payment of so small a proportion as one-fourth of the delegates' expenses would cost $50,000. The present status of the treasury forbids this. The following suggestions are given for discussion : First, That the N. E. A. set aside some portion of the two-dollar dues for a delegate fund. This seems at present impossible but might be possible later. Second, That the N. E. A. dues be increased a small amount to form a dele- gate fund. This is in no sense a final report. It is presented at this time for a free dis- cussionby the Representative Assembly and the urgent request is made that you present it to your local and State organizations. The committee asks that the Rep- resentative Assembly take action requesting the Representatives to place the mat- ter before their organizations and to report their findings to the chairman of this committee not later than January 1, 1922. Respectfully submitted, CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Chairman. 184 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT ON THE PROGRAM AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ASSOCIATION FRED M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA As president of this association, it is my duty to report to you, the representatives of the organized units of the National Education Asso- ciation, upon the progress and condition of the work of the Associa- tion. In reporting this morning, I do not hope to present anything strik- ingly new or startling. I merely want to help you catch a picture of the great piece of machinery which you are putting in motion and which you are organizing for effective work in the greatest cause in America, public education. At the outset, let me pay tribute to the high-minded professional attitude of those who are here to represent the teachers of the United States. During twenty-five years in the professional field as teacher and superintendent I have come in contact with many professionally high-minded gatherings. I have often been impressed with their con- secration and devotion to the great cause of education, but I am proud to say that I have never in any assembly sensed a spirit of higher con- secration, of higher realization of the responsibility that devolves upon our profession, a higher and more unanimous resolve to do the big- gest possible things in the best and most effective way, than exists here in this assembly. The time was when a teacher considered that she was doing her whole duty if she did well the work of the classroom. When that was done, the teacher's duty was considered well performed. I do not think any change in the educational ideals of this country will mini- mize the importance of that supreme objective for which our educa- tional system exists-the point where the mind and soul of the teacher comes in contact with the mind and soul of the pupil. The time was when the principals and the supervisors of this country felt that they were doing their duty wisely and well if they had a well-organized and effective piece of machinery in their respective schools or subjects. The time was when superintendents of schools felt that they were performing well the functions devolving upon their office if they severally and individually had a well-organized, smoothly running piece of machinery against which no complaint could be properly registered. Let me say, fellow-teachers, that that day has gone. The duties of the classroom teachers are no less important than they have been in the past. In fact, they are more important when we come to realize the bigger work they have to perform. The duties of supervisors and Sessions] REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 185 principals are no less important. The duties of superintendents are no less important. But this is not by any means the sum total of duty of any member of the teaching profession. The time has come when the teaching profession through each individual member must see the connection between the everyday work in his individual func- tion, and the great purposes and the great ideals for which educa- ion exists in our country; and the classroom teacher must be just as much of an educational statesman in helping decide important poli- cies, as superintendent or board of education or any group in the official ranks, so-called, higher up. There is one thing which above all others this gathering may do. Itmay send back to the teachers of America a feeling of that respon- sibility, and a view of the possibilities that that responsibility entails and brings to the organized teachers of this country. This associa- tion and this meeting is at the parting of the ways, my friends. We have it within our power here to decide whether or not the teaching pro- fession of this country is to operate in isolated, suspicious, disorga- nized, separate groups, loosely confederated, without any great high purpose or program in common; or whether technical, academic, and special interests shall be the secondary thing, and whether we will evolve a scheme of organization, with a great centralized program behind which all teachers may unite. You know I have every con- fidence, my friends, my fellow-delegates, my fellow-teachers, that with the high consecration with which you come here and are attacking these problems, you will solve them right, and that the teachers of this country have it within them to create such an active militant or- ganization for the public schools of this country that the destiny of this country in its leadership in the democracy of the world shall be suc- cessfully consummated. I am sure of that. I am sure it is not too high a thing to occupy the thoughts and attention of representatives of the teachers of America . Now then, may I raise with you some seven specific questions relative to this organization ? I said it was my purpose to give you a picture of the machinery with which the teaching profession of this country has it within its power to work. That is the gist of my whole report to you. One of the delegates asked me a moment ago if we were going to have some pictures upon the screen. I said to him, "Yes, sir, we are going to have a picture upon the screen-a pic- ture of the National Education Association. " If I can be of any assistance to you as representatives of the teachers of America in using that machine, and interpreting it to the teachers of America, then I have accomplished my purpose. Let me read these questions : 186 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General 1. What is the National Education Association ? What is its reason for being ? 2. What are the means and methods of work best adapted to the purpose for which the National Education Association stands ? 3. What is the program of the National Education Association ? 4. What is the ultimate aim of this Association ? 5. What is its hope of success ? Is there any evidence that it has hope of success ? 6. What dangers must be avoided ? Where are the rocks ahead ? 7. What principles of organization ought we to adhere to funda- mentally in establishing and developing this organization ? Then, in the light of the answers to these questions, let us de- cide what our personal and collective duty is with reference to this piece of machinery that has come to us as an inheritance from the teachers of America. Now let me answer in a very brief way, or rather suggest answers, for I am not going to attempt to answer fully and finally, for I do not think I am wise enough to answer in any final way. I think only time and the experience of the teachers of America can fully answer these questions. Let me interpret the answers as they seem to be at this stage of development of the National Education Association. GANIZATION ? WHAT IS THIS ORGANIZATION WHAT IS ITS REASON FOR BEING ? When a little group of consecrated educators, sixty-four years ago this summer, met in an eastern city and perfected the initial organi- zation of the National Education Association, they had as a consummate purpose, the interchange of educational ideas and ideals. I think as I have read the history of the organization that they did not have any thought of creating an active militant organization which should go out and bring the public sentiment of the United States together behind the great cause of education. They were as devoted and con- secrated to the purposes of education as they saw them, as we are to our purposes of today. Now, in recent years, a great change has come in the ideals of this organization, and that change, as you well know, has grown out of the crisis in the profession. We have seen our ranks depleted. We have seen great numbers leave the profes- sion, not because of lack of devotion to duty, but because of necessity. We have seen the ranks in normal schools growing thinner because the American public has not been properly financing our system of public education. But the change in the ideals of the Association has come not only because of the crisis in the profession, but also because the profession has seen a threatened revolution in the ideals of American democracy and in this threatened change a real danger to American democracy itself. The teaching profession has viewed this threat Sessions] REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 187 with a great deal of professional alarm, the more so because teachers more than others have realized how fundamental is the relationship of an intelligent citizenship and thinking that is universally straight to an American democracy. Teachers cannot view threats to American life and ideals with calmness and equanimity. The profession would not be true to its responsibility if it were not aroused by the threat that comes to American democracy from the bolshevist and the radi- cal and their propaganda, nor has the profession been unconscious of the equal danger that impends from the reactionary and his threat of con- trol of American policies and American progress. The teachers, too, have sensed the danger that lies in our 24.9 per cent illiteracy, and, more than any other organized group, have the teachers of America understood the danger that lies in our large percentage of un-America- nized elements, and because the teachers know how inadequately fi- nanced and how crippled the American school system is have they been more and more unwilling to put up with a piece of machinery that is not equal to its task. The crisis in the profession has been the outgrowth of the crisis in American life and these have brought to the National Education Asso- ciation, my friends, a change in viewpoint that has not been a backward step. There has not been a retrogression from those ideals that in- spired our professional forebears. There is no less professional idealism than there was that summer sixty-four years ago when this Associa- tion came into being, but there has been in recent years a distinct adding to that idealism. The teaching profession has begun to assume its true rôle as a profession in the light of the objectives of our modern democracy and has decided that upon it devolves the responsibility of seeing that America shall have the kind of a public-school system that American ideals necessitate. This is my suggested answer to the first question. There has been a distinct change in the ultimate objective for which the National Education Association stands. Its purpose is as truly professional as it has ever been, but it has become an active militant body in creating constructive public sentiment in America and in rallying the forces that stand for the public schools of America. WHAT ARE THE MEANS AND METHODS OF WORK BEST ADAPTED TO THE PURPOSE FOR WHICH THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION STANDS ? The National Education Association functions through a system of regularly appointed committees and a system of regularly organized departments. These committees are groups of specialists who are dele- gated by the Association with the responsibility for the solution of some problem and clothed with authority to carry on special functions or special lines of investigation. Let me call your attention to one such 188 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General group whose function it is to act as a great co-ordinating agency, the Commission on Co-ordination of Research Agencies. This Commission has as its purpose the bringing together of all the research effort in the United States along the line of educational investigation. There ought not to be a research agency in any state department or in any university or in any other unit of educational organization that does not in one way or another bring its work to bear upon the problems involved in the National Program of Education and help in the attain- ing of the final objectives of the National Education Association. It is the work of this research agency to help bring all these agencies to the point of contributing to the great purposes of the Association. The special departments of the Association represent the ways and means of the Association for caring for the special interests of all im- portant groups engaged in school work in this country. It is the policy of the Association to provide fully for any such special group. A large number of them are functioning now as regularly authorized departments of the National Education Association. A little later I will show you a complete list of the committees of the Association and its departments. WHAT IS ITS PROGRAM ? Its program, my friends, despite the opinion of my good friend who spoke yesterday to the contrary, consists of those purposes which the teachers of America, in their yearnings for what American democ- racy shall be, have decided upon as the objectives of this Association. I think these purposes are pretty well defined. They may change from time to time, but to my mind there is no doubt about there being a program for American education. It may not have been seen by our official representatives or authorities as we have seen it; it may not have been adopted by those officially charged with the responsibility of government, but it is here, and it is here because the teachers of America know what is fundamental in a system of education and are working together in an organized way to attain those ends. The program consists of a recognition of the ends of public education, the relation of the public schools to democracy, and the steps to be taken in realizing those ends and in making the schools a fundamental agency in training for democratic citizenship. WHAT IS THE ULTIMATE AIM OF THIS ASSOCIATION ? The ultimate aim of this Association, my friends, is not confined to those questions that are usually first discussed in newly formed edu- cational organizations, not at all. Quite frequently, matters of extreme necessity, especially those economic questions growing out of cost of living and prices, are the first matters considered and discussed, and Sessions] REPORT OF The PresideNT 189 the public gets the impression that teachers think of nothing but salaries and hours. But the ultimate aim of the organized educational forces of this country is involved in the decision of the educational forces of this country upon the kind of a school an American school should be. I do not know whether I can bring this home to you strongly enough or not. The classroom teachers of this country, and the rank and file, and every member of the profession must have in their minds what the school system of America is to be. We cannot leave the decision to boards of education representing interested or disinterested groups in communities. We ourselves, who know best, must decide for all America what kind of school we are going to stand for, and if the National Education Association is going to be a militant protago- nist for education in this country, then it must conceive in the full the ideal school for which it is fighting. The crux of the whole thing comes in whether or not this profession can bring the public to pay the bills for the work of a complete and efficient school system. I do not believe that the teaching profession is going to be satisfied ; I do not believe that intelligent public opinion is going to be satisfied with a system that does a fifty per cent job, and that is what the public in America has been paying for. If the teaching profession is to lead the public in supporting a public-school system that does the whole job of training the youth of America for citizenship, it must know the kind of school that will make such a system. You are, no doubt, as familiar with the little book of Dr. Ayres, collaborating with the United States Bureau of Education, entitled An Index Number for State School Systems. You will remember that by means of the measuring- stick for the public school system set up by Dr. Ayres, the school systems of the various states are shown to be slightly over 50 per cent efficient measured by the very reasonable and defensible standard set by Dr. Ayres, by experience, and by educational opinion. I do not believe that the teachers of America are going to stand for a school system that does no more of its national job than this. I am not speaking in disparagement of our school system of the past. It has in acomparative way and from the viewpoint of the past done its work especially well, but for the future, I am sure that the teachers of this country will not be content to be a part of a school system which is able to make a showing of somewhat less than one-tenth of the total raw product of citizenship of this country trained for the responsibility of American life. We can stand for no less than universal training for citizenship throughout the period of youth. A democratic school system can do no less, and the teachers of America will stand solidly behind a slogan which holds high the interests of the children of Ameri- 190 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General ca, a school which stands for all of the children of all of the people, all of the time. The teachers of America will go out and fight for a school system of this kind. This, I think, is the ultimate aim of the National Education Association . WHAT IS ITS HOPE OF SUCCESS ? Our hope of success, my friends, is great and the evidence is here. The evidence is to be found in the success of those state and local associations which have organized on a representative basis parallel to our own plan and have succeeded in their programs because they have thus organized, because they have had wise, constructive leadership, and have gotten behind that leadership. This evidence I will present to you a little later by means of slides and the screen. WHAT ARE THE DANGERS AHEAD ? Let me take up the dangers we face and the principles we must adhere to, after I show you in as objective a form as I am able to master, the picture of what the National Education Association is. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION GROWTH IN ACTIVE MEMBERSHIP 1898-1920 OUR GOAL- A COMPLETE ENLISTMENT OF THE PROFESSION YEAR 1890 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 MUN952 2204 2321 2010 3815 4288 4642 6261 5174 5044 7705 6010 6909 7036 786075 78708557101042408552052 SLIDE I (At this point the lights were turned out and slides thrown upon the screen.) From this diagram (slide I) you will note the history of the growth of the National Education Association. In 1898, the active Sessions] REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 191 membership was slightly less than 2000; in 1920, it was 52,850. At the close of the association year preceding this meeting, the active membership was nearly 75,000. The remarkable growth beginning with 1919 is the point which should impress us most. The year 1919 saw the membership of the previous year more than doubled. The year 1920 saw the record of 1919 more than doubled. This is first- hand evidence of the way in which the teaching profession has re- sponded to the crisis in the profession and in our national life. From this map (slide II) you will note the widespread hold which the National Association has upon the nation. Every state association with the exception of four as shown by this map has become an affiliated association of the National Education Association. The first figures show the membership of the various state associations ; the second WA 60 SH 00 N.H 23 MONT VT. 304 1983 ME50 37 ANA 1640 36 2 8 270 189 91 0 N.D. 2 O 388 3000 55RE 22 315 MINN MASS 4 54 3 14480 6 IDAH 8400 NH O 1214 . N.Y00 1569 2 5 350 304 MASS 5 S.D. 0 0 WIS 15 7 DR.1 . 3252 CAL 145IF 403 WYO 2000 570 7700 MICH 10t 00 NEV 4 4069 11800 N 2672 43 ADA 204 5 0 4333 PEN27 68 24 IOWA 13 346 7 CONN 93 0 6 2 NEBR 16000 275 7100 13 27 OHIO 512 4 5000 3654 10 IND76 000 128 192 3 UTAH 3331 1742 11 24ILL 22 6118 A 5 N.J. 2662 COL 8 6939 1589 16-W.V DEL 15200 5770 5583 427 2527 9 KANS MO 18 7 39 7260 2 295 9 2813 12591 15233 ~5000 832 3 10 951 2612 321 . VA 6 MD. 9 515 ARIZON 5 KY 8050 438 A 32,00 4 1900 Ν.Μ. OKLA N.C. 187 2 700 2209 12586 ARK TENN 421 S. 518 4200 1148 307 5 5 68 MISS ALA GA. 57 3 6000 6700 1200 126 500 164 2 TEXAS LA 5 11000 2600' 456 7941 FIRST NUMBER Members in 5 6 State Association FLA 500 SECOND NUMBER- N.Ε.Α . members 121 in State Association 1 THIRD NUMBER- State Delegates to Representative Assembly SLIDE II figures, the N. E. A. members in each state association ; the third figures, the number of representatives sent by the Association to the present Representative Assembly. Since this map was made, one of the four state associations shown here as not affiliated has become an affiliated association, leaving only three state associations outside the fold. This map (slide III ) shows in another way the widespread character of the affiliations with the National Education Association. The large circles indicate state affiliations, with all states affiliated except four. The small circles represent affiliated local associations with affiliated locals in almost every state in the Union. The numbers indicate the total number of local affiliations in each state. 192 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General MAP SHOWING STATE & LOCAL AFFILIATIONS MON T MINN 00 ORE 5 8 IDAM O ১০ 34 00 wis10 00 wro 5 15 CAL 18 12 NEV MICH 00000 CONN 0 。 17 UTAH NEB 0 ILL 0 32 40 8 100 000 ◯23IND ९० 000 21 0 22 0 0 000 22 000 8:008 KAN 10.000 00 13 096 8 2 TENN ORLA 3 。 C TALA GA 12 2 2 State Affiliations 0 Local Affiliations Numbers Indicate Number of Local Associations in States SLIDE III This map ( slide IV) shows you the number of teachers in the public schools of each of the states in the United States, the total number of members in each state association as indicated by the second numbers, the number of N. E. A. members in each association indicated by the WA 929SH 600 5 NH 3 0 308 ME 65 63 233 7 VT 2 13 4 69430 299 9 30 3 2 MONT 164 10% 91 4731 ND 189 2700 8093 67 7 SS OR 388 3000 MA 87 617 E 315 MINN 174 0 562 3 17793 144 8 2 0 546 IDAHO 8400 1214 N593 156 3506 WIS 53 00 SS 3500 SD 152 5XMA 7057 16266 MICH 304 403 3 WYO 3252 7700 20979 277 1735 4069 11000 570 6 2000. 247 333 21% PENN7 CONN 267 4272 67140232 204 IOWA 0 7 NEV NEBR 27230 3462 NJ100 $ 1 2757 1674 16000 OHID 687 12606 3654 31819 67 152 7 252 3 246 5000 INO ILL 22192 274 UTAM 1742 33364 19648 6118 15 DEL2 41 % 3205 13% 24000 12876 19% VAL 106 CALI COLO 6939 1569 10324 42 7 1732 F 3331 5563 MD0 5 6523 21% 13:20 646 29 27X 2662 1450 3 5770 KANG MO 392 0 B3X 2813 20208 12870 7260 51 5 4368 15243 4 832 36 42 % 12591 15233 5000 951 2612 321 % 12% 14550 8050 NC 187 ARIZ OKLA TENN 1539 12721 12921 NM 3200 SC 1900 1944 12506 10662 700 1148 2209 4200 57 457 GA 307 68 MISS ALA 15046 15 % 11056 10953 6700 1200 4000 126 500 TEXAS LA 27358 7621 1000 2600 456 794 2% 10 % FIRST NUMBER Teachers in Public Schools, 500 SECOND NUMBER Members in StateAssociation 121 THIRD NUMBER N.Ε.Α. Members in State Association FOURTHNUMBER Per Cent of Total Teachers who are N.Ε.Α Members SLIDE IV third numbers, and the percentage of the total number of teachers in each state who are members of the N. E. A. In total number of mem- bers of the N. E. A. in the state association, Illinois ranks first with Sessions] REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 193 6,939, Ohio ranks second with 6,118, California ranks third with 4,368. Inpercentage of total number of teachers of the state who are members of the N. E. A., Utah ranks first with 83 per cent, Arizona ranks second with 45 per cent, Colorado ranks third with 42 per cent. This table (slide V) shows the character of the local affiliations of the National Education Association. You will note by far the greatest number of affiliations have been city-wide organizations including ANALYSIS OF THE LOCAL AFFILIATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AS OF MAY 31 , 1921 City (all inclusive) 264 Country.. 92 Institutions (Normal Schools, Colleges, etc.) 70 Grade Teachers . 46 Executives (Principals and Supervisors) 23 High School Teachers ... 20 Classroom Teachers .. 7 522 SLIDE classrooom teachers, principals, supervisors, and superintendents, with country affiliations coming second, and institutions, grade teachers, executive, high-school teachers, and classroom teachers in the order named. The total number, 522, represents the com- pleted affiliations. Nearly 1000 applications have been received for affiliations, but the payment of dues and the granting of the respec- tive charters is a process that requires a little time and all have not yet been completed. This map (slide VI) shows the distribution of complete and one hundred per cent enrolments. The large circle represents a city or county school system or an institution with the total membership enrolled in the N. E. A. The small circles indicate single schools with a complete faculty enlisted as members of the National Education Association. 194 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General WAS H MAP SHOWING COMPLETE ENROLMENTS & 100% SCHOOLS 00 MONT HEO D MINN ORE 。 DAH O 이 WIS WYO MICH MASS 00 NEV LOWA UTAN NCB. CHIO ৪০ COL 。 DEL KAN VA O ARIZ M N.C 00 OKLA TENN TEX GA MISS TALA LA Complete Enrolments 。 100% Schools SLIDE VI You are all familiar with the platform of the National Education Association. I have tried here (slide VII) to epitomize that platform OBJECTIVES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1. In every classroom in America a well qualified, professionally trained teacher, who is a loyal American citizen and who receives an adequate compensation. 2. Elimination of the twenty-five per cent of illiteracy in our population as disclosed by the United States Army figures. 3. The Americanization of all non-American elements in our population. 4. Universal training for citizenship to an age approximating maturity- eighteen years . 5. Equalization of educational opportunity for all of America's twenty- five million boys and girls. 6. A leader of the educational forces of the country in the highest councils of the Nation-a Secretary in the President's Cabinet. SLIDE VII Sessions] REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 195 by selecting six first objectives as proposed in that platform. They are as you will note above. These are the purposes for which we are fighting as a profession. They represent the things that are before us to do as an organized profession. As an Association we have not been idle since our change in viewpoint and the adoption of a National Program in working for WHAT THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION HAS DONE TOWARD THE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF THESE OBJECTIVES 1. Reorganized the N.E.A. upon a democratic basis with a representa- tive form of government with a Representative Assembly as the governing body. 2. Established a publication known as the Journal of the National Education Association to be sent to all members of the Association as ameans of uniting the profession. 3. Established a Legislative Commission to accomplish the objectives of the Association by the enactment of appropriate legislation. 4. Established a commission for the co-ordination of all research agencies, studying the problems of education throughout the country. 5. Adopted a policy of a united profession behind a constructive pro- gram. SLIDE VIII the accomplishment of that program. You will note (slide VIII) that several great steps have been taken to bring about the ends we seek. Earlier in the discussion, I called your attention to the fact that 196 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the Association works through committees of specialists and spe- cial departments. This slide (IX) gives you a list of the active committees now functioning for the National Association. The COMMITTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Committee on Sources of Revenue Committee on Visual Education Legislative Commission Committee on Foreign Relations Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions Committee on Expenses of Delegates Commission on Co-ordination of Research Agencies Committee on Reorganization of Elementary Education Illiteracy Commission Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education COMMITTEES OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Committee on Health Problems in Education Committee on Thrift Education Committee on Racial Well Being Committee on Rural Education Committee on Elementary School English Committee on Problems of High School Libraries Committee on Standardization of Schoolhouse Planning and Construction In addition there are twenty-one committees that are now inactive SLIDE IX upper group, ten in number, are committees of the Association proper. The lower group, seven in number, are committees of the departments of the National Association which have been recog- nized as Association committees. The inactive committees number twenty-one. The Executive Committee will recommend to theAssembly that all inactive committees be discontinued. Sessions] REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 197 You will note here (slide X) a list of the departments of the Association. These represent the specialized interests that are cared for by the general organization. DEPARTMENTS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION National Council of Education Department of Superintendence Normal Schools Elementary Education Higher Education Vocational Education and Practical Arts Kindergarten Education Music Education Secondary Education Business Education ChildHygiene Physical Education Science Instruction School Administration Library Department School Patrons Rural Education Classroom Teachers Promotion of Wider Use of Schoolhouses Educational Publications Deans of Women SLIDE X A little while ago, I suggested to you that the teachers of America as a profession were going to define the kind of school for which America stands. It will be a school that seeks to reach all classes of children whether they be rich or poor, bright or slow, physically and mentally well-equipped or poorly equipped, Amer- ican or foreign. Every community must offer to all of its children a school system which furnishes the best possible preparation for citizenship for all these classes of children throughout their youth. This means training for citizenship all of the children of all of the people, all of the time. America can afford to do no less. This 198 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General slide (XI ) presents the two main objectives of such a school, name- ly, universal training for citizenship of all children until the end of the high-school period, and the Americanization of all un-Amer- icanized elements in our population. PRINCIPAL OBJECTIVES OF A SOCIAL PROGRAM IN EDUCA TION FOR EVERY SCHOOL OR SCHOOL SYSTEM IN AMERICA 1. All children (not a fortunate minority) educated for good and useful citizenship until eighteen years old-by such means as may be most educative to each type of child. This includes the specially gifted, the normal, the slow, the defective mentally and physically- the foreigner, and the American. 2. All non-American elements in our population-youthful and adult-reached and Americanized. SLIDE XI MEANS WHICH SHOULD BE USED IN EVERY COMMUNITY IN THE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF THE OBJECTIVES OF A SOCIAL SCHOOL PROGRAM 1. Adequate high schools for all children (not one-third to one-half as now). 2. Junior high schools for all adolescents. 3. Neighborhood or Americanization schools. 4. Home teachers for Americanization work. 5. Vocational classes or schools . 6. A flexible system of promotion. 7. Courses of study and methods adapted to the scientifically studied capacities of children rather than to tradition and personal opinion. 8. Special classes and schools for special types of children. 9. Definite measurement of results. SLIDE XII A school which accomplishes these objectives must have ade- quate machinery with which to work. This machinery must be adapted to the ends which the school seeks. Here (slide XII) Sessions] REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 199 are nine specific features which will be found in any school system, rural or urban, which fully does its job . A school system with the social objectives just presented and working with the machinery that has just been suggested will ac- complish results. This slide (XIII) shows the growth in holding RESULTS OF A SOCIAL PROGRAM IN EDUCATION IN A TYPICAL AMERICAN COMMUNITY Growth in Holding Power of the Schools upon Adolescent Children PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE FOR THREE- YEAR PERIOD 1917-18 ΤΟ 1920-21 STANDARD OF GROWTH- City population .. 13 % Elementaryschool enrolment. 20% AMERICANIZATION SCHOOLS- Total enrolment... 29 % Seventh grade enrolment..... 56% Eighth grade enrolment. 53% SLIDE XIII power of a school system with such a program in a typical Amer- ican community. While the city population was growing 13 per- cent, the elementary school enrolment 20 per cent during a three- year period, the Americanization schools of this community had succeeded in increasing the enrolment of seventh-grade pupils 56 per cent and eighth-grade pupils 53 per cent. 200 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General Here is an additional piece of evidence (slide XIV) from this American community. The school system through its social pro- gram sought to reach all its adolescent children with adequate citi- RESULTS OF A SOCIAL PROGRAM IN EDUCATION IN A TYPICAL AMERICAN COMMUNITY Growth in Holding Power of the Schools upon Adolescent Children PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE FOR FOUR-YEAR PERIOD 1916-17 ΤΟ 1920-21 STANDARD OF GROWTH- City population............... 16% Elementary grades, I to 6, in- clusive. 20 % ADOLESCENTS- Seventh grade enrolment ... 30% Eighth grade enrolment .. 33 % Ninth grade enrolment 44 % Twelfth grade enrolment ..... 58 % Day high school, all grades 51% PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE FOR FIVE-YEAR PERIOD 1914-15 ΤΟ 1919-20 Elementary school graduates ... 82% High school graduates ......... 133% SLIDE XIV zenship training. Over a four-year period while the city population was growing 16 per cent and the elementary-school enrolment 20 per cent, the seventh-grade enrolment increased 30 per cent, the eighth Sessions] REPORT OF the president 201 grade, 33 per cent, the ninth-grade,44 per cent, the twelfth-grade, 58 per cent, and all day high schools, 51 per cent. Over a five-year PER CENT GAIN IN HOLDING POWER OF HIGH SCHOOLS IN FIVE YEARS PERCENTAGE OF DAY SCHOOL ENROLMENT (GRADES 1 ΤΟ 12, INCLUSIVE) ENROLLED IN HIGH SCHOOL Per cent inhigh school, 1916-17... 16.6% Per cent in high school, 1920-21 ... 21.6% Standard percentage .. 33.3% Total enrolment in day high schools, 1916-17 4,362 16.6% *Total enrolment day elementary and high schools, 1916-17 ....... 26,307 Total enrolment in day high schools, 1920-21 ........ 7,432 21.6% *Total enrolment day elementary and high schools, 1920-21 ...... 34,381 Standard ratio of high school to total enrolment 33.3 % *Kindergarten not included. SLIDE XV period the elementary-school graduates increased 82 per cent and the high-school graduates 133 per cent. The effect of the social program in this community (slide XV) is shown in the percentage of total enrolment found in the high school. 202 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General This percentage increased from 16.6 per cent in 1916-17 to 21.6 per- cent in 1920-21 . A little while ago, I suggested that concrete evidence as to what organization can do is to be found in what organization has done A TYPICAL LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM ENACTED AT A SINGLE SESSION OF A STATE LEGISLATURE The following measures were enacted: a. Establishing a State-wide salary schedule based on qualifications and experience, with $1200 minimum salary. b. Establishing qualifications for superintendents. c. Increasing salaries of superintendents and assistant superintendents. d. Fixing qualifications for teachers as normal school graduates after 1927. e. Placing all certification in hands of State department. f. Lengthening school term one month throughout State. g. Strengthening compulsory attendance laws. h. Increasing State aid from $12,000,000 per year to $18,000,000. i. Increasing appropriation for State normals 1 million, abolishing tuition at State normals, and increasing salaries of faculties. j. Creating State Council of Education. k. Standardizing elementary school courses in all public and private schools and requiring all elementary teaching to be in English. 1. Encouraging consolidation of rural districts. m. Appropriating $125,000 for department of Americanization. n. Providing State building for education. SLIDE XVI in our state associations working for a constructive program of educational legislation. During the last session of the legislature in a typical state, fourteen constructive, forward-looking measures were enacted, as indicated upon this slide (XVI ) . They were all Sessions] REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 203 highly significant and far-reaching in their effect upon the school system. This shows what expert leadership and organized efforts cando. In one of our great Middle Western States, a program (slide XVII) of school legislation of great significance was successfully ANOTHER TYPICAL PROGRAM OF SCHOOL LEGISLATION ENACTED AT A SINGLE SESSION OF THE STATE LEGISLATURE The following measures became law: a. Allowing school districts to bond themselves up to 15% of valuation. b. Strengthening township-unit law. c. Strengthening consolidation law and subsidizing each consolidated district $1000 per school and $400 per each transportation vehicle. d. Permitting local districts to build and furnish teachers' homes. e. Providing minimum of nine months school. f. Requiring professional training of all teachers after 1925. g. Requiring standard courses of study in all elementary schools, public and private, and placing them under supervision of State super- intendent as to courses of instruction, erection of buildings, and certification of teachers. SLIDE XVII put over at the recent session of the legislature. This is further evidence of what the enlistment of the profession and expert leader- ship can do. Here (slide XVIII) is a legislative program consisting of twenty-one measures passed at the last session of the state legislature 204 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatioN [ General in another state. The professional organization in this state has been upon a delegate basis for a number of years. It is thoroughly organized, has expert leadership, and the profession is thoroughly behind a con- structive program. The legislature in general accepts the decisions of ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF A GOOD STATE EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM The following measures were enacted: a. Providing for the apportionment of State and county elementary funds and adding eight million dollars to State support of elementary schools. b. Apportioning State and county high school funds. c. Establishing seven teacher's collegesand providing for their support. d. Increasing minimum school year to 160 days. e. Providing maintenance for the school of education in the State university. f. Providing for building school of education in State university. g. Establishing junior colleges throughout the State. h. Providing for a budget and local-district tax levy. i. Providing for teachers' retirement salary. j. Providing more permanent tenure of teachers. k. Reorganization of State department of education. 1. Providing support for State board of education and increasing salaries of commissioners. m. Modifying and making more effective the part-time school law. n. Providing that a school district may contract with another for the education of its pupils. o. Providing for the government of junior high schools by high-school boards. p. Providing for publication of financial and other reports. q. Relating to traveling expenses of representatives of boards of educa- tion. r. Providing for vocational rehabilitation of soldiers. s. Placing territory in high-school districts. t. Providing restrictions upon the creation of new school districts. SLIDE XVIII Sessions] REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 205 the profession as to school legislation. These twenty-one measures stand out as evidence of what we may expect nationally when the teaching profession of some 700,000 members fully awakes to its power and responsibility. RECORD OF A STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION ORGANIZED ON A DELEGATE BASIS Number of bills sponsored in twelve years-six legislative sessions .. 68 Number of major measures defeated . 2 Number of minor measures defeated .. 3 Number of measures successfully advocated . 63 SLIDE XIX Here (slide XIX) is the record of a state teachers' association organized for a number of years on a delegate basis in sponsoring constructive educational legislation. Over a period of twelve years, this association has proposed sixty-eight legislative meas- ures. Of these, sixty-three measures have been enacted into law. STATE PROGRAMS IN EDUCATION Total membership State associations.. 363,243 Number State associations on delegate basis at present......... 16 Number supporting constructive legislative program. 33 Number of measures backed by State teachers' associations during past year as reported by State superintendents (approximate) . 213 SLIDE XX Only two of the major measures proposed by this association have been defeated. Three minor measures have been defeated. The major measures have been enacted into law by the second proposal. The 700,000 teachers in America working as a nucleus for the 206 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General crystallization of national public sentiment can accomplish as much. You may note from this (slide XX) the strength of the army that is enrolled in the cause of the program proposed by the Na- tional Education Association. Our total affiliated membership is 363,000. Sixteen of the state associations affiliated are on a delegate basis and most of them have been supporting constructive legisla- tive programs in their respective states. A total of 213 were proposed and supported by these associations during the last legis- lative session. It is true that the active membership of the As- sociation is in the neighborhood of 75,000. When the teaching TWELVE LARGEST STATE ASSOCIATIONS WITH APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF MEMBERS IN EACH 1. Pennsylvania. 34,247 2. Illinois . 24,000 3. Ohio ... 22,192 4. Iowa... 17,000 5. California. 16,000 6. New Jersey. 16,000 7. Massachusetts . 15,000 8. Missouri . 15,000 9. New York . 15,000 10. Oklahoma 13,000 11. Kansas . 13,000 12. Indiana .. 13,000 SLIDE XXI profession of the country fully realizes the work to be done, the active membership in the Association will grow by leaps and bounds. With the Association as a coherent, unified body actively functioning and standing for its great program, there can be no doubt as to the outcome. Here ( slide XXI) is a list of the twelve largest state associa- tions. Pennsylvania, the largest, enrolling more than 34,000 mem- bers, with Illinois and Ohio standing second and third respectively. This, my friends, gives you some conception of this wonderful piece of machinery known as the National Education Association Sessions] REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 207 which is placed at the disposal of the teachers of America. Can we, standing 700,000 strong, learn to make effective use of our strength for the ends of public education in America? Now then, just a word and I am done. What dangers must we avoid, my friends? I think the first is apparent to all of us. Letus avoid the danger of suspicion of each other. We have heard the word submerged used a great deal lately. There are some things that ought to be submerged. Class consciousness, exaggerated, must be submerged in the National Education Association. There is another rock that we must fear-demagogery and personal am- bition. You know, and I know, that there are commercial interests in this country who would profit by not having the National Edu- cation Association a great and powerful organization pushing a constructive school program in this country. And, my friends, you know, and I know, that these commercial interests will do everything that they can to separate us, to array the classroom teachers against the principals, and the superintendents against the principals, and so on. This is one of the rocks we must avoid. WHAT FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION OUGHT WE TO ADHERE TO ? We must always recognize the tendency on the part of teachers toward voluntary organization. In this Association we must not forsake the principle of full and complete representation, with full opportunity of voice through their representatives of all teachers in the United States of America from the superintendent, not clear down, but clear up to the classroom teacher. Another principle, my friends : We will succeed only through sane, wise, unselfish, consecrated leadership. Democracy involves leadership. You remember those two great definitions of democra- cy, one by our immortal Lincoln : "Government of the people, for the people, and by the people." The other by Mazzini : “ The progress of all, through all, under the leadership of the wise and best." "Under the leadership of the wise and best." We cannot have a democracy without leadership. We degenerate into sovietism when we forget the necessity of leadership. We must insist on democracy through representative government and leadership. But the most important of all-we must have a constructive pro- gram. When we have accomplished the objectives set for a given period, we must go on to others and greater. No institution can live that does not have a constructive program and make defi- nite contributions to the society in which it works. Now what are our duties as delegates ? There is a great re- sponsibility resting upon us. You and I represent the local organ- 208 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General izations throughout the length and breadth of this great democracy of ours. It is our business to go back to our communities as lead- ers; it is our business to carry the clarification of these ideals as delegates back to our respective associations and organizations. I know that we will be faithful to the responsibility and the trust that is imposed upon us, and as I look forward into the great future of this democracy, I think I see the National Education Association coming forth as the fundamental organization in this country be- hind the great American public-school system, its defender, its leader, a militant protagonist of a program that stands fully and completely for American ideals. Remember, this is your associa- tion, not mine. These are our ideals as they seem to me to be. Remember that the result depends upon you and the teachers of America . REPORT OF THE SECRETARY To the Executive Committee, Board of Directors, and Representative Assembly : Permit me to present for your information and consideration the report of the Secretary for the year 1920-21 , and to include therewith the reports of the heads of departments at the central office. These departmental reports show the work actually done in each department and make suggestions for improvement. Associate Members Active Members Active Members Associate Members Gerresponding (No vote) (No Vote) Members Affiliated State Associations Affiliated Local Associations Officers of State Delegates Meet by States and choose Local Delegates State Superintend- Ν. Ε. Α. 1 per 100 Members up Committee Members 1per 100 Members ents to 500 Credentials Fominations Resolutions Bearology Representative Assembly of Delegates Transacts Business and Re- ceives Reports Headquarters Organization (By Charter) (Dz Charter) Itate 11 Vice- Treasurer President First Vice- Life (Secretary's Office) Directors Presidents President Direators Under General Supervision of Executive Committee Patsegal Commissioner Special Committees Field Secretary Board ofDirectors Authorised Representative Assembly Recorde & Publica- tione Board of Trustees Executive Committee National Council of Business Pres. Ex-officie Pres., First Vice- Bducation ( 4 Members Your PrasyChrm .Bd of 60 elected by Directors Term) 60 elected by Council Becords Trustees,Treas.& Permanent Pond . one Member elect Bleats Secretary Pillevacancies- Superviste prog Departments Superintendence Yhysical School Special Fider Use of Publication Education Résoutien Benoatton Administration Páneation dusatson Scheel Souse Borsal Elgher Kindergartes Secondary Ch114 Gulsel Classroom Belanse Schools Bdecation Basest lon Pamatin Patrens Teachers Administrative Appolative Superviong National Education Association Organization and Administration CHART 1-ORGANIZATION OF SECRETARY'S OFFICE Sessions] REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 209 Chart No. I, which is attached hereto, shows the place of the headquarters organization in the general administrative scheme of the Association. It also serves to show the all-inclusive make-up of the Association and the completeness and certainty of its executive control. There are at present four departments in the headquarters organization : (1) Records and Accounts; (2) Field Work; (3) Business ; and (4) Publications. Chart No. II shows the divisions of work in each department. Two of these departments began to assume definite form eight or ten years ago, but did not function separately with department heads until during the last few years. The Department of Records and Accounts was formally recognized in 1917, with Mrs. Helen T. Hixson in charge. The Department of the Field Secretary was established in 1918 and Hugh S. Magill was placed at its head. An assistant secretary was elected in 1919 and put in charge of the business of the Association which may be taken as the date when the Business Department was created. R. S. Erlandson is head of this department. The Department of Publications was established in 1920 with Joy E. Morgan as its director. The Department of Commercial Exhibits created in 1916 and until the present year in charge of Hoyt and Hall, is now a division of the Business Department. The division of shipping, mailing, and multigraphing in the Business Department is in charge of Mr. W. P. Reilly. A division of the Department of Records and Accounts shown in the chart as Records is in charge of Miss Suzanne C. Wright. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES HEADQUARTER'S ORGANIZATION ---- SECRETARY'S OFFICE 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHING TON , D.C. UNDER THE GENERAL SUPERVISION OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE J.W.CRABTREE,SECRETARY--- GENERAL DIRECTION--- MEMBERSHIP DRIVES FIELD WORK RECORDS & ACCOUNTS HUGH S.MAGILL , FIELD SECRETARY HELEN T. HIXSON, ASSISTANT TREASURER EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION MANAGEMENT OF ACCOUNTS FIELD ORGANIZATION - STATISTICS MEMBERSHIP RECORDS-ADDRESSOGRAPH PLATES BUSINESS PUBLICATIONS R.SERLANDSON , ASSISTANT SECRETARY JOY ELMER MORGAN EDITOR COMMERCIAL EXHIBITS THE JOURNAL OF THE N.Ε.Α. JOURNAL- ADVERTISING- GENERAL BUSINESS PROCEEDINGS- REPORTS-GENERAL PUBLICITY CHART II . -HEADQUARTERS ORGANIZATION 210 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General HEADQUARTERS STAFF Adams, Lillian Davis, Katie Perry, Rose. Alcorn, Lucille Duval, Martha Peter, Ina Alvey, Georgia Erlandson, R. S. Reilly, W. R. Arlett, Elizabeth Goodman, Mrs. E. Robbins, Bertha M. Bartman, Henry Harris, Mrs. H. B. Robbins, Jessie M. Becker, Mary Hill, Sallie Somdal, Anna Bosse, Marie Hixson, Helen T. Summers, N. Carolyn Cassell, Ella Holden, Margaret Swan, Katherine Chapman, Ella Magill, Hugh S. Thatcher, Harriet Chapman, Clyd Morgan, Joy E. Watkins , Keith Chase, Harriett M. Moss, Dorothea Wheelock, Lillian Crabtree, J. W. Nelson, Grace Wiseman, Mary Crowley, May T. Pendleton, Robert Wright, Suzanne The present scheme of organization was definitely planned in 1919. When Major Bengert, of Chicago, was working out and installing the new system of records and accounts, it was necessary to know the plan of organization for the immediate future. The plan which was outlined for Major Bengert's informa- tion and use, is the organization which is shown in the chart with only one ex- ception. Instead of creating a department of statistics as planned at that time the statistical work has been done in the Field Secretary's department. The Association is 50 per cent larger than at this time last year. It will continue to grow. Demands for new lines of service will be made. Conditions will change. The central office must foresee all this and be ready in each in- stance to make the necessary adjustments. At present we believe it best to have only four departments. Later it may be advisable to have a greater number of departments. The clerical force must be increased for next year and will neces- sarily be larger as the Association grows and as the new demands present them- selves, but in adapting the organization to these new needs let us see that every change is in harmony with good policy and sound business principles. We desire to continue the present plan of organization of the headquarters staff, because it enables a small force to do an enormous amount of work. It groups the work into four departments avoiding the duplication of labor and supplies which would result from a larger number of departments. It requires the Association to employ only a limited number of men and women on high salaries, making it possible to employ adequate clerical help. A FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OBSERVED The fundamental principle which is embodied in the Educational Bill now before Congress leaving to state and local agencies important duties and responsi- bilities is no more necessary and sound for the organization of a Department of Education than for the organization of the Association's central office. The ob- servance of this principle means that much of the important statistical and field work is to be done by state and local agencies . The National Education Associ- ation renders an inspirational and directive service through its Field Secretary and assistants, and it can never do much more than that. To do the investiga- tional and statistical work on a large scale at the central office would require an outlay far beyond the present income of the National Education Association. We believe that by securing the co-operation of state and local affiliated asso- ciations whose combined memberships now exceed 400,000 teachers, and by en- couraging them to do field work and make investigations the central office will accomplish more for the profession and the cause of education than by attempting to do all this work itself. Sessions] REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 211 DISAPPROVAL OF PLAN TO SUBSIDIZE PRESS ASSOCIATION The observance of the principle of the Educational Bill means that instead of attempting to subsidize the educational press of the country and to make one EDUCATION great national magazine, as has been advised by two or three editors of leading NATIONAL journals, theAssociation will encourage and stimulate high class state and national educational magazines, and by means of their co-operation render a much greater service to education and the profession than would be possible under the proposed plan. The Journal on the present basis is a magazine of exceptional merit and under its able management it will be greatly improved during the coming year. We should keep in mind the fact that the Journal is established for the single SHOWING 10,000 14,000 12,000 16,000 20,000 6,000 8,000 2,000 4,000 18ροο CHART AUGUST MARCH APRIL JULY JUNE SEPT MAY OCT. JAN NOV. FEB. DEC. 1919-1920 1919-1920 1920 1921 RECEIPTS MONTHS 1920-1921 BY 10,000 12,000 14,000 6,000 6,000 2000 4,000 Chart III -Prepared by Harriett M. Chase. 212 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General purpose of promoting the interests of the Association. It should ever remain the mouthpiece of the Association and should never allow itself to aspire to control the entire field of educational journalism. This important policy is safe in the hands of the present editor of the Journal and Secretary, but in order to guarantee its being carried out, whoever may be editor or secretary, it will be wise for the Representative Assembly to take definite action defining the purpose of the Journal and its relation to the educa- tional journals of the country. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TO FURNISH AMMUNITION The primary function of the National Education Association and its chief responsibility is to point the way and lead to a real teaching profession, just as the professional associations in medicine, law, and engineering have been instru- mental in lifting these lines of endeavor to high professional standing. When this task is accomplished the Association may become an agency for the inter- change of ideas and plans on this higher level. Under the new plan of organization the state and local associations are taking over certain phases of work which under the old plan would be done by the National Association. But the state and local associations will look to the Na- tional Association for counsel and expert advice on the problems and difficulties which arise. What the Association needs most at this time is not an army of agents and workers so much as a few good leaders and assistants who can set the pace and give direction. In order to aid in elevating the ideals and standards of the profession the central office should be a sort of combined clearing house, an idea factory, an inspirational dynamo. THE DEFICIT EXPLAINED The financial condition of the N. E. A. is sound but owing to the attention given to emergency needs there has been a deficit in current funds of the Asso- ciation much of the time since 1918, and especially during periods when monthly receipts have been low. The first deficit occurred in 1918 as a result of the nation-wide effort for increased salaries for teachers. It was increased as a result of the campaigns for national encouragement and support of education. Before the deficit was entirely wiped out the Journal was established at double the cost of the N. E. A. Bulletin which it replaced. It was established to meet an emer- gency need. The Executive Committee expected the income from advertisements to cover the additional cost of the Journal but the business depression which cáme soon after it was started shut off the possibility of income from that source almost completely. The records for June will show that the deficit has been wiped out, yet when it is explained that approximately $35,000 from funds be- longing properly to next year have been used in the payment of expenses for the present year, it will be seen that we will need to borrow again in order to meet the expenses of the months which immediately follow this meeting when the monthly receipts will be very low. The auditors have complimented the office on the fact that the records show improvement in the financial condition of the Association since the audit of last year and on the fact that part of this improvement has come since the Journal was established. By careful management and by postponing new and important enterprises for a few months it will be possible not only to wipe out the deficit but to provide a surplus to tide over the dull periods. It is necessary to the good business standing of the Association that this is done. Chart No. III shows when monthly receipts are the lowest. It is therefore recommended that the Representative Assembly have this situation in mind in mapping out the program of work for the year. Every allowance to com Sessions] REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 213 mittees or commissions and every amount which is voted for special work should be made conditional on the availability of funds without borrowing. OUR REAL PROBLEM Our problem has never been that of securing the co-operation of state and local associations, departments of education in colleges and normal schools, and of research agencies of the country. Our Association has always had the cordial and active support of all of these. The problem has been that of getting im- portant matters before these agencies for effective work and that of bringing to- gether the results of the work for the benefit of all. It will no longer be difficult to get these matters before state and local associations and other agencies that give thought to educational problems and policies. This difficulty has been met in the organization of the Association on a representative basis and in the plan for affiliating state and local associations with the National Association. The organization is complete and all affiliated units and helping agencies are ready to assist in the investigational and other work to be outlined at this meeting. It will require the best thought and organiz- ing ability which can be put into the work at the central office to meet the demands of the profession and to measure up to our new opportunity. We now have a united profession. Nothing but a unity of interest and purpose could have increased the membership in the Association from 8,000 to 75,000 in less than four years and nothing but a united profession could have performed the miracle of reorganizing the Association and putting it on a rep- resentative basis, welding the state and local associations of the entire country into one great federation of working units in the short period of one year. PLAN OF CO -OPERATION The following plan has been started and will be continued if agreeable to the Association : (1) to present to each affiliated state and local association and to each co-operating agency at the beginning of the school year, a list of prob- lems for investigation and study and to ascertain the items and problems to which each will give special attention ; (2) to keep all associations which are studying the same problems in touch with each other ; (3) to gather in and summarize results or have this done by some other agency and to give out the summary to all co-operating associations and to the members of the Association ; (4) to submit questions pertaining to the work of committees for the considera- tion of these agencies ; (5) to submit in a similar manner emergency problems on the request of affiliated associations; and (6) to call on all these organizations for help on important matters of legislation and to extend help to them as needed in the solution of their local problems. HONEST PRIDE IN THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The interests of the Association have seldom if ever been in bad hands. Its presidents, its secretaries, its members of the Executive Committee and Board of Trustees and other officers have as a rule represented the strongest and most worthy in educational leadership. This has given the Association a history and a standing in which all may feel honest pride. During the years when the teachers of the places in which meetings were held could because of their numbers name the officers and dictate policies, there were only two or three times when undesirable action was, taken. It is by no means certain that the Association was injured by those two or three instances; indeed, it might be shown that those instances marked important changes in policies and had the effect of improving the standing of the Association. 214 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General The Association was put on a representative basis in order to take another step in advance. It was believed that the Representative Assembly composed of delegates and leaders from every state and local association would more truly represent the entire teaching profession and that it would place the Association and its policies on a high national plane. THE PERMANENT FUND The successful development of the Association depends not only upon the character of its professional ideals and educational standards, but also upon the efficiency of its business management and certainty of its financial resources. The Association has had for many years two main sources of income, one from membership dues and the other from the interest on the permanent fund. When there were only 7,000 to 8,000 active members, the income from the perma- nent fund of $200,000 constituted an important part of the total income of the Association, but now that there is an active membership of 75,000, the interest from the permanent fund covers a much smaller fraction of the operating ex- penses. See Chart IV. It would require a permanent fund of more than $1,000,000 to serve the larger Association as well as the permanent fund of $200,000 served the smaller Association. This fund formerly provided income to tide over the years when annual meetings were not held and when the receipts from membership dues had dropped very low. It made it possible to put the annual membership dues on a $2.00 basis. It gave the Association business standing and enabled the Executive Committee to borrow money at the time when the epidemic of the influenza had cut off practically all receipts from membership dues for a period of six months. It gave the Association a permanent home. It has carried the National Education Association over many bad places. But owing to the recent growth in member- ship it can no longer meet these emergency needs. CONTRIBUTIONS AND LIFE MEMBERSHIP It is imperative that steps should be taken to increase the fund as rapidly as possible. In order to accomplish this purpose I recommend that the Execu- tive Committee be authorized to receive contributions to the permanent fund. It is believed that a number of men and women of wealth can be found who are sufficiently interested in the work of the Association to contribute to its perma- nent fund without in any way hampering its freedom or dictating its policies. I recommend also that provision be made in the By-laws for a $100 life- membership as an additional means of increasing the permanent fund. There has been a persistent demand for years for the privilege of life-memberships in the Association. By becoming a life-member one would avoid the necessity of giving attention to the payment of dues each year. He would take pride in being a life-member. He would be glad to aid in building up a large permanent fund. The life-membership dues would at once become a part of the permanent fund. The interest on each $100 would cover the cost of the Journal and publica- tions during the life of a member. I estimate that if this plan is adopted not less than three hundred life-memberships will be taken out each year and that it will prove to be an effective method of constantly increasing the permanent fund. CENTRAL OFFICE TO ASSIST COMMITTEES The Chairman of the Committee on Tenure has requested the Secretary's office to arrange for doing the clerical and tabulating work of her committee. She expresses the belief that such an arrangement will be less expensive and more effective than to have the work done in any other way. She does not think that members of the committe have the time to do this detail work them- ASSOCIATION EDUCATION NATIONAL Sessions] REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 215 MISCELLANEOUS selves. She thinks the committee should block out the work to be done in a general ADVERTISING MEMBERSHIP COMMERCIAL way deciding on policies and plans and then turn it over to the Secretary's office. PERMANENT AFFILIATED INTEREST Other committees have called for similar help and made similar recommenda- EXHIBITS REPORTS VOLUMES MEMBERSHIP MEMBERSHIP tions. PERMANENT INCOME FUND SALE ON & INCOME S FUND 2.00 5.00 ON $S $S 1920-21 SOURCES INCOME OF 55000 75000 45000 50000 40000 35000 25000 65000 30000 60000 70000 20000 15000 10000 0 1911-1912 1920-1921 { INCOME INCOME TOTAL TOTAL 13.7 OF ОF % % 3 Chart IV. The Executive Committee is of the opinion that provision should be made for carrying out this plan and has requested the Secretary to include it as one of the recommendations in this report for the consideration of the Representa- tiveAssembly. In some cases it may not be advisable for the Committee to turn any work over to the central office but in most cases it is believed that such an 216 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General arrangement would be more convenient and more satisfactory to the committee and much less expensive to the Association. I therefore recommend that the Executive Committee be authorized to equin the central office for assisting committees in doing the work which is assigned to them, and to be jointly responsible with committees in the preparation of reports . OBSOLETE COMMITTEES The long list of obsolete committees in the Secretary's office is due to the policy of discharging committees only on the request of committees themselves. In order to drop these obsolete committees from the list and in order to prevent another list from accumulating I recommend that the life of all committees and commissions of the Association and of its departments terminate with this meet- ing, and that hereafter the term of each committee or commission end auto- matically with the year for which appointed except when continued by vote of the Representative Assembly. Some important committees are making progress reports at this meeting, planning to prepare complete reports in 1922. A vote on the part of the Repre- sentative Assembly to continue for another year the committees which are doing good work would serve as a vote of confidence in their work. APPOINTMENT OF HEADQUARTERS' STAFF There are now in the central office four heads of departments, four chief assistants, and more than twenty stenographers, typists, clerks, and other helpers. These are selected by the Executive Committee usually upon the recommendation of the Secretary and never without his approval. While this method of electing members of the headquarters staff is followed in practice no definite rule of procedure has been adopted by the Executive Com- mittee or the Association. The question arises as to whether this practice, modi- fied as necessary, should not be adopted formally and thus become an established policy of the Association. The relation of the secretary to the Executive Committee as provided in the Charter and By- Laws is much the same as the relation of the city superintendent of schools to the board of education. Naturally the Secretary should have the same part in the selection of members of his office force that the superintendent of schools has in the appointment of teachers for the city school system. Just as the board of education elects principals and teachers only on the recommen- dation of the superintendent the Executive Committee should elect members of the office staff only on the recommendation of the Secretary, and just as the wise superintendent gets advice and help from principals in selecting their assist- ants the Secretary should ask for the co-operation of heads of departments in recommending assistants for appointment. The central office should observe the same general principles and rules of tenure for the members of the headquarters' staff as the Association recommends for the schools . TWO-DOLLAR MEMBERSHIP FEE POPULAR The question of increasing membership dues naturally arises because the Association desires to put out a larger Journal, to print a more comprehensive volume, to do wider field work, and in short to render a much greater service to the profession. There is a desire also for the Association to bear all or part of the expenses of delegates who attend the annual meetings. In order to accomplish all these purposes the dues could hardly be less than $10. There are many reasons why there should be no change in membership dues. If the fee is high the enrollment will be low; if the fee is low, yet high enough Sessions] REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 217 to be respectable, the enrolment will be high. More can be accomplished for the profession when all teachers are members on a small budget allowance per mem- ber, than when only a few teachers are members on a large budget allowance per member. The membership fee of $2.00 appeals to teachers and superintendents as being reasonable. There is now the opportunity of taking out a $5.00 member- ship and getting more for it, yet the great majority of superintendents, college professors, and presidents choose to pay only $2.00. The $2.00 fee means an Association for all ranks of the profession whereas a $5.00 or $10.00 fee would likely mean an Association for the few. The fee of $4.00 for enrollment and membership dues was tried out for years by the Association, without securing an enrollment of as many as 8,000 active members. Teachers on low salaries manage to spare $2.00 a year for membership in the National Association. Those onhigher salaries do not desire to pay much more than that amount in addition to their dues in the local, district, and state associations. The $2.00 membership fee is a popular sum. It is paid without complaint. It enables the Association to publish a high type of Journal, to do some research work, to conduct campaigns for increased pay for teachers, and to employ one of the ablest men in the United States with assistants for legislative and field work. The $2.00 fee has been successful. It is enlarging the Association and purchasing its supplies. It is the goose that lays the golden egg. The declining prices of paper and other material used by the Association will increase the amount of service work which the $2.00 can accomplish. The Secretary's office should be able to make ends meet on the present membership fee, and will do so if permitted to hold back in expenditures until funds are available. I therefore strongly recommend that no change be made in member- ship dues at this meeting and that no change be made at any later date without carefully investigating beforehand the possible and probable effects of an in- crease in membership dues. THE BUDGET SYSTEM RECOMMENDED A few local associations are using a plan known as the budget system in the payment of dues to the local, state, and National Associations. This plan has been recommended for general use by the Treasurer and assistant treasurer, the committee on the expenses of delegates, the Field Secretary and assistants, and by many members of the Association. The following are some of the reasons for adopting the plan: It will in- crease the membership in both local and state associations as well as national associations ; it will stimulate greater interest in the work of these associations ; it will keep before members their relation to the state and Na- tional Association as well as to the local association; it will save thousands of dollars in postage, stationery and labor for the state and national associations ; it will increase the effectiveness of affiliation; it will create a better understanding between the local, state and national associations ; it will enable local and state units to do more effective work; it will serve to improve the financial condition of each association and will bring about a more united profession. The committee on financing the expenses of delegates will present a plan which has been carefully worked out and will ask for its endorsement by the Rep- resentative Assembly. If the Association will take formal action recommending the plan it is believed that the local associations will be encouraged to adopt it, and that in a year or two it will be in general use throughout the country. SUMMARY OF BUDGET ESTIMATES FOR 1921-22 The National Education Association is growing in membership by leaps and bounds, as shown by Chart No. V. It takes on new lines of service to meet new ASSOCIATION 218 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General MEMBERSHIP demands at every annual meeting of the Association. It has recently changed EDUCATION its By-laws and reorganized on a representative basis. The rapid growth in NATIONAL membership, the change in organization, and the new plans and policies of the 8507101042402352050 Association all add to the difficulty of estimating either the amount of income or the appropriations needed for each department or line of work. ENLISTM The amount which can be set apart for each essential item as a budget allow- GROWTH ance depends first of all on the total income for the year. It also depends on COMPLE ACTIVE the relative importance of the item with the other items in the budget. After MEMBERS 2204 3215 5044 5705 7860 7870 5174 4642 4286 7003 7082 2610 2321 7036 0261 6030 1952 7441 6909 1906 1905 1914 1920 1919 1918 1907 1912 YEAR 1908 1915 1909 1898 1903 1904 1900 1902 1913 1917 1899 1901 1910 GOAL 1916 1911 OUR THE TE OF NT -A 1898-1920 IN PROFESSION CHART V -Prepared by Harriet M. Chase. Sessions] REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 219 careful study I am reasonably certain that the income for the year 1921-22 will not be less than $190,650 and am therefore limiting the total expenditures to that amount. The table which follows shows the income from various sources for the years 1919-20 and 1920-21 and shows in the third column the estimated income from each source for 1921-22. It places in concrete form the expenditures of 1919-20 and 1920-21 and makes plain the reasonableness of the estimate in the third column of the necessary expenditures for the year 1921-22. This summary is made a part of this report for the information of the Representative Assembly. Each item will be explained in detail and taken up by the Executive Committee. This table indicates where increasing expenses will occur. INCOME FOR 1919-20 AND 1920-21 AND ESTIMATED INCOME FOR 1921-22 Estimated Receipts Receipts Receipts for for for 1919-20 1920-21 1921-22 Balance brought forward .. ... $ 3,991.57 $ 6,394.12 $ 10,877.59 From annual meeting . 10,996.00 2,226.00 2,200.00 From meeting Department Superintendence ... 5.600.00 4,037.00 2,000.00 From membership dues... 71,822.00 101,405.00 164,100.00 From sale of volumes . 1,068.92 643.89 600.00 From sale of special reports ..... 971.41 370.00 400.00 From special contributions .... 859.00 35.50 50.00 From miscellaneous . 42.34 73.88 100.00 From interest on Permanent Fund . 12,608.82 4,276.64 6,000.00 From commercial exhibits .. 968.53 9,921.97 11,000.00 From interest and discounts ..... 113.57 7.00 300.00 From advertising journal . 5,180.83 16,000.00 From loan Continental Trust Co... 5,000.00 Total ..... $109,857.36 $133,247.88 $202,750.00 ESTIMATED EXPENDITURES FOR 1921-22 Estimated Paid out Paid out Expense 1919-20 1920-21 1921-22 Board of Trustees . ..$ 357.65 $ 875.44 $ 357.65 Executive Committee. 2,234.24 3,225.37 3,225.37 General Secretary's office .... 51,510.34 67,766.58 78,800.00 Express and freight. 2,621,21 961.46 1,000.00 Printing 35,256.48 42,239.78 63,800.00 Appropriations for committees. 6,970.04 2,797.74 18,100.00 Auditing accounts . 525.13 678.77 500.00 Unclassified expenses . 3,141.60 564.85 1,000.00 Office fixtures and furniture . 1,151.85 5,199.48 5,000.00 Annual convention .. 5,752.15 5,065.26 6,000.00 Department of Superintendence. 3,031.09 3,047.62 3,000.00 Revolving fund ..... 4,000.00 On loan...... 5,300.00 To meet deficit . 10,877.59 To provide surplus. .. 11,089.39 Total .$116,551.48 $137,731.35 $202,750.00 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations do not cover the recommendations for sup- plies, furniture, equipment, help, etc., which will be made to the Executive Com- mittee in another report. 1. To continue to recognize in the organization and work of the Association the principle in the Educational Bill which assigns important duties and respon- sibilities to local and state agencies. 220 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General 2. To approve of the present editorial policy of the Journal, as set forth in the report of the Managing Editor and to approve of its business methods as out- lined in the report of the Business Manager. A part of this policy is for the Association to make the platform and for the Journal to support and promote it. 3. To approve of receiving contributions for the permanent fund and to provide in the By-laws for a $100 life-membership as a means of increasing the permanent fund. 4. To authorize the Executive Committee to equip the central office for aid- ing committees in doing the work assigned to them and to make the central office jointly responsible with the committees in the preparation of reports. 5. To take action terminating the life of all committees of the Association and its departments with this meeting and to provide that hereafter the life of a committee will automatically terminate with the year for which appointed, except as continued by a vote of the Representative Assembly. 6. To assign definitely to the Secretary the same relation to the Executive Committee in the appointment and dismissal of members of the headquarters' staff that the superintendent of the city system of schools bears to the board of edu- cation and to observe the same general rules of tenure at the central office as the Association recommends for teachers . 7. To work out a budget system for local, state, and national associations to recommend its adoption by all affiliated units. 8. To approve of the plan of work with state and local affiliated associations and other agencies for the coming year as suggested in this report under Plan of Co-operation : (a) To present to each affiliated state and local association and to each co-operating agency at the beginning of the school year a list of problems for investigation and study and to ascertain the items and problems to which each will give special attention ; (b) to keep all associations which are studying the same problems in touch with each other ; (c) to gather in and summarize results or have this done by some other agency and to give out the summary to all co-operating associations and to the members of the Association ; (d) to submit questions pertaining to the work of committees for the consideration of these agencies ; (e) to submit in a similar manner emergency problems on the request of affiliated associations ; (f) to call on all these organizations for help in important matters of legislation and to extend help to them as needed in the solution of their local problems. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the year has been one of growth. The increased membership and the extended activities of the Association are evidences of the new spirit which has more and more animated the teachers of the country. It is most gratifying at this time, when there is great danger of lowering the levels of the moral life of our people by undue appeal to selfish interests, to see the teachers of the Nation working together six hundred and fifty thousand strong, to con- serve the good, the noble, and the unselfish in the hearts of the rising generation. Teachers have in all ages been called upon to preserve the great ideals of humanity, but at no time have the teachers of America responded in better spirit to meet a critical situation. At no previous time in the history of our country have teachers been so well organized for effective work. The great body of workers constituting the teachers profession through their federated organiza- tions, commencing with the local groups and extending up through the state to the National Association, are able to carry out their purposes for the better- ment of their own conditions, for the promotion of the teaching profession, and for the advancement of education throughout the nation. The potential possi- bilities of such an organization can hardly be estimated. By working together Sessions] RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS 221 unitedly and by co-operation with other great national organizations interested inthe promotion, through education, of the highest welfare of our country, it is possible to exert an ever increasing influence in shaping the policies of the nation. Never before have the organized educators of America exerted such an in- fluence as they do today in the Halls of Congress . A prominent Congressman recently declared that the educators of the country are now commanding the respect of the politicians and the admiration of statesmen. The influence of our National Association is greatly increased by the fact that what we ask of Con- gress is not primarily for ourselves, but in behalf of the rising generation in America, the future citizens of our country, upon whom admittedly rests the hope and future prosperity of our Nation. Let every member of this Association and every teacher dedicate himself anew to the great unfinished task remaining before us. Let us hold ourselves responsible as an Association and as a profession for furnishing such educational leadership as will support and uphold the principles of democracy and assist in the realization of the highest and noblest of American ideals. J. W. CRABTREE, Secretary REPORT OF DEPARTMENT OF RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS FOR YEAR JUNE 1, 1920-MAY 31, 1921 Mr. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Dear Mr. Crabtree : In response to your request permit me to submit the following report which briefly surveys the work of the Department of Records and Accounts for the fiscal year just ending, and anticipates the subsequent growth of the department for the ensuing year : NEW SYSTEM (a) The new and simplified system of handling the funds of the Associa- tion, and the record of its membership, has now been in operation for a complete association year, and it has proved an efficient factor in the saving of time in handling the rapidly increasing membership. It not only simplifies the book- keeping and accounting system, but it enables us at any time to show the exact financial standing of the Association and to compile whatever data may be de- sired regarding specific expenditures. (b) During the recent audit of the funds of the Association by Messrs. Mar- wick, Mitchell & Co. of New York, favorable commendation was expressed on the new system of handling the accounts, although it was suggested by them that the system might be further simplified and made just as effective by discontinu- ing what is known as the "Revolving Fund," which covers the "Special Account" of the Association-paying all bills as soon as they are presented for payment from the regular funds, and rendering a complete statement of all receipts and disbursements to the Treasurer at stated intervals. This would mean, of course, that all checks in payment of said bills would need to be signed in the office of the Secretary. This would enable the Association to take advantage of any dis- counts that might be allowed, which would no doubt mean a material increase in the revenue from this source. (c) The auditors further expressed the view that all membership receipts should be consecutively numbered and accounted for, but this, we believe, would be almost prohibitive in the handling of from 75,000 to 100,000 memberships, and 222 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General it frequently becomes necessary to issue duplicate receipts, or membership cards, when we find by our records that the payment is complete. MEMBERSHIP (a) The records for the year ending May 31, 1921, show an increase of ap- proximately 25,000 new members, which means the making and filing of 100,000 cards and addressograph plates, outside of the cash entry which must be made on the permanent record card at the same time, and the record of increase made in each particular city or state, which facilitates the determining of the member- ship of said city or state at any time. (b) The records further show a decided increase in the $5.00 memberships over last year, approximating 1,500; this membership now numbering practically 4,600 members, which does not include the memberships by affiliation. This would indicate a growing desire on the part of the membership to receive all of the publications of the Association, and it is quite probable that this growth will be steady from year to year, which will be a great help financially to the Asso- ciation since the $2.00 membership, which carries with it the new Journal, gives but small margin for revenue over the operating expenses. EXPENSES COVERING COLLECTING DUES The new year of the Association is upon us, and we are starting out with approximately 75,000 members, one-third of whom perhaps have paid the advance dues for the year 1921-22. This means that we must collect dues from 50,000 members, in addition to the work of campaigning for new memberships. This can be done only at an enormous cost for stationery, postage, stenographic service, etc., which could be greatly reduced if these memberships could, be collected through a budget system worked out by the state associations and affiliated so- cieties, which would collect the entire membership fee, forwarding to the National Association its proportionate share. AFFILIATED MEMBERSHIP While we have started and tried to maintain a card index of all affiliated societies and its membership, thus far it has proved unsatisfactory owing to our inability to obtain reports on the actual memberships of such affiliations, but we trust that this can be worked out more advantageously during the coming year. MEMBERSHIP YEAR In handling the new system of affiliated memberships, which must be de- termined by the number of members within a certain delegate body, we are ex- periencing great difficulty in determining who, and who are not, entitled to recog- nition as a member of said body within the association year, since all members enrolling after March 1, and who hold advance membership cards, are entitled to recognition at the annual meeting immediately following as well as at the one a year hence. Would it not, therefore, in view of the new system of representa- ton by delegates, be advisable to change the Association year to conform with the calendar year, printing the date clearly on the membership receipt? This would, no doubt, obviate any misunderstanding or criticism on the part of mem- bers as to just what year their membership should cover, and it would greatly simplify the work of the Record Department. NEEDS OF THE DEPARTMENT TO FACILITATE THE WORK OF THE NEW YEAR In summing up the work of the closing year, and anticipating our needs for the immediate future, we find that we shall be handicapped in handling the in- creasing membership of the Association unless the clerical force of this depart- ment can be increased by at least two good and efficient assistants-one who can do stenographic work in addition to assisting in the record filing, and one who can operate the graphotype and assist in the general office work when needed. Sessions] REPORT OF THE FIELD SECRETARY 223 We have also reached a capacity in our filing cabinets for addressograph plates and permanent record cards, and we will immediately need to enlarge our equip- ment with at least four new steel filing cases for addressograph plates and double our steel files for our permanent record cards, and we believe that the Executive Committee should pass upon this recommendation without delay. It is also quite probable that another graphotype will be needed within a few months, and it might be well to have this purchase approved by the Executive Committee at the same time. IN CONCLUSION The year has been one of growing interest and pleasure ; our new and com- fortable quarters have added greatly to our happiness, and we believe to our efficiency, and we look forward to the next year's work with pleasant anticipa- tion. The Department has been greatly assisted in its work by the cordial co- operation of all members of the office staff, and special credit should be here given Miss Wright, Miss Swan, and Miss Peter of this Department, who have been untiring in their zeal to make the records of the Association as absolutely complete and infallible as it is possible, and they are constantly showing an in- creased interest in their work which merits the approval of the officers of the Association. Very sincerely yours, HELEN T. HIXSON, Assistant Treasurer . REPORT OF THE FIELD SECRETARY DEPARTMENT To the Secretary and Executive Committee, National Education Association : At the request of Mr. Crabtree I beg to submit a brief report of the Field Secretary Department for the past year. WORK OF DEPARMENT VARIED The work of the Field Secretary is far more varied than would be supposed by one not familiar with the activities of this Department. It may be summar- izedunder the following heads : 1. Collection and dissemination of information regarding the condition of education throughout the United States, and the promotion of campaigns for the betterment of teaching conditions, the increasing of teachers' salaries, and otherwise advancing the interests of the teaching profession. 2. The carrying forward of the legislative program of the Association before Congress, and assisting state and local affiliated associations in the promotion of state legislation. 3. The projecting of the program of the Association throughout the country by public addresses before teachers' meetings, and before civic bodies such as chambers of commerce, federations of women's clubs, Rotary Clubs, Kiwanis Clubs, and similar organizations. 4. The preparation of bulletins and publications and the writing of editorials and articles for the Journal and other magazines setting forth the principles for which the Association stands and promoting its program of work and service. 5. Carrying on a correspondence largely devoted to the furnishing of in- formation and answering of inquiries from educators and representatives of edu- cational organizations and also from numerous civic organizations interested in the work of the National Education Association and desiring to co-operate in its legislative program. 224 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General Although the field of activities of this Department is very broad, we have tried to the best of our ability to carry on effective work along each of the dif- ferent lines indicated above. The entire time of one person, with the necessary clerical help, might profitably be given to each one of these several lines of activity if the Association could afford it. However, this cannot be done on a member- ship fee of $2.00, one-half of which is used for the publication of the Journal, and the other half of which must cover all the other expenses of the Association. Since it seems inadvisable to increase the membership dues, the securing of a large permanent endowment fund, the income of which could be used for carry- ing on the work of the Association, would appear to be the best means by which the work of this department can be enlarged without drawing too heavily upon the income of the Association and thereby retarding the equally important work of the other departments. COLLECTING AND DISSEMINATING INFORMATION At the opening of the school year in September we sent a postal-card ques- tionnaire to all the city and county superintendents of the United States asking for certain definite information regarding the number of teachers, the minimum and maximum salaries paid elementary and high-school teachers, the academic and professional training of these teachers, the number below standard, and the total shortage. About one-half of the superintendents responded. The information ob- tained was used in the preparation of articles for the press and in furnishing information to school authorities and teachers' organizations regarding the relative status of different cities and school districts throughout the country. The public wants the facts. Though sometimes difficult to obtain, reliable information should be secured and the widest possible publicity given to the exact situation through- out the country with respect to teaching conditions, teachers' salaries, the prepara- tion or lack of preparation of teachers, and other educational conditions which vitally effect the efficiency of public education. We feel that this is a very valuable service which our National Association can render, and which should be extended and developed. With the co-operation of state and local affiliated associations, a far more extensive work can be carried on at a nominal expense to the Asso- ciation. LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM The legislative program of the Association is one of its most important fields of work. We would recommend that as soon as possible a study be made of the school laws of the different states, and that such studies as have already been made be utilized, in order that the Association may be in a position to furnish complete information when desired and render assistance to the different states in the promotion of needed school legislation. Forty- four state associations, and the District of Columbia have already affiliated with the National Association. These state associations naturally look to the National Association to assist them in carrying forward their state programs, particularly in legislation, and under the By-laws of our Association we are pledged to give them every assistance possible. It will readily be seen that the possibilities of thus extending the use- fulness of the National Association to state and local associations in promoting their legislative programs are very great. THE SMITH -TOWNER BILL When the Association met a year ago in Salt Lake City the Smith-Towner Education Bill was pending in the Sixty-sixth Congress. Opposition to the measure had developed, principally from one particular source, which prevented the endorsement of the measure in the platforms of the two great political parties at their national conventions. This opposition was based either upon a miscon- ception or a deliberate misrepresentation of the provisions of the bill. However, Sessions] REPORT OF THE FIELD SECRETARY 225 as the opposition became more violent, friends of the measure multiplied in number and became more earnest and enthusiastic in their support. On January 11, 1921, the bill was reported out of the Committee on Education of the House with recommendation that it pass, and a very strong Committee Report, prepared by Judge Towner, was published. A few weeks later the Committee on Education and Labor of the Senate also favorably reported the bill, but owing to the con- gested condition of legislation at the close of the Sixty-sixth Congress, action was not secured by either house before final adjournment on March 4. THE TOWNER- STERLING BILL Atthe opening of the special session of the Sixty-seventh Congress on April 11, the Educational Bill in revised form was reintroduced in the House by Con- gressman Towner, of Iowa, and a few weeks later it was introduced in the Senate by Senator Sterling, of South Dakota. The Towner-Sterling Bill, H. R. 7 and S. 1252, contains the fundamental principles of the Smith-Towner Bill, but pre- serves even more carefully state autonomy and local control of education. It also provides for a National Council on Education, composed of the state superinten- dents of all the states, and twenty-five educators representing the different in- terests in education and twenty-five persons not educators, to be appointed by the Secretary of Education, to consult and advise with the Secretary on matters re- lating to the work of his department. Interest in the measure has gone beyond the most sanguine hopes of its proponents. Congressmen and Senators state that they receive more correspondence regarding this bill and have more calls for copies of it than any other measure before Congress. Tens of thousands of extra copies have been printed to meet the public demand. Scores of national organizations and hundreds of local organizations have endorsed it. Those most familiar with conditions with respect to this bill, both in Congress and throughout the country, are confident of its ultimate passage. THE PROPOSED WELFARE BILL Unfortunately efforts have been put forth by persons in positions of influence and power to displace the Educational Bill, which has the support of scores of national organizations and millions of the best people of the country, by a pro- posed Department of Public Welfare, in which education would be submerged as one subdivision along with various other unrelated interests . Such an unfortunate procedure might have been successful had not the educators and friends of educa- ton rallied to the support of their cause. A special hearing was granted the friends of education by the Joint Committees on Education of the Senate and House on May 8. Many prominent educators and representatives of national organizations appeared at this hearing or filed signed statements protesting against the submerging of education in the proposed Welfare Department. They did not oppose the creation of a Department of Public Welfare, but insisted that education should be taken out of the proposed department and given independent and primary recognition. Although it was the avowed intention of the propo- nents of the Welfare Department Bill to rush it through both Houses of Con- gress and have it in effect by the first of July, this special hearing so influenced the members of both Committees and leaders in Congress, that no further action has since been taken on the Welfare Bill. WE MUST CONTINUE THE FIGHT We must continue our campaign of education. The false statements that have been made regarding our Educational Bill must be contradicted by the facts. Ignorance and prejudice must be overcome. Political influences must be counter- acted. It is a hard fight, but for a most worthy cause. How long it will continue no one may say, but those who believe that right makes might should have no 226 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General doubt regarding the final outcome. Education will yet be exalted to its rightful place in the councils of our Nation. CARRYING THE ASSOCIATION'S PROGRAM TO THE PEOPLE Our Association has a great program of service which is not yet fully ap- preciated by the people of the country. Wherever this program has been pre- sented it has met with enthusiastic endorsement and support. Education is so vitally related to the highest welfare of every community, and to the larger or- ganizations of society in state and nation, that the program of our Association for the development and promotion of education appeals to all patriotic citizens. This program may be projected in part through the Journal of the Association, and through articles in the public press, but these should be supplemented by the direct and personal appeal of public addresses. The Field Secretary has addressed many thousands of people during the past year. He has traveled from Massa- chusetts to Oregon and from North Dakota to the Southland, often speaking many times each day. It has been possible, however, to accept only a small pro- portion of the invitations for addresses . Nearly all of the organizations whose invitations were accepted have been quite willing to pay necessary traveling ex- penses, and in many instances they have contributed honorariums, all of which have been turned into the Association's treasury and which amount to consider- ably more than the total traveling expenses of the Field Secretary for the year. PUBLICATIONS AND PRESS ARTICLES The Secretary and Executive Committee have looked to the Field Secretary for the preparation of legal and official documents for the Association, such as the Charter-Amendment bills, the drafting of the revised By-laws for the re- organization of the Association along the lines recommended by the Board of Directors , the preparation of official forms and bulletins published by the Asso- ciation, and the putting into form such documents as the "Platform of the National Education Association" and the "Program of Service." This is a kind of work which we very much enjoy and a service which we are glad to render. We regret that we have not had time to prepare more articles for the press, particularly for magazines. We have received numerous requests for articles setting forth the program of the Association particularly articles in explanation and support of the Education Bill. We have not been able to comply with all of these requests because of lack of time and the pressure of other work. CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER ORGANIZATIONS The correspondence of the Field Secretary's office has greatly increased during the past year because many national organizations desire to co-operate with our Association in carrying forward its legislative program, and they naturally look to our Association for information and leadership. The Asso- ciation has come into active touch with many organizations of high character and broad influence who wish to work with us . This relationship brings with it added responsibility and affords an opportunity for enlarging and extending the influence of the Association throughout the Nation. The fact that our supreme purpose is not the advancement of selfish interests, but the promotion of a course which is vitally related to the preservation and development of the best in American life, has won the confidence and loyal support of scores of organiza- tions and thousands of public-spirited citizens. There has come to the Associa- tion unsought almost limitless opportunity for public service. To develop its field of usefulness along this line should be one of the highest endeavors of the Association. ASSISTANT FIELD SECRETARIES Miss Sallie Hill has filled the position of assistant field secretary throughout the past year, and Miss Elizabeth Arlett has been with the Association in the Sessions] REPORT OF THE FIELD SECRETARY 227 same capacity since the first of March. The work of both Miss Hill and Miss Arlett has been entirely in the field, and with the primary purpose of securing the affiliation of local associations and the enrolment of new members in the Association. Since the carrying on of membership campaigns is not primarily a function of the Field Secretary's Department, the very effective work of Miss Hill and Miss Arlett has really been supplemental to the work of the Secretary who has charge of securing new members, although they have technicallybelonged to the Field Secretary's Department and have reported to him. From our stand- point the work of these assistant field secretaries has been very satisfactory, but we would recommend that unless the work of securing new members is assigned to the Field Secretary's Department, which may not seem advisable, representa- tives of the Association engaged in securing memberships should be attached to the department having charge of that work. Notwithstanding this somewhat ambiguous situation, the assistant field secretaries have co-operated most heartily, and I highly commend their work. I wish also to commend the faithful and efficient services of my secretary, Miss Somdal. THE NATIONAL OUTLOOK Our National Association in all its departments belongs to the teachers of the nation. It is the instrument through which they give expression to their ideals and force to their purposes. The extent of its influence is limited only by the concentrated thought and effort put back of its great program of work and serv- ice. Never before has education received such favorable consideration from the public and never has its development and promotion been accorded such loyal support by public-spirited individuals and organizations. The importance of the teachers' work in relation to the community, the state and the nation is coming to be realized. It is possible for the educators of America to exert a most powerful influence in shaping the policies of our Nation. This will be accom- plished when united and energized they shall give expression to their purposes through their National Association. This we should do, not for the promotion of selfish interests nor for the gratification of a desire for power, but because our influence is needed to preserve and promote that which is best in our American institutions. CONCLUSION In conclusion I beg to state that while the work of our Department during the past year has been one of intense activity, it has been most pleasant in every particular. We have enjoyed the loyal support and valuable advice of the Secre- tary of the Association in dealing with all the great problems which we have had to meet. No program has been planned, no article has been written, no question has been decided, without consultation with Mr. Crabtree, and whatever success our department may have attained is due in a large measure to his counsel and advice. We have enjoyed the cordial co-operation of the heads of the other departments of the Association, and all our relations throughout the year have been most happy. The Executive Committee and officers of the Asso- ciation have always been ready to lend their time and thought to the problems arising in our department, and we are grateful for the splendid support which they have given us. I cannot close this report without commending the splendid work of the Legislative Commission under the able leadership of its Chairman, Dr. George D. Strayer. Respectfully submitted, HUGH S. MAGILL, Field Secretary. 228 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General REPORT OF THE BUSINESS DEPARTMENT Mr. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary, National Education Association, 1201 16th Street N. W., Washington, D. C. My dear Mr. Crabtree : I take pleasure in submitting to you the second annual report of the Assistant Secretary, embodying the activities of his department during the year. The work of the Business Department will be treated in this report under the following heads : 1. Commercial Exhibits. 2. Advertising. 3. Conventions . 4. Office Management. ( a) purchasing; (b ) shipping; (c) employment; (d) building supervision. 5. Summary of recommendations. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MeetingPlaceandDate Kansas Feb197 Portland, OreJulyIST AtlanticCity 28.78 Feb isie Chicago$1802.08Feb 19 Milwaukee July 199 $39246 Cleveland Fela 1920 1616.07 SaltLakeCity $230.10 July AtlanticCity Feb. 1921 $TT85.00 NET RECEIPTS OF COMMERCIAL EXHIBITS CHART VI. COMMERCIAL EXHIBITS The Des Moines exhibit is the ninth commercial exhibit under the auspices of the Association. Since the Kansas City meeting in February, 1917, they have been held semi-annually except that the war prevented having an exhibit at the Pittsburgh meeting in July, 1918. These exhibits until last year had been under the management of Messrs. Hoyt and Hall of Chicago. To this firm should go much credit for the develop- ment of commercial exhibits for the Association. They took charge at a time when the Association was small and limited in its headquarters, personnel, and financial resources. With an increased headquarters staff, a permanent location, and greater facilities for a wider scope of work, the Executive Committee de- cided in November, 1920, that the Department should be attached directly to the Business Department and under the supervision of the Assistant Secretary. The first exhibit to be handled by this department was the one at Atlantic City last February. The success is due in large part to the ground work laid by the former management. The net receipts of $7,783 exceeded the total net re- Sessions] REPORT OF BUSINESS DEPARTMENT 229 ceipts or profits of all of the other exhibits by $3,962.53. This was made pos- sible because the $3,800.00 which would have been paid the management under the old plan, all went, under the new plan, into the funds of the Association, and by other savings due to the Association's direct handling of the work. The gross receipts and net profits to the Association of the past exhibits have been as follows : Gross Receipts Net Profits Kansas City, February, 1917 .$ 6992.00 $ 540.19 Portland, July, 1917 2016.11 20.03 Atlantic City, February, 1918 4185.00 219.36 Chicago, February, 1919 6540.00 1802.08 Milwaukee, July, 1919 5315.00 392.46 Cleveland, February, 1921 10695.00 616.07 Salt Lake City, July, 1920 2882.50 230.28 Atlantic City, February, 1921 14536.00 7783.00 Chart VI gives a comparative idea of the net receipts from these exhibits. The Des Moines exhibit will net a profit of over $3,000. The exhibit space was less than half as large as that in Atlantic City. It will be seen that the first year of handling the commercial exhibits in the Business Department of the Association has resulted in an aggrgate net income of over $ 11,000 (including the Des Moines meeting ) as compared with $2,000, the highest annual receipts under the former method of handling exhibits. Whether the record of the past year can be continued remains to be seen. Every effort will be made, however, to develop this activity as extensively as pos- sible. Plans are already under way for the cultivation of a more diversified line of commercial exhibits and the incorporation of comprehensive educational ex- hibits which will make them outstanding features of the annual meetings. Over a thousand dollars' worth of space was applied for beyond the amount available at both the Atlantic City and the Des Moines meetings . ADVERTISING When the Executive Committee last November decided upon the enlargement of the magazine and the accepting of paid advertising, it was told by advertising experts of leading magazines that it would require at least two and probably three years to build up an advertising section in the paper that would materially assist inbearing the extra expense entailed in such an enlarged publication policy. It is not an easy task, as the experienced publisher knows, to seek advertisers in the middle of the business year. Advertising budgets are usually completed. Par- ticularly difficult is it with a new publication which the advertiser has never seen. Add to this the natural disinclination of advertising managers to patronize so- called "official organs" which are sent free to members of an association and one can realize the task the business office faced in initiating this new activity. The general business depression during the past year has added to the difficulty. It is especially gratifying to note that the months have shown a gradual in- crease. This is particularly true when we consider the steady decline in adver- tising generally. The National Geographic Magazine which carried 452 pages ofadvertising in April, 1921, carried only 39½ in May, 1921. The Saturday Even- ing Post which is the best index of advertising conditions in America, carried 313,013 lines in March, 1920, and 204,851 in March, 1921. They suffered a de- crease of 6800 lines between the first of March and the first of April, 1921 . The rate of $400 a page for advertising was established when paper costs were at their peak. It was also the thought of the committee that the advertising alone should pay for the entire cost of the magazine. Experience and investiga 230 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General tion have proved that this cannot be done and that the price then established was slightly higher than it should have been. This price would have eventually justi- fied itself, however, had prices remained at their high level; but such has not been the case. There has been a marked decline in prices, but more striking than this, a startling tightening up of space buying. The official records of the leading magazine show the following decline : TOTAL AMOUNT OF ADVERTISING April, 1920 April, 1921 American Magazine 77,087 lines 39,876 lines .. American Boy 31,466 lines 15,200 lines Outing ..10,084 lines 5,438 lines Ladies ' Home Journal 105,800 lines 85,906 lines As a result, magazines have already announced revisions of their advertising rates. The Delineator and the Designer have decided to reduce their cost 25 per cent and the Pictorial Review from $2,000 to $1,000 per page. Other magazines have made similar reductions. In order that the Journal may present a more auspicious appearance, it should contain more pages than at present. This can be done by increasing the quantity of advertising. In order to successfully accomplish this, it is necessary for us to more closely approximate the rates now being paid to other publications. I, therefore, recommend that the advertising rates of the Journal be reduced from $400 a page less a 15 per cent discount for ten insertions, to $275 a page with 10 per cent discount for ten insertions. This is a net reduction of a little over 25 per cent. Comparatively the receipts from advertising have been gratifying. The ac- tual printing cost of the Journal for the first six months has been about $18,000. This includes only paper, composition, presswork, and binding or all the work done at the printing office. The receipts from advertising for the year will be about $6500, or about 33 per cent of actual printing costs. It may be well to insert here the fact that the actual cost of printing a thirty-two-page Bulletin, size 6x9 as published last year, was $1500 a month, while the actual printing cost of a sixteen-page Journal with cover such as printed in May and June, is $2600. The fifteen printed pages of the Journal con- tain 945 square inches of reading matter, whereas the thirty-two pages of the old Bulletin contained 896 square inches of reading matter. Deducting the value of the advertising, the June Journal actually cost $1400 for printing. This does not include the overhead, however. The actual estimated total costs, including sal- aries, mailing, and so forth, for a thirty-two-page Bulletin, was $2400, and for the twenty-four-page Journal was $5100. Deducting the average monthly re- ceipts from advertising, the net increase gross cost of the new Journal is $1500 a month or $15,000 for the year. A twenty- four-page Journal gives 1386 square inches of reading matter to 896 square inches in the thirty-two-page Bulletin. By increasing the amount of our advertising and maintaining our present method of getting advertising, we hope to further decrease the actual costs of maintaining this publication. The Association will be able to reduce the cost of the Journal for the com- ing year approximately 10 to 15 per cent by purchasing paper direct from the mill. It is difficult to realize that in the course of a year, a twenty-four-page magazine with a 75,000 distribution requires over fifty-five and one half tons of paper, valued at more than $11,000. Another reason which holds back our advertising program somewhat is our failure to mix advertising on reading pages. The advertiser realizes that the Sessions] REPORT OF BUSINESS DEPARTMENT 231 value of an advertisement is greatly enhanced by its being placed near a column of valuable reading matter. It also adds variety to the monotony of the reading page. It is not, however, advisable to break up a single column with small advertisements. It appears worth while to use full single and double column advertisements among the last few reading pages. Practically all standard pub- lications follow this practice. It is recommended, therefore, that the advertising rate for the coming year be reduced to $275 a page and that, if agreeable to the Executive Committee, advertising be permitted among the last 20 per cent of the reading pages. CONVENTIONS The business office directly concerns itself with the preliminary work in arranging for and setting up the semi-annual conventions. Several months before the convention is to meet, the Assistant Secretary goes to the convention city and makes the preliminary arrangements. This consists chiefly in meeting the officials ofthe local schools and the chambers of commerce and conferring with them in regard to the necessary committees, matters of housing, entertainment, local ar- rangements, etc. Then too the available meeting places, including the commer- cial exhibit hall, are examined carefully and their location and desirability noted. Arrangements are made for the state headquarters, registration headquarters, post- office and information booths, publicity headquarters, local help, employment of exhibit decorators, and other matters. After the first survey is completed, the meetings are definitely assigned to those halls, which will as nearly as possible accommodate the needs peculiar to the department. Such items as anticipated attendance, moving pictures and stereopticon facilities, location, location in respect to headquarters of the allied association, etc., must be considered. It is frequently necessary to designate head- quarters for many of the associations. During the two months preceding the Atlantic City meeting, over five hundred members of the Association made re- quests for hotel accommodations and were cared for by the business office in Washington. All the hotels are visited and inspected. About two weeks before the convention, local headquarters are established in the convention city and arrangements made for the printing of programs, receipts, registration cards, badges, etc. Conferences are held with the various local com- mittees to insure that local arrangements are perfectly understood. Considerable attention must be paid to the local housing of overflow attendance who are unable to be accommodated at the hotels. The employment of typists and clerks is also attended to at this time. During the convention, the meeting halls are again visited and the owners notified of the schedule of meetings for each day. The direct management of the commercial exhibits occupies much of the time. Assistance is also rendered the Secretary, Field Secretary, registration and publicity departments as needed. In general, the preliminary organization of the convention and the detailed work necessary to smooth, efficient operation during the meetings, constitute an important work of this department. OFFICE MANAGEMENT PURCHASING The purchasing division has been thoroughly reorganized and functions ex- ceedingly well. All requests for supplies are regularly filled out on requisition blanks and signed by the heads of the departments. These requisitions are then sent to the business office and purchase is made through regular purchase orders , usually by the head of the Business Department personally. At the end of each 232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General month all bills for supplies purchased are turned into the business office, checked with the received shipment register and approved for payment. Estimates are requested and submitted on all printing and on the purchase of all paper. The Association will use during the coming year on a conservative estimate, over seventy-five tons of paper. It becomes necessary, therefore, for the Business Manager to acquaint himself more or less with the technical problems of paper, including composition, methods of measuring its strength, surface, etc., in order that the best grade may be se- cured at the lowest figure. In this connection it is believed that considerable economy could be made possible if the Executive Committee would authorize the standardization of the size and weight of the paper used. Not more than five classes should be required. The largest printing contracts to be let annually are those of the Journal and 2 the Volume of Proceedings. Competitive estimates are submitted by printers in Baltimore, Philadelphia, Washington, and Chicago for the Volume and from Baltimore and Washington for the Journal and the contract let to the lowest bidder, subject to the approval of the Secretary. : During the past year, much new office equipment has been required to meet the growing needs of the headquarters office; and to take the place of obsolete furniture that had outgrown its usefulness. Advantage was taken of the oppor- tunity to purchase practically new furniture at very reasonable prices from the Government, the Red Cross, and other agencies that had accumulated an excess on account of the war . More furniture is needed. It is recommended that a large mahogany table be purchased for the general secretary's room and that the lobby of the building be decorated by the use of pictures and furnishing, in order that it may serve as a reception hall. An American flag should be purchased. SHIPPING The Association can feel proud of the efficiency of its shipping division. In addition to the 75,000 Journals and several hundred volumes mailed, thousands of leaflets, bills, form letters, cards, and other propaganda material are sent out monthly. An idea of the vast amount of mailing can be gathered from the fact that the annual bill for postage, exclusive of the magazine, is about $8,000. Ap- proximately 422,000 stamped envelopes and letter heads have been used. Recently two wrapping machines were added to the equipment of this division which reduces the cost of operation approximately twenty-five per cent. The present office personnel includes fourteen permanent and thirteen tem- porary employees. All additions to the staff are first placed under temporary appointment until they have proved themselves and are placed upon the perma- nent payroll. Charts VII and VIII indicate the growth of the headquarters staff and the amount of money paid in salaries since January, 1920. Care is taken in engaging new employees that they are sympathetic toward the work in which they are engaged. Former teaching experience is a valuable asset and interest in the cause of education assured us a staff of workers who make more than ordinary effort to accurately and enthusiastically co-operate in the - handling of the work to be done. It is worthy to note that it has at no time been necessary to ask for the resignation of any member of the permanent staff because of incompetency or lack of co-operation. The splendid esprit de corps existing at headquarters is known throughout the city and as a result many names are on file from which vacancies can be filled. Sessions] REPORT of businESS DEPARTMENT 233 At the present time the permanent staff is paid monthly. In view of the practically universal custom of paying semi-monthly or weekly and inasmuch as considerable hardship is incurred by this method, it is recommended that the salaries of all permanent employees be paid semi-monthly. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION $ 5500 $5500 5000 5000 4500 4500 4000 4000 3500 3500 3000 3000 2.500 2500 2000 2000 1500 1500 1000 1000 SOC 500 Jon Fet. Maz. Aps May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May 1920 19201920 1920 1920 1920 1910 920 1920 1920 1920 1920 1921 1921 1921 1922 1921 Amount paid out for salaries per month. CHART VII . EMPLOYMENT A staff of from seven to ten stenographers and typists are kept during the largest part of the year to write general letters, addressed form letters and en- velopes. Due to the rapid growth of this work, occasioned in part by the demands of the state and local affiliated units, the intensive drive to promote the passage of legislation and the extensive membership campaign, it is necessary to use the Secretary's private office as an overflow general stenographic and typewriter room, in addition to the room on the third floor. This should not be done. It creates too much noise and thereby hinders the many necessary conferences held daily and also robs the Secretary's room of the dignity and repose which should attend thisAssociation's principal office. It is, therefore, recommended that the large room on the second floor, occu- pied by the Swedish legation, be used exclusively by the headquarters staff as a general filing and stenographic room and to centralize all stenographic and type- writer work in this place. This will make possible the concentration of this kind of work and will result in efficiency throughout. It is also recommended that the managing editor's office be transferred from the third to the second floor, making it easier to rent the third and fourth floors as a unit and centralizing all of the Association's activities on the first and second floors. 234 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 38 136 36 32 30 130 26 24 22 20 18 6 14 12 12 January February March April May Jume July August September October NovemberDecember January February March Abril May 1920 1920 1940 1920 1920 1920 1920 1620 1920 1920 1920 1920 1941 1921 1921 1921 number month. Largest of employees per CHART VIII. EMPLOYEES With the growth of the staff at headquarters to the point where it is difficult to keep accurate record of daily attendance, tardiness, and early leaving, it would tend toward efficiency and accuracy if an automatic time-recording clock be in- stalled. Such a timepiece can be secured for approximately $75. BUILDING SUPERVISION -The general care of the building, including repairs, janitor service, securing of fuel, etc. , also comes under the supervision of the Business Department. The National Research Council which preceded the N. E. A. in the occupancy of the headquarters building, found it necessary to employ one superintendent of the building, two firemen and two charwomen, constantly. This expense totaled about $3600 annually. At present the Association employs regularly but one colored janitor at $785 a year. He does his work very well and is competent. He does not have sufficient help, however, to do the necessary cleaning and to keep the rooms and furniture dusted. Neither is he able to make the necessary repairs to furnace, furniture, or building. As a consequence there is constant deterioration and extra expense incurred here which might be avoided if a com- petent superintendent of property with some mechanical and carpentry knowledge were employed. It is advisable to repaint many of the interior walls and woodwork as soon as financial conditions will permit. An unsightly condition needing remedy is the outside north wall of the building. The old house which formerly rested against it was removed several months ago. This building had no south wall, but used the wall of our building. The wall is now in need of resurfacing that will probably entail a cost of several hundred dollars. IN CONCLUSION The successful work of the Business Department is due largely to the con- scientious and efficient help of Miss Grace Nelson and Miss Margaret Holden who have handled all of the general correspondence and technical work in can- nection with the semi-annual conventions, commercial exhibits, advertising pur Sessions] REPORT OF EDITORIAL DEPARTMENT 235 chasing, and billing, in addition to the usual office requirements. Miss Nelson is especially to be praised for her sympathetic and accommodating attitude in meeting strangers and visitors who call at headquarters for information and for her pleasant manner of answering all telephone calls. Miss Holden merits sincere commendation for the accuracy and reliability of her work of entering all moneys received by the Association into the daily cash book, and her efficient stenographic ability. I cannot allow this occasion to pass without also mentioning the thorough and efficient manner of Mr. W. P. Reilly who is in direct charge of the shipping division and Mrs. Harriet Thatcher who handles the folding and mailing work. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS The recommendations included in various parts of this report are enumer- ated below: 1. That the advertising rate for the coming year be reduced to $275 a page and that advertising be permitted among the last 20 per cent of the reading pages. 2. That a large mahogany table to purchased for the general Secretary's room and that the lobby of the building be decorated by the use of pictures and furnishing, in order that it may serve as a reception hall. 3. That the interior wall and woodwork be repainted as soon as financial conditions permit. That the north wall of the headquarters building be re- surfaced. 4. The standardization of the size and weight of paper used. 5. The purchase of a large American flag. 6. That the salaries of all permanent employees be paid semi-monthly. 7. That an automatic time-recording clock be installed at a cost of ap- proximately $75. 8. That the offices of the N. E. A. be centralized on the first and second floors. 9. That the Association employ at least one superintendent of property and an assistant to care for the building; the salary of such help not to exceed $2,000 per year. Respectfully submitted, R. S. ERLANDSON, Assistant Secretary. REPORT OF EDITORIAL DEPARTMENT SEPTEMBER, 1920-JULY, 1921 Mr. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. My Dear Mr. Crabtree : The following report surveys the work of the Editorial Department from September 7, 1920 to July 1, 1921 . THE JOURNAL The publication of the Bulletin was continued through September, October, November, and December. During these months every effort was made to collect material bearing on the publication of the new Journal. The studies made at that time are contained in reports made to you under dates of September 20, 25, 28, and October 25. The first six numbers of the Journal are now in print. With the inspiration and help of Dr. William C. Bagley, as editor-in-chief, and with the 236 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General cordial co-operation of yourself, Mr. Magill, Mr. Erlandson, and other members of the staff, every effort has been made to make these numbers worthy the great organization for which they speak. On the whole the Journal has been well received. It has been spoken of as "full of good material," "well edited," "the most useful journal that comes to my desk," "an unusually fine example of careful typography," and "a credit to the Association . " While the Journal has been satisfactory, there is abundant room for im- provement as it becomes possible to increase the number of pages to 32 or even 48 per issue. Improvement may well come along the following lines : 1. Greater variety of material in each issue, giving more space to the in- terests represented by the various departments of the Association. 2. Enlargement of the sections devoted to educational advance, with especial emphasis on the work of state and local associations. This part of the Journal has been a favorite with members. Much of the material in it has been obtained by the regular examination of several score of state, local, and other educational journals. Special letters to state school officers and to state N. E. A. directors have received liberal response. In fact, there has always been several times as much material as could be used. 3. Enlargement of the section devoted to notes and announcements, which should set forth the plans and purposes of the organization and work actually accomplished or under way. 4. The addition of a section devoted to advance in the science of education as recommended by the Editorial Council at Atlantic City. As the Journal and its work become better known the quantity of material available for its pages will increase, making the selection of material more and more difficult. The standards by which this selection must be guided are suggested by the following questions which may be asked with reference to any single item of copy: 1. How definitely does it relate to the work and aims of the Association or of one of its departments ? 2. Is it timely ? 3. To how large a fraction of the membership of the Association will it be interesting and helpful ? 4. Is it the best thing of its kind that can be obtained ? 5. Taken with the other material selected for a given issue, does it give a well-balanced number ? The standards for the Journal must be kept high. In both content and form it must be the very best-a leader rather than a follower. The Journal has not attempted and should not attempt to take the place of other educational maga- zines as has been suggested by persons who have not carefully defined its great mission. There is need for more and better educational journals, both national and local, to reflect the varied initiative and educational leadership which must underlie sane educational progress. The whole spirit and purpose of the Asso- ciation and of its official organ must be to create, inspire, and conserve wise edu- cational leadership. The Journal should not attempt to become a national educational newspaper, although by emphasis on important work well done it will quicken every phase of educational progress. In order that the Journal may continue to develop along well conceived lines I recommend that its policy be defined by the Representative Assembly. Thus it can be made to represent the varied activities of the National Education Sessions] REPORT OF EDITORIAL DEPARTMENT 237 Association and its departments. Thus it can keep clearly before the members of the Association the fundamental needs of the profession and promote through education the welfare of the people of the Nation. PROCEEDINGS Most of the material for the 1920 Proceedings of the Association was in type in the University of Chicago Press when the matter was turned over to this de- partment on November 10. The galleys were proofread and the remaining mat- ter assembled and sent to the printer as early as work on the new Journal would permit. The last installment of galley proofs was returned to the printer on December 13; final page proofs sent to the printer on January 14; and delivery of bound volumes began about the middle of February. The following schedule has been made for the 1921 Proceedings : A. Winter meeting- First copy to printer-April 20, 1921 Last copy to printer by May 20 Galley proofs corrected by June 10 B. Summer meeting- First copy to printer by July 10 ; last copy to printer by August 1 Corrected galley proofs to printer by August 10 Corrected page proofs to printer by September 1 Delivery of first bound volumes by October 1 This schedule places the heaviest work on the Proceedings at a time when the work on the Journal is lightest. The two enterprises can thus be handled to the best advantage. So far we have been able to follow the schedule. Whether or not it can be followed after the summer meeting will depend largely on the promptness of speakers and officers in sending in the necessary matter. The 1921 volume is expected to be about 1200 pages in length, which means that several thousand typewritten pages must be assembled, arranged, abstracted, edited, sent to authors for approval , and proofread. Over 570 pages of copy have already gone to the printer. These are now in type ready to be made into pages as soon as the material for the summer meeting is ready. INFORMATION SERVICE Inquiries from members request information extending in range from the price of French bonds to facts about salaries, teachers' councils, and school buildings. Effort is made to answer such inquiries on the day they come in. Many of these inquiries can be answered by reference to the Association's own files; sometimes it is necessary to use other sources of information, which are so abundant in this city. These inquiries serve as indicators of what members would like to see in the Journal. PUBLICITY Publicity work has been carried on through (1) the educational press, (2) the general press, (3) through members of the Association, and (4) in connection with the Association's meetings. Releases, advance copies of editorials, programs, and copies of addresses delivered at meetings have been sent to about one hundred educational journals . Releases have been sent to about 1500 press syndicates and daily newspapers, covering teacher shortage, the salary situation, the education bill and the Asso- ciation's meetings. Considerable material has been placed in the general maga- zines. Press releases are commonly sent to members or with membership literature with the suggestion that they be handed to local editors. This method reaches a larger number of papers and interests members in the Association's work, 238 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatioN [ General The publicity campaign in connection with the two major meetings of the Association is as follows : a. About six weeks before the meeting letters are sent to persons on the programs (either directly or through the secretaries of the departments) asking for advance summaries of their addresses for newspaper use. These summaries are printed as large press release sheets and sent in advance to about 1500 news- papers for release on the date of delivery. b. As time permits a special letter inclosing the appropriate release is sent to each paper in the cities represented on the program. c. At the time of the meeting press headquarters are maintained, which con- nect the newspapers of the country and the activities and officers of the Asso- ciation and its various departments and allied organizations. A boy scout is sent to each meeting with a specific written request for a report of the number present, program changes, important news features, and copies of all available addresses. This material along with news facts gathered in other ways is assembled at press headquarters, prepared for the press and given directly to newspaper representa- tives or sent to newspapers, which have no reporter at the meeting. At Atlantic City during the meeting of the Department of Superintendence there were from ten to twenty-five reporters, representing the Associated Press and newspapers of Philadelphia, New York, and other eastern cities. The effec- tiveness of the publicity work at this meeting was largely due to the able work of Professor J. W. Searson, who has conducted the Association's publicity during meetings in past years. FURTHER EXTENSION OF WORK The work that has been done-important as it is-is but a suggestion of what might well be accomplished if more funds were available. These three aims merit consideration : 1. To reach members of the teaching profession and to extend their interest in the work of the Association. This can best be done through school journals of all kinds, more especially the state educational journals, which reach most of the teachers of the Nation. These journals have been largely supplied with general matter, but there is still room for specific material bearing on the Association's interest in each of their respective states, e. g., a monthly list of affiliations and enrollments in each state. 2. To keep constantly before the general public the facts needed to give a gen- erous appreciation of educational agencies and their work. An educational press service which should send a collection of material to every newspaper in the United States at least once each week should be the aim. An Associated Educational Press, patterned after the Associated Press. Every school journal, state department of education, or other agency interested in educational news should be a member of this "Association" and should prepare immediately an accurate account of important educational news in its locality and send this statement to National Headquarters for general distribution. Such a work as this would call for the full time of one person and a secretary for its proper development. It might well be a section under the editorial department. IN CONCLUSION The year has been one of pleasant associations and worth-while activity. The pioneer work of starting the new editorial department could not have been ac- complished with such satisfactory results without the constructive leadership of the Executive Secretary and the helpful co-operation of all members of the i Sessions] REPORT OF THE TREASURER 239 Association's staff. In particular should credit be given the first assistant in the department, Miss Jessie M. Robbins. She has done faithful work and has grown steadily in initiative and responsibility. Sincerely, JOY ELMER MORGAN, Editor. REPORT OF THE TREASURER OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION JUNE 1, 1920 ΤΟ MAY 31, 1921 Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer The figures of this report, dry in themselves, tell an interesting story of growth and achievement. It is a far cry from the amounts which the Association found it necessary to spend fifty or even twenty-five years ago to the considerable sums recorded in this report. A comparison with even the figures of a year ago reveal a heartening and significant growth. They represent not only an increase in the amount of money spent but an even more notable growth in the variety and usefulness of the activities which the Association has been able to maintain. This statement of expenditures and receipts reveals the vast and effective business organization which has been built up at headquarters. When checked with the enormous amount of work which has been done it indicates a degree of efficiency of which the very best business organizations in America might well be proud. The considerable sum spent for telephone and telegraph service may be taken as an indication of the intimate contact with the educational situa- tion throughout the nation which has been maintained during a year when the needs of education have been particularly pressing. The sum of approximately $21,000 which has been spent for the Journal of the Association represents an increase in effectiveness of which every member is well aware. It should be noted also that the income from commercial exhibits is greater than from this source in previous years. This increased income is not due to a higher charge for exhibit space but grows out of the better management of the exhibits since they have been taken over and managed directly by the Association. The amount which has been spent by the Legislative Commission represents only a fraction ofthe effort that has been made on behalf of the education bill. It is a helpful sign that prominent citizens and great national organizations have made the program of the Association their program and have created for education a de- gree of appreciation by the general public which no mere sum of money, however large, could adequately measure. The amounts spent for publicity are small indeed when measured against the hundreds of educational journals and thou- sands of newspapers which are increasingly eager for first-hand information about the Association's work. The demands upon the Association in almost every department of its ac- tivity have been far in excess of the funds available. As teachers come more fully to appreciate the value of professional organization-local, state, and national- the cost of collecting dues from members and of obtaining new members may be decreased. The plan of having the local association collect dues for state and national association along with its own will enable the National Association to handle its membership dues in large blocks rather than as individual accounts, and the money required for membership campaigns will be correspondingly decreased. Another means of meeting the growing financial needs of the Associ- ation may be found by increasing its endowment. This endowment should be 240 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General large enough to stabilize the work of the Association and to guarantee it a substantial income during the periods when funds are low and to protect its work from the dangers of a widely fluctuating membership. The proposition to create life-memberships which would add constantly to the endowment is sound. It should be adopted and every effort made to obtan a large number of life-members . SUMMARY OF ACCOUNTS FROM JUNE 1, 1920 TO MAY 31, 1921 Deficit brought forward from Treasurer's Report for year ended May 31 , 1920 ...... $ 6,394.12 RECEIPTS From Annual Meeting. $ 2,296.00 From membership, Atlantic City Meeting of Department of Super- intendence . 4,037.00 From Secretary's office during the year : Membership fees .... .$ 78.914.00 Subscriptions to N. E. A. Journal . 22,491.00 Sale of volumes of proceedings . 643.99 Sale of special reports .. 370.07 Special contributions .. 35.50 $102,454.56 From income from Permanent Fund 4,276.64 From Commercial Exhibits 9,921.97 From advertising in N. E. A. Journal . 5,180.83 From interest on bank balances . 7.00 From loan from Continental Trust Co...... 5,000.00 From miscellaneous income (exchange, etc. ) . 73.88 126,914.88 $133,247.88 DISBURSEMENTS Board of Trustees-expenses . $ 875.44 Executive Committee: President ( Mrs. Preston .. .$ 660.02 $ 2,014.60 Mr. Hunter . 1,354.58 First vice-president .. 187.06 Treasurer { 326.66 Chairman, Board of Trustees . 518.21 Member by election... 178.84 3,225.37 General Secretary's office: Salary of Secretary . $ 6,000.00 Postage 5,798.93 Telephone and telegrams . 1,054.19 Express and freight.. 195.67 Clerical services . 27,832.96 Rent, light, power, heat, janitor . 5,414.94 Stationery and office supplies . 3,180.43 Traveling 579.44 Insurance 126.93 Legal service . 250.00 Surety bonds . 92.50 Interest 173.52 Repairs-office furniture and fixtures . 470.31 Miscellaneous expense . 684.20 51,854.02 Field Secretary's office : Salary of Field Secretary . .$ 7,200.00 Sessions] REPORT OF THE TREASURER 241 Salaries of Assistant Field Secretaries . 2,850.00 *Traveling, Clerical Service, Etc..... 5,862.56 15,912.56 Express and freight: Distribution of volumes . 961.46 Printing: Proceedings (1920) .$ 10,149.89 Reprints 59.75 Special reports . 146.26 Executive Committee bulletins . 6,389.40 N. E. A. Journal . 20,924.77 Miscellaneous 4,569.71 42,239.78 Special Appropriations: Committee on Reorganization Secondary Education.. ...... $ 121.43 Committee on Health Education ... 490.69 Committee on Organization Elementary Education . 174.83 Illiteracy Commission. 177.15 Legislative Commission .. 1,833.64 2,797.74 Auditing Accounts of the Association. ..$ 687.77 Unclassified expenses: Purchase of volumes . .$ 62.36 Christmas bonus .... 100.00 Subscriptions to journals. 14.25 Press clippings .... 135.00 Moving expenses to 1201 Sixteenth St...... 232.19 Miscellaneous 21.15 564.95 1,252.72 Annual Convention: Department Expenses $ 126.65 State directors . 622.84 Clerical Services : Registration Bureau. $420.40 Post -Office 79.50 499.90 Publicity 1,696.78 Printing: Programs $588.70 Miscellaneous 317.60 906.30 133.11 Stationery and office supplies . 85.44 Telephone and telegrams.. Miscellaneous: Speakers on program.. .$422.15 Legal service ... 25.00 Badges 125.90 Expenses of Assistant Secretary. 421.19 994.24 5,065.26 *Νοτε.-Mr. Magill's total traveling expenses for the year as Field Secretary, exclusive of items charged to Legislative Commission, were $1,540.84. His total receipts in honor- ariums and payments to apply on expenses, and turned over by him to the Association were $1,701.15, or $160.31 more than his total traveling expenses. 242 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General Department of Superintendence: Expenses of President $ 63.61 Clerical service: Registration Bureau . .$ 82.61 Stenographic service . 25.75 108.36 Publicity 926.24 Printing: Programs $860.15 Miscellaneous 35.40 895.55 Telegrams 1.74 Miscellaneous: •Expenses of Secretary . $ 96.95 Expenses of Mr. Crabtree to Trenton . 112.57 Speakers on program . 395.58 Music 287.91 Flowers for Mr. Kendall . 51.62 Expenses-Miss Hawley . 20.11 Pullman Service, Penn. Rd.. 58.32 Sundry expense . 29.06 1,052.13 3,047.62 Payments in respect to appropriations for previous year . 1,708.34 Payments on Loans from Continental Trust Co ....... 5,300.00 Purchase of Office Furniture and Fixtures . 5,199.48 Depreciation on Furniture and Fixtures .. 184.67 $139,624.46 SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURES Expenditures made during year for current expenses, repayment of loans, and purchase of equipment .$126,882.95 Expenditures made during year for previous year's expenses . 1,708.34 Total expenditures for the year . $128,591.29 Depreciation reserved. 184.67 Expenses of current year unpaid at May 31, 1921 . 10,848.50 $ 139,624.46 CASH SUMMARY Receipts for year ended May 31, 1921 ... $133,247.88 Overdraft at May 31, 1920 . 6,394.12 $126,853.76 Disbursements for the year .... $128,591.29 Overdrawn by Treasurer, May 31, 1921 ..... .. $ 1,737.53 CERTIFICATE OF AUDITORS To the President of the National Education Association : We have audited the accounts of the National Education Association, and of the Treasurer, and of the Secretary, for the year ended May 31, 1921, and certify that the foregoing statement of Income and Expenses is correct, and is in accordance with the books of the Association. The Secretary's Working Fund of $5,000.00 has also been verified by us. MARWICK, MITCHELL & Co. NEW YORK CITY, JUNE 20, 1921. Sessions] REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 243 THIRTY- FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES ON THE PERMANENT FUND FROM JUNE 1, 1920 TO MAY 31, 1921 . CARROLL G. PEARSE, Chairman Mr. Pearse called attention to the printed report of the auditor which in- cluded the report of the Board of Trustees and moved that the report showing the amounts received and expended during the year, the balances in the various accounts, and the securities on hand be received and approved. After the unani- mous adoption of the motion, Mr. Pearse made the following explanation. It became evident, a few years ago, that it would be a great advantage to the National Education Association if its headquarters could be at the capital of the Nation. Four years ago, the Trustees and the Executive Committee, with the approval of the Board of Directors, decided to locate the headquarters of the Association in Washington. The headquarters were first located in a rented prop- erty at 1400 Massachusetts Avenue. The move came at a critical time when the nation was at war, but it has been more than justified by the effective way in which the representatives of the Association have been able to carry out its program, largely because of their intimate contact with the forces at the nation's capital. After being in rented quarters some two years, it was felt that it would be an advantage to the Association financially, morally, and strategically, to own its own home. The Trustees finally decided to buy the present headquarters for $98,000. This property is located on Sixteenth Street, just six blocks north of the White House, in a district where property values are likely to increase. Indeed, the Association could have disposed of its property for some $20,000 more than it paid for it, within a few months after the purchase was made. At the time the property was purchased there was a mortgage given by its former owners for $33,000. Although the rate of interest on this mortgage is slightly higher than the rate which the Association receives on its Permanent Funds, it has seemed best to let the mortgage stand until some of the securities in the Permanent Fund mature, thus avoiding the sacrifice which would be necessary, if these securities were sold at a discount, under present market conditions . It has also seemed best to transfer the Association's banking business from Chicago, where it has been for many years, to Washington. The Continental Trust Company of Washington has been given the trusteeship and handles through its bank the checking accounts of the Association. The Executive Committee and other officers are much gratified over the increase in membership. At the time the headquarters were moved to Washing- ton, there was every reason to expect a slump in membership which was then between 7,500 and 8,000 and yet, the move and the activities of the officers of the Association, not only avoided decrease, but obtained decided increase in membership. Membership campaigns have been handled very largely through the general office of the Association by the Secretary and his assistants to whose excellent work the largely increased membership is chiefly due. During the year the exhibit of commercial articles sold to schools, which has for some time been handled by a private firm, has been taken over by the Association and put in charge of the Assistant Secretary. Under its own man- agement the Association has realized from these exhibits an income of about $9,000, a much larger sum than had ever before been received by the Association from this source. The members of the Executive Committee, to whom was referred the selec- tion of a Field Secretary, have felt that the success of that venture has been 244 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General very marked; that the growth of professional consciousness and the increase on public sentiment for national legislation in education has been immeasurably increased by the services of the Field Secretary who was employed by direction of the Association. The Board of Trustees has also felt that the administration of the office of the Secretary has been greatly to the advantage of the Association. The Association is not in the plutocratic class. It is not an Association which can bestow largess. Yet it has seemed clear both to the Executive Committee in the case of the Field Secretary, and to the Board of Trustees in connection with the Secretary's office, that "the laborer is worthy of his hire." This city since we came here, has re-employed its superintendent of schools for a term of three years at a salary of $8,400, $9,200 and $10,000 per year. The Association has not been able to meet these figures, but the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees have re-employed the Field Secretary and the Secretary of the National Education Association, each for the term of four years, and have pro- vided that each shall have a salary of $7,500 during that time. Mr. Chairman, I don't know that this oral report needs any motion or any action by the Association, but we have felt that the report would be in many respects of interest and we thought it worth while to make it. (Applause). THE PERMANENT FUND We have audited the receipts and disbursements of the Permanent Fund and have inspected the securities held in the custody of the Trust Officer of the Continental Trust Company, Washington, D. C. Details of the securities are given in Schedule "I," showing the par value, and the cost, the market value not having been ascertained. The Permanent Fund remained the same throughout the year under review, with a cash balance of $420.51 , no sales or purchases of securities having been made. The cash balance has been certified to by the depository. The income from investment and the disbursements for the period may be summarized as follows: RECEIPTS Interest from securities owned (Schedule "I" ) ........ $ 5,625.00 Interest on bank balances .... 4.90 Rentals received from real estate owned. 6,050.00 $ 11,679.90 DISBURSEMENTS Interest on Mortgages . ..$ 1,775.58 Commissions on renewal of loans, stamps, etc ... 366.85 Repairs to building ..... -4,873.31 Trust officer's Commissions .... 387.52 $ 7,403.26 Surplus Transferred to Treasurer's Account. 4,276.64 $ 11,679.90 The receipts were properly accounted for and vouchers were produced in support of the disbursements. Commissions paid on loan renewals, rental receipts, etc., which are not specifically covered in the contract with the Trustee, should be approved by the Trustees of the Association. We shall be pleased to furnish any further information relative to the accounts that may be desired. Yours truly, MARWICK, MITCHELL & Co. Certified Public Accountants. Sessions] REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 245 SCHEDULE " I" SECURITIES ON HAND AS AT JUNE 6, 1921 MUNICIPAL AND SCHOOL BONDS Par Value Book Value Income CityofNew York 414 per cent Corporate Stock due 1957, Nos. 554-561 $ 8,000.00 $ 8,510.00 S 360.00 CityofNew York 414 per cent Corporate Stock due 1957, Nos . 26816-26824 .. 9,000.00 9,810.00 405.00 Kansas City, Mo., School District 3½ per cent bonds due 1925, Nos. 3127 and 3129, 3133, 3135, 3136, 3190 to 1 3192, 3200 10,000.00 9,500.00 350.00 Clearwater, Kansas, Waterworks bonds 1,000.00 1,000.00 50.00 5per cent, due 1930, Nos. 18-23 .... Clearwater, Kansas, Waterworks bonds 5per cent, due 1931, Nos. 18-23 ... 2,000.00 2,000.00 100.00 Clearwater, Kansas, Waterworks bonds 5per cent, due 1932, Nos. 18-23 ... 3,000.00 3,000.00 150.00 Salt Lake City, Utah, Water bonds 432 per centdue 1934, Nos. 310-319 .... 10,000.00 10,000.00 450.00 Seattle, Washington, School bonds 412 per cent due 1931 , Nos. 586-595 . 10,000.00 10,266.30 450.00 Los Angeles, California, School District bonds41½ per cent due 1921, No. 498 1,000.00 1,069.29 45.00 Los Angeles, California, School District bonds 414 per cent due 1922, Nos. 571-572. 2,000.00 2,187.20 90.00 RAILROAD BONDS St. Louis San Francisco Railroad Co. temporary prior lien mortgage bonds 4per cent due 1950, Nos. M56051- 56055 , Y1527 . $5,250.00 $ 4,331.25 $ 210.00 St. Louis SanFrancisco R. R. Co. tem- porary Adjustment bonds 6 per cent due 1955, Nos M14552, D845, Y1033 1,750.00 1,443.75 105.00 Terminal R. R. Association of St. Louis, gen. ref. sink. fund gold bonds 4 per cent due 1953, Nos. 16311-16325 .. 15,000.00 15,050.00 600.00 Baltimore Ohio R.R. Co. (Pittsburgh, Lake Erie & West Virginia System) ref. gold bonds 4 per cent due 1941 , Nos. 13496-13500, 21236-21250 .... 20,000.00 19,942.50 800.00 Oregon Short Line R. R. Co. ref. gold bonds 4 per cent due 1929 , Nos . 4013 to 4017, 4025-4027, 4976, 13810 . 10,000.00 8,895.00 400.00 Chicago, Indiana & Southern R. R. Co. 4 per cent due 1956, Nos. 11386- 11394, 13786 ... 10,000.00 9,500.00 400.00 Manhattan Railway Co. Cons. Mortgage goldbonds 4 per cent du 1990, Nos. 2343, 6522, 16033, 16087 4,000.00 3,900.00 160.00 Atlantic Coast Line R. R. Co. First Cons. Mortgage bonds 4 per cent due 1952, Nos. 5130, 6494, 11638, 11639, 14335, 14339, 17579, 24601, 37565, 50251 .. 10,000.00 9,600.00 400.00 CORPORATION BONDS Maine Real Estate Title Company First Mortgage gold bonds 5 per cent due 1932, Nos . 151-152 .. $2,000.00 $2,000.00 $ 100.00 $134,000.00 $132,005.29 $ 5,625.00 Thisdoes not include the real estate purchased for $98,000.00, against which there is an indebted- ness of $33,000. 246 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General REPORT OF AUDITOR Fred M. Hunter, Esq., President, National Education Association of the United States, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: In accordance with instructions received we have made an examination of the cash receipts and disbursements of the National Education Association of the United States for the year ended May 31, 1921, and now submit our report thereon. SECRETARY'S BOOKS INCOME AND EXPENSES The following is a summarized statement of the income and expenses for the period under review : INCOME Memberships from Secretary's office ... .. $ 78,914.00 Memberships from annual meeting . 2,296.00 Memberships from Superintendent's Department . 4,037.00 Subscriptions to N. E. A. Journal (part of membership dues) . 22,491.00 Volumes of Proceedings . 643.99 Special reports 370.07 Commercial exhibits 9,921.97 Advertising 5,180.83 Net income transferred from Permanent Fund . 4,276.64 Miscellaneous income 116.38 Total Income $128,247.88 EXPENSES Board of Trustees-Expenses . $ 875.44 Executive Committee-Expenses . 3,225.37 General Secretary's office: Salary of Secretary .. .$ 6,000.00 Clerical services . 27,832.96 Postage 5,798.93 Rent, light, heat and janitor . 5,414.94 Stationery and office supplies . 3,180.43 Telephone and telegraph . 1,054.19 Traveling expenses . 579.44 Legal services . 250.00 Interest 173.52 Insurance 126.93 Express and freight . ! 195.67 Surety bonds (premium) . 92.50 Repairs and depreciation on office furniture .... 638.80 Miscellaneous 684.20 52,022.51 Field Secretary's Expenses. 15,912.56 Express and freight (distribution of volumes) ...... 961.46 Printing 42,293.35 Special appropriations ..... 2,797.74 Auditing accounts of association. 687.77 Annual convention . 5,065.26 Department of Superintendence . 3,047.62 Unclassified expenses . 527.56 127,416.64 Surplus for the year..... $ 831.24 The balance on Surplus Account at June 1, 1920, was $3,692.83 from which has since been deducted $1,708.34 in respect of payments made for expenses incurred and appropriations provided for during the previous year. With the addition of the surplus for the current year the balance on May 31, 1921, amounts to $2,815.73. Sessions] REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 247 RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS The following is a summary of the cash receipts and disbursements of the Treasurer's Account for the year : Cash Balance, June 1, 1920 : First National Bank of Chicago-Overdraft . Less: $ 6,394.12 Revolving Fund : Ondeposit with Continental Trust Co. (Including $81.00 Trust Fund for special donations) .. ........ $ 296.72 Transfer from First National Bank to Continental Trust Co. to reimburse Fund..... 4,780.48 On hand ..... 3.80 5,081.00 $ 1,313.12 RECEIPTS Income as per income and expense statement. .....$ 128,247.88 Loan from Continental Trust Co.... 5,000.00 133,247.88 $131,934.76 DISBURSEMENTS Expenses as per Income and Expense Statement.... $127,416.64 Less: Bills Unpaid ..... ...... $ 10,848.50 Depreciation reserved . 168.49 Old Volume of Proceedings (Charged Off) .... 16.18 11,033.17 $116,383.47 Payment of loans from Continental Trust Co ...... 5,300.00 Furniture and fixtures ... 5,199.48 Appropriations for year 1919 charged to surplus . 1,708.34 128,591.29 Cash Balance, May 31, 1921 ... $ 3,343.47 Accounted for as Follows: Revolving Fund: On deposit with Continental Trust Co.-Special Account (In- cluding $81.00 Trust Fund for special donations) ........ $ 226.36 On hand 23.09 Transfer from Continental Trust Co. (regular account to reimburse Fund) 4,831.55 $ 5,081.00 Less overdraft at Continental Trust Co. (regular account) .... 1,737.53 $ 3,343.47 We made a thorough examination in connection with the cash received. No interest is being obtained on bank balances. Vouchers in support of all cash disbursements were examined and found inorder. The balances of the two accounts at the Continental Trust Co. were verified by a certificate obtained from the bank, and the cash on hand was verified by count. The income shows an increase of approximately $23,000 over that of the previous year, principally due to new members and the insertion of advertisements in the publications of the N. E. A. Journals. The expenses increased about 248 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Genera $16,000 for additional clerical help and other expenses of the General Secretary's Office. The net result for the year showed a surplus of $831.24 compared with a deficit for the previous year of $5,533.84. ASSETS AND LIABILITIES The following is a statement of the assets and liabilities as at May 31, 1921 , as shown by the books : ASSETS Cash: Secretary's Fund-In bank (on hand and to be reimbursed from the regular account) $ 5,081.00 Permanent Fund ... 420.51 Securities ( Schedule " I" ) at Book Value . 132,005.29 Real Estate: Cost .$ 98,000.00 Less Mortgages Payable . 33,000.00 65,000.00 Furniture and fixtures : Expenditures to May 31, 1920 .... 6,739.56 Expenditures during year ended May 31, 1921 . 5,199.48 11,939.04 Old Volumes of Proceedings ....... 500.00 $214,945.84 LIABILITIES Overdraft at Continental Trust Co. (regular account) . .... $ 1,737.53 Accounts payable . 10,848.50 Trust Fund-Special donations . 81.00 Trust Fund- Permanent investment . 197,425.80 Reserve for depreciation, furniture, and fixtures . 2,037.28 Surplus 2,815.73 $214,945.84 The real estate is carried at cost and the mortgages have been certified to us by the holder. The additions to the furniture and fixtures during the year were examined and found in order. The old volumes of proceedings are carried at an arbitrary value of $500. We understand that there are in the possession of the Association some 13,000 old volumes and 3,000 current 1920 volumes which cost about $0.85 per volume to publish. As these publications appear to be in demand, the value is considerably higher than that shown on the books. We made a sufficient check to satisfy ourselves that all the liabilities are shown on the books and in addition obtained a certificate from the Assistant Treasurer to that effect. CERTIFICATE OF AUDITORS To the President of the National Education Association : We have audited the accounts of the National Education Association, and of the Treasurer, and of the Secretary, for the year ended May 31, 1921 , and certify that the foregoing statement of Income and Expenses is correct, and is in accordance with the books of the Association. The Secretary's Working Fund of $5,000.00 has also been verified by us. MARWICK, MITCHELL & Co. NEW YORK, JUNE 20, 1921 . Sessions] REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 249 REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS TO THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PRESENTED BY MRS. JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, First Vice-President The Executive Committee recommends the following budget for 1921-22. This budget is based on the expenditures for the past two years and estimated receipts and needs for the coming year : INCOME FOR 1919-20 AND 1920-21 AND ESTIMATED INCOME FOR 1921-22 Estimated Receipts Receipts Receipts for for for 1919-20 1920-21 1921-22 Balance brought forward...... .$ 3.991.57 $ 6.394.12 $ 10,877.59 From annual meeting.. 10,996.00 2,226.00 2,200.00 From meeting Dept. Supt.... 5,600.00 4,037.00 2.000.00 From membership dues. 71,822.00 101,405.00 153,222.41 From sale of volumes . 1,068.92 643.89 600.00 From sale of special reports . 971.41 370.00 400.00 From special contributions . 859.00 35.50 50.00 From miscellaneous . 42.34 73.88 100.00 From interest on Permanent Fund . 12,608.82 4,276.64 6,000.00 From commercial exhibits . 968.53 9,921.97 11,000.00 From interest and discounts.... 113.57 7.00 300.00 From advertising journal. 5,180.83 16,000.00 From loan Continental Trust Co... 5,000.00 Total $109,042.16 $139,571.83 $202,750.00 ESTIMATED EXPENDITURES FOR 1921-22 Estimated Paid out Paid out Expense 1919-20 1920-21 1921-22 Board of Trustees . ..$ 357.65 $ 875.44 $ 357.65 Executive Committee .. 2,234.24 3,225.37 3,225.37 General Secretary's office . 51,510.34 67,766.58 78,800.00 Express and freight . 2,621.21 961.46 1,000.00 Printing 35,256.48 42,239.78 63,800.00 Appropriations for committees . 6,970.04 2,797.74 18,100.00 Auditing accounts. 525.13 678.77 500.00 Unclassified expenses. 3,141.60 564.85 1,000.00 Office fixtures and furniture . 1,151.85 5,199.48 5,000.00 Annual convention . 5,752.15 5,065.26 6,000.00 Department of Superintendence . 3,031.09 3,047.62 3,000.00 Revolving fund .... 4,000.00 On loan... 5,300.00 To meet deficit . 10,877.59 To provide surplus . 11,089.39 Total .$116,551.78 $137,722.35 $202,750.00 250 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ General APPROPRIATIONS FOR COMMITTEES As required by the By-laws of the Association the Executive Committee and ard of directors have carefully considered the requests for appropriations which have been presented by the chairmen of the various committees and commissions. We believe the Representative Assembly should appropriate the following amounts for the year 1921-22 : Revenue inquiry, available to Executive Committee . . $4,500.00 Committee on Visual Education . 100.00 Committee on Foreign Relations . 100.00 Committee on Salaries, Tenure and Pensions.. 1,000.00 Committee on Organization of Elementary Education . 1,000.00 Reorganization of Secondary Education .. 100.00 Commission on Co-ordination of Research Agencies . 2,500.00 Legislative Commission ... 1,000.00 Committee on Health Problems in Education . 1,000.00 Character and Citizenship Committee .. 250.00 Committee on Vocational Education . 200.00 Committee on Thrift Education .. 250.00 Committee on Rural Education .. 600.00 Illiteracy Commission ... 2,000.00 The Executive Committee recommends that there be voted the sum of $3000 as a lump sum appropriation to be used if necessity arises, for increasing the appropriations already made by action of the Executive Committee, and $500 to be added for increasing the appropriations for departments and state directors. The Executive Committee recommends that the life of all old committees of the Association and its departments terminate with this meeting and that here- after the life of all committees automatically terminate with the year for which appointed, except as continued by a vote of the Representative Assembly. It recommends the continuance of the following committees : Committee on Sources of Revenue ; Committee on Visual Education ; Legislative Commission; Com- mittee on Character and Citizenship; Committee on Foreign Relations ; Com- mittee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions; Committee on Expenses of Delegates ; Commission on Co-ordination of Research Agencies ; Committee on Reorganiza- tion of Elementary Education; Illiteracy Commission; Commission on the Re- organization of Secondary Education ; Committee on Vocational Education ; Committee on Health Problems in Education ; Committee on Thrift Education ; Committee on Racial Wellbeing ; Committee on Rural Education ; Committee on Problems of High-school Libraries; Committee on Standardization of School- house Planning and Construction ; Editorial Council. The following new committees are recommended : Committee to Co-operate with American Legion ; Committee to Co-operate with Federation of Women's Clubs; Committee on Finance and Publications of the Council; Committee to Co-operate with American School Citizenship League. The Executive Committee recommends that the application of the National Association of Elementary School Principals for recognition as a department of the Association be accepted by unanimous vote and that it be known as the Department of Elementary School Principals. Respectfully submitted, EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Fred M. Hunter, Chairman. Carroll G. Pearse • Josephine Corliss Preston Thomas E. Finegan Cornelia S. Adair STATE AND LOCAL ASSOCIATIONS AFFILIATED WITH THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION— CHARTER MEMBERS, includinG THOSE WHICH AFFILIATED BEFORE THE FIRST MEETING OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY AT DES MOINES Alabama ALAMEDA-Alameda County, California, Alabama Education Association, Dr. T. Education Association, Elizabeth Ve- W. Palmer, President, Montevallo ; nard, Secretary. H. G. Dowling, Secretary, Cullman. BERKELEY-Berkeley Teachers' Asso- BIRMINGHAM-Birmingham Teachers' ciation, Harriet Rose Parker, Secre- Association, Emmie Anderson, Secre- tary. tary. CHICO-Chico Teachers' Club , Mary J. MONTGOMERY-The Woman's College Mahoney, Secretary. of Alabama, M. W. Swartz, Secre- CORONA-Corona Teachers' Association, tary. Carrie A. DeHaan, Secretary. TROY-Faculty of the State Normal GLENDALE-Glendale City Teachers' School, Mrs. Arthur Owens, Secre- Club, Alice Ross Livsey, Secretary. tary. LOS ANGELES-Faculty of the College of Liberal Arts, University of South- Arizona ern California, Hugh C. Willett, Arizona State Teachers ' Association, H. Secretary. E. Hendrix, President, Mesa ; Doro- -Los Angeles City Teachers' Club . thy I. Gregg, Secretary, Bisbee. OAKLAND- Oakland Principals' Club , FLAGSTAFF-Northern Arizona Normal Dora Loges , Secretary. School Faculty, L. B. McMullen, -The Oakland Teachers ' Associa- President. tion, H. D. Brassfield, Secretary. PHOENIX-Phoenix Teachers ' Associa- -School Women's Club of Oakland, tion, Katherine Tulloch. Alice M. Williams, Secretary. TUCSON-Tucson High School, Glen O. SAN BERNARDINO- San Bernardino Perkins, Principal. City Teachers' Club, Emma Knight, Secretary. Arkansas SAN DIEGO-San Diego Principals' Arkansas Educational Association, A. Club, John Aseltine, Secretary. B. Hill, President, Little Rock; Irene SAN FRANCISCO-San Francisco Grade Jones, Secretary, Leslie. Teachers' Association, Dorothy S. FORT SMITH-Fort Smith Teachers ' Farrell, Secretary. Club, Ruby Washington, President. SAN JOSE-Faculty Women's Club, LITTLE ROCK-Women Teachers ' Asso- State Normal School, Mary C. Sweet, ciation, Hazel Murray, Secretary. Secretary. -Santa Clara County Teachers' As- California sociation, Mary P. Carroll, Secre- California State Teachers ' Association, tary. E. Morris Cox, President, Oakland; SANTA ANA-Santa Ana City Teachers' A. H. Chamberlain, Secretary, San League, Frances Lapum, Correspond- Francisco. ing Secretary. 251 252 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SANTA BARBARA-Santa Barbara City GUNNISON-Faculty of the Colorado Teachers' Club , Kate Boyer, Secre- State Normal School, Eva Carpen- tary. ter, Secretary. SANTA MONICA-Santa Monica Teach- LA JUNTA-La Junta Teachers' Club, ers' Association, W. L. Mason, Hazel Wolfe, Secretary. Secretary. LONGMONT-Longmont Teachers' Club, STOCKTON-Stockton Elementary D. W. Spangler, President. Teachers' Association, Mrs. May MONTROSE-Montrose Educational As- Butler Wiles, 620 N. Hunter St. sociation, R. R. Brown, Secretary. VALLEJO Solano Teachers' Club, Olive PUEBLO-The Pueblo Branch of the N. Wilson, Secretary. E. A., Henrietta Robinson, Secre- tary. -Pucblo Grade Teachers ' Associa- Colorado tion, District 20, Mabel Kindall, Colorado Education Association, Secretary. George R. Miller, President, Greeley; ROCKY FORD-Rocky Ford Teachers' H. B. Smith, Secretary, Denver. Association . BOULDER-Faculty of the University of STERLING Sterling Public Schools, J. Colorado, H. M. Barrett, Director. A. Sexson, Superintendent. -Boulder Teachers' Club, Blanch TRINIDAD- Trinidad Teachers' Associa- Ricketts, Secretary. tion, Mary Rose O'Brien, Secretary. BRIGHTON-Brighton Teachers, N. J. Connecticut Rice, Superintendent. Connecticut State Teachers' Associa- CANON CITY-Canon City Teachers ' tion, Levi T. Garrison, President, Club, Millicent Steacy, Secretary. Willimantic ; S. P. Willard, Cor- CENTER--San Luis Valley Teachers' responding Secretary, Colchester. Association, Fern Dorothy Mitchell, DANBURY - Danbury High School Secretary. Teachers' Association, Harold I. COLORADO SPRINGS Colorado Springs Long, Secretary. Federation of Teachers, Kate Kin- GLASTONBURY- Glastonbury Teachers' ney, Secretary. Association, Margaret B. Riddell, -Teachers' Association of the Secretary. School for the Deaf and Blind, MERIDEN- Franklin School Faculty, Grace M. Beattie, President. Augusta A. Fisher. DENVER Denver Grade Teachers ' As- -Meriden Teachers' Association, sociation, Amelie D. Irving, Secre- Gertrude M. O'Connor, Secretary. tary. RIDGEFIELD-Ridgefield Teachers' As- -The Denver High School Teachers ' sociation, Grace C. White, Secre- Association, Irene Fisher, Secretary- tary. Treasurer. SHELTON-Shelton Teachers' League, -Denver Principals and Directors' Dorothea A. Verrett, Secretary. Association, H. T. Cluxton, Principal. STAMFORD-Stamford Teachers ' Asso- -High School Masters' Guild of ciation, Harry T. Hart, Treasurer. Denver, B. Raymond Greene, Sec- STRATFORD-Stratford Teachers' Asso- retary. ciation, Mary C. Nolan, Secretary. FORT COLLINS-Fort Collins Teachers' THOMPSONVILLE-Enfield Teachers' As- Club, Margaret Demmel, Correspond- sociation, Mabel E. Thomason, Sec- ing Secretary. retary. GREELEY-Colorado State Teachers District of Columbia College Faculty, W. H. Hargrove, Education Association of the District ecretary-Treasurer. of Columbia, W. C. Ruediger, Presi- -Greeley Teachers' Club, Mary I. dent; Adelaide Davis, Secretary- Comin, Secretary. Treasurer. AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS 253 WASHINGTON-High School Teachers' ALTON-Alton Public Schools, W. C. Association, May D. Merrill, Sec- Reavis , Superintendent. retary. AURORA-Aurora Teachers ' Associa- Delaware tion, Veronica G. O'Niel, Secretary. Delaware State Teachers ' Association, CANTON- Canton Teachers' Associa- H. E. Stahl, President, Seaford; tion, M. Myrtice Marshall, Secretary. Agnes Snyder, Secretary, Newark. CARTHAGE-Carthage College Senate, MIDDLETOWN - New Castle County H. D. Hoover, President. Teachers' Association, O. E. MC- CHICAGO-Chicago Teachers' League, Knight, Secretary. C. A. Hoffman, President. Florida CORNLAND-Logan County Teachers' Florida Educational Association, R. L. Association, Nina Grace Mount, Sec- Turner, Secretary, Tallahassee. retary. DELAND-Deland Teachers ' Associa- DECATUR-Decatur Teachers' Associa- tion, B. F. Ezell, Superintendent. tion, May P. Williamson, Secretary. PINE CASTLE-Orange County Educa- EAST ST. LOUIS-Grade Teachers' tional Association, C. L. Darrance, Fellowship Society, Eva L. Moore, Secretary. Secretary. Georgia -East St. Louis Teachers' Associa- Georgia Educational Association, Pro- tion, Elsie Tietze, Secretary. fessor Kyle T. Alfriend, President, ELGIN-Elgin Teachers' Organization, Milledgeville; H. D. Meyers, Sec- Norma H. Chapman, Secretary. retary, Athens. EVANSTON-Evanston, Illinois, Teach- Hawali ers' Club, Julia B. Hynds, Secretary. Hawaii Education Association, E. S. FAIRBURY-Livingston County Teach- Capellas, Treasurer, Hakalau, Ha- crs ' Association, E. W. Powers. waii. GALESBURG - Faculty of Galesburg HONOLULU-Oahu Teachers ' Associa- High School. tion, Ethyl L. Burgun, Secretary. -Galesburg Teachers' Association, WAILUKU-Maui Teachers ' Associa- Mrs. Rose M. Hoben Welch, Secre- tion, R. C. Bowman, Secretary. tary. Idaho GALENA-Galena Teachers' Associa- Idaho State Teachers ' Association, tion, Fred Seubert, Secretary. Lucy B. Morton, Secretary, Shelley. GLENCOE-Lake Shore Division of Illi- BURLEY-South- Central District Asso- nois State Teachers' Association, ciation, Mae Lowe, Secretary. Arthur B. Rowell, Secretary. CALDWELL-College of Idaho Faculty, GRANVILLE-Illinois Valley Teachers' Paul Murphy, Secretary. Society, Anna M. Holliday, Secre- tary. IDAHO FALLS- Northeastern Idaho JOLIET-Joliet Township High School Teachers' Association, Coralie Lake, Teachers' Association, Emily B. Secretary. Mack, Secretary. Moscow-North Central Idaho Teach- -Joliet Teachers' Federation, Mar- ers' Association, Lillian Skattaboe, tina McCarthy , Secretary. Secretary. LEBANON- The McKendree Teachers ' POCATELLO- Pocatello Education As- Club, Howard W. Gould, Secretary. sociation, Pearl Garrison, Secretary. Lолмı-Sangamon County, Teachers' -Southeastern Teachers' Associa- Association , Sue U. Stanton, Secre- tion, George H. Crawford, Secretary. tary. Illinois MACOMB-Faculty of the Western Illi- -Illinois State Teachers' Association, nois State Normal School, Fannie K. D. Waldo, President, Aurora; Jackson, Secretary. Robert C. Moore, Secretary, Carlin- -McDonough County Teachers' As- ville. sociation, Margaret Crain, Secretary. 254 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MARION-Marion City Schools, A. E. -Principals' Club, Keturah M. Wil- Highley, Secretary. liams , Secretary. MONTICELLO-Piott County Teachers' GOSHEN-Elkhart County Teachers' Association, Charles McIntosh, Sec- Association , Ida Gilbert, Secretary. HAMMOND-Hammond City Teachers ' retary. Association, Mary A. Dwyer, Secre- NORMAL-Faculty of the Illinois State tary. Normal University, Edith J. Atkin, HUNTINGTON-Huntington City Teach- Secretary. ers, Ella J. Moore, Secretary-Treas- OAK PARK- Oak Park and River For- urer. est Township High School, Arthur JEFFERSONVILLE-Federation of Jeffer- G. Bobbitt, Secretary. sonville Teachers, Maude Craig, Sec- OTTAWA-La Salle County Teachers' retary. Association, Leslie Tomlinson, Sec- LAFAYETTE-Public School Teachers of retary. Lafayette, Ella Thompson, Secre- PEKIN-Pekin Teachers' Club, Lucille tary. Perrill, Secretary. LOGANSPORT-Logansport Teachers ' PEORIA-School Masters' Club of Il- Federation, Minnie Gibbard, Secre- linois, Anthony Middleton, Secre- tary. tary. MARION CITY-Marion City Schools, ROCK ISLAND-Twin City Teachers' A. E. Highley, Secretary. Club, Amelia Fraenkenschuh, Secre- MUNCIE-Muncie Federation of Pub- tary. lic School Teachers, M. E. Williams, SALEM-Marion County Teachers' As- Secretary. sociation, Mary E. Burns, Secretary. New ALBANY-Federation of New Al- SPRINGFIELD-Springfield Teachers' As- bany Teachers, Ruth Montgomery, sociation, Ernestine Fitzger, Secre- Secretary. NOBLESVILLE-Noblesville High School, tary. WAUKEGAN-Waukegan Division of A. E. Harbin, Secretary. the N. E. A., Mabel Ellis, Secretary. PERU-Peru City Teachers' Associa- Indiana tion, Hester C. Wood, Secretary. Indiana State Teachers' Association, SOUTH BEND-South Bend City Teach- Donald DuShane, President, Colum- ers' Association, W. W. Borden, Su- perintendent. bus ; C. O. Williams, Secretary, TERRE HAUTE-Terre Haute Teachers' Richmond. BLOOMINGTON - Bloomington, Indiana, Federation, Estella Blanche East, Teachers' Association, E. E. Ramsey, Secretary. Superintendent. UPLAND-Faculty of Taylor University, SVILLE George Evans, Business Manager. CONNER -Fayette County Teach- WASHINGTON-Washington City ers' Association , A. C. Payne, Super- intendent. Teachers' Association, R. N. Tirey, EAST CHICAGO Council of East Chi- Superintendent. cago Public School Teachers, May Iowa Swearingen, Secretary-Treasurer. Iowa State Teachers' Association, S. ELKHART-Elkhart City Schools, B. M. Wallace, President, Waterloo; W. Kelly, Superintendent. Charles F. Pye, Secretary, Des ELWOOD-Public School Teachers of Moines. Elwood, E. B. Hargrave, Secretary. AMES-Ames Public School Teachers ' EVANSVILLE-Federation of Public Association, Mrs. Ora Anderson, School Teachers, Lulu J. Robinson, Secretary. President. BOONE-Boone Teachers' Association, FORT WAYNE-Fort Wayne Teachers' M. Gwynne Ward, Secretary. Association, Elizabeth G. Murphy, BURLINGTON-Burlington Teachers As- President. sociation, Nell J. Brydolf, Secretary AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS 255 CEDAR FALLS-Faculty of the Iowa -Sioux City High School Teach- State Teachers' College, C. S. Cory, ers Club, Mary A. Lord, Secretary. Secretary. WATERLOO-Waterloo Teachers ' Asso- CEDAR RAPIDS-Cedar Rapids Grade ciation, Naneen Davis, Secretary. ' Association, Mary E. Paul, Teachers Kansas Secretary. Kansas State Teachers' Association, F. CENTERVILLE-Teachers ' Federation of L. Pinet, Secretary, Topeka A. E. Centerville, Mrs. Emma Barton, Sec- Luceford, President, Florence. retary. CHANUTE- Chanute Teachers ' Associa- CLINTON-Clinton Teachers ' Federa- tion, N. Pearl Killion, Secretary. tion, Cosbe Cummings, Correspond- CLAUDELL-Smith County Teachers' ing Secretary. Association , Wm. M. McMullen, COUNCIL BLUFFS-Council Bluffs President. Teachers' Club, Minnie Hanson, HAYS-Fort Hays, Kansas, Normal Treasurer. School Faculty, J. P. Callahan, Sec- retary. DAVENPORT-Scott County Teachers' Association, Harriet J. Koch, Secre- HIAWATHA-Hiawatha Teachers' As- tary. sociation, Daisy Moore, Secretary. DES MOINES-Des Moines Teachers ' IOLA-Allen County, Kansas, Teachers ' Federation, H. D. Eikelberg, Treas- Association, Lovonia M. Donica, urer. County Superintendent. -Iola Teachers ' Association, Laura -Bureau of Education, Des Moines Andruss , Secretary. Chamber of Commerce, Clay D. KANSAS CITY-Du Bois Teachers' Slinker, Secretary. FAYETTE-Faculty of the Upper Iowa Club, May McClelland, Secretary. University, E. A. Billings, Secretary. Kansas City, Kansas, High School, FORT DODGE-Fort Dodge Teachers' Alta L. Haynes, Secretary. -Kansas City, Kansas, Grade Federation, Anna L. Petersen, Sec- retary. Teachers ' Club, Leona Sheppard, Secretary. GRINNELL-Grinnell Teachers ' Associa- tion, Mary A. Evans, Secretary. -Principals and Supervisors, Eliza- INDEPENDENCE-Buchanan County beth S. Miller, Secretary. Teachers' Association, Yetta J. Var- LAWRENCE-Douglas County Teachers' Association, O. J. Lane, Superinten- gason, Secretary. dent. KEOKUK-Elementary Teachers' Club, Florence Gabriel, Secretary. -Educational Council of Lawrence Teachers, Mamie Clare Walker, Sec- KEOSAQUA-County Superintendents of retary. Iowa, H. B. Carroll, Secretary. LEAVENWORTH – Leavenworth Grade MISSOURI VALLEY-Missouri Valley Teachers' Club, Ruth Burgard, Sec- Teachers' Association, Helen Giehm, retary. Secretary. LIBERAL-Liberal City Teachers' Asso- MUSCATINE- Muscatine City Teachers' ciation, Clara Pittman, Secretary. Federation, Minetta J. Headley, Sec- MCPHERSON-McPherson City Teach- retary. ers' Association, Agnes McDonald, NEWTON-Newton Teachers ' Associa- Secretary. tion Ida Griebeling, Secretary. PARSONS-Parsons Teachers' Associa- OSKALOOSA-Oskaloosa Teachers' As- tion, H. D. Ramsey, Secretary. sociation, George W. Walker, Sec- SALINA-Salina City Teachers' Asso- retary. ciation, Edith Harris, Secretary. SIOUX CITY-Sioux City High School WELLINGTON-Wellington City Teach- Teachers Association, Dora Carlson, ers' Association, Ola Evans, Secre- Secretary. tary. 256 NATIONAL education ASSOCIATION Kentucky CORNISH-Saco Valley Teachers' As- Kentucky Education Association, R. E. sociation, Celia H. Sanborn, Secre- Williams, Secretary, Louisville ; Mrs. tary. M. L. Hall, President, Shelbyville. FARMINGTON-Franklin County Teach- GLASGOW-Glasgow Public Library. ers' Association, Agnes Mantor, Sec- HENDERSON-Henderson City Teachers ' retary. Association, Mrs. Claire Hancock, FOXCROFT-Piscataquis County Teach- Secretary. ers' Association, W. M. Bottomley, LOUISVILLE-Faculty League of the President. Girls' High School, Anna Voegtle, KENNEBUNK-York County Teachers' Secretary. Association, M. T. Goodrich, Presi- -Guild of Louisville Teachers, Edna dent. T. Cremin, Corresponding Secretary. MACHIAS -Washington County Teach- -Louisville Educational Association, Anne Grunder, President. ers' Association, Mary McDonald, Secretary. MOREHEAD-Rowan County Teachers' MAPLETON Mapleton-Washburn Association, J. Harlin Powers, Sup- erintendent. Teachers ' Association, Elmer H. OWENSBORO- Owensboro Teachers ' As- Webber, Secretary. NORTH ANSON-Western Somerset sociation, J. W. Snyder, Secretary. PADUCAH-Paducah, Kentucky, Public County Teachers' Association, Mrs. M. E. Manso, Secretary. School Teachers' Association , Adah L. Brazelton, Secretary-Treasurer. NORWAY-Oxford County Teachers ' Louisiana Association, Edith M. Knight, Secre- tary. Louisiana Public School Teachers' As- PITTSFIELD-Eastern Somerset County sociation, L. J. Alleman, Secretary, Teachers' Association, Annie M. Ful- Natchitoches ; P. H. Griffith, Pres- ler, Secretary. ident, Baton Rouge. NATCHITOCHES-Louisiana State Nor- PORTLAND-Cumberland County Teach- ers' Association, Florence M. Dole, mal Teachers' Association, A. G. Secretary. Alexander, Secretary. -Portland Teachers ' Association, NEW ORLEANS--Faculty of Newcomb Will O. Hersey, Secretary. College, Pierce Butler, Dean. PRESQUE ISLE - Aroostook County Maine Teachers' Association, Alice M. Cof- Maine Teachers' Association, Richard fin, Secretary. J. Libby, President, Westbrook ; -Presque Isle-Westfield Teachers ' Adelbert W. Gordon, Secretary, Au- Club , Rowena C. McGowan, Secre- gusta. tary. AUBURN Androscoggin County ROCKLAND-Knox County Teachers' Teachers' Association, Gladys A. Association, Lena K. Sargent, Sec- Maines, Secretary. retary. -Auburn Teachers' Association, SOUTHWEST HARBOR-Hancock County Clara H. Butler, Secretary. AUGUSTA-Kennebec County Teachers' Teachers' Association, Nellie B. Michels , Secretary. Association, Ada E. Edgecomb, Sec- WALDOBORO- Lincoln County Teach- retary. ers' Association, Agnes L. Creamer, ВатH-Sagadahoc County Teachers' Secretary. Association, Ellen R. Turner, Sec- retary. Maryland BELFAST-Belfast Teachers' Club, Mrs. Maryland State Teachers' Association, Annie L. Black, Secretary. Hugh W. Caldwell, Secretary, Elk- BROOKS-Waldo County Teachers' As- ton; G. Lloyd Palmer, President, sociation, Grace A. Lord, Secretary. Frederick. AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS 257 BALTIMORE-Faculty of Baltimore SOMERVILLE Somerville Teachers' Teachers' Training School, Norman Club, Gladys L. Swallow, Corres- W. Cameron, Secretary. ponding Secretary. -Faculty of Christopher Gist School, SWAMPSCOTT-Swampscott Teachers' Ida Buchheimer, Secretary. Association, Sarah Bucknam, Secre- -Faculty of the James Monroe tary. School, Mary V. Thomas, Treasur- WESTFIELD-Westfield Teachers' Asso- er. ciation, Anna M. Kennedy, Secre- -Principals Association of Balti- tary. more, Norman W. Cameron, Direc- Michigan tor. Michigan State Teachers' Association, FREDERICK-Faculty of Hood College, Charles L. Poor, President, Traverse W. Augusta Lantz, Secretary. City; John P. Everett, Secretary, MIDDLETOWN - Frederick County Kalamazoo . ' Association, H. R. Shoe- ADRIAN Teachers Adrian College Faculty, maker, Treasurer. Charles W. Obre, Secretary. SALISBURY-Wicomico County Teach- -Adrian Teachers ' Club, A. J.. ers ' Association, Alice Toadvine, Hypes , President. Secretary. ALPENA- The Alpena Teachers' Club , Orrin S. Rice, Secretary. Massachusetts ANN ARBOR-Ann Arbor Teachers' Massachusetts Teachers' Federation, Club, Catherine Hodson, President. Mary McSkimmon, President, Brook- CADILLAC-Teachers' Club of Cadillac, line; Ernst Makechnie, Secretary, Edythe L. Johnson. West Somerville. CHELOYGAN-Cheboygan City Teach- BOSTON-Boston University School of ers' Association, Carl Titus, Super- intendent. Education, Arthur H. Wilde, Direc- tor. DETROIT-Detroit Teachers' Associa- BROOKLINE-Brookline, Mass., Teach- tion, Blanche E. Morris, Secretary. ' Club, Chauncey W. Waldron, ESCANABA-Escanaba Teachers' Coun- ers Corresponding Secretary. cil, Charlotte O'Meara, Secretary. CHELSEA-Chelsea Teachers' Club, GRAND RAPIDS Grand Rapids Teach- Louisa Spence, Secretary. ers' Club , Mary Frances Hyland, EASTHAMPTON-Easthampton Teach- Secretary. ers' Association, Lucy E. Tripp, Sec- GREENVILLE Greenville, Michigan, retary. ' Club , Bess Hutchinson, Teachers Treasurer. FITCHBURG-New England Association HIGHLAND PARK-Highland Park of School Superintendents, E. W. ' Club , Mabel C. Willison. Teachers Robinson, Secretary. HOLLY-Holly Teachers' Club , Laura GREENFIELD-Franklin County Teach- Canfield, Secretary. ers' Association, Mildred M. Hart- JACKSON-Jackson Teachers' Club, F. well, Secretary. Cortright, Secretary. MALDEN-Malden Teachers' Associa- LAKE CITY-Missaukee County Teach- tion, Helen A. Davison, Secretary. ers' Association, Gertrude Fern, Sec- ' MILTON-Massachusetts Schoolmasters retary. Club, Leonard M. Patton, Secretary. MUSKEGON-Muskegon Heights Teach- NEW BEDFORD-New Bedford Teach- ers' Club, Mary Harte, President. ' Association, Florence E. Moore, ers -Muskegon Teachers' Club, Grace Treasurer. A. Davis , Secretary. NORTH ATTLEBORO-North Attleboro SAULT STE. MARIE-Sault Ste. Marie Teachers' Association, Alice M. Hall, Chapter of the N. E. A., C. W. Secretary. Bemer, Secretary. 258 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SOUTH HAVEN-South Haven Teach- CAPE GIRARDEAU- Faculty of the Southeast Missouri State Teachers ' ers ' Club, Pearl Marsh, Secretary. College, Christine W. Randolph, Sec- Minnesota retary. BEMIDJI-Bemidji Unit of the N. E. -Community Teachers' Association A., J. A. Elson, Secretary. Number One, Florence W. Walker, DULUTH-Atlantic Gateway Associa- Secretary. tion, Frank B. Carey, Secretary. DE KALB-Community Teachers' As- MANKATO-Mankato Teachers ' Asso- sociation of Buchanan County, Mrs. ciation, Minnie E. Parker. F. E. Henzlik, Secretary. MINNEAPOLIS-Augsburg Seminary Li- KANSAS CITY-Association of High brary and Faculty, J. L. Nydahl, Li- School Women, Jane Adams. brarian. -Council of Negro Teachers, W. -Grade Teachers' Section of The W. Yates School. Minneapolis Teachers' League, Nora -Elementary School Principals' As- M. Barron, Secretary. sociation, W. T. Longshore, Presi- -Minneapolis Division of the Minne- dent. sota Education Association, Jane M. -Kansas City Teachers ' Club, Pearl Harris , Secretary. F. Shaw, Secretary. -Minneapolis Grade Teachers' As- -Schoolmasters' Club, W. H. John- sociation, Harriet E. Scofield, Sec-son, President. retary. KIRKSVILLE-State Teachers' Club, El- NORTHFIELD - Bookmen's Department ma Poole, Registrar. of Minnesota, C. E. Payne, Secretary. -Senior Class, State Teachers' Col- --Faculty of Carleton College, Doro- lege, Bracy Cornette, Secretary. thy Pattee, Secretary. KIRKWOOD Kirkwood Community ST. PAUL-St. Paul Branch of N. E. ' Association, W. C. Haven- Teachers A., E. J. Harrell, Secretary. or, Secretary. Mississippi MEMPHIS-Scotland County, Missouri, Mississippi State Teachers' Associa- Community Association, Mrs. Lenora tion, H. L. McCleskey, President, Harding. Hattiesburg; W. N. Taylor, Secre- NEVADA-Public School Teachers, C. tary, Jackson. F. Daugherty, Acting Secretary. CORINTH- Teachers' Professional Study -Vernon County Community Teach- Club , Clara N. Ray, Secretary. ' Association, Chloe E. Millikan; ers GREENVILLE Washington County Secretary. Teachers' Association, Herman W. ST. LOUIS-Elementary School Princi- Solomon, Secretary. pals' Association, Robert St. Clair, Secretary. Missouri -St. Louis District Association of Missouri State Teachers' Association, the Missouri State Teachers ' Asso- A. L. Threlkeld, President, Chilli- ciation, Jennie Wahlert, Secretary. cothe ; E. M. Carter, Secretary- -St. Louis Froebel Society, Mary Treasurer, Columbia. A. Flynn, Treasurer. ASHTON-Clark County Teachers' As- -Teachers' Fellowship Society, Hel- sociation, Eugene D. Hess, Secre- ena V. Marshall, Secretary. tary. SEDALIA-Community Teachers' Asso- COLUMBIA-Columbia Association, Joy ciation, Nina K. Slater, Secretary- Fewsmith, Secretary. Treasurer. -Stephens Junior College Faculty, -Pettis County Teachers' Associa- James M. Wood, President. tion, Myrza Quaintance, Secretary. CHARLESTON Community Teachers' WARRENSBURG Western Central Association, Mabel Roberts, Secre- Teachers' Association, C. N. Phillips, tary. Secretary. AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONs 259 -Teachers' Community Association, LITTLETON-Littleton Teachers' Club, Central Missouri State Teachers Col- Bertha C. Manchester, Secretary. lege, George R. Crissman, President. MANCHESTER Manchester Teachers ' Montana Guild, Annabel D. Wyman, Secre- Montana State Teachers' Association, tary. C. Ivan Winslow, Secretary, Lewis- PORTSMOUTH - Portsmouth Teachers' town; F. L. Cummings, President, Association, Mary L. Griffin, Secre- Lewistown. tary. MISSOULA-The Missoula Grade Teach- SALMON FALLS Stafford County ers' Club, 169 Aurelia Boles, Secre- Teachers' Association, Edith M. tary. Austin, Secretary. Nebraska TILTON-Winnepesaukee Teachers' As- Nebraska State Teachers' Association, sociation, Florence M. Shaw, Treas- urer. J. A. Beveridge, President, Omaha ; H. O. Sutton, Secretary, Kearney. New Jersey CHADRON-State Normal School Fac- New Jersey State Teachers' Associa- ulty, Amanda B. Osnes, Secretary. tion , J. J. Unger, President, Bridge- ELGIN-North Nebraska Teachers' As- ton; Henry J. Neal, Secretary, Col- sociation, Ada M. Lonneker, Secre- lingswood. tary. ATLANTIC CITY-Atlantic City Teach- GENEVA-Fillmore County Educational ers' Association, Mabel Gilbert, Association , Margaret E. Haugha- President. watt, Secretary. BAYONNE-Bayonne Teachers' Asso- GREELEY-Loup Valley Teachers' As- ciation, Mildred F. Higgins , Secre- sociation, B. A. Kennedy, Secretary. tary. KEARNEY-Kearney Educational Asso- BRIDGETON-Academy High School, ciation, Mabel P. Scoutt, Secretary. Mark Brenner, Principal. -Nebraska - Woman's Educational -Bank Street School Faculty-Ches- Club, Mary Crawford, Secretary. ter Robbins, Secretary. LINCOLN Lincoln Teachers' Associa- -Bridg eton Teachers' Club, Esther tion, Blanche Rowe, Secretary. E. Bacon, Secretary. OMAHA-Omaha School Forum, Ruth -Irving Avenue School, Emma W. Rinehart, Recording Secretary. Westcott, Secretary. -Primary Kindergarten Council, -Monroe Street Teachers' Associa- Orietta S. Chittenden, President. tion, Horace M. Perry, Secretary. WAYNE-State Normal School Fac- -Pearl Street Teachers' Association, ulty, U. S. Conn, President. Horace M. Perry, Secretary. Nevada -South Avenue Teachers ' Associa- Nevada State Teachers ' Association, tion, Norman A. Wright, Secretary. E. L. McKeown, President, Carson; -Vine Street School, Clara T. Mul- Secretary, Reno. ford, Secretary. E. Otis Vaughn, CAMDEN Camden High School CARSON CITY - Northern Nevada Teachers' Association , Viola M. Teachers Association, E. L. Mc- Blaisdell , Treasurer. Keown, President. New Hampshire EAST ORANGE-East Orange Teachers' Association, Jean M. Hall, Secretary. New Hampshire State Teachers' Asso- High School Teachers' Association, ciation, Catherine A. Dole, Presi- Charles W. Evans, Secretary. dent, Lebanon; Caroline E. Head, ELIZABETH-Elizabeth Teachers' Asso Secretary, Manchester. ciation , William M. Duncan, Presi EXETER-Rockingham County Teach- dent. ers Association, Frances Philbrook, ENGLEWOOD Englewood " Teachers ' Secretary. Club, Luella Wohlfert, Secretary. 260 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION GARFIELD-Garfield Teachers ' Associa- RUTHERFORD Rutherford Teachers - ' tion, Elsie A. Farrell, Secretary. Association, M. C. C. Porth, Secre- HACKENSACK - Hackensack Teachers ' tary. Association, William B. Cornish, SHILOH-Shiloh School, W. Kelton Evans, Principal. Secretary. SUMMIT-Summit Teachers' Associa- IRVINGTON-Irvington Public School tion, Elizabeth F. Harrison, Secre- Teachers' Association, Cora B. Mac- tary. Mahon, Secretary. TRENTON-Mercer County Teachers ' LODI-Lodi Teachers' Association, Club, J. M. Arnold, County Super- intendent. Sara C. U. Mercer, Secretary. LONG BRANCH-Long Branch Teach- VINELAND-Vineland Teachers' Asso- ers' Association, M. Agnes Marsh, ciation, H. W. Weidner, Secretary. WEEHAWKEN-Town of Union Teach- Treasurer . MAYS LANDING Teachers Association ers' Association, Margaret D. Kelley, President. of Hamilton Township, S. G. Hu- WEST ORANGE-West Orange Teach- ber. ers ' Association, Beulah B. Doan, MILLVILLE-South Millville School, Secretary. Emma Ford, Principal. WOODCLIFF-West New York Teach- MONTCLAIR-Public School Teachers' ers' Association, Lenora Spellman, Association, Maud A. Howes, Sec- Secretary. New Mexico retary. NEWARK-First and Head Assistants' New Mexico Educational Association, John Milne, Secretary, Albuquerque. Association, Alice C. Campion, Sec- ALBUQUERQUE-Albuquerq ue Public retary. School Teachers' Association, John -Grade Teachers' Organization, L. Milne, Superintendent. Hilda Rose, Corresponding Secre- CLOVIS-Curry County Teachers' Asso- tary. ciation, E. W. Bowyer, Acting Sec- -High School Women's Associa- retary. tion, Elizabeth Waite, Secretary- LAS CRUCES Dona Ana County Treasurer. -Kearney Branch of the N. Ε. Α., Teachers' Association, Clarence J. Mabel Kysor, Treasurer. Smith, President , Las Cruces; File- -Newark Schoolmen's Club, Wal- man T. Martinez, Secretary, Mesilla. ter W. Shaffer, Treasurer. RATON-Raton Teachers ' Association, -Newark Teachers' Association, L. C. Rhoades, Superintendent. Elizabeth G. Haddow, Secretary. New York -Newark Women Teachers' Guild, New York State Teachers' Associa- Mary W. Nichols, Corresponding tion , John A. DeCamp, Utica, Presi- Secretary. dent; Richard A. Searing, Secretary, --Supervising Principals and Vice Rochester. Principals, Margaret G. Horan, Sec- ALBANY-Faculty of New York State retary. College for Teachers, John M. PATERSON-Paterson Teachers' Asso- Sayles, Secretary. ciation, Daisy Brown, Secretary. ALFRED-Faculty of Alfred University, PEMBERTON - Progressive Teachers' Boothe C. Davis, President. League, Clara E. Kelsey, Secretary. AMSTERDAM - Montgomery County PERTH AMBOY-Perth Amboy Teach- Teachers ' Association , Evelyn M. Kavanaugh, Secretary. ers' Association, Glenworth Sturgis. ANNANDALE-ON-HUDSON - President RAHWAY-Rahway Elementary Teach- and Faculty of St. Stephens College ' Association, Helen S. Elliott, ers E. C. Cook, Secretary. Secretary. AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS 261 AURORA-Wells College Faculty, Clara MOUNT VERNON Mount Vernon - A. Bliss, Secretary. Teachers' Association, Emil Nielsen, President. BINGHAMTON-Binghamton Teachers' Association, Mildred Smith, Secre- NEW YORK-Association of Public tary. School Teachers of Crippled Chil- dren, Adelaide Guggenheimer, Treas- BROOKLYN-Association of Teachers of urer. Classes for Blind and Sight Con- -American Social Hygiene Asso- servation, Frances E. Moscrip. ciation, William F. Snow, General Director. -Association of Teachers of Dis- -Association of Teachers of Dis- tricts 32, 36 New York City, Mrs. tricts 1, 5, and 7, Katherine Scholl, Minnie Swain, Secretary. Secretary. -Brooklyn Teachers' Association, -Faculty of Teachers College, James Emma E. Germann, Secretary. E. Russell , Dean. -Faculty of Adelphi College, James -Local Affiliated Association of N. W. Park, Secretary. E. A. of 17th and 18th Districts, -Heads of Department Association, Mary G. Spillane, Secretary. Fanny A. Wilson, Recording Sec- -Music Teachers' Association of retary. New York City, Ethel V. Cooledge, -Maxwell Pedagogical Association, Secretary. Ella P. Merrill , Secretary. -Public School Teachers of the -The New York Principals' Associ- Deaf, Public School No. 47, Beatrice ation, Sara L. Rhodes, Correspond- M. Velten, Secretary. ing Secretary. -Public School Number 27, Borough -Public School No. 103, Francis W. of the Bronx, Arthur G. Gorton, Powers, Principal. Principal. -Public School 152, Jeannette -Public School Number 30, Borough Borchers, Assistant Principal. of Manhattan, Albert Loerrithon, -School Districts 31, 34, and 35 of Principal. Brooklyn, Amy Hobbs Buhle, Sec- -Public School Number 51, Borough retary. of Manhattan, Joseph Chankin, -Public School Number 75, M. H. Principal. Barlett, Assistant Principal. -Public School 80, Borough of -Public School Number 112, Thom- Queens. as H. Hughes, Principal. -Teachers' Association of District -Training School Teachers' Asso- 6, Jessie B. Colburn, Secretary. ciation, Charlotte E. Bolduan, Secre- -The Public School Kindergarten tary. Association, Mae B. Higgins, Presi- BUFFALO-Buffalo Federation Educa- dent. tional Associations, Richard R. Dry, ' Asso- -The Staten Island Teachers Treasurer. ciation, Lucy Lomax, Secretary. EAST AURORA-Erie County Teachers' -Ungraded Teachers ' Association, Association, William E. Pierce, Sec- Florence J. Clark, Secretary. retary. -Vocational School for Girls Teach- ELMHURST-Teachers' Association of ers' Association, Bessie Abrams, Sec- the Borough of Queens, Adele retary-Treasurer. Wheeler Shelsey, Secretary. NIAGARA FALLS-Niagara Falls Teach- HILLSDALE- Columbia County Teach- ers ' Association, Clark J. Peet, Sec- retary. ers' Association of Third District, NORTH TONAWANDA-North Tonawan- Irving M. Deane, Secretary. ' Association, Elizabeth da Teachers JAMESTOWN-Jamestown Teachers' As- Dibble, Secretary. sociation, Mildred B. Willson, Sec- NORWICH-Norwich Teachers' Asso- retary. ciation, Lillian O. Ford, President. 262 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Ohio ORWELL- Teachers of First Supervis- ory District of Oswego County, Lau- Ohio State Teachers' Association, ra Smith, President. W. H. Kirk, East Cleveland, Pres- PORT CHESTER-Port Chester Teach- ident ; Frank E. Reynolds, Secretary, ers' Association, Mildred E. Wilson, West Park. Secretary. BEREA-Faculty of Baldwin Wallace SAG HARBOR-Pierson High School College, C. W. Hertzler, Secretary. Teachers' Association, Ortha L. Wil- BLUFFTON-Faculty of Bluffton Col- ner, Secretary. lege, S. K. Mosiman, President. STATEN ISLAND-Association of Super- CHATFIELD-Crawford County Rural visors of Drawing, Adeline Mills, Supervisors' and Principals' Associa- President. tion, H. W. Bowersmith, Superin- WATERLOO - Teachers of Waterloo tendent. Public Schools, Elizabeth Staley, Sec- CINCINNATI- Cincinnati Schoolmasters' retary. Club, M. R. McElroy, Secretary. YONKERS- Yonkers Teachers ' Associa- -Cincinnati Association Public tion, May B. Archer, Treasurer. School Teachers, Dora Kruckemeyer, North Carolina Secretary. North Carolina Teachers' Assembly, -The Cincinnati Women Teachers' R. H. Latham, President, Winston- Association, Nell B. Mitchell, Cor- Salem; A. T. Allen, Secretary- responding Secretary. Treasurer, Raleigh. CLEVELAND-Cleveland Teachers ' Fed- DURHAM-Durham City Teachers' As- eration, H. T. McMyler, President. sociation, Quinton Holton, Acting -Cleveland Heights Teachers' As- Secretary. sociation, Charlotte E. Williams, Cor- ELON COLLEGE-Elon College Faculty, responding Secretary. W. A. Harper, President. DAYTON-Dayton Teachers ' Club, Bess ' SALISBURY-Salisbury City Teachers M. Floyd, Secretary. Association, Carrie M. Roberts, Sec- EAST LIVERPOOL-East Liverpool Teach- retary. ers' Association, Eva A. Shaw, Cor- WARRENTON-Warren County Local responding Secretary. 113, J. F. Allen, County Superin- ELYRIA-Elyria Teachers' Club, Jean tendent. C. Gessner, Secretary. WASHINGTON - Washington Local IRONTON-Lawrence County Teachers' Branch 65, Mrs. E. T. Campbell, Association, Edward Q. Swan, Su- Secretary. perintendent. WILMINGTON- New Hanover County LORAIN-Lorain Teachers ' Club, Fern Teachers' Association, Julia H. Hill, Stewart, Secretary-Treasurer. Secretary. MARION-Marion City Teachers' As- WINSTON- SALEM -Winston-Salem City sociation, Grace D. Wingett, Secre- Teachers' Association, Anna Lula tary. Dobson, Secretary. NORWOOD-Norwood Teachers ' Asso- North Dakota ciation, Louise M. Jackson, Secre- North Dakota State Teachers ' Associa- tary. tion, G. W. Hanna, President, Val- OBERLIN-Faculty of Oberlin College, ley City ; W. E. Parsons, Secretary, George M. Jones, Secretary. Bismarck. PLYMOUTH-Huron County Teachers' MINOT-Minot Education Association, Association, Sara D. Knapp, Secre- Hazel McCulloch, Secretary. tary. VALLEY CITY-State Normal School ROCKY RIVER - Cuyahoga County Faculty, C. L. Kjerstad, Correspond- Teachers ' Association, Elsie L. Clev- ing Secretary. erdon, Secretary. AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS 263 SPRINGFIELD-Springfield Teachers' As- HILLSBORO Washington - County sociation, John T. Shumaker, Sec- Teachers' Association, N. A. Frost, retary. Superintendent. TOLEDO-Toledo Teachers' Association, MEDFORD-Grade Teachers' Association, Lucile Manton, Corresponding Sec- Fern Daily, Secretary. PORTLAND Portland High School retary. TORONTO Jefferson County Teachers ' Teachers ' Association, Helen Lucas, Association, Clara Boyer, Secretary. Corresponding Secretary. -Portland Grade Teachers' Associa- URBANA-Champaign County Public tion, Grace Towslee, Secretary. Schools, A. G. Welshimer, Superin- tendent. -Portland Principals' Association, C. E. Ferguson. YOUNGSTOWN-City Teachers' Associa- tion, H. K. Rayen. Pennsylvania ZANESVILLE-Zanesville Teachers ' As- Pennsylvania State Education Associa- sociation, Alice S. Gillespie, Cor- tion, William W. Evans, President, responding Secretary. Bloomsburg ; James Herbert Kelley, Oklahoma Executive Secretary, Harrisburg . Oklahoma State Teachers' Association , ALTOONA - Altoona Teachers' Insti- N. O. Hopkins, President, Okmulgee ; tute, S. H. Layton, Secretary. M. A. Nash, Secretary, Oklahoma -Blair County Teachers' Institute, City . ANADARKO-Caddo County Education H. John Hennen, Secretary. Association, R. E. Forbes, Secretary. ARDMORE-Ardmore Avenue School, DURANT-Southeastern State Normal Edgar Robinson, Principal. School, H. G. Bennett. CHESTER-Chester Teachers' Associa- IDABEL-McCurtain County Teachers' tion, Anna G. Stewart, Secretary. Association, Vesta Kilgore, Secre- EASTON-Easton Teachers' Associa- tary. tion, Maud H. Peet, Secretary. INDIANAPOLIS-Custer County Teach- -Lafayette College Faculty, William ers Association, Florence I. Nash, S. Nall, Secretary. Secretary. EAST STROUDSBURG-East Stroudsburg SHAWNEE-Shawnee Teachers' Asso- State Normal School, Frank E. Bak- ciation, Bula Barnard, Secretary. er, Principal. TAHLEQUAH-Northeastern Oklahoma Educational Association, J. M. Hack- EDINBORO-Edinboro Teachers' Asso- ler, Treasurer. ciation, Harriet Chapman, Secretary. TISHOMINGO-Johnston County Edu- ERIE-Erie Teachers' Association, G. cation Association , W. C. Herring, R. Fisher, Secretary. President. ' Institute, H. -Erie City Teachers TULSA- Faculty of Tulsa Public E. Stone, Secretary. Schools, E. E. Oberholtzer, Super- FRANKLIN-Franklin Teachers' Asso- intendent. -Tulsa Public Schools, E. E. Ober- ciation, Grace Moore, Secretary. holtzer, Superintendent. HARRISBURG-Harrisburg Teachers ' In- WEATHERFORD- Southwestern Okla- stitute, F. E. Downes, Superintend- ent. homa Educational Association, W. P. Powell, Secretary. HOMESTEAD-Homestead Teachers' As- WILBURTON-Latimer County Teach- sociation, Anna V. Murphy, Secre- ers ' Association, Ora Dollins , Secre- tary. tary. INDIANA-Faculty of the State Normal Oregon Oregon State Teachers ' Association, School, John A. H. Keith, Presi- dent. Mary L. Fulkerson, President. Sal- em; E. D. Ressler, Secretary-Treas- KANE-Kane Teachers' League, Em- urer, Corvallis. ma E. Christian, President. 264 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION South Carolina LEWISBURG-Bucknell University Li- brary, W. E. Martin, Librarian. -South Carolina State Teachers ' -Faculty of Bucknell University. Association, E. C. McCants, Presi- MOUNT UNION-Mount Union Teach- dent, Anderson ; R. C. Burts , Secre- ers' Club, Edna Oppel, Secretary. tary, Rock Hill. NORRISTOWN-Teachers of Montgom- ROCK HILL-Winthrop College Fac- ery County, J. Horace Landis, Su- ulty Association, J. E. Walmsley, perintendent. Secretary. OIL CITY-Oil City Teachers' Associa- South Dakota tion, Jean Mackenzie, Secretary. South Dakota Education Association, PHILADELPHIA-High School Men's J. C. Lindsey, President, Mitchell ; Association, J. Howard Longacre, Professor A. H. Seymour, Secretary, Aberdeen. Secretary. -Philadelphia Teachers' Association, ABERDEEN-Aberdeen Teachers' Asso- Emily M. Renshaw, Secretary. ciation, Roland R. Deimer, Acting -University Council of Temple Uni- Secretary. versity, Dean Laura H. Carnell. -Northern Normal and Industrial School, J. Willard Thomas , Secre- PITTSBURGH- Faculty Association of tary. the University of Pittsburgh, A. P. MADISON-Eastern South Dakota State James, Secretary. -Pennsylvania College for Women. Normal School, B. M. Lawrence, -Pittsburgh Teachers' Association, Secretary. Mary Rowlands, General Secretary. REDFIELD-Spink County Educational -Principals' Round Table of Alle- Association, G. Helen Wilhelm, Sec- gheny County, W. H. Sprenkle, Sec- retary. retary. SPRINGFIELD-Southern State Normal READING-Reading Teachers' Associa- School, C. G. Lawrence, President. tion, C. Gilbert Hintz. Tennessee SLIPPERY ROCK-Slippery Rock State Tennessee State Association of Teach- Normal School, J. Linwood Eisen- ers, J. L. Highsaw, President, Mem- berg, Principal. phis; P. L. Harned, Secretary, WEST CHESTER-State Normal School Clarksville. Faculty, Andrew Thomas Smith, HOHENWALD-Lewis County Teachers' Principal. Association, Mrs. O. Baker, Secre- WILKINSBURG-Teachers' Institute, Jas. tary. L. Allison, President. KNOXVILLE - Knoxville Teachers' WILLIAM SPORT-Williamsport Teach- League, W. E. Evans, President. ers' Association, Marguerite I. Quig- NASHVILLE-Faculty of George Pea- ley, Secretary. body College, Bruce R. Payne. Philippine Islands Texas CASTILLEJOS, ZAMBALES Zambales ' Association, Texas State Teachers Teachers' Association, Marcelo H. Lela Lee Williams , President, Dal- Acavan, President. las ; R. T. Ellis, Secretary, Fort Worth . Rhode Island CANYON-West Texas State Normal CENTRAL FALLS- Central Falls Teach- College. ' Coun- DALLAS-Dallas Grade Teachers ers' Association , Sara Beattie, Presi- cil, Josephine Wilson, Corresponding dent; Norman E. White, Secretary. Secretary. PROVIDENCE-Public School Teachers' EL PASO Teachers' Association of El Association, Katherine U. Pierce, Paso, Lucile Smith, Corresponding Secretary. Secretary. AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS 265 FORT WORTH-University Faculty of SANDY-Jordan District Teachers' As- Texas Christian University, Colby D. sociation, E. Ray Beck, Secretary. Hall, Dean. SPANISH FORK-Nebo Teachers ' Asso- FREEPORT-Freeport Teachers, O. A. ciation, J. Ralph Wilkins, President. Fleming, Secretary. Vermont GALVESTON-Galveston City Teachers' Vermont State Teachers' Association, Association, Alice Block, Secretary. M. D. Chittenden, President, Bur- HOUSTON-Houston Teachers ' Associa- lington ; Florence Wellman, Secre- tion, Edith M. Bradley, Correspond- tary, Brattleboro. ing Secretary. BRATTLEBORO Brattleboro Teachers' HUNTSVILLE-Sam Houston Normal Association, Mary Croker, Secretary. Institute, H. F. Estill, President. BURLINGTON-Burlington Public School KARNES CITY-Karnes County Rural Teachers' Association, Essie M. Syl- Teachers' Association, L. P. Light- vester, Secretary. sey, County Superintendent. RICHFORD-Richford Teachers' Asso- KAUFMAN-Kaufman County Teach- ciation, Charlotte E. Hopkins , Sec- ers, Mary E. Nash, Secretary. retary. MINERAL WELLS - Mineral Wells SHELBURNE-Vermont Women Teach- Teachers' Association, John D. Port- ers' Club, Mary M. Deyett, Secretary. er, Secretary. Virginia PRAIRIE VIEW-Prairie View State Virginia State Teachers' Association, Normal and Industrial College of Texas. Dr. W. R. Smithey, President, Uni- SPEARMAN-Hansford County Teach- versity ; Wm. T. Sanger, Secretary, ers' Institute, Nellie Hart, Secretary. Richmond. WACO-Waco Grade Teachers' Asso- BEDFORD-Bedford County Teachers' ciation, Leonie Ahrenbeck, Corres- Association, Bessie Coppedge, Secre- ponding Secretary. tary. BRIDGEWATER Bridgewater College Utah Faculty, Mattie V. Glick, Secretary. Utah Educational Association, Chas. -Rockingham Teachers' Associa- H. Skidmore, President, Brigham tion, Lina E. Sanger, Secretary. City; J. Challen Smith, Secretary, BRISTOL-Bristol Teachers' Associa- Salt Lake City. tion, Ilia Miller, Secretary-Treasur- AMERICAN FORK-Alpine Teachers' As- er. sociation, IrvingL. Pratt, Secretary. Cherrydale-Arlington County Teach- BOUNTIFUL-Davis County Teachers ' ers' Association, Helen H. Rains, Association, Jessamine Shepherd, Secretary. Secretary. DANVILLE-Danville Teachers' Associ- BRIGHAM CITY-Box Elder Teachers ' ation, Lily F. Walton, Treasurer. Association, Alf L. Freeman, Sec- HAMPTON Elizabeth City County retary. Teachers' Association, Louise Childs, KAMAS-South Summit Educational Secretary. Association, Clarence Probst, Presi- HARRISONBURG-Harrisonburg Teach- dent. ers' Association, Ethel Spilman, LOGAN CITY-Logan City Teachers' President. Association, Agnes K. Dewey, Sec- LEBANON-Russell County Teachers' retary. Association, R. N. Anderson, Super- SALT LAKE CITY-Granite Teachers ' intendent. Association, Laura Christensen, Sec- LYNCHBURG Lynchburg Teachers ' retary. Club, Janet Snead, President. SALT LAKE CITY-Salt Lake Teachers ' NEWPORT NEWS - Newport News Association, Jean MacNeil, Corres- Teachers ' Association, Ila R. Lewis, ponding Secretary. Secretary. 266 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION NORFOLK-Norfolk Teachers ' Associa- TACOMA-Tacoma Grade Teachers' tion, Joseph E. Healy, Secretary. Association, Leah I. Olsen, Record- PORTSMOUTH -Portsmouth Teachers' ing Secretary. Association, Hilda S. White, Sec- WALLA WALLA-Associated Teachers retary. of the City of Walla Walla, Ruth RICHMOND - League of Richmond Ringhoffer, Secretary. Teachers, Emily C. Royall, Secre- West Virginia tary. West Virginia Education Association, ROANOKE-Roanoke Colored Teachers ' Walter Barnes, President, Fairmont; Association, Marian Bowden, Secre- W. W. Trent, Secretary, Elkins. tary. BUCKHANNON-Faculty of West Vir- ' Asso- STAUNTON-Staunton Teachers ginia Wesleyan College, Thomas W. ciation, Jonnie Hiner, Secretary. Haught, Secretary. SUFFOLK-Suffolk Teachers' Associa- KEYSER-Mineral County Teachers' tion, Nettie Parker, Secretary. Association, Myra M. Nefflen, Sec- UNIVERSITY-General Faculty of the retary. University of Virginia, John S. WESTON-Lewis County Teachers' In- Patton, Librarian. stitute, Clay Bailey, Secretary. WILLIAMSBURG College of William WILLIAMSON-Williamson Teachers, and Mary, K. J. Hoke, Dean. Mabel Robinson, Secretary. WISE-Wise County Teachers' Asso- Wisconsin ciation, J. J. Kelly, Jr., Secretary. BELOIT-Beloit City Teachers, Harriet Chamberlain, Secretary. Washington EAU CLAIRE-Northwestern Wisconsin Washington Education Association, Teachers' Association, Charles Ralph W. Swetman, President, El- Beardsley, Secretary. lensburg; Arthur L. Marsh, Secre- -Eau Claire School Teachers ' As- tary, Seattle. sociation, Minnie G. Syverson, Sec- BELLINGHAM-Faculty Forum of the retary. State Normal School, Gertrude FOND DU LAC-Fond du Lac Council Longley, Secretary. of Education, Josephine R. Tall- CHENEY- Cheney, Washington, Unit madge, Secretary. GREEN BAY - Northeast Wisconsin of the N. E. A., Doretha Guthrie, Secretary. Teachers ' Association, C. F. Cole, -Faculty Association of State Nor- Secretary. KAUKAUNA- Teachers' Council of mal School, Nettie Goodman. Kaukauna, Tessie O'Keefe, Secre- CLE ELUM-Cle Elum Teachers, Eu- tary. gene D. Merriman, Secretary. KENOSHA-Kenosha Teachers' Club, DAYTON-School District Number One, Rosa M. Bufton, Secretary. J. W. Dill, Secretary. LA CROSSE-Teachers' Club of La HOQUIAM-Hoquiam Teachers' Asso- Crosse, Susan Campbell, Secretary. ciation, Susie Lenfesty, Secretary. -Western Wisconsin Teachers' As- SEATTLE- Seattle Grade Teachers ' sociation , W. H. Sanders, Secretary. Club, Mary E. Blanchard, Executive MANITOWOC-City Superintendents' As- Secretary. sociation of Wisconsin, E. W. -Seattle Principals Association, Waite, Treasurer. Eunice Copeland, Secretary. MARINETTE-Marinette City Teachers ' SPOKANE-Spokane Education Asso- Association, Henry E. Hansen, Sec- ciation, Olive G. Fisher, Secretary. retary. -The Spokane Grade Teachers' As- MILWAUKEE-Faculty of the Milwau- sociation, Margaret Richardson, kee Normal School, F. E. J. Wilde, President. Secretary. AFFILIATED ASSOciations 267 RACINE-Teachers' Council of Racine, WAUSAU-Central Wisconsin Teach- Lillian Hett, Secretary. ers' Association, I. C. Painter, Sec- SHEBOYGAN - Schoolmasters' Associa- retary. Wyoming tion of Sheboygan, A. J. Sieker, Wyoming State Teachers' Association, Secretary. A. A. Slade, President, Casper ; L. STEVENS POINT-Stevens Point Nor- C. Tidball, Secretary, Laramie. mal School, Ida M. Brevad, Secre- LANDER-Fremont County Teachers' tary. Institute, Verna E. Wells, Secretary. National Council of Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES ATLANTIC CITY MEETING OFFICERS President-HOMER H. SEERLEY, president State Teachers' College . Cedar Falls, Iowa -President-JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, state superintendent of public instruction Vice ....... Olympia Wash. Secretary-ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, federal agent home economics education, ..... Washington, D. C. FIRST SESSION- SATURDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 26, 1921 . The meeting was called to order by the president at 9 o'clock in the audi- torium of the First Presbyterian Church. President Homer H. Seerley gave an address on the EFFECTS OF EDUCA- TIONAL EXPANSION. Following this address, brief statements were given by the leaders of the conferences, on the plan and purpose of the work to be taken up in the open forums at the close of the general session. Announcements were made by the president and the meeting adjourned for the round tables in open forum. These round tables were held in different rooms in the church and dealt with the following topics : I. CONFERENCE ON SOCIAL HYGIENE, program and leader furnished by authority of the Committee on Health Program with the co-operation of the American Social Hygiene Association ; leader, Dr. William F. Snow, Director American Hygiene Association, New York, N. Y. II. CONFERENCE OF THE COMMITTEE ON PARTICIPATION OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT-Harlan Updegraff, leader, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. III . CONFERENCE ON CHANGES NEEDED IN THE ELEMENTARY- SCHOOL COURSE, NEW SUBJECTS TO BE ADDED, OLD SUBJECTS TO BE OMITTED-Katherine D. Blake, leader, principal Public School No. 6, New York, N. Y. The president requested the chairman of these committees to report the work of the conferences to the secretary of the Council. SECOND SESSION- SATURDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 26, 1921 . The meeting was called to order by the president at 2 o'clock in the Pres- byterian Church. An address on THE IMPORTANCE OF AMERICAN EDUCATION was given by Fred M. Hunter, superintendent of city schools, Oakland, Calif. Some inter- esting charts and statistics were presented in connection with this address. A brief time was then allotted leaders of the conferences following the general session, to outline their conference plans and report on the work of their committees. The conclusion of the report of Charles H. Judd, chairman of the Com- mittee on The Reorganization of the Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Grades, con- tained the following : 269 270 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National "By way of summary, this report recommends a special program of the Council on reconstruction with a view to getting the matter fully discussed. It recommends the organization of two special committees to succeed themselves after they have executed the above-recommended special program. These two committees are to have as their purposes the preparation of materials and methods necessary to make reconstruction permanent." A motion was carried to the effect that the report presented by Dr. Judd be accepted, together with the foregoing recommendations. A. Duncan Yocum, University of Pennsylvania, chairman of the Committee on Democracy Applied to Education; the Curriculum Survey, made the following resolution which was endorsed by the Council : "In view of the dependence of democracy upon religion, and the attacks to which all churches and all democratic governments are alike being subjected by radicals and the emissaries of nations now under radical control: it is the duty of all churches irrespective of differences of creed, to unite in an effort to make religious education more universal and efficient, to emphasize democratic elements in religious instruction, and to correlate religious instruction with all elements in public-school education helpful to religion; it is the duty of public- school authorities to emphasize all non-religious elements in instruction which tend to make religious education more intelligent and efficient, and to organize some systematic form of moral instruction in every public school; and it is the duty of churches and public schools alike to make earnest effort to insure a more general reverence for divinity and respect for all things religious, including respect for churches other than one's own and for everything connected with their forms of worship." Announcement was made that it had been decided informally to consider the Committee on Social Hygiene as a part of the Health Committee. The general session then adjourned to meet in open forums in separate rooms of the church, for the discussion of the following : I. CONFERENCE ON THE EDUCATIONAL SURVEY- ITS PURPOSE, MOTIVES, AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS ; SHOULD ITS AIM BE AUTOCRACY, ARISTOCRACY, OR DEMOCRACY IN EDUCATION ?-Dr. A. E .Winship, leader, editor Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. II. CONFERENCE OF THE COMMITTEE ON DEMOCRACY APPLIED TO EDUCATION : THE CURRICULUM SURVEY-A. D. Yocum, chairman University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. III . CONFERENCE OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE REORGANIZATION OF THE SEVENTH, EIGHTH , AND NINTH Grades-Charles H. Judd, chairman University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. THIRD SESSION-SATURDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 26, 1921. The meeting was called to order by the president at 7:30 o'clock in the Pres- byterian Church. President J. G. Crabbe, of State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo. , gave an address on THE AMERICAN TEACHER, The conferences scheduled to follow this general session were : I. CONFERENCE ON THE STATE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION-С. Р. Cary, leader, Madison, Wis . II . CONFERENCE ON TEACHER PROGRESS BY COLLECTIVE ORGANIZATION- Olive M. Jones, leader, New York, N. Y. In the absence of State Superintendent C. P. Cary, Dr. Thomas E. Finegan, of Pennsylvania, substituted and spoke of the problems of STATE ADMINISTRA- TION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. Olive M. Jones, leader of the CONFERENCE ON TEACHER PROGRESS BY COLLECTIVE ORGANIZATION, presented her plans and held, i. e., CONFERENCE ON TEACHER PROGRESS BY COLLECTIVE ORGANIZATION. FOURTH SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON, MARCH 1, 1921 . The meeting was called to order by the president at 2 o'clock in the First Presbyterian Church. Council] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 271 Thomas D. Wood, Columbia University, chairman of the Committee on Health Problems, and Arthur H. Chamberlain, editor Sierra Educational News, spoke respectively on the subjects of EDUCATION AND HEALTH and THRIFT EDUCATION. President Seerley then submitted to the body his recommendations on the reorganization of certain working committees of the National Council. This recommended reorganization was along the line of membership on the committees from the Council and special collaborators, not members of the Council, in- vited to work with the committees. The following are Dr. Seerley's recom- mendations : "As your president, I submit to you the membership of certain committees that should be reorganized at this time so that the business of preparing reports can be thereby properly dispatched. These committees could not regularly be named at Salt Lake City at the annual business meeting, as decision in reference to them was not completed at that time. It will not be possible to have a meeting of the executive committee until the July session at Des Moines, as the members are not in attendance at Atlantic City, and if approval can be made by a vote of the members of the Council present, I can then proceed to get the consent of the selected members to accept service on the committees here announced without further delay." 1. COMMITTEE ON CHANGES NEEDED IN ELEMENTARY- SCHOOL COURSES- Katherine D. Blake, New York, N. Y., chairman ; W. A. Lewis , Hays , Kans .; Elizabeth M. Sherman, Oakland, Calif.; Lida Belle Earhart, Lincoln, Nebr.; Sus- an M. Dorsey, Los Angeles, Calif.; Marie Gugle, Columbus, Ohio ; R. O. Stoops, Joliet, Ill.; Georgia Alexander, Indianapolis, Ind.; James H. Van Sickle, Spring- field, Mass.; Robert H. Wright, Greenville, N. C.; Abbie Louise Day, New York, N. Y.; Kate Van Wagenen, New York, N. Y.; Florence Holbrook, Chicago, Ill.; J. M. Gwinn, New Orleans, La. 2. COMMITTEE ON AMERICAN TEACHERS COLLEGES-Charles McKenny, Ypsi- lanti, Mich., chairman ; William C. Bagley, New York, N. Y.; John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo.; Walter A. Jessup, Iowa City, Iowa ; David Felmley, Normal, Ill. This committee to make preliminary report at Des Moines, Iowa, and to complete the report by 1922. 3. COMMITTEE ON EXTENSION EDUCATION-Lewis H. Minkel, Fort Dodge, Iowa, chairman ; J. G. Crabbe, Greeley, Col.; Robert J. Aley, Orono, Me.; Una B. Herrick, Bozeman, Mont.; Walter T. Siders, Pocatello, Idaho , Charles S. Meek, Toledo, Ohio ; William P. Burris, Cincinnati, Ohio ; Walter A. Jessup, Iowa City. Towa; Cora Wilson Stewart, Frankfort, Ky.; Charles McKenny, Ypsilanti, Mich. 4. COMMITTEE ON STATE ADMINISTRATion of ScHooLS-C. P. Cary, Madison, Wis., chairman ; May Trumper, Helena, Mont.: Thomas F. Finegan, Harrisburg Pa.: E. W. Butterfield, Concord. N. H.: Annie Webb Blanton, Austin, Tex.; T. E. Johnson, Lansing, Mich.; George Reavis, Baltimore, Md. 5. COMMITTEE ON RURAL EDUCATION-John F. Sims, Stevens Point, Wis., chairman : N. C. McDonald, Bismarck, N. Dak.; Adelaide Steele Baylor, Wash- ington, D. C.; Josephine Corliss Preston, Olympia, Wash. New members to be added-H. W. Foght, Aberdeen, S. Dak.: L. N. Hines, Indianapolis, Ind.; S. A. Baker, Jefferson City, Mo.; Grace Shepherd, New York. N. Y. 6. The committee topic, TEACHER PROGRESS BY COLLECTIVE ORGANIZATION has been consolidated with the work of the Committee on Participation of Teachers in School Management and Olive M. Jones, New York, N. Y. , leader of conferences on the former subject at Salt Lake City and at Atlantic City, is added to the Committee already organized for a report on the latter subject, so that the work already done may be used and consolidated with the study now in progress. This suggestion comes from Miss Jones and is accepted as a good solution of the situation that exists. 7. Other business : Experience seems to indicate that it might be best at the sessions of the Council to be held in Des Moines, Iowa, in July, that there be morning and afternoon meetings of the Council for the number of days the business requires, but that no third meetings be scheduled for any of said days. It is necessary for the president to know by April 1 what committees will be 272 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National ready to report at the next meeting, as the program must be drafted within that time and sent to the secretary of the N. E. A. for printing in the Journal of the National Education Association. These recommendations of President Seerley were unanimously indorsed by the Council. The general session then adjourned for the open forums in separate rooms, where the following topics were discussed : I. CONFERENCE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS-Thomas D. Wood, leader, Colum- bia University, New York, N. Y. II . CONFERENCE OF THE COMMITTEE ON THRIFT-Arthur H. Chamberlain. editor Sierra Educational News, San Francisco, Calif. ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Secretary. The meeting then adjourned. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE EXPANSION OF EDUCATION HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA The definition of what the present age considers educational work has been greatly amended by the organizations for propaganda that society's needs and demands have developed. There are many edu- cational enterprises of today that can hardly be accepted as permanent in their nature or healthy in their influence. The consequences have been such that the program of studies in higher institutions of learning, in technical systems of instruction, in secondary schools, and even in elementary public schools, is unable to find adequate terminology to describe the kinds of education that are alleged to be included. It seems desirable to keep history and philosophy straight from generation to generation by attempting to define the object, the aim, the purpose, and the content of accepted education at certain intervals so that comparisons may be genuine and instructive. Every reorganization is regarded as promising some additional con- tribution to the progress of the race by means of a developing system of culture which provides more and more for every type of thinking and every variety of knowledge. The function of the specialist has been so magnified that even the individual units constituting faculties of instruc- tion have become so individualized and so differentiated that there is scarcely any common ground of information and of mastery. This tendency is manifested plainly and remarkably in the recently organized efforts to develop special courses of study and to edit books of material that are suited to so-called Americanization programs. Even American scholars and educators have so little in common that they are unprepared to decide what a student should know or believe in order to be an intelligent and productive citizen in an American commonwealth. All these difficulties appear in every program for modern educational ex- pansion. Every recommendation carries increases in subject-matter and Council] Expansion of educatiON 273 expansion in the expense of conducting the service when it is clear that a reduction of the body of selected knowledge, together with the adop- tion of a plan of economy, should be the judicious American policy for the immediate future. It is no wonder that thoughtful and consistent persons who are students of finance are becoming alarmed at the gigantic increase in the cost of government. The final test of a democratic system of manage- ment must be decided by the ultimate ability of the people to pay the bills that expansion in ideals will require. It is easy to talk about what has been accomplished in less than two centuries of American civiliza- tion. It is easy to show that the burdens imposed have been readily borne because these years have witnessed the most remarkable era of prosperity and development that the history of civilization records. It is therefore easy to conclude that there need be no restriction to human opportunities, no necessary limit to actual and imposed expenditures, and, hence, no fear of exhausting the ability of the public to pay all the charges of assumed progress. Yet, the history of all the great nations that have ceased their power plainly shows that it is better to make haste slowly and thereby save civilization from a speed that, constantly accelerating, will eventually produce wreck and ruin. Are there to be no limits to public building, to the perfecting of public highways, to the expansion of universities and colleges, and to indulgence in luxuries and extravagances ? One needs but study the expanding schedules of modern life, the noise and the confusion of the grind and the greed of civilization, in order to become consistently alarmed at the early possibilities of reaching the final end of present-day endeavors. It seems like a dream of the most fervid fancy to summarize what has happened in education during the past fifty years. In opening this year of endeavor the National Council of Educa- tion should "prove all things and hold fast to that which is found to be good." It should_accept results of a reasonable enthusiasm which refuses to be deceived by the material evidence of present progress as though they were guarantees of the greatest intellectual and moral development. Great buildings, great cash balances in the treasury, great foundations, and great endowments are nothing to a civilization which is failing to produce men and women of great character and trustworthy devotion to true idealism and to noble virtue. There are some reasons to think that all these abundant evidences of material greatness of the present age are overestimated by multitudes of the best people of America, who are living in a glamour of satisfaction that overlooks the grandeurs of the eternal elements of personality and of immortality. The greatest duty of the present leadership is to think seriously concerning the greater problems of civilization and to em- phasize a more useful and a more intelligent program than is now 274 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National largely dominating the spirit of this great period. If this Council has any one function more prominent than any other, it is that of realizing the enlarging magnitude of the responsibility that has been accepted and the reasonableness of the expectation that is aroused to the end that the reports here delivered will be so genuine in value and so im- portant in direction as to make American education the best, the noblest, and the most productive that time has brought to mankind. These men and women, in accepting membership, have responded to the challenge that demands from every one of them efforts and deductions that are the very essence of educational philosophy and sensible practice. This recognized situation creates a condition of re- sponsibility that should be fully realized. What a residue of regrets and of mental penalties will be felt if these special and annual meetings are not unusual and unqualified as to merit, as to comprehension, and as to effectiveness. This admonition, if properly interpreted and ab- solutely met, implies that the contributions that are in the making will be the safest and the latest word that necessity permits and that in- genuity originates. For this reason, if for no other, the reports that are being formulated, the conclusions that are being reached, and the expert advice that is being given for public guidance should be masterly and distinguished. America expects much of her educators, America has great claims upon her citizenry, America has great needs for unifying and harmonizing her peoples, and for this mission of service the mem- bers of this Council should think, should labor, and should contribute. THE MOST IMPORTANT THING IN AMERICAN EDUCATION FRED M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIF. , AND PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The most important thing in American education is a constructive social program for all the public-school systems in the country. Our American civilization depends for its continuance upon the level of intelligence of our citizenship. The level of intelligence is in turn dependent upon those agencies which beget a right civic attitude on the part of our youth and prepare them for citizenship. The system of public education is our only hope for the future. A system which only half does its work or which reaches only a small proportion of the youth of the country is certainly not performing properly its function in citizenship-training. Our American ideals and institutions are not as safe as the American people as a whole imagine. They are threat- ened from various angles by attacking forces, the success of any one of which would jeopardize those standards of life which in the light of the traditions of America we hold most dear. Council] THE MOST IMPORTANT THING 275 The first of these attacking forces is the bolshevist invasion. This is not a military invasion, nor even an open revolutionary movement from within. It is rather an insidious propaganda of bolshevist ideals and of radical thinking. It is manifest in the increasing measure in which government is held in disrespect, the principles of repre- sentative institutions disregarded, and the will of the majority scoffed at. We are not wholly safe when an organization of three hundred and fifty thousand paid-up members can continue to spread propaganda to overthrow our government. Our security is only fancied when pic- tures of the representatives of the United States government clad in the uniform of the United States Army and carrying the American flag can be jeered and hissed in one of the largest motion-pictures theatres in the country. The work of this organization of three hundred and fifty thousand members and the jeering of the American troops are well authenticated pieces of evidence. The second danger is from the reactionaries. The power and wealth that have come and will come to the United States due to the world-war make the possibilities of a trend toward reaction and autoc- racy doubly dangerous. Already movements are on foot in various states of the union to repeal the social legislation that has been en- acted. Organizations are calling for the repeal of the child-labor laws, the laws governing the working hours of women, the compulsory education laws, and the like. The danger of the extreme of Bolshe- vism is equalled only by the danger of the reactionary extremist. Another threat is to be found in our large percentage of illiteracy. In testing the drafted men for illiteracy, the United States Army set up a very practical standard. It consisted of the ability to read an ordinary newspaper and to write a letter home. The standard of literacy held by the United States Army is certainly none too low for the electorate which shapes the policies of our nation. Our ideals are not to be maintained if a large proportion of our population does not have at least this very reasonable standard of citizenship prepara- tion. Yet the data from the United States Army shows that 24.9 per cent, or one in four, of our citizens is by this test illiterate. The foreign population of the United States, using the definition of the United States Census, amounts to some thirty-three million people; that is, this number of our population is either foreign-born or born of parents, one or both of whom are foreign-born. This large number represents the large proportion of one in three in our popula- tion. With one in four of our total population illiterate and one in three from a foreign home, America's citizenship-training agencies certainly ought to be efficiently organized and actively at work. But what do we find when we look for an efficient and universal application 276 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatioN [National of the citizenship-training process ? We find an under-financed and badly crippled system of public education. The best state-school sys- tems, according to the recognized standards of the most expert authori- ties, are training through the high school or to the age of eighteen only about one in ten of our youthful population. More than two- fifths of the teaching corps have no professional training and are wholly unfitted to carry the great responsibility of preparing America's future citizens. The salaries paid teachers have been wholly inade- quate and even now do not represent an expenditure at all commensu- rate with the importance of the task the teaching profession undertakes to perform for the nation. Moreover, the progressive programs which the school systems in our various large cities are undertaking are constantly threatened by political attack. These attacks come largely from two sources : first, those who desire to keep all public expenditures at the lowest possible level ; and second, those who would use the school organizations for the distribution of patronage through the appointment of officials, teachers, and employees, and the letting of contracts. That a real danger to America exists in the crippled condition of our educational machinery and the efforts of our political machines, petty politicans, and demagogues to control the educational machinery of our large cities cannot be doubted. Let us hold in mind, then, that our purposes as a nation are gravely threatenedby the following forces or conditions : (1) the bolshevist, (2) the reactionary, (3) the illiterate, (4) the un- Americanized resident, (5) a crippled system of citizenship-training, (6) the politician and demagogue. If we think of the job to be done as that of training all of the nation's youth, some twenty-five million in number, to be good citizens, we get some idea of the importance of the citizenship-training function. In the light of this purpose, what kind of school system do we have ? Are we doing this thing as it ought to be done? The best measure of what the public schools of the United States are doing is that worked out by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, using statistics collected by the United States Bureau of Education, in his monograph, An Index Number for State School Systems. The ten points upon which Dr. Ayres measures the effectiveness of the school systems of the states are these: (1 ) One hundred per cent of the children of school age would attend school and all would have perfect attendance. (2) Each child would attend school 200 days each year. (3) The school term would be 200 days. (4) Thirty- three and one-third per cent of the pupils would be in high school. (5) The boys in high school would be equal to 100 per cent of the girls. (6) The annual expenditure would average $100 for each child in average attendance. (7) The annual expenditure would average Council] THE MOST IMPORTANT Thing 277 $100 for each child of school age. (8) The expenditure would amount to $200 per month for each teacher employed. (9) The expenditure for purposes other than teaching would amount to $50 per year per child attending. (10) Teachers' salaries would average $100 per month for twelve months in the year. These standards are set up mainly in answer to two great questions which the public of the United States of America ought to learn to ask of those responsible for the financing and management of our public schools, namely : ( 1 ) How thoroughly does the school system cover its field, that is, reach all children of school age (which ought to be from seven to eighteen) with effective citizenship training ? and (2) To what degree is the school organization financed for the purpose of furnishing instruction of high quality adaptable to the varying needs and capacities of the children reached? The accompanying Table I shows how deficient is our American system of public education when measured by this practical, concrete, objective, and authoritative standard. INDEX NUMBERS SHOWING RATING OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1918. 1871 1880 1890 1900 1910 1918 I. How thoroughly does the school system cover the field, that is, reach all the children of all classes of people with effective citizenship training? 1. Percentage of school population attending school daily 37 41 44 50 53 56 2. Average days attended by each child of school age 24 27 30 36 41 45 3. Average number of days schools were kept open. 66 65 67 72 79 80 4. Percentage that high-school attendance was of total attendance. 1 2 7 15 21 32 5. Percentage that boys were of girls in high school. 66 66 73 71 78 76 II. How completely does the school system fur- nish instruction of high quality, adaptable to the varying needs and capacities of the chil- dren reached? 6. Average expenditure per child attending.. 15 13 17 20 33 49 7. Average expenditure per child of school age 6 5 8 10 17 29 8. Average expenditure per teacher employed 13 11 16 21 34 48 9. Expenditure per pupil for purposes other than teachers' salaries 12 7 12 15 27 44 10. Expenditure per teacher for salaries..... 16 16 21 27 40 52 Average of ten items, index number ..... 26 25 30 34 42 52 These facts show that fifty years ago, in 1871, the school system of the United States was little better than 25 per cent efficient. By 278 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National 1880 there had been no improvement. We were at an educational standstill. In 1890 our educational system measured 30 per cent effi- cient, in 1900 34 per cent, in 1910 42 per cent. In 1918 we had a school system measuring almost 52 per cent efficient. The only en- couraging thing in this whole deplorable showing is the fact that in fifty years there has been a distinct improvement. In fact, some of the states have shown very commendable zeal in bringing their public- school systems up to a point of effective work. In all these states where marked progress has been made, education has been regarded as an investment rather than as a drain upon the public treasury. Note the accompanying Table, II, showing the six states standing highest in rank in 1918. TABLE II. INDEX NUMBERS SHOWING RATING OF SIX SCHOOL SYSTEMS RANKING HIGHEST, 1918 Mont. Cal. Ariz. N. J. Wash. Iowa 1. How thoroughly does the school system cover the field, that is, reach all the children of all classes of people with effective citizenship training? 1. Percentage of school population attending school daily 86 71 62 57 54 68 2. Average days attended by each child of school age. 66 61 50 53 47 61 3. Average number of days schools were kept open. . 76 86 81 92 87 90 4. Percentage that high-school attendance was of total attendance. 35 59 27 36 53 42 5. Percentage that boys were of girls in high schools. .. 66 78 82 86 70 69 II. How completely does the school system fur- nish instruction of high quality, adaptable to the varying need and capacities of the children reached? 6. Average expenditure per child attending. 103 79 85 71 78 74 7. Average expenditure per child of school age 89 56 53 41 42 50 8. Average expenditure per teacher employed. 65 72 69 76 65 44 9. Expenditure per pupil for purposes other than teachers ' salaries . 115 62 72 71 63 79 10. Expenditure per teacher for salaries..... 57 88 80 76. 78 41 Average of ten items, index number .... 76 71 66 66 64 62 You will note the highest of these, Montana, has a school system approximately 76 per cent efficient. As we recognize the tre- mendous piece of work which public education must do, are we not astounded at the attempt to accomplish the essential social processes of democracy with machinery so inadequate ? As we face the future with its vision of democracy and the possibilities that lie before Council] THE MOST IMPORTANT THING 279 America as the chief exponent of democratic institutions, are we satisfied to go forward placing our hopes upon an institution which trains for citizenship with little better than 50 per cent efficiency ? If we are not satisfied with conditions as they are, it is for us to work out a social program for the public schools. A social program means the incorporation in a school system of those agencies which increase the holding power of the schools, which adapt the schools to the needs and capacities of children, which throw aside useless academic tradition, which hold the welfare of the child as the first aim of teaching, and which recognize the responsibility of the school to all children, not merely to the normal or especially gifted. Such agencies are: (1) provision for vocational training; (2) provision for special adaptation of school organization, curriculum, and methods to adolescents, such as the junior high school ; (3) provision for adaptation of the system of promotion and instruction to different child abilities ; (4) provision for Americanization, such as home teach- ers, child-welfare centers, and the like. The activities represented by these agencies bring new elements into the educational system. They represent the efforts of the American community to project its best ideals of citizenship down into the next generation by making good citizens out of all classes of its youth. The movement is truly American and American life at its best depends upon the successful culmination of this program. But you ask, "Will this program bring results ?" Let me call your attention to Tables III and IV. TABLE III . HUMAN VALUES SAVED BY THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS THESE PUPILS ARE NOW SAVED FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP TRAIN- ING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS THEY FORMERLY DROPPED OUT OF SCHOOL AT FOURTEEN YEARS OF AGE GANGSTER GROUPS AND BANDS OF YOUTHFUL CRIMINALS ARE RECRUITED LARGELY FROM SCHOOL DROP - OUTS THE RADICAL PROPAGANDIST AND SOAP- BOX ORATOR GET THEIR FOLLOWING FROM THOSE LEAVING SCHOOL EARLY WITHOUT ADEQUATE TRAINING IN AMER- ICAN IDEALS AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP The following listed groups of pupils are kept in school by means of classes especially adapted to their needs and capacities ( 1920-21). They would otherwise have dropped out of school. By vocational classes in high school and junior high school ... 4,216 By part-time school 603 By special opportunity and atypical classes 1,786 Total .............. ..... ................... ..6,605 280 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National THIS REPRESENTS A SALVAGE OF HUMAN ASSETS FOR THE CITY'S FUTURE PROSPERITY ARE THESE PUPILS MORE EXPENSIVE TO THE COMMUNITY TRAINED THUS TO BE USEFUL PRODUCTIVE CITIZENS THAN THEY WOULD BE AS MEMBERS OF A STREET GANG ? ASK THE WARDEN OF A PENITENTIARY-THE PROBATION OFFI- CER-THE JUVENILE JUDGE-THE CRIMINOLOGY STATISTICS OF THE STATE. TABLE IV. HOLDING POWER OF SCHOOLS ON ADOLESCENTS SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE ADOLESCENT AND NON-ADOLESCENT GROUPS, FOR FIVE- YEAR PERIOD-1914-15 το 1919-20 Neighborhood school eighth grades 82% Two-year increase- Jan. 1918 to Jan. 1920 Groups made up main- ly of adolescents High-school graduates ** 141 % Elementary-school graduates ** 82 % High-school enrolment 70% Eighth-grade enrol- ment 44% Seventh-grade enrol- ment 32 % Groups made up main- ly of non-adolescents First-grade enrolment 16% Elementary-school enrolment 24 % City population * 20% 11 1 1 ! % 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 •Estimated. ** These figures are for the years 1913-14 to 1918-19, the 1914-15 to 1919-20 figures on graduation not yet being complete. The sixth school month is used as the basis for all enrolment figures. Table III represents the salvage of human values at present being made by a school system in a city of some two hundred thousand Council] THE AMERICAN TEACHER 281 people. There are in the schools of that city more than sixty-six hundred pupils of junior high and high-school age which before the introduction of the social agencies mentioned above have constituted the school drop-outs. That the conservation of these human values makes for the permanent prosperity of this city can hardly be doubted by any mind truly American in its attitude. Table IV shows the growth that has been made over a period of some five years in the holding of adolescent groups in the school system of this same town. There can be no question but that a social pro- gram does answer the two great questions raised by Dr. Ayres' objec- tive measuring stick. A social program does tend to hold the children in school for proper citizenship training and does tend to meet the varying needs of different classes of children and different individual children. To the teachers and friends of public education in America, then, there can be but one answer to the question, what is the most important thing in public education? In view of the ideals of living and of civilization which America holds, in view of the dangers which our American democracy faces, in view of the necessity of a universally good citizenship, there can be but one answer; namely, a social pro- gram for the public schools of America. THE AMERICAN TEACHER J. G. CRABBE, PRESIDENT, COLORADO STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, GREELEY, COLORADO Today the American teacher holds the center of the stage. The crisis is appalling. It is a national calamity. Teachers of the public schools, of the colleges, and of the universities are leaving the profes- sion. Next year there will be a quarter of a million shortage-actual vacancies and emergencies. There will be the closing of thousands of schools and the lowering of thousands in efficiency. The children must have schooling, the schools must have teachers, the teachers are not to be found; and few are preparing for teaching. No greater menace ever faced the American Republic than the present shortage of teachers. The wreck of the American public-school system is imminent, together with the annihilation of our boasted democracy. Within a twelve-month some cities have made a marked improvement in the local situation because of substantial increases in salaries, but as re- ported by the National Education Association "the general situation remains practically unchanged." The choicest young men and women of the country must be attracted to the profession of teaching. But the crux of the matter is that among the world's proffession and occupations education has the lowest money reward; and in the present crisis, not merely theoretically but 282 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National practically, the question is largely one of the teacher's salary. There are nearly 800,000 teachers in the United States. They are teaching 25,000,000 pupils. The average wage of these teachers is less than $700; and thousands are receiving less than $350. The teacher is notoriously and ridiculously underpaid. The cost of living has gone skyward; the value of the dollar to the teacher has been less than at any other time since the Civil War. Six months ago the employment bulletin boards displayed on our public streets : "Men Wanted : Plum- bers $1500-$3000, brick masons $1200-$2600, carpenters $1400- $2900, teamsters $1200-$1800, schoolteachers $650-$1200," and "Women Wanted : Bookkeepers $1000-$ 1600, stenographers $750- $1400, clerks $900-$1200, nurses $1200-$2000, schoolteachers $250 -$900." The most rigid official investigations show that in spite of increases in salaries the average wage of the teacher has never been as high as wages paid to such artisans as blacksmiths, painters, and car- penters. Adequate salaries for trained teachers is the first need in teacher recruiting; but this is not the only need, high-grade young men and women students of accredited secondary schools spend four years building a forward-facing program. They purpose to have a life- career. An inferior program of preliminary training will not appeal to young men and women of caliber; they will examine with care the kind and amount and quality of the preparation required for the pro- fession. If our teacher-producing schools are to attract these young people, a real profession must be presented at the threshold. Pre- paredness for any profession is fundamental. If teachers are to be adequately paid they must be adequately prepared. The normal schools and teachers' colleges must have a conscious program and a forward- facing and far-reaching policy. Entrance requirements must include a general and liberal education represented by four years of high- school work, four-year courses of college grade must be maintained, faculties must be enlarged and quickened, curricula must be enriched and extended, and students (prospective teachers) must be as liberally and dynamically educated as are prospective physicians and lawyers. Upon the completion of the college course the usual college diploma should be issued and a standard collegiate degree should be conferred upon graduates. In the interest of teachers who have not had ample preparation, the professional schools of teaching should, as soon as practicable, be established on the "quarter" basis. Thus teachers in active service may satisfactorily complete their professional training during summer quarters. The status of the teacher in the local community is of great im- portance inplanning our recruiting campaign. Social respect and public Council] THE AMERICAN TEACHER 283 recognition of the teacher must be secured. Beyond money compensa- tion the rewards of the teacher are comparatively insignificant. Suc- cessful teaching, writing, and research bring no particular honor. Complacency is the general rule with the public. It will not be a small task to reach the masses with the convincing message that competent teachers render invaluable service and that exceptional merit for effec- tive service is discoverable and should be recognized. In its last analysis the matter of the prestige of the teacher will not be materially altered until the teacher is free from the worry that comes from an insufficient income. Only then can the teacher act his part in the social group as a citizen-and the public will take notice. The doors of the best homes of every community will swing wide open to the teachers, not because the teachers are doing a species of altruistic service but because they are worthy. The trained married woman teacher can help to bridge the chasm between the teacher and the social groups of a community. I make a plea for a definite campaign for the married woman teacher. All America has been improvident and wasteful in her failure to utilize the energies of the married woman teacher. It is silly to argue today that she might keep some unmarried woman out of a job. A woman with a very small child should be at home, but aside from this situation no real reason can be offered why the married woman should be deprived of the privilege of teaching. Married women give stability to the school system and they add a valuable type of training that is needed especially in the lower grades. Normal schools and teachers' colleges can do no better thing than to insist that all laws, ordinances, and regulations prohibiting married women from teaching in public schools be repealed. A nation-wide program that will awaken the people in every state to the need of better schools and better teachers will inspire young men and women and attract them to the opportunities offered in the field. Such a national program for education is provided for by the Smith-Towner Bill. The enactment of this Bill into law will usher in a new era in education. The program as outlined above presents four objectives for the rehabilitation of the profession : ( 1 ) adequate salaries for competent teachers; (2) preparedness; (3) social respect for the teacher ; and (4) a national program for education. This conscious program con- sistently and persistently carried out will enable the American teacher to have a profession, not merely a beloved and consecrated occupation. But this program would be incomplete and totally inadequate if the more altruistic but dynamic rewards of the teacher were not stressed. Good pay is a first inducement to attract prospective teachers and to keep them in active service. But there are rewards other than salary. The American teachers form our second line of defense. Thousands of schoolteachers "bucked the line" during the war and during the period of 284 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ National readjustment. They have been a bit disappointed at the injustice that has been put upon them these years, yet their professional spirit is altogether one of consecration. They have loved the work for the work's sake. Such teachers cannot be "commercialized." They deal with the plastic natures of childhood and in an intangible way they are able to observe and measure the development of the soul-stuff of the children. More than all, as they peer into the flashing eyes of their children they look across the oncoming years and obtain a vision of the citizens that these boys and girls are destined to become. As the teacher goes on building character and training young men and women for citizenship the joy of service ells up and satisfaction abides. These are the thrills of the schoolroom that can never be duplicated in the office or in the shop, in the department store or in the market place. PARTICIPATION OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT HARLAN UPDEGRAFF, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The establishment of a committee on participation of teachers in school management was authorized one year ago at the meeting of the National Council in Cleveland. The committee was appointed at the July meeting held in Salt Lake City. The work entrusted to it is the scientific study of the participation of teachers in management. The committee on superintendent's problems had begun a study in this field as one of several problems in 1917. The report made to the Council in February, 1919, by that committee on administrative co-operation in the making of courses of study constituted the most extensive scientific study in this subject up to the present time. It was because of the in- creasing importance of the subject that the Council decided a year ago to establish a special committee to continue the type of studies thus begun. The work of this committee during the past year has been entirely preliminary in character. While a plan for further study was proposed to the Council one year ago for its criticism, the Council by its action in creating a new committe virtually referred the proposed plan to this committee. But, inasmuch as the personnel of the committee was not determined until July and for the further reason that a committee meeting seemed necessary in order to act upon the plan proposed, which meeting was in the nature of the circumstances out of the question, it was impossible to proceed with the study. At the meeting of the com- mittee to be held here in Atlantic City during these sessions, it is hoped that a plan for study may be adopted which will render substantial con- tribution to scientific knowledge and scientific management. Council] TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 285 Instead, therefore, of presenting a report at this time, the committee decided to call a conference of those interested in the subject order that through an informal exchange of views and experiences ,knowl- edge of all would be increased, the practices in the various cities in which organs have already been established would be improved, and other cities, which have not yet launched these institutions, would be profited from the experiences of cities having such organizations. It was the thought of the committee also that such a meeting would assist its mem- bers in the formulation of its program for the coming years by giving them at first hand the questions that are just now uppermost in a large number of cities. W 5019 There are a few general considerations which the committee would like to present to the Council at this time in order to make clear the nature of the problems with which the committee has to deal. The demand for a new agency in administration, generally com- posed of teachers and commonly referred to as a teachers' council, has been quite widespread not only in the United States but in European countries. It must not be thought, however, that the number of cities in which such bodies already exist is large. While it is true that they are being established from week to week without news of the fact reaching central sources, I believe that it may safely be said that there are not at the present time over fifty duly constituted organs in the United States. Naturally in this number a greater proportion of the larger cities are represented than of the smaller because differentiation of functions and intergradation of new agencies to perform such func- tions have proceeded farther in the larger cities than in the smaller. In consequence, it has been more difficult for the various organs in the larger city school organizations to co-ordinate their work, with the result that the teachers in these school systems have been more widely separ- ated from the actual management of schools than have the teachers in the smaller school systems. In order that we may have a proper background for the considera- tion of our problems, it is necessary to have in mind the development of school management and more particularly the part that teachers have played in it. We do not have to go back more than a century to find that the only organs in the organization of the school aside from the pupils were the school committee and the individual teacher. All grades of the school were in the same room and the pupil could thus receive his entire common school education under the direction of one teacher and his secondary education under the direction of another teacher. Here the teacher had the full responsibility for the determination of the work to be done, the methods of doing it, and the time in which it should be done. He enjoyed the full freedom which the masters in various trades formerly had and which the professional man in medicine and law 286 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ National has today. While his responsibility did not extend to the repair of the building, purchase of supplies, and the like, yet he had such close re- lationship with the school committee that he had direct influence upon this source of authority without obstruction. In this form we have the management of schools in its most simple stage. A teacher, who was really a master teacher, had the opportunity to adapt the work of the school to the needs of each pupil and have entire freedom in doing so. This earliest stage of development of school administration brought most joy in teaching because it was the time when the largest responsibilities were placed in the individual teacher. As cities grew and as the various local school districts and the one- and two-room school houses were abolished, pupils were graded, children had one teacher for a year or a half a year, and principal teachers to take charge of the buildings, grounds, and of the major cases of disci- pline were introduced. While at the other end of the administrative scheme an executive officer of the board was employed. This officer was called a superintendent. His duties gradually increased from those of a mere clerk without the power of exercising executive discretion to include the functions, first, of supervision of teaching, second, of ad- vising the board of education as to the steps it should take, third, of formulating the educational plans of the school system, and fourth, of recommending the financial expenditures necessary to the carrying out of those plans. Thus it is seen that at least two new organs, the super- intendent and the principal, have intervened during the past century be- tween the two original and fundamental organs, the school board and the teacher. Indeed, in larger systems in addition to the superintendent and principal we have associate and district superintendents and a vast host of supervisors. These new organs have assumed certain functions which were at one time performed by these two original organs. While it is true that owing to the increasing size of school systems, new func- tions were gradually developed growing out of a differentiation of the original functions as they existed in their simpler forms, nevertheless the original functions of teachers were narrowed. Naturally as the re- sponsibilities and the freedom of action of the teachers were diminished their joy in creative work was lessened. Some of the ways in which the field of activity of the teacher has been narrowed may be pointed out in order to give concreteness to some of these general statements. At least four factors were prominent in this movement to narrow the work of teachers-first, the appointment to the principalship and to the superintendency of the best teachers who believed their views were superior to those of other teachers; second, the prevalent practice among members of all kinds of enterprises of each superior officer giving direc- tions either in general or in minute detail to subordinate without con- sulting them about the actual conditions which they had to face; third, Council] TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 287 the worship of system by managers in the belief that anything that was systematic in form was efficient; fourth, a mistaken idea of the nature of educational processes which regarded the child as plastic material to be shaped by the teacher rather than an actual dynamic force to be guided by him. As a result of the operation of these factors courses of study were outlined by a single agency, usually the superintendent, and made uni- form throughout the entire city. Sometimes they were described in detail in some such general way as by pages of textbooks, from which teachers could not vary without explicit direction from the authority which issued it, and usually no variation was permitted. Similarly the time in which each portion of the course of study was to be finished and the amount of time for each day of the week was designated by the central office and sometimes even the exact hour of the day was fixed by the superintendent so that as he sat in his office he could take out his watch and say to his visitor, "At this minute each class in the fourth grades throughout this city is reciting spelling and each class in the fifth grades is reciting arithmetic." Similarly, methods of teaching have been prescribed to a degree by central authority although to a relatively small extent. Supplementary prescription in this field is made, however, by the suggestions of super- visors based upon actual visitation of the schoolrooms, which frequently have been wrong prescriptions because the teacher's judgment of con- ditions was not taken into account. This operated to discourage initi- ative and consequently lessened the joy in teaching. This does not mean that we should go back to the old organization of the school with the little one-room schools scattered over the state with each teacher free to carry out his own plans and have direct re- lation to the board of education. Such an idea is preposterous upon the face of it. While there have been faults growing out of the develop- ment of school systems which should have been avoided there have at the same time come many more benefits. What we should seek to do is so to organize the schools that they will retain the best that there is of the old and at the same time secure the benefits which have come from the rapidly developing sciences of education, and of management, and from our experiences in their application . But we should consider still another aspect of the activity of teachers performed in the earlier days outside of their regular duties as instruc- tors of children, namely, the voluntary teachers' organizations as they existed in the fields of instruction in local, county, and state organiza- tions. In the earlier days, teachers met in such bodies on an equal plane. After they gathered together they selected the instructors from their own number who became virtually the leaders of the discussions of the various educational topics in which all participated and for the 288 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National consideration of which they were approximately equally well informed. These institutions and associations were utilized also to create favorable sentiment among the people toward schools and to increase solidarity among teachers. They promulgated agitation for better school support and better school legislation. The position of the teacher in these agen- cies was similar to that of the lawyers and physicians today in their professional associations. In contrast with these earlier conditions, we have at the present time teachers' institutes in which the teachers are hardly more than listeners and teachers' associations in which almost all of them are merely members contributing nothing other than their an- nual dues. These organizations are managed by superintendents and principals, and teachers do not feel that their influence actually func- tions in the conduct of the organization or that they as individuals make any impress upon the public in regard to school questions. As a second general consideration mention may be made of the view that the principles of management as they have been worked out in industry and business may be applied in part at least to the school. This is true only so far as parallel situations permit of transfer. Just when these parallelisms exist and just how far transfer may be made and to what extent modifications in principles must be introduced have not been agreed upon. This would furnish an interesting field of study for the committee. But tentatively it may be said that the science of manage- ment, or the science of efficiency as it is sometimes called, would require that the teacher be allowed to play such a part in the management of the school as his knowledge and experience make desirable. Just how impor- tant this is may be further emphasized by consideration of the nature of the aim of the school. The science of school management recognizes as one of its most fundamental tenets that the unit of educational endeavor is the individual child and that the purpose of the whole school is not to shape his powers into a prescribed mold as in the case of manufacturers striving to create a material product but rather to guide his dynamic per- sonality to the fullest realization of his innate capacity. The difference between the worker in the manufacturing establishment and a teacher in the school is as marked as that between the worker and the foreman. Teachers cannot be regarded as workers but as guides of workers— the pupils and, therefore, as foremen and should be reckoned with to a marked degree in the consideration of problems in management. Just what part teachers should take, just what part technical experts should take, and just what part the line officers, as principals, superin- tendents, and other administrative officers should take, are questions of great importance, and in determining them, it should not be overlooked that the education of each child is always under the direct control of a teacher and that the practical aspects of the guidance of pupils are bet- ter known by teachers than by either the technical experts or the line Council] TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 289 officers. Since a sound policy of management cannot be formulated without a careful consideration of the practical aspects of teaching, it follows that teachers' views must be considered in the formulation of policies in the field of instruction at least. It may also be said that the science of management requires that all persons engaged in an enterprise should be happy and contented, satis- fied that they have a position in which there are ample opportunities to satisfy their desires to create and to advance in pay and position as their efficiency increases. This is necessary not only for the sake of the efficiency of the school but also in order that the school as one of the institutions of society may contribute to the best upbuilding of a democratic state. As a corollary to this, it may be set down that when- ever groups of employes are so large in number and are so differentiated in interests from other employes that their rights in these economic and personal matters cannot be gained through individual contact with su- perior officers, they should then be given the opportunity of having an organization through which their questions and needs can be adequately expressed. Still another principle of management might be accepted tentatively ; namely, that the school as every social enterprise must constantly strive to better conditions under which its work is carried on. The full par- ticipation that the teachers formerly enjoyed in the old institute and teachers' associations in coming in contact with the outside world in their endeavor to improve the schools must be restored to them in order that they may feel that they are having those contacts with life that are necessary to their greatest enjoyment and consequently to their highest efficiency as teachers . As the third general consideration it should be pointed out that all that has been said thus far does not necessarily require the establishment of a new organ in the organism of the school in order to provide for the participation of teachers in the management of the school. Whether there is need for a new organ depends upon a number of conditions which the committee should study and determine such as ( 1) the scope and effectiveness of participation with the present school organization ; (2) the desirability of increasing the scope and effectiveness of teacher participation ; (3) the practicability of using existing organs for this purpose. It may be possible to secure full co-operation of teachers in man- agement with the regular organization without special agencies for se- curing it. In such cities no change in the present organization would be needed. Again, it may be possible for the need of co-operation to exist and at the same time, paradoxical as it may seem, for it to be undesirable to provide a special new organ for that purpose such as the teachers' council. For teachers might not be disposed to assume this responsibil 290 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National ity, or they might be willing to assume the responsibility without per- forming the labor that the responsibility involves and thus make manage- ment less efficient ; or it might be possible that differences of opinion among the various groups composing the council would lead to pro- longed acrimonious discussions, would accentuate factions in the teach- ing corps and thus lower its morale and effectiveness. Under either of these probable developments it might be better for the schools not to establish new agencies, but to depend on those already in existence. In regard to the third point, it may be said that the practicability of ex- tending the scope or increasing the effectiveness of teacher co-operation through existing agencies depends upon a number of factors such as the willingness of superintendents and principals to conceive it as their duty to render every possible assistance to the teachers in their work and to advance their economic and professional interests in every reasonable way, the amount of time they have to keep in close touch and to en- courage co-operation with teachers, and the confidence and respect the teachers have for their principals and superintendents both profession- ally and personally. It is possible, moreover, that a voluntary teachers' association can easily be made to function in relation to certain types of questions. In summarizing, it may be said that the committee will have to determine under which of such conditions and other similar condi- tions there is need for a new organ and under which the existing organ will suffice. In the fourth place, it may be pointed out that in the consideration of the question, "In what functions in management should a teachers' organization participate when conditions warrant its establishment ?," it is necessary to have in mind on the one hand the entire scope of func- tions involved in the conduct of the school, and, on the other hand, the part that each organ other than teachers' council might properly fulfil, such as the board of education and more particularly the superintendent. Such functions may be divided into policy-forming, policy-determining, and policy-executing. How far in each of these classes of functions do teachers already participate through teacher organizations ? How effec- tive is such participation ? At what point should it be extended or ren- dered more effective? It is such questions as these that the committee must carefully study in each local situation. It is possible to conceive of a régime in which questions falling under all three of these heads would be considered by teachers. This would provide popular democracy in management. Such a form of manage- ment is advocated, however, but by a relatively small number of persons. Practically all teachers recognize the necessity of having one person at the head of the executive force who is held responsible for finally de- ciding upon all policies to be submitted to the board of education and for the execution of such policies as are adopted by it. In giving such a Council] TEACHERS IN SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 291 place to the superintendent, school administration is observing one of the most important principles of the science of efficiency. It would seem that this is a good reason for the belief that whatever organ may be chosen for the participation of teachers in management which is city-wide in scope should be directly connected with the superin- tendent of schools and not with the board of education, and that its field of activity should be limited to the participation in the formu- lation of policies. It is necessary also to consider upon what questions should teacher organizations act. Upon many questions teachers are not well informed and in some of them they are not as a body at all interested. Then, too, all of them require certain amounts of technical knowledge pos- sessed by experts. Why should not the decision be left to these experts ? Obviously, there is need for the adoption of principles which will guide in determining these questions. In endeavoring to establish such principles, it is observed at the outset that these functions in management are, from the standpoint of the teacher, divisible into two main groups. They are those in which she is interested as a person and also those in which she is interested in her official capacity as a teacher. The former may be determined for the present as contractual ; they deal with question of pay, conditions of work, and the like. The latter may be called educational, they may be subdivided into questions of instruction and of business. Every teacher is interested alike in the first group of functions not only for herself, but for others as well, because the pay of each is conditioned in part by the pay received by all others. Questions in this group are the only ones in which all are interested, and in which all should have an equal part in the determination. The principle of equality of representation should govern here as in the performance of no other function. When it comes to educational questions, however, the aim is not the satisfied teacher, but the best-educated pupil. The amount and kind of participation of teachers is determining policies in this field is dependent not upon their rights as contractual persons, but upon their ability to contribute to increasing the efficiency of the school. Obviously, there are great differences in the aptitudes of teachers ; some are strong in one quality and others in another. A few teachers are strong in several directions, and a few are strong in none. Certain school systems may have a large number of school teachers, others may have but few teach- ers. Management must strive to devise ways and means by which all capable teachers may participate to the extent that their abilities warrant in the formulation of school policies. In the fifth place, it should be pointed out that there are many dif- ferent forms of organs that may be used for teacher participation in management. The adaptability of each of them to a variety of different 292 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National types of situation in individual cities must be carefully studied. It should also be the object of the committee to consider whether one type of organ is best adapted to contractual questions and another type to educational questions. It is probable on the one hand that a body for the efficient handling of contractual questions should be composed entirely of teachers, or of teachers and principals, should be chosen by teachers, should be perma- nent, and should have its conclusions presented to the board of edu- cation by the superintendent, together with his recommendations when- ever it is the function of the board to determine the question involved, as in the case of salary schedules, tenure, and hours of work. It would in many cities be advantageous to have representatives of the teachers present at board meetings to supplement their formal reports, and to answer questions asked by the board. These representatives should also be required to make a full report back to all the teachers. On the other hand the organ best adapted to the participation of teachers in the determination of educational policies should differ from that just described and mainly in the different position occupied by the superintendent in its operation. By the rules and regulations boards should recognize the superintendent as the officer responsible for the educational policies; by the theory of management, he is expected to lead in the formulation of policies but to get all the help he can from every worker who has anything to contribute. The organ should be framed in accordance with these ideas. The superintendent should be a member of and the leading spirit in the council. Probably in most cases he should be the presiding officer although this is not at all necessary . Still another immediate question remains regarding those organs for teacher participation in management which field of activity is the deter- mination of educational policies, namely, "Will a single organ for the consideration of all types of questions-such as, course of study, methods of teaching, choice of equipment and supplies, planning of school build- ings, financial program-render the greatest service, or would it be better to have a separate organ, for the consideration of each of these questions, each of which is composed of those teachers and principals in the school system who are most competent in the respective fields. There is something to be in favor of each of these plans, the former would secure for the benefit of the schools the best experience and judgment, while the latter would give to teachers upon the council a more unified and complete conception of the problems involved in the administration of schools and of the principles which should operate to secure their highest efficiency ; undoubtedly much of the difficulty that has arisen in school administration from active opposition or lukewarm- ness of the teaching body has been due to the fact that they have not Council] TEACHER COUNCILS 293 understood the work and the difficulties that the superintendent and the board of education have to face in the solution of their problems. In this connection it may be pointed out that it is possible to work out a plan which will secure the advantages of both of these forms through a council which operates to a very large extent through the ap- pointment of committees to study intensively various questions and the placing upon these committees those from outside the membership of the council who are especially qualified to assist. In such cases it might usually be advisable for the members of the council to assume the chairmanships of each of these various committees. In conclusion it is thus seen that the field which your committee has to investigate is a large and difficult one. We are limited by the lack of funds and the lack of time and opportunity for intensive study. The committee hopes, however, that it may be able to serve as a clearing house by means of which results of study and experience may be gath- ered together and disseminated. TEACHER counciILS E. J. ORTMAN, FISK UNIVERSITY, NASHVILLE, TENN . It seems desirable, first, to go directly to the teacher council itself and note what the organization is and what it is attempting to do. Later, we may consider what relationships must be established in instituting the organization in the schools. And, finally, it may be profitable to note briefly the philosophy upon which the council is pre- sumably built and to determine how nearly the present organization is an embodiment of that philosophy. The somewhat generalized and common characteristics of the teacher councils now in existence are: First, they are made up of elected representatives of all grades of teachers, supervisors, and principals in the school system. Second, they have an organization of their own with elected officers who direct the councils in the conduct of their business. Third, they are governed by a constitution and by-laws, and their activities are prescribed by a body of adopted rules and regula- tions. Fourth, they may or may not have the sanction of the superin- tendent and the board of education to whom they act in an advisory capacity. Fifth, they may or may not have a guaranteed corporate existence by the city's charter. And sixth, they have an organized means of registering their activities and of bringing their conclusions to the notice of the proper authorities for their consideration. The median number of members in twenty-eight councils here con- sidered is eighteen, although Colorado Springs has as low as six mem- bers, and Buffalo, 130 members. We have no data as to the ideal umber for a council. If we take the judgments of organizers on this point as expressed in the median number we should favor eighteen. 294 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National If we apply the principles of organizations that they must not be too large and unwieldy so that they block action, and not too small that their action becomes prejudiced, we shall be inclined to favor a number as large as the median number of the councils already organized or even somewhat larger. Large school systems do not necessarily have large councils and vice versa. New York with 23,000 teachers has forty-five members ; Minneapolis with 1600 teachers also has forty-five. Ypsilanti with fifty teachers has eight in the council; Leavenworth with twice as many teachers also has eight in the council; while Newark with thirty- eight times as many teachers, or 1900, has but eight. St. Paul with 1000 teachers has twelve members in the council ; Kansas City with something over a thousand teachers has forty-eight members in the council . The numbers in the councils result from consideration other than the size of the school systems. Dr. Spaulding who organized the councils at Minneapolis and at Cleveland refers to the numbers in the councils as resulting from a mathematical computation. How- ever, Boston uses about thirty members in the council because there are this number of teacher organizations in the schools each of which is represented by its president in the council. Among the thirty councils reported here, there are forty-two dif- ferent groups of school people or individuals represented in the coun- cils. Almost every conceivable arrangement of persons in the school system is used. However, the median number of groups is eight. These are kindergartners, primary, intermediate, junior high, senior high, and special teachers, principals, and supervisors. These eight groups are represented in various ways in the councils more times than all the others combined. Some of the other groups represented are the industrial teachers by Kansas City, assistant superintendents by New Britain, public-school activities by Chicago, teachers at large by New York, teachers' federation by Colorado Springs. There are eight different and characteristic methods of securing members to the councils. I have designated these as follows : groups assembly, assembled groups, school-building groups, club groups, dis- trict groups, voluntary associations conference groups, and general election group types. The groups assembly type is illustrated by the New Britain Council. Here, each of four different groups assembles directly (except the grade teachers who are too numerous for one assembly and who send representatives to assembly) and elects from its own number the allotted number of representatives to the council. The assembled groups type is illustrated by the Ironwood Council. Here, every professional worker in the schools one hundred strong belongs to the Teachers' Assembly. At their second meeting in the Council] TEACHER councILS 295 fall, each of eight different groups elects one representative to the council. The school-building groups type is represented by the Cincinnati and the Oakland Councils. In this type each school building with four to fifteen teachers sends one representative to the council ; buildings with more than fifteen teachers send two representatives to the coun- cil; while buildings with less than four teachers combine to send representatives, one for each fifteen teachers or fraction thereof. The club groups type is illustrated by the Kansas City (Kansas ) Council. Here each of seven different clubs-grade teachers, high school teachers, and principals elects the allotted numbers of repre- sentatives to the council. The district groups type is illustrated by the Minneapolis Council. In this type each of five high-school districts in the city elects six grade teachers and one high-school teacher to the council. The elect- ing bodies are made up of representatives from each of all the groups of teachers in the respective districts. In addition to these, each of the four-kindergartners, junior high school teachers, senior high school and grade principals-meets in groups and each elects from its own members the allotted number to the council . The voluntary association conference groups type is illustrated by the New York City Council. Here each of the voluntary associations of workers in the school system sends representatives to a conference of its own members, who in turn sends representatives of its own members to a second conference, and this second conference repre- senting the entire city, elects the allotted number of members to the council. In addition to these representatives the council at its first meeting elects five members at large. The general election group type is illustrated by the Cleveland Council. In this type the individual schools in each of four supervisory districts send representatives to conference where there is nominated more than the allotted number of members allowed in the council to represent the fourteen groups. The chairmen of the four conferences prepare the ballot with all the names of the candidates on it and indicate the number to be elected. The ballots are printed and distributed through the principals to the teachers who mark and return them through the principals to the four chairmen who act as a canvassing committee. The results of the election are announced through this committee. The purposes for establishing teacher councils are set forth in their constitutions and elsewhere. There are over two score of "purposes" stated in the constitutions of about fifty councils. By grouping these it is possible to reduce the number to the following: to act as advisory; to promote co-operation; to promote the welfare of the school ; to raise 296 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National the standard of the teaching profession; to assist in financial readjust- ment; to develop the feeling of responsibility in teachers ; to offset the move to affiliate with the American Federation of Labor ; to partici- pate in community affairs ; to give teachers an organized means of ex- pression; and to advise with the superintendent on school matters. Most of these purposes are not well stated. They are so general that they are not helpful. Taken literally, "to secure coöperation" would seem to imply that the founders of the council were seeking to originate a new quality which did not exist. In truth, no school can exist without coöperation in a large measure. If the statement means coöperation in more points than then existed or in higher degrees, it would be more pertinent and helpful to include in the statement of the purpose those points where coöperation was to be established or to be increased, as, establish coöperation in making a new course of study in English, if teachers had not helped before ; or increased coöperation in classifying pupils more scientifically if they had been doing something in classifying before. Purposes for organizing councils should be stated in terms of the tasks to be done rather than in terms of a hope that some desirable social quality will develop as a result of the activities of the council. The real test of the teacher council comes in the tasks it undertakes and in the degree of success with which it accomplishes them. If these are trivial or useless, or are tasks clearly outside its province, the council has failed as an institution in the schools. If for solutions to problems it adopts conclusions which conditions do not warrant or in which any reasonable right-thinking person cannot concur, it is a failure. Or if it arrives at conclusions colored by prejudice it must be conceded it has failed. Among the councils studied over fifty tasks have been undertaken. None of these tasks is trivial, useless, or out of its province. For brevity I shall summarize the different tasks which have been under- taken by councils under ten heads as follows : constructed or reor- ganized courses of study ; adopted textbooks and materials for teach- ing certain subjects; established methods of instruction for different subjects and classes ; built up teacher-training requirements and courses ; constructed teacher-rating systems ; reorganized the rules and regula- tions of the school ; modified building plans in some details so as to result in better service ; built up a more comprehensive system of reports ; helped increase salaries and reconstructed the financial condi- tions in the district attending thereon; and coöperated in community work. The success with which these tasks have been undertaken is attested by many superintendents who have used the organization. Space per- mits the quotation of but one or two of these. Dr. Spaulding says: Council] TEACHER counciLS 297 "My experience has confirmed me in my conference in coöperative administration. " Superintendent Dyer of Boston says : "I desire es- pecially to commend the constructive work of these councils and organi- zations. They are to this school system what the research and testing laboratories are to the great manufacturing concerns." From this brief and hasty review of the teacher council let us consider the relationships that must be established in organizing and instituting the teacher council in the schools. What relationship shall be established between the teacher council and the board of education ? There are three possible and existent relationships among teacher councils now established. These are : ( 1 ) no recognition, legal or official. By far the largest number of councils studied fall under this head. (2) Official recognition through the in- corporation in the board's minutes or rules of a formal statement that the teacher council is recognized in the schools. The councils at Boston, Cincinnati, and New Britain have this form of recognition. (3) A legal recognition through the city's charter. St. Paul council and the proposed council for Washington, D. C. have this form of recognition. New Hampshire has passed laws recognizing the teacher council in the schools. Theorists advocate legislative recognition. Whether this will ever be given generally will depend upon the insistence of the demand for such recognition. It is difficult to say what the value of recognition through the city's charter is as no evidences are forthcoming as yet. Non- recognition is diametrically opposed to the purposes for which the council is established. Since the organization aims to be helpful in formulating desirable school policies the board must recognize its efforts and give it the advantage of an official hearing. Nothing less could be just. Official recognition by the board is the type that seems most desirable at the present time. When the state legislatures gener- ally guarantee the existence of the councils in the schools its recognition must be complete. Growing out of the board's recognition of the teacher council there is another relationship to be established. What shall be the superin- tendent's relation to the teacher council ? At least three different types are in existence. These are: (1 ) the "parallel type" in which both the superintendent and the teacher council work along parallel lines with as many interchanges as possible, each reporting to the board. The Dallas Council used this type. It is not the best as it tends to create two heads in the school system. (2) The "dominated type" in which the superintendent has complete control over the council, even to the extent of appointing and dismissing its members. In strict definition these are not teacher councils whatever else they may be. It puts the council so completely under one man that there is little hope that 298 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National it will do any effective work on its own initiative. (3) The "responsi- ble through the superintendent type" in which the board recognizes the teacher council in the schools assisting the superintendent in arriv- ing at desirable policies for the schools . The superintendent embodies the recommendations of the teacher council in his recommendations to the board. There is always danger that the teacher council organization may assume a "mob mind" attitude and appeal to the board of education direct without the intervention of the superintendent. If the idea gets abroad that the superintendent does not favor the policies advocated by the teacher council and is not trying to secure their adoption by the board there is likely to be this direct appeal. Almost invariably this will create dissension. Of course there is no way to stop this direct appeal, nor would it be advisable to do it if it could be done. It is done sometimes without the teacher council, and perhaps it will be done with it. Here is a relationship that must be worked out; it must be recognized and dealt with in an open and above-board manner. Several plans are being tried by the organizers of councils to fore- stall this condition. The Newark Council provides for joint meetings with the board of education. The Cincinnati Council provides for reporting to the board the action of the council. The New Britain and the Republic Councils use the conference committee plan. The Oakland Council uses a representative from the council to the board of superintendents which is the policy-making body for the schools. The council advocates its policies to this body direct through its representative. Another relationship to be established is what power or authority is to be granted to the council ? Almost all councils now have the advisory relationship established, and so long as everyone is acting in good faith this type will be satisfactory. As soon as confidence and good will are destroyed no organization can function desirably. It is intended that the teacher council shall assist in building up these high qualities through the opportunity it affords for coöperative action in solving the problems that need solution in carrying on the schools. The council may have to be given mandatory power in certain problems as soon as we can discover what these are. By making the council responsible for certain policies there can be developed in it the proper sense of regard for its actions. When the teacher council must initiate what is to be done where teachers alone have the best power to judge, then may we expect to develop a proper respon- sibility for action in the organization. Another problem is what relation shall be established between the teacher council and the body of teachers, principals, and supervisors which it represents. The two phases of this problem are how shall Council] TEACHER COUNCILS 299 the teacher council members be kept informed regarding the wishes of their constituency, and how shall the constituency be kept informed regarding the action of the teacher council group. Very little has yet been done by any council to solve these problems. As a result, this is one of the complaints against the council. It is complained that the council voices the sentiment, not of the constituency, but of the individual members. Also, the council members feel that the consti- tuency is doing nothing to instruct them. Some of the councils already established recognize these defects and have written into their constitutions a statement requiring the council members to get the opinions of the constituency and making it imperative that the constituency be kept informed regarding the action of the group. But as it is, whenever a rule is promulgated without an efficient means of carrying it into effect the rule suffers. This is a serious defect in the councils today, and must be remedied. The solution of this problem requires nothing less than some organized and recognized means, simple and natural, through which the repre- sentatives can receive the consensus of opinion of the group electing them, and whereby they may give to the constituency the results of the action of the council group. Another problem that should receive some consideration in estab- lishing the teacher council is the matter of how expert opinion shall function most effectually in the scheme. It must be conceded that expert opinion is a potent factor in the conduct of any organization and not to provide for its functioning is a defect that puts a severe handicap upon the organization. We may have a most exalted opinion of the Jacksonian type of democracy and believe that the masses will always guide their own destinies to proper ends if given enough free- dom, but there is a vital thought in the Jeffersonian type of democracy in its provisions for the functioning of leaders of thought. Three different plans suggest themselves : ( 1 ) expert opinion to be drafted by the teacher council on its own volition ; (2) no important policy should be adopted by the teacher council until expert opinion had given it a fair consideration; and (3) have the conclusions of the teacher coun- cil subjected to expert opinion after they had been adopted. There is a tendency to have the teacher council draft expert opinion in its deliberations rather than to compel the council to do so, or to have its conclusions subjected to it after they had been drafted and before being adopted. This is a fair tendency and one much more in harmony with the spirit that should be maintained in the organization. The fundamental idea upon which the council rests is much older than the organization itself, and perhaps has its roots in the soil that nourished all democratic aspirations. However, Dr. Dewey's state- ment made in 1903 crystallized out of these aspirations the idea of the 300 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National council. "What does democracy mean," he asks, "save that the indivi- dual shall have a share in determining the aims and conditions of his own work ? " From this statement of his, two others follow as corol- laries. The first, "only by sharing some responsible task does there come a fitness to share it," proclaims a conditioning principle of growth for the individual in professional and intellectual betterment. The second, "through the free and mutual harmonizing of different individ- uals the work of the world is done better than when directed by the few, no matter how wise or of good intent that few" proclaims a con- ditioning principle of growth in the well-being of institutions. The principle of "learning by doing" is not uncommonly used in our various technical and training institutions today. The principle of "bettering institutions by having all workers in them assist in determining the governing policies" is not so commonly recognized although we seem to accept the principle, governmentally. Thus, the philosophy upon which the teacher council is presumably built is relatively simple and hopeful. Its embodiment in an organiza- tion that permits its fullest operation is more difficult. It must be conceded that the council idea is striking at a vital defect in the organization of our schools. Not that anyone has willed the defect or its perpetuation. It isn't the defect that precipitated the struggle that was waged to secure Magna Charta, the Bill of Rights, or the Ballot. The administrative and the teaching groups have no such diverse interests, or rather, self-interests. Both groups have a common interest- the betterment of our common heritage, the schools and education. It is primarily a matter of development that is sought . It is a search for truth to guide us to higher values. There is no idea that the one group shall inevitably lose when the other gains, but that both groups shall gain when the work of the schools is done better. It is a gain in the common consciousness that the children of our common country are receiving a heritage of a larger and a more vital education. In conclusion I wish to give a few observations that have been gathered from literature, from the words of organizers of the councils, or from some thinker on the problem of teacher participation. These will be undiscussed propositions and each is intended to call attention to a defect in the organization of the teacher council at present. The first and fundamentally important task of anyone who would organize a teacher council is instruction. One must not let himself be "stampeded" into forming teacher councils . One very important fact to establish in the minds of all is that the teacher council is not a concession to teachers, but that it is an obligation placed upon them to contribute all that they have in profes Council] ELEMENTARY- SCHOOL COURSE MINUTES 301 sional knowledge, technical skill, or common sense to the betterment of the particular school of which they are a part, and of education generally. No teacher council should be organized without first deciding what tasks it is to undertake. To organize in anticipation that something will suggest itself upon which the council can work is a very poor beginning. All the schools may not need a teacher council but every worker in the schools does need the kind of help that may be given through a properly organized and justly conducted teacher council organization. There is always a big temptation in an organization of teachers to discuss too much . The teacher council is a " work" institution as well as a "talk" institution. To plan is necessary, but to execute a piece of work according to a formulated plan is equally desirable. Some teacher council meetings could be given over to work on some project embodying a previously determined policy. There is little trouble of getting a policy adopted if that policy is embodied in a piece of usable apparatus, device, or project. When an abstract theory of administration is discussed until some sections of the teacher council become irreconcilable it is pretty well assured that some one missed the point. When the teacher council is once organized let no one assume to predict its every act. If no one is ever surprised by its action it might be well to study the organization to determine if it has the form only of the teacher council and not the spirit that must animate it. CONFERENCE ON ELEMENTARY- SCHOOL COURSE MINUTES The conference of the Committee on the Changes Needed in the Elementary- School Course was held in Atlantic City on Saturday morning, February 26, 1921. At the open meeting the chairman presented a report of the work done at the Summer Conference. Dr. Charles H. Judd, of Chicago University, made the principal address. Miss Evelyn Dewey gave an interesting account of the work done by Georgia Alexander, of Indianapolis, Ind. There are opportunity classes organized for mental defectives, immigrants, poor whites much over age, pupils with poor environment, and pupils absent for a long time on account of sickness. Over-age children are allowed extra time for recitation and are given extra home work. A large percentage of these children are thus enabled to be promoted more than once a term. Various plans for breaking the lockstep were discussed. Several of those present felt that departmental work in the seventh and eighth years was respon- sible for a large number of non-promotions, as the children of that age are not mature enough to do their work well under departmental conditions. Other subjects discussed were the changes needed to humanize geography and how far can living English be substituted for grammar in the upper grades ? 302 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National A discussion of the duty of the schools toward the campaign for disarmament was crystallized in the following resolution proposed by Superintendent John Keating, of Pueblo, Colo.. "Resolved, That it is the sense of this conference of the National Council of the National Education Association that it is the business of the teachers of America to shape the thinking of the statesmen of tomorrow relative to the question of disarmament so that peace shall be quickly established among the civilized nations of the world." KATHERINE D. BLAKE, Chairman. SURVEY FOR ARISTOCRACY or deMOCRACY A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. The National Council of Education should only consider large and vital educational problems and the most vital of America's present educational problems is to eliminate all causes for a death grapple between aristocratic and democratic ambitions in American education. Let present tendencies continue to develop antagonism and there will be at no distant day such a catastrophe as has not been in America since the Civil War. The stage is already set. He is wilfully blind who does not see it. It is not a question of school men and women alone. It already involves capital and labor. Big business and big politics are organizing; it is already a race question and a religious question. It requires no considerable wit and no wisdom to see the classes that are arrayed with aristocracy and the masses that are arrayed with democracy. The National Council of Education should be big enough and broad enough to avoid being caught up by the fascinating charms of educational royalty and too staunch and strong to be caught by the undertow that is so seductive when the cry of autocracy is raised. If aristocracy ever rules and reigns the public will be mere slaves, but if democracy becomes merely anti-aristocracy the world will go back to the autocracy of savagery. If for twenty-four hours the Ten Commandments should be ab- solutely and completely ignored it would take a thousand years to get back to law and order. We must not be the slaves of aristocracy and we must not be barbarians. To avoid both, we must consider the tendency of the educational survey. If it is allowed to be an aristocratic scheme, if it becomes the tool of aristocrats in big business, in finance and in scholasticism it will repeat the experiences of the Czar, the Kaiser, the Sultan, and Belshazzar. Create educational rulers who through surveys can say : "Whom they will they can slay and whom they will they can keep alive and whom they will they can set up and whom they will they can put down" and in that day will be written on the walls of their banquet Council] REORGANIZATION OF GRADES 303 ing hall the words "MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN,” weighed in the balances and found wanting. If that day shall ever come the surveyors will be dancing at their own funeral. On the other hand a wayfaring man, though a fool, can see the massing of limitlesss forces-industrial, political and social ready for some Lenine and Trotzky to lead them when Belshazzar's feast is the wake of the anti-common people. The great hope of America industrially, financially, socially, and religiously, is an educational survey in which there shall be equitably represented scholastics and industrialists, university and normal colleges, superintendents and principals, secondary and classroom teachers-a survey in which there shall be no monopoly of propagandists of any color, hue, or tint of professionalists. REORGANIZATION OF SEVENTH, EIGHTH, AND NINΤΗ GRADES CHARLES H. JUDD, CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE ON REORGANIZATION OF SEVENTH , EIGHTH , AND NINTH GRADES The present form of organization of American elementary and high schools was established at a time when the total amount of school- ing of the individual citizen was comparatively meager. The Com- missioner of Education estimates that in 1840 the average schooling of American citizens amounted to only 208 days. In 1870 this had increased to 582 days, and now it is in the neighborhood of 1200 days. These figures make it clear that more and more the children of the United States are continuing in school long enough to pass beyond the stage of rudimentary instruction. The organization of schools has not kept pace with the rapid change in the average schooling of pupils. There has been in many quarters a disposition to regard the elementary school as limited in its curriculum to rudimentary branches. Equally often those in control of the high school have regarded the ninth grade as the beginning of a highly specialized form of education intended only for a selected group of students. These tendencies to keep the elementary curriculum at a rudimentary level and to keep the high school exclusive have been powerfully rein- forced by such facts as the following : The ordinary elementary-school building is not constructed or equipped in such a way as to encourage the introduction of higher courses which require library and laboratory facilities. The teachers in the upper grades of elementary schools are usually, in training and interests, different from the teachers in the first year of the high school. Elementary principals look on the upper 304 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National grades in their buildings as a source of prestige and as most important to the life of the schools . In the aggregate we find, therefore, strong tendencies in the school to keep the elementary and high schools apart. On the other hand, we find in society at large an increasing tendency to put all pupils through an ever-lengthening period of training. Certain definite defects in the American educational system result from the conditions described. First, the lower school tolerates ex- cessive repetition of rudimentary work because there is reluctance to introduce into the elementary curriculum subject-matter which tradi- tionally belongs exclusively to the upper school. Furthermore, the elementary school does not take responsibility, as it should, for guidance of its pupils in matters directly related to their individual plans for later life. Some means should be devised to arouse superintendents, elementary- school principals, and teachers to the need of radical reorganization of the work in elementary schools. We recommend that the National Council arrange for a special program on this general problem. If the Council approves, this committee will contribute to this program through its own investigations at least two reports, one on present repetitions in elementary curricula and one on new subject-matter suitable to the curriculum of the seventh and eighth grades. It is recommended that, in addition to these reports which the committee can now guarantee, the committee be further authorized to prepare or secure a report on the junior high school building and one on readjusting the administration of the elementary school so as to make its basal program one of less than eight years. In order to bring out fully the needs of reorganization and to fur- nish the arguments which will break down present-day conservatism in the high school, it is further recommended that a report be authorized at the time of this special program on the reconstruction of the ninth grade. It is further recommended that this special program be as widely as possible announced as an opportunity for full discussion by school officers and that following the program a statement of principles be formulated and given wide publicity. The present committee further submits as its conviction the state- ment that the general direction in which the enriched elementary pro- gram should move is toward the liberal use of social science materials. Pupils of the age of twelve years and more are in the stage of physi- cal and mental development when it is highly important that they should be led to a broad and intelligent conception of their relations to society. The seventh grade and later grades should be employed for the purposes of self-conscious social adjustment. Council] MINUTES ON TEACHER PROGRESS 305 There is a lack of suitable materials of instruction for the period described in the foregoing paragraph. There is also a lack of suitable methods of dealing with pupils in the early adolescent period. It is recommended that the National Council organize two special committees to succeed the present committee, to deal with the problems thus sug- gested and to devise ways and means of collecting and distributing materials needed in the schools. These committees would serve a double purpose. They would foster apositive movement of creation of new material and they would coun- teract a serious danger. The danger arises from the fact that many schools are at the present time, in their enthusiasm for enlargement of the curriculum, carrying back into lower grades without adequate rearrangement material which was prepared for upper grades. For example, algebra of the type used for the ninth grade is being attempted in the eighth grade and sometimes even in the seventh. It should be the duty of the committees proposed to show how material originally used in the upper school must be reworked in order to make it suitable for the lower schools . By way of summary, this report recommends a special program of the Council on reconstruction with a view to getting the matter fully discussed. It recommends the organization of two special committees to succeed itself after it has executed the above-recommended special program. These two committees are to have as their purposes the preparation of materials and methods necessary to make reconstruction permanent. MINUTES OF OPEN FORUM ON TEACHER PROGRESS BY COLLECTIVE ORGANIZATION Chairman-OLIVE M. JONES,. ..... New York, N. Y. Secretary AGNES S. WINN, ... .... Seattle, Wash . Miss Jones sketched briefly the important things a teachers' organization should stand for. The points for discussion she grouped under the following heads: 1. Tenure : Miss Jones thought tenure by far the most important question for any organization to work out. She gave a brief history of the tenure law in New York City and its extension into a state-wide law so that the rural teacher in New York State has just as much protection now as the city teacher. There can be no stability in the profession until this question is solved. 2. What is meant by collective organization ? There are many who feel that each group should be organized separately, but if this idea is carried out there must be some kind of central organization where all groups may come together and work for the best interests of all this seemed to be the opinion of many of those present, if class consciousness is to be avoided. Each locality should decide then what should be the basis of organization. Equal pay was touched upon. 306 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National 3. The teacher's duty regarding teacher shortage is making the profession attractive to young people. The teacher can do much by making the public respect the profession. 4. How far should the organization co-operate and work with the school board and superintendent? Owing to lack of time this was not discussed. 5. Should dues be a fixed sum for each member or on a percentage basis according to salary ? Cornelia Adair was asked to give the Richmond, Virginia, plan. The Elementary Teachers' Association of Richmond has a budget plan, each one paying a flat sum annually to cover all dues for the year, for example, five per cent of their salary which puts it on a percentage basis. Agnes S. Winn, of Seattle, spoke in favor of a fixed sum for each member, regardless of salary, telling how successful this plan had been in Seattle and many other places in the West. W. J. McAuliffe, of New York, thought that this matter was one for local consideration as it varied according to conditions and numbers. He told briefly the plan of organization among the teachers of New York City. Mr. Shaw of Philadelphia, told of the many different organizations in Philadelphia. A digression from the subject under discussion was made by Katherine D. Blake, of New York City, who spoke on the single salary schedule as adopted in Denver, asking if any other cities had adopted a similar plan. Miss Adair, of Richmond, replied that Richmond was about to do so. Spokane, Washington, has a one-salary schedule also. Miss Fahey, of New York, gave some argu- ments against such a plan and Miss Winn, of Seattle, spoke in favor of it. 6. Teachers' councils : Mr. Doty said we should make sure what a council is really for-whether to try to settle every problem connected with the schools or to make recommendations for the improvements of the schools, courses of study, etc. It was moved and seconded that a committee be appointed by the Council to study teachers' organizations and report their findings at the Des Moines meeting-the report to be published in the National Education Association Journal. Mr. McAuliffe, of New York City, moved that it is the opinion of this meeting that the first interest of teachers in coöperative work would be to secure higher standards for the profession. All questions of tenure should be linked with proper professional qualifications and where tenure in a general law is conferred on unqualified teachers they should be compelled properly to qualify in institutions provided for, the purpose. After which, the meeting adjourned. THE HEALTH crisis in edUCATION THOMAS D. WOOD, CHAIRMAN COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N. Y. The world-war revealed to this country no greater weaknesses than the neglect of education and the neglect of health. Are the national lessons dependent upon this revelation to be learned or forgotten ? During the war when mobilization of Great Britain's armies revealed the terrifying defects of English manhood the Prime Minister stated, "Never again shall it be said that England neglected the welfare of her young men until they were needed for the grim business of war," Council] THE HEALTH crisis in education 307 What percentage of improvement has been made during the past year in the program of health care and health education of the army of 24,000,000 boys and girls in the schools of the United States ? It is absurd and worse, that while many voluntary national organizations unselfishly devote effort, skill, and money in the effort to improve the health of the nation's children, our federal government so largely neglects this vital part of the nation's business. "Nobody cares about any child except his or her own," is the pithy and more than 90 per cent truthful indictment, by the veteran principal of a large public school. Scattered, partial, spasmodic efforts in the health work of the schools are hardly more than drops in the great ocean of a nation's need for the real welfare of its children. It is impossible to estimate with accuracy the loss to the Nation and to the world caused by this failure to conduct a 100 per cent program in the field of child health. What are the most pressing needs in the health program of the schools? 1. Health examination (physical and mental) of every school child in each year of school life. 2. An efficient program of follow-up health work conducted by school, home and community; by official and voluntary organizations, to insure the correction of all remediable health defects in all the school children. Not 5 per cent of the needed program of health conservation, correction, and reconstruction in the forty-eight States is being accom- plished at present. 3. Daily health inspection of pupils by parents and teachers with the help of doctors and nurses to minimize and prevent acute and com- municable diseases. The present accomplishment in meeting this phase of the health crisis is pathetically inadequate. 4. A great safety campaign for children of school and preschool age is a vital necessity. Deadly and ruthless warfare is constantly being waged against child life and health by unregulated traffic and industry; and by failure to provide adequate space and safeguards for normal activities of childhood. Accidents in one year in the United States exact the tragic toll of 20,000 child lives, according to a report just issued by the Red Cross. Statistics for 1919 show more deaths of children ten to fourteen years of age from accidents than from epidemic diseases. The need for a united campaign for safety by all the schools of the country is imperative. 5. An efficient hygiene of school management must be applied to every phase of the educational program to eliminate waste, and increase production in child health, child growth, and child development. 6. The present-day plan of health education in schools, which starts with simple practical health habits, is tremendously worth while. How 308 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ National ever, much thoughtful and painstaking attention will be needed to pre- vent a most unfortunate reaction or anticlimax in this part of the curri- culum of our schools. 7. No phase of the program for our men in the world-war produced more significant benefits than the modernized and rational program of physical education which the war training evolved and required. A sensible and universal program of physical education for all girls and boys, was never in the history of mankind more profoundly essential than just now. 8. No part of the whole health program of the schools is more important than the health, enthusiasm, and wisdom of the teachers. Their welfare must be guarded and improved not only for themselves, but even more for the sake of the children whose careers and destinies they so profoundly influence. Who can determine which phase of the health campaign of education can be more safely neglected? Herbert Hoover's words ring with increasing eloquence, "If we could grapple with the whole child situation for one generation, our public health, our economic efficiency, the moral character, sanity, and stability of our people would advance three generations in one." DAYLIGHT IN THE SCHOOLROOM¹ EDWARD JACKSON , M. D , CHAIRMAN , DENVER, COLO . The eye has evolved to meet the conditions of daylight stimulus and is capable of its highest health and efficiency under its normal conditions. It is well that the bulk of school work is done by daylight. But of late years an immense amount of thought and labor have been expended on the improvement of artificial illumination, while nothing has been done to improve the methods of using daylight. The result is that artificial light is being used in many respects more intelligently than daylight, and only the innate superiority and cheapness of the latter have left it in general use in schoolrooms . Useful light falls on object looked at. So little has been done to apply our knowledge of the physiology of vision to the requirements for indoor use of daylight that it is necessary to begin with funda- mentals. The light which is useful is that which falls upon the object looked at, and is thence sent to the eye, where it enters the pupil and is focused on the retina. The thing looked at includes both the thing we wish to see and the background which reveals it by contrast, or color difference. We wish to see the letter, but we also look at the paper, with which the letter is so contrasted as to reveal its form. Report of subcommittee on lighting and conservation of vision in schools to the joint committee on health problems in education of the National Council of Education and the Council on Health and Public Instruction, American Medical Association. Council] DAYLIGHT IN THE SCHOOLROOM 309 Light entering the eye directly from the source of illumination or in any way that does not assist in making distinct the thing we wish to see is not a help but a hindrance to our seeing. For one thing, it causes contraction of the pupil, and in that way actually diminishes the amount of useful light that enters the eye. For another, it wastefully uses up retinal energy accumulated for the purpose of vision without helping to see what we want to see. In the third place, it produces retinal im- pressions that compete with those that are useful, for the attention of the recipient, increasing the effort needed to keep the consciousness occupied with the useful impression. Light must be neither excessive nor deficient. By variation in the size of the pupil, which regulates the amount of light entering through it, and by the process of "adaptation," which adjusts the sensitivity of the retina to the intensity of the light reaching it, the eye is capable of service with enormous variations in the brightness of illumination. But there are limits of brightness beyond which we cannot safely go in either direction. Excessive stimulation unduly exhausts the retina. Deficiency of light lowers the acuteness of vision and makes more difficult the recognition of objects of a given size and distinctness . For indoor seeing, the practical problem is largely to get enough light on what we look at. The eye evolved largely for outdoor seeing, and the comparative deficiency of light indoors is enormous. Photo- graphy has emphasized this difference. The same film exposed through the same stop will require a hundred times longer exposure with a good indoor light than it will require with the light generally available out of doors in the daytime. The first question to be answered is how to get enough daylight into the schoolroom. The second is how to get it to fall in the right direction. The arrangement to be worked out is one that shall secure the sufficient illumination of the aspect of things that we look at. It has been customary to say that the room must have enough win- dow space, and rules have been laid down to fix how much this must be. But the amount of window space has very little significance until we know what is to be seen in this window space and what is its position in relation to the scholar. No amount of window space will give a good light from green foliage of trees, or from a wall, unless the wall is of light color and the sun is shining directly on it. A window to admit enough light must open to the sky. The test of sufficiency of illumination that can be applied to the plans for any schoolroom is how much open sky, measured in angular space, can be seen from the darkest point in the room at which objects will be placed to look at. In general, this will be not less than the equivalent of a square each side of which subtends an angle of 20 310 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ National degrees for a north light in a cloudy, misty climate. This may be reduced by about 50 per cent area in a room with south light in a region where heavy clouds rarely diminish the daylight. To measure the light with a photometer or a reading test after the room has been built is easy, and may be conclusive of its unfitness for school purposes ; but this is generally too late to be of any practical use. Light from above. It has generally been recognized that the eyes are set in the front of the head and that objects looked at are held in front of us so that light should come from behind rather than from in front. But it has generally been overlooked that the eye is particularly suited to looking down on its work and tousing illumination from above. This is the point in which modern arrangements for artificial lighting have outstripped the old plans-still in general use of admitting. daylight to a room. If one stands or sits with the head erect and the eyes looking forward on a level the field of vision extends upward about 45 degrees to 50 de- grees and downward about 60 degrees to 80 degrees from the horizontal plane passing through the eyes. If without changing the position of the head the eyes are turned up and down, they can turn up about 40 degrees and down fully 60 degrees. If, now, the head is thrown forward and then backward, it will be found easier to look directly downward than to look 40 degrees above the horizon. If one wishes to watch the clouds in the sky, he will lie on his back on the ground to do it and then find it much easier to look toward his feet than in the opposite direction. Our eyes are fitted for use looking downward and all continuous use of them for the work is done with the work placed below them. The easy position for reading is with the work placed as much below the eyes as in front of them. Very often the position assumed is one look- ing almost directly down upon the work. The scholar in general has to be admonished not to lean over. The teacher, to set an example, has to make some conscious effort to sit up straight. The great bulk of near work of all kinds is done on desks and tables, with an upper surface horizontal, so that it is best lighted from directly above, or inclined, as some school desks are, to an angle of not often more than 20 degrees with the horizon . The fact is that we are so constructed that it is more important for the light to come from above than from behind us. That is where it comes from the open sky, as much from in front as behind, and from both sides, but always from above. We know how unpleasant it is when light is reflected from snow or water and comes nearly as much from below as from above. The great problem in school lighting is to get the light to fall from above. This has been solved for artificial lighting; it remains to be solved for daylight. The first point is to have the windows go as high as Council] DAYLIGHT IN THE SCHOOLROOM 311 possible. It is often stated that a skylight is the ideal window for illumination, but is not practical. It can only be used in the highest story or in one-story buildings, is hot in summer, and makes the room hard to heat in winter. Having stated these objections to it, it is usually dismissed and no attempt made to secure the best light possible through windows, the resource that is admittedly practical. The window should go all the way to the ceiling. The most im- portant reason for having high ceilings is to get high window space. Yet it is very common to sacrifice this by placing a foot or so of dead, useless wall above the top of the window. This foot, if utilized to admit light, would be worth more than 3 or 4 feet from the bottom of the average window. There are often mechanical difficulties about having the window beginjust at the ceiling, because there must be something solid to carry the joists of the floor above. But these difficulties are now readily over- comeby the use of a steel beam, with a flange at the bottom to carry the joists. In this way it becomes possible for the glass of the window to come within 3 inches of the level of the ceiling instead of 15-18 inches below it, as has generally been done. Use of shades. But the most popular method of keeping the school- rooms poorly lighted is the use of the shade placed at the top of a win- dow. If any shade is hung at the top of a window, it should be white, and of thin, translucent material, which will admit and diffuse all the light possible when the sun is shining directly on it, and it should be rolled up completely when the sun is not shining on it. Windows not exposed to the direct sun should never have shades at the top. A dark shade may be placed at the bottom of a window, when some- body has to face it, if the window is so low as to come down near to the level of the eyes. Windows in the schoolroom should be made to admit light ; this is their primary function, best performed if the bottom of the window is above the level of the eyes. This primary function should not be sacrificed in making the window so that it can be used to look out of. It would be better to make distinct openings for the two purposes. If the window comes just below the level of the eyes, a dark shade can be placed a few inches above the bottom of the window, permitting an outlook below it, but pulled up so as to shut off any direct view of the sky from eyes in the usual position for study for a space of about 2 feet, or approximately 20 degrees, above the level of the eyes of those sitting farthest from the window. This is the only proper use for a dark shade in connection with the daylight illumination of a school- room. If the necessary fixtures are not available for "hanging" the shade at the bottom, and drawing it up instead of down, it may be hung in the 312 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ National usual way, near the middle of the window, if white shades are placed at the top to diffuse direct sunlight. Even when nothing but the usual dark shade is available, it is gen- erally practicable to set it from 6 to 18 inches below the top of the glass, leaving a space above it through which the light from the sky can always enter and which will premit direct sunlight to fall in the room only at certain parts of the day and certain months in the year, when it may come so obliquely as to reach the opposite wall and not fall on the floor. The distance a curtain may be placed below the top of the window will depend partly on the extension of the lintel outward from the plane in which the curtain hangs, partly on the width of the room, and partly on the use made of that side of the room on which the sunshine, coming in above the shade, will fall. Lighting the ceiling.-The weakest point in utilizing daylight for the schoolroom is in the failure to light the ceiling, whence the light could be diffused in the normal direction downward upon the scholar's work. This can only be done by reflection. Occasionally reflectors placed out- side the building have been used to illuminate rooms by reflecting the light of the sky, obtained through a light well in the midst of closely crowded buildings. Schoolrooms should never have such meager access to daylight, but a highly polished inside shutter placed horizontally can be used to reflect light on the ceiling and at the same time prevent it from falling on the floor, where it tends to dazzle the eyes directed downward in perform- ing school tasks. Such a shutter should be fastened in place with a hinge that will allow it to be inclined at different angles to meet the differences in the inclinations of the sun's rays at different times in the year. It should extend beyond the sides of the window, so as to catch light that would reach the floor when the sun falls obliquely from the right or left of the window. Where the light is admitted through a series of windows placed close together the shutter should be continuous across the whole series. It should generally be about as wide as the distance it is placed below the top of the window-2 or 3 feet. More than one shutter can be used, placed at different heights before the win- dow, in which case the width should equal the interval between them. Such horizontal shutters will be useful chiefly on windows that receive the direct light from the sun during school hours, but sometimes a hor- izontal shutter that has a good reflecting surface will materially improve the lighting of the dark parts of the room by reflecting on the ceiling only the light of an unobscured north sky. Reflecting shutters outside the windows. For those buildings so placed that it is impossible to get sufficient clear sky space to furnish light through a lateral window, a reflecting shutter, placed outside the window so as to reflect light from the sky above upon the ceiling, may Council] DAYLIGHT IN THE SCHOOLROOM 313 be the only practical method of illumination. Such a reflector may be made of milk glass or frosted or fluted glass. It should be hinged like an inside horizontal shutter to adjust to different angles especially if the exposure is one where the direction of strong light will vary at different hours of the day. Light from any quarter.-Much has been written with regard to having a north light, of having the light come from but one side of the room, and of having it fall over the pupil's left shoulder. Sometimes the south exposure of a school building has been left a blank wall, wast- ing the opportunity for flooding a room or series of rooms with the light that was badly needed in them. Cohn declared his preference for a southern exposure. Risely has done the same, and has given reasons for his preference : "My own preference is, nevertheless, for rooms having an eastern, southern, and western exposure, so that at some time during each day they shall be bathed in a flood of sunshine. " " The greater cheerfulness and warmth of sun-bathed rooms and their com- parative healthfulness are not open to question." "It should be remem- bered also that, other things being equal, the light is better on the south side." Practices of doubtful wisdom. When the windows are placed high enough and furnished with the proper arrangement of shades or hori- zontal shutters, the light may be admitted from north, east, south, or west, or from all four quarters, and is better admitted on two or more sides of the room. Under the less suitable arrangements that are still common it has often been necessary, in order to save the scholars from facing the light, to compel the teacher to face it a large part of the time. In order that right-handed children should have the light coming over the left shoulder, the direction favorable for their writing, the left- handed children had the shadow of the hand thrown over the pen point, the most unfavorable position for them, and the blackboard and wall charts often had to be placed in unfavorable position or inconveniently crowded on the only side of the room available for them. When the windows are placed high enough, they do not shine un- pleasantly in the eyes of pupils or teacher facing that side of the room. The natural arrangement of brows and lashes and the inclination of the head effectively protect the eyes from unpleasant glare. Where the light comes in on two or three sides of the room, blackboards and charts may be placed below the window on sides opposite other windows and will receive an excellent illumination, while throwing all reflections from their polished surfaces down toward the floor instead of in the eyes looking at them. One further factor in the lighting of the room is the color and tint of its walls. The predominance of lighting from above is materially 314 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National increased by having everything above the level of the eyes in as light a tint as possible, either white or light yellowish or greenish in color. Below the level of the eyes walls, floor, and seats should be relatively dark and the surfaces not so highly polished as to give regular reflections that will be annoying. Instances of proper arrangement.-Where the room can be lighted from only one side it will always be best to have the length of the room parallel to the wall with the windows in it and its breadth limited accord- ing to the height of the ceiling. Thus, with a 12-foot ceiling the room should not be over 18 feet wide. The windows should begin at 6½ or 7 feet from the floor and extend as near to the ceiling as possible, and should take up as nearly the whole length of one side of the room as is compatible with the proper strength of the building. It is assumed that through such windows nothing will be visible ex- cept the clear sky from every part of the room where anything is placed that has to be looked at. If these windows open to the south, or to the east, or west, where the sun is liable to shine in during school hours, they must be furnished with light shades that can be used to intercept and diffuse the direct sunlight and drawn up entirely out of the way when the sun is not shining on that window. The matter of dark shades, to be drawn up from the bottom, is less important. If the bottom of the window is as high from the floor as mentioned it will cause little annoy- ance even when entirely unshaded. A room with 15-foot ceiling may be 20-25 feet wide and the bottom of the windows placed 7 or 8 feet from the floor. Ideal is diffuse sky light.If there are windows on both sides of the room, all having the proper outlook, it may be wider-30 feet for the 12-foot ceiling or 40 feet for the 15-foot ceiling. Light from one or both ends of the room, through windows of the proper height, cuts out some shadows and gives a more uniformly diffuse illumination, more nearly approaching the ideal of diffuse light from the sky. Excellent illumination can be secured by extremely simple means if only the importance of having the light come from above is properly appreciated. In Pueblo, Colo., are two small one-room school buildings, built upon a plan devised by Dr. R. W. Corwin, of that city, in which the rooms are as well lighted as any schoolrooms we have ever seen. Teacher or scholar may stand in any part of the room and look in any direction without encountering the slightest unpleasant glare and with adequate light on everything to be looked at. Except the door space and the small windows, placed low, to look out from, every foot of wall space below the main windows is available for blackboards and charts, which are better lighted than is possible in most sehoolrooms. The upper 4 feet of wall space on three sides is utilized for windows, each of which Council] THRIFT EDUCATION 315 is hung like a transom so that it can be opened for ventilation. On the two sides where the direct sunlight can fall on the windows a part of the day, the glass is " frosted" ; on the north side it is left clear. The frosted glass cuts down the illumination somewhat on cloudy days, and to this extent is inferior to light shades that could be drawn out of the way when the sun is not shining. But in spite of this, the light secured is far superior to that available in most schoolrooms. A point that should appeal to school authorities and taxpayers is that these "unit schoolhouses" cost, per scholar accommodated, less than half what such rooms cost in a grammar-school building built upon the usual plans in the same city at practically the same time. Essentials are few and simple. The essentials for good daylight illumination of schoolrooms are few and simple. 1. The selection of a site and plans such that neighboring trees or buildings shall in no case rise more than 15 degrees above the horizontal plane of the bottom of the windows. Large trees, so close to the walls that they can be trimmed up to clear an angle of 60 degrees with the horizon, may be permitted in warm climates, where it is important to keep down heat. 2. Placing the windows high enough to permit light from them to fall at an angle of 15 degrees to 40 degrees in the part of the room most distant from them, shutting off all glare of light below 15 degrees, and placing such windows on all sides of the room available, and especially to the south, where the most light is obtainable. 3. Controlling direct sunlight by light shades that will intercept and diffuse it, and drawn out of the way when not needed for this purpose. Placing all dark shades at the bottom of the window, and drawing them up only as needed to raise the level below which glare is excluded from the eyes. Using polished shutters that swing on a hori- zontal axis to reflect light on the ceiling when obstructions to clear sky render this help necessary. THRIFT EDUCATION ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE ON THRIFT EDUCATION, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION The Committee on Thrift Education of the National Education Association and National Council of Education has been studying the thrift problem since the formation of the committee in 1915. There has, since July, 1915, been no meeting of the Council of Education, at which a program has not been presented or a report of progress made. These reports and the papers, addresses, and discussions given at the various meetings have been published in the National Education Association Proceedings. 316 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Departing somewhat from the generally established order, the 1920 summer meeting and the 1921 February meeting took the form of conferences or round tables. These open forums have not precluded the studied paper or address. Especially valuable have they proved, however, in providing a place for the discussion of specific problems connected with thrift and conservation. Questions are asked and answered. Those who have introduced any phase of thrift education in the programs of their schools or who have made any application of thrift through the course of study or school activities, find an eager audience at these round tables. The round table or open forum is the best kind of clearing-house. Never was the need for thrift, practically applied, so great as at the present time. In city and country, among rich and poor alike, employers and employed, there is the most appalling carelessness and waste. The lessons of the war period seem to have been forgotten. To save and conserve is too often looked upon as indicating a miserly tendency ; to be free and open-handed, and wasteful even, indicate to the unthinking a large-hearted beneficence. The one who in every way strives to eliminate waste is at foundation a good citizen. Thrift is a fundamental in citizenship. The committee pleads for introduction into the course of study of the elementary school, the junior high school, the school of secondary grade, of the elements of such thriſt instruction as shall, through their application and practice, produce thrift habits-habits that will last through life. And the form of this thrift instruction: save the pennies and later the dimes and dollars ? yes; earn and invest? yes ! But the money side constitutes only one phase (although a most important phase to be sure) of thrift. There must be attention to proper earn- ing and saving and investing; and by all means to proper spending. Teach how wasted time may be used for profit and pleasure; how energy now dissipated may be applied to personal and community profit ; how observing the common laws of health and hygiene and mental and moral cleanliness means strong bodies and healthy minds ; how human conservation results in a race physically fit; and how to conserve national resources so commonly wasted-water and timber and fuel and all the rest-how to save these instead of wasting them. This is the field of thrift instruction . DISCUSSION constructive thrIFT AND ITS PLACE IN HUMANITY'S PROBLEMS S. W. STRAUS, President American Society for Thrift, New York, N. Y. It is indeed a great pleasure for me to appear again before this body of educators, for, as I look back over the last five years, I recall that the many occasions on which we have met for the discussion of plans for developing thrift Council] THRIFT EDUCATION 317 educational work in America have proved sources of great happiness and inspir- ation to me. Many of you who are here today were present when the first definite steps were taken toward the introduction of thrift teaching in the public schools. This was in 1915 when the International Congress for Thrift was held in Festival Hall, Panama-Pacific Exposition Grounds, San Francisco. It was then that a committee was appointed to enlist in this good work the co-operation and support of the National Education Association. At that time I gave voice to my conviction that history was being made that day and that the meeting marked a new milestone in our national progress. Today I am as firmly of the conviction as I was then, that the beginning made that day, will, in the fulfillment of time, prove to be a potent factor in human welfare. Progress in thrift education since then has been most satisfactory. We have not moved rapidly, but we have proceeded steadily for we have been mindful of the fact that we were blazing a new trail in educational endeavor and that in a matter of such vast importance it were better to move slowly and correctly than to proceed too hurriedly along lines that might prove to be false and incorrect. Although convinced from the beginning that the educational equipment of the child could be made more complete by the addition of thrift to the curri- culum, we have been aware of the countless dangers that might arise from the (ncouragement of unsound and illogical doctrines of thrift. What momentous events mankind has beheld since our committee took up this work five years ago ! What tremedous emphasis these events have given to the need for broad, constructive, upbuilding thrift by all men in all the coun- tries of the world ! History, with strong unerring hand, has written an indelible testimonial of mankind's universal need of thrift. And so our committee and those associated with us in this good work may feel that our labors and our experiences and the lessons that we have learned from the epochal events of the last half-decade have all served to impress upon us humanity's profound need of intelligent thrift education. Today we look out upon a different world from that which met our view five years ago. Mighty nations have fallen and new ones have been created. The map of the European continent has been redrawn. The sword of oppressive militarism has been broken forever. A new order of life has been established. But it comes to us with many strange, unfamiliar, and perplexing aspects. The most profound problems which humanity today is facing are those that spring from social unrest; and what the world most needs today is not only economic stabilization but social stabilization. There is a human impulse as immutable as the law of gravity which has ever driven mankind forward toward better and higher standards of living. Humanity today is groping toward those better standards. To some extent it is groping in the dark. But the grave unrest that is felt around the world is a manifestation of these natural and laudable impulses. Some of these manifestations are malignant and dangerous. Bolshevism has submerged Russia with its foul practices and unspeakable teachings. Its poison is spreading throughout the world and even in our own land so far away from the vortex of these sinister influ- ences, we are confronted with dangerous forces that cannot be overlooked. But I want to say, with all the emphasis at my command, that eventual and permanent good will come from all the discontent and social unrest that exists today around the world, for these grave problems of humanity will never be solved until they are settled on the side of eternal right, truth, and justice to all. This has ever been the rule of human progress. Out of the great crises and the conflict of ideals, right has always prevailed, because right 318 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASsociatioN [National and all things that are right endure, while all things that are evil must of their very nature come to an end. I hold the belief that human discontent within itself is not a vice. But its impelling influences must be directed along channels that are constructive rather than destructive. Ambition is the outgrowth of discontent, and education is but the expression of man's unwillingness to remain in the bondage of ignorance and illiteracy. Success is discontent expressed in terms of accom- plishment. In the solution of these great problems there are duties which devolve both on society and on the individual. First of all, society must give to the individual the right to live a clean, wholesome life and advance in the world; the individual must be willing to take advantage of these opportunities with all the power that lies within him. I know of no better way by which these guiding and stabilizing influ- ences can be put into operation than through an application of the principles of thrift; and I know of no way by which all humanity can gain a complete understanding of the principles of thrift save through the processes of education. We have only to review the events of the last few months to become convinced of the stabilizing influences of thrift. For example, in connection with one of the gravest labor upheavals since the Armistice, led by leaders of the utmost radicalism, the statement was made that not a single man who owned his own home was to be found among those who joined the ranks of the strikers. Bear in mind I am not attempting here to discuss any phase of the labor situation, except as it is affected by the stabilizing influences of thrift. What I have in mind is that the thrifty man is constructive in all his tendencies and activities. Thrift is a character tonic. Thrift brings content- ment of mind and upbuilding, while thriftlessness not only causes extravagance and idleness, but it leads at times to lawlessness and vice. Since the organization of the Committee on Thrift Education five years ago, we have been working continually with these two thoughts in mind: first, that humanity's gravest problems must be solved through thrift ; second, that humanity's correct conception of thrift, to a very great extent, must come through the medium of the schools. Here can be given in correct manner the all-important lessons of self-reliance and self-building. Heretofore, those who have practiced thrift have done so very largely as the result of inherited instincts. You who are engaged in educational work know how some children manifest a natural disposition to be thrifty while others show inherent characteristics of thriftlessness. But humanity's needs demand that a practical understanding of the principles of thrift must be universal, not accidental. To the end that those benefits shall be extended to an ever-widening circle of contact and that their upbuilding influences shall be bestowed upon posterity, the educational forces of this day have a most imperative duty to perform. Our committee, by reason of priority, has taken the leadership in this work and because of this we must continue these labors with redoubled efforts. With all the force and power at our command we must insist not only on the teaching of thrift in the schools, but we must insist that these teachings shall constitute correct principles of thrift. We must ever bear in mind that humanity has progressed from its crude primordial state because certain individuals of strong will and clear vision insisted on providing for the future. Our great cities throbbing with industry, our tremendous manu- facturing plants, our railroads, our steamship lines, and all the marvelous Council] THRIFT EDUCATION 319 physical equipment which mankind has wrought from the forests and fields and the treasures of the earth are the products of thrift and pay glorious tribute to the importance of the thrift principle in the scheme of civilization. Now, if we go down to the very root of these accomplishments we find that they have been brought about through the slow and steady processes of individual saving. Is it not of supreme importance then that these practices be developed along the most intelligent lines possible and by the greatest number of individuals ? It is the glorious opportunity as well as the solemn duty of our thrift committee and the good friends of the National Council of Education and the National Education Association to share in the great work of bringing about these things. We cannot get away from the fact that the world of tomorrow is sitting in the schoolroom of today. Manhood's deeds are mostly childhood's ideals and ambitions grown up. If humanity is to have the mate- rial, physical, mental, and moral values that come from thrift, the foundation must be laid in the schoolroom. And what is the thrift that must be taught? Unfortunately there has been a grave general misunderstanding of the true meaning of thrift. It has been looked upon and even encouraged as being a mere function of hoard- ing money. Now, the careful saving of money is one of the manifestations of the thrift principle. Money saving is one of the good children of the thrift family, but there are many other children in the family equally as good. It is to be remembered in this connection that one of the most practical values of true thrift lies in the fact that it gives to the individual the sense of correct money valuation. Money is a mere symbol of wealth, and its true worth is only to be measured by the power it contributes as a constructive force in human welfare. Its correct value can be judged only by these stand- ards. The possession of money, gained through thrift and rightful industry, gives the poise necessary to human happiness and success, but the gaining of money merely for the sake of possession, without thought of the good and rightful uses to which it can be applied, is not within the meaning of true thrift. The most concise and comprehensive possible definition of true thrift may be stated in two words : Eliminate waste. That always has been the basis of all true thrift practice and must be the basis of all correct thrift education. Eliminate waste ! The mind can travel very far before it reaches the end of the possibilities for human betterment, both economic and social, which spring from the consistent practice of this simple rule. If we eliminate waste of time and energy we shall have labor and capital sitting down at the same table, and, in recognition of their complete mutual interdependence, discussing methods of harmonious industrial betterment. If we eliminate the waste of human material we shall have the most humane and practical basis for our philanthropies and charities. Eliminate the waste that springs from false pride and habits of extravagance and we shall have an end to much of the vice that now rules the world. Eliminate the waste of ignorance of common business understanding and we shall have an end of the pitiful losses of those who are the victims of fraudulent investment. Eliminate the waste of false and unwholesome standards of living and we shall have the con- structive benefits that come from well-regulated habits and clean morals. One of the chief beneficial functions of thrift is that it imparts the power of decision through which the individual is able to hold true to the course he knows to be for his best interests. Another truth which must be made a funda- mental of education is that the man or woman who cannot save money under adverse circumstances will never save under advantageous ones. The experi 320 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National ences of countless persons have been that it is just as difficult to save money from a large income as it is from a small one. Many a man who began to save in the midst of great hardships has been surprised at the rapidity with which good fortune began to smile upon him. True thrift is always constructive from the standpoint alike of the in- dividual and of society. It is not narrow in its conception or miserly in its manifestations for, just as thriftlessness leads to vice, so miserliness often leads to dishonesty. In laying the foundation of thrift education it must be borne in mind also that the individual owes unselfish duties to his fellowmen. One must, through prudent and well-advised channels, do his share in eliminating the waste which sometimes comes, as it does in America today, from unem- ployment, closed factories, and slackened business. We must never be unmindful of the sacred duties of good citizenship, and, as far as our means permit, we must practice the greater thrift of giving encouragement to the fine and ennobling arts and the handicraft of the skilled artisan. Paintings, literature, music, superior types of mechanical construc- tion, landscape gardening, fine roadways, beautiful buildings, and great cities- all have their rightful place in the scheme of human progress. It is within the meaning of the greater thrift that those who can within their means give rightful encouragement to these things should do so. It is the broad, general understanding of all these truths that humanity must learn as a fundamental part of educational equipment. In brief, there must be taught the great truth that those who do not practice thrift are out of step with the eternal march of humanity. It seems strange that the substantial principles of thrift never have been taught in our schools. Washington, Franklin, Lincoln, and many others of the nation's immortals, counselled the teachings of this virtue. Washington said: "Economy means happy homes and sound nations. Instil it deep." What Washington saw with clear vision was that the happiness of our people and the onward march of this nation depended very largely on thrift, which should be taught correctly to the rising generations. History's page has ever revealed that thrifty nations prosper and thriftless ones pass away, for thrift is but another name for economic self-preservation and if we question its necessity as a fundamental of education, we must question the function of self-preservation as the first law of nature. And so my friends, it seems to me that the duty of our committee in this matter is clear. You have heard today of some of the good things that are being accomplished, but we have only made a beginning. We must not be satisfied with past accomplishments nor discouraged by the vastness of our task. We must press on with steadfast spirit, encouraged by the fact that more and more the people of this great nation are coming to realize the priceless need of teaching thrift in the schools. Let us remember that it is not a duty to be performed in a day or in a week or in a year. It is a great work in which the slow processes of time must contribute their solidifying influence. If we keep truth and justice and right as our guiding principles we may be safe in our assumption that we are adding at least a mite to the sum total of human welfare, and that in all the days that are to come the work we are planning now shall redound to the glory of American education and to the everlasting benefit of all humanity. Council] THRIFT EDUCATION 321 SCHOOL THRIFT ORGANIZATIONS JUSTIN F. KIMBALL, Superintendent of school, Dallas, Texas. It is a funda- mental rule of practice in our schools that they are not to be used as a medium of publicity and propaganda by outside agencies, however praiseworthy and public spirited. Neither the children nor the teachers are subjected to the in- terruption of various drives, save as the causes are a feature of the school planned in, by, and for, the schools. During the war, even more than in times of peace, this practice proved a boon to both teachers and pupils, conserving their time and interest and preventing their exploitation in many ways. In order to foster the various patriotic activities that were so vitally a part of our school life during the war, such as Red Cross, Liberty Bond, and Thrift Drives, and also to prevent working at cross purposes, we evolved an organization among the schools known as the four-minute teachers. This consisted of representatives chosen in each building by principals and teachers, through whom all drives, propaganda, and other interests found their way to pupils and by whom all organization and work along these lines were planned and carried out. At the close of the war the Thrift Drive was the last " hang-over." In the Brown school-an elementary school of about 900 pupils the four-minute teacher was Miss Nan Edmiston, the Senior departmental teacher of English, a young woman of charm, personality, and organizing ability, and it is of her scheme that I shall tell, as it has become the type of our school thrift banks throughout the city and the Eleventh Federal Reserve District. According to our regulations, no collections of any kind may be taken in the schools for any cause, and a teacher may not require or ask a child to bring money to school for any purpose or receive money from children-and no outside organization, business or civic, may take a collection in school. We try to make our schools in the fullest sense "public free schools." The only things sold at school are lunches and thrift stamps. The schools serve warm lunches at cost and the pupils maintain a depository for the sale of Thrift Stamps , out of which grew the so-called thrift banks, banks which do not accept deposits, make loans, or cash checks. As the basis of the thrift organization, Miss Edmiston divided her eighth- year English pupils into committees, one for each room of the lower grades, and sent these pupils, two by two, as thrift messengers to preach the gospel of thrift to the smaller children. Each committee was assigned a special room as its charge, and visited this room once a week, being allowed ten minutes in which to speak, to get reports from the children of the room, and to give assistance and encouragement. Then these pupils came back to their own rooms to compare notes and to counsel with the thrift teacher. This device has proved a powerful influence for knitting together the older and younger children, and has promoted mutual respect and interest, an influence felt on the playground and outside the schools a big sister and big brother relation- ship. A small boy always feels he has a champion and counsellor in the big boy who is his room committeeman, while the feeling of civic responsibility is fine for the older children. The first thrift bank was started with a "revolving fund" of ten dollars, which the parent-teachers organization later augmented. This fund is in the custody of the cashier who exchanges thrift stamps. No teacher handles either money or stamps, but the teachers audits the books and cash box. The teller enters on his books as credits to each pupil a memorandum of the stamps as they are placed in the stampbook and likewise credits each pupil with the amounts shown in his savings-bank passbook, or with amounts receipted 322 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National as paid on an investment, such as a lot-for some of our newsboys have bought vacant lots since this began and are paying for them by monthly instalments. We insist always that the saved penny is the earned penny, that begging father for a quarter to buy a stamp is not thrift. The thrift messengers take as much pride in the achievement of the smaller pupils to whose room they go, as in their own personal record, and spread the news of any success, thus effectively helping to make public opinion for thrift both in earning, saving, and investing. Many children of foreign- born parents have brought from their hiding places substantial sums, $40 or $50 in some instances, and have bought Thrift Stamps or made deposits in saving banks usually the first contact of the family with American banking institutions. The children who have savings listed in the school thrift bank are each given a button which entitles them to vote in their rooms at the election of bank directors. These room directors choose the officials of the school thrift bank. Recently an eleven-year-old bank president and a nine-year-old teller appeared before a district congress of mothers and made thrift-bank talks and were later taken to the State Congress of Mothers at San Antonio where they appeared on the mothers' program and where they also addressed the Rotary Club and one of the high schools. These young officials were as anxious to "sell the idea" as any grown-up promoter organizing a big cor- poration. In another school there is practically no sale for thrift stamps. The people are necessitous and want their savings to be liquid assets immediately available in the hour of need which comes all too often. The principal of the school observing this fact discussed the wisdom of organizing a school savings bank. This plan was objectionable for these reasons : (I) under our state law no one may set himself up to receive deposits without complying with state banking regulations : (2) our teachers are not allowed to receive or to accept money from children for any purpose, nor would any city bank- ing institution be permitted to establish a branch in the school; (3) a school savings bank, however efficient it might be, could not extend its influence beyond school days or outside the circle of school children. The fathers and mothers of the district had but scanty experience of banks and banking. The pay-checks were usually cashed Saturday night by the corner grocery, and in time of need their loans were most often negotiated at the "sign of the three gilt balls;" many of the parents had never been in a reputable bank- ing institution, so a school savings bank would not meet the needs adequately. Instead, one school day each week the principal, or his clerk, and a committee of older children take all pupils kindergarten, primary or intermediate-that have funds to deposit, to the four savings banks of the city, each child being helped to make his deposit in a real bank of his personal choice. A group of forty or fifty poorly clad children on such an errand in the financial district always attracts attention and invites comment, and some of the parents of this school are beginning to find the way to the banks also. The children take great pride in these weekly pilgrimages and bring their passbooks back to have the entries made in the books of the school thrift bank. This is a district, too, that is strong for the home school garden, and whatever a pupil sells from his garden may be credited on his school thrift account when he brings the proper proofs. The whole community is coming to be proud of the children's gardens and of their accounts in the savings banks-a pride most desirable in this particular part of the city. Council] THRIFT EDUCATION 323 In the high schools this thrift work is linked with a kind of clearing- house for employment of pupils outside of school hours, and also with the work of the vocational guidance counselors. We have many more calls for pupils' services than we can supply and thus we find opportunity to guide our youth away from blind-alley jobs. The weekly earnings of pupils in one of our high schools was recently laid on my desk and shows a total for the week of $1838.00. Some of the employments are collector, salesman, auto- mobile repairing, waiter, moving-picture operator, stenographer, and news re- porter. Three out of every four of our white pupils enter high school, so that through these allied thrift organizations in the high schools we hope to wield a vital and far-reaching influence on our coming citizenry. Last spring the pupils in the Brown School earned and saved nearly $10,000, as accounted for through their school thrift bank. More than 400 other elementary and high schools, rural and urban have followed this plan. It would be easy to give figures running into millions as to the aggregate of the savings in Dallas and in the Eleventh Federal Reserve District, but the value of such a movement as this does not depend upon spasmodic intensity, but upon steadily nurtured and persistently developed public sentiment toward earning, saving, and investing. WHAT THRIFT TEAchings DEVELOP IN THE CHILD C. H. DEMPSEY, State Commissioner of Education, Montpelier, Vt. I have been interested in thrift ever since I sat with this Committee of the National Council in Detroit in 1916. Mr. Straus, I recall, addressed us at that time. Since then I have had the privilege of sitting at Washington with a National Committee, whose task it was to draw up a practical course of study in thrift for use in the public schools. Later, this course of study was taken in hand by a committee in New England, and worked over to fit with the work done in New England schools. It is interesting to note what the trend has been. When we teach arithmetic, for instance, we take up percentage, fractions, and so on, and see that they are thoroughly taught. We take up grammar and see that it is mastered. When we draw up a course of study with the purpose of training children to be good citizens, the fundamental things con- sidered for the curriculum are arithmetic, English, history, geography, and the like. We do this, not for the development of the subjects primarily, but for the development of the children, that they may grow up to be good men and women. That is what has taken place in the course of thrift. In Washington we tried to construct a course that would lead to a mastery of the art of saving and investing money, the conservation of time, the avoid- ance of waste of material resources, but we did not appreciate the fact that this was another feature for the better education of children. We have finally come to see that thrift is one of the objectives of school work, permeating the whole group of our activities rather than a distinct subject. We recognize this truth in Miss Harris' discussion of what is being done in Pittsburgh. That is exactly the history of the thing we are doing in New England, which is the home of thrift. I shall sketch briefly the development of the matter in New England, giving emphasis to four points. A definition. Out of our experience has come a definition of thrift. We have come to realize that thrift means not only the saving and earning of the medium of exchange-the material things. It has come also to mean the elimination of waste of all kinds, as so well brought out by Miss Harris-the waste of materials, time, and resources-national, civic, and individual. It 324 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ National has come to mean the avoidance of exploitation. It is both illuminating and distressing to drive through New England and see how the forests have been exploited. We have a tremendous task there in the avoidance of exploitation, destruction of resources. We have come to see that thrift means a large pro- gram of conservation, extending from toothpicks to national resources of mate- rial things. I have been glad, in traveling up and down Vermont, to find in the forests that there are little trees growing. Sometimes I wish thrift movements would strike our Congress. There is a chance for a great work there. Perhaps we will secure thrift appreciation through the children. Thrift has come to mean development of resources. We must include wise spending and investment, not only of cash, but of all things we have given to us in the way of wealth, considering wealth in a very broad sense. Finally, we must include in our idea of thrift, not merely the accumulation of wealth for personal gain, but enriching service, the render- ing of greater service to those about us. That is my conception of thrift, so stated as to indicate progress toward a comprehensive definition. The objectives. We have come to realize more fully than formerly that the real objectives are not found merely in exploiting the subject. Objectives must pass over into personal accomplishments. The objectives are the per- sonal efficiency of the individual and good economic and social judgment. We have had some strong examples on the negative side in the last few years, in inflated wages and high prices, but I doubt whether the savings of those who were receiving enormous wages were as large as they should have been. Good economics we have had drilled into us, but there is much still to be done in the developinent of our judgment. The object of thrift includes also personal development toward which all education tends. For years we have conceived that the genius of American education is the development of the individual, and it is not complete unless it goes over into one other objective, that of making better citizens and members of society. Thrift habits. Another object is the development of thrift habits. These habits are emphasized by applying the sound principles of learning by doing. Most emphatically, such work in thrift as finds expression through the Junior Red Cross-the doing of health chores, avoidance of accidents-all look toward the formation of thrift habits. What part shall thrift play in our school work ? We have, I believe, come to understand that thrift is not a separate subject but an integral part of our school work, the modification of our general school activities. The purpose of our regular courses of study is not merely to teach the content of the text- books and to provide for passing the examination. The purpose is somehow to put into the child's personality a new force and power, so that on going out from the school the boy or girl shall have reached a higher plane of efficiency. Every course of study that we draw up must be so modified and developed as to emphasize clearly the value of thrift in its largest definition. Means of attainment. The means of attainment must be clearly borne in mind. In thrift we must attain our ends largely through the performance of specific tasks. The little pageant enacted yesterday morning at Young's Pier was precisely a thing of this kind. It exemplified the vast amount of real work going on in the schools of Atlantic City. All of this tends to develop strong American citizens, instead of handicapped individuals. The work made necessary during the war through home gardens and the raising of food of commercial value is in this line. Civic service, expressed through clean propaganda in the homes for hygiene, sanitation, observance of law, school lessons, is the direct responsibility that boys and girls have to bear. All of Council] THRIFT EDUCATION 325 our work in school savings-purchase of thrift stamps, and so on-is admirable. But we must save for some worthy object-a victrola to add to the musical life of the home, education, or some other laudable purpose. We see the application of thrift in actual practice in the industrial clubs, such as the "Happy Jack" Clubs, where learning by doing finds a place. These are specific tasks through the practice of which habit is acquired. Habits create character. We attain these things through practice in the schoolroom and by using the school as a means for guiding and directing children at home. We have come to see that the fundamental genius of thrift is instruction in and through the schools. This tends toward making us more practical, valuable, and more highly inspired citizens. THE BUSINESS OF LIVING BY FLORENCE BARNARD, Chairman Thrift Committee, Massachusetts Federa- tion of Teachers. It is very interesting to note the many different angles from which the subject of thrift is considered. These all seem, however, to focus on one point and that is the making of life worth while. We were having a little talk one day in one of our schoolrooms, the pupils ranging in age from thirteen to seventeen. I asked them to frame their ideas on what constitutes success. The following replies are typical as definitions of success: (1) to earn and save enough in early life to be able to live without working in later life; (2) to do for others ; (3) to live up to one's highest ideals. It is today, of course, we live. Considered from this point of view I wish to call attention to the fact that many people of the present day are following the principle "live today." This can be done with safety only when "saving and giv- ing" have been attended to. The day of haphazard living is passing. It has been responsible for incal- culable waste. We see it on every hand. But in an age of scientific research, when the highest intelligence is being used for highest purposes, there is, and there will be in the future, no excuse for it. We are on the threshhold of an era when the business of living is to be a foundation or background for real living-for life more free and more abundant. In the business world it has been proved over and over again that clear thinking, strict adherence to sound principle, and system lead to success. The individual in the management of his own personal affairs cannot do better than adopt the same course. Now, no business can be conducted successfully without bookkeeping, and there we encounter the first difficulty when applied to the individual. The majority of people tell us they either can't, or can't be bothered to keep personal accounts . They are in about the same attitude of mind as the small boy who doesn't bother to brush his teeth or clean his nails until mother gets after him . But when mother does, and habit becomes established, it is as much a part of everyday living as dressing and eating. And when he arrives at the age of rea- son, he sees for himself that health, and his place in society depend upon such habits. So mental health, and, in the long run, one's place in society, depend upon habits of management of economic affairs, and bookkeeping is a funda- menta! need for that. Money may be saved, given, and spent. Saving should come first, for one cannot carry on business without capital. Saving systematically and investing carefully means capital always on hand, and in emergency, capital prevents failure. A PLAN FOR A WELL- ROUNDED LIFE SAVING ( 10-20%) GIVING ( 5-10 %) THRIF S E SPENDING (70-85 %) U X N I E Housing C S C Operating Board Food E T C S Clothing E S Laundry E T N I C T Transportation S E I Health E S Incidentals S Necessities Comforts ‫ד‬ BETTERMENTS Ji Luxuries Reading Recreation Spiritual Uplift Improvement Council] THRIFT EDUCATION 327 Assume that at the age when one is beginning to earn, say in the early twenties, one begins to save systematically, not less than 10 per cent nor more than 20 per cent of the earnings. By investing safely at compound interest until the age of sixty, one may have accumulated enough to retire and to be able to maintain the same standard of living after retirement as before. This statement may easily be worked out mathematically. Giving generously is also good business. It is an investment of capital which yields highest returns, but in the joy of giving one forgets the returns . To give not less than 5 per cent nor more than 10 per cent-the Biblical standard -is just to self and others. When the income is very small, 5 per cent is proportionate, and even this may be turned homeward exclusively when there are dependents and actual need. It is "not what we give but what we share" that counts. Through saving, giving the more is made possible. The remaining 70-85 per cent may then be spent without jeopardizing the future. To spread the spending portion over both "necessities" and "better- ments" shows good business management. If one is not by nature a manager, the ability may be acquired by watching or studying expenditures, and by com- parison from month to month. This formula suggests the development of character. A fair mind, a warm heart, and a strong will constitute the cardinal elements of character Saving requires strength of will, giving springs from warmth of heart, and pending wisely indicates mental balance. One must have "betterments" in order to live up to ideals. Not to have "betterments" leads to bankruptcy and poverty of soul. "Betterments " suggests an economic use of leisure time and the supreme value of today. 'Tis today we live. With every rising of the sun, Think of your life as just begun. The past has cancelled and buried Deep all yesterdays. There let them sleep. Concern yourself with but today. Grasp it, and teach it to obey Your will and plan. Since time began, Today has been the friend of man. To read a little; to have refreshments from nature, art, music and travel, if may be; to seek spiritual help and grace through daily prayer and affiliation with some church (the fact that 65 per cent of the population of οι : country are not affiliated with any church should furnish food for thought) ; to realize as early in life as possible that growth, mental and spiritual, shc ild never cease while life lasts-these are ideals which may become realities through the wise management of money and time. For these there is universal hunger, especially when education whets the appetite. "Betterments ," so-called, are in truth necessities for everyone, bu especially for teachers, who, directly and indirectly, consciously and unconsciously, influ- ence the lives of the citizens of the present and the future. I would that teachers might be the first to learn thoroughly the business of living as the most direct route to its understanding by the masses. And the teacher of today who does learn to make a success of the business of living-has a wonderful opportunity, in a world of materialism and extravagance, to demonstrate that it is not necessary to do business on a large scale in order to be successful and to be happy. 328 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National THRIFT-CIVICS ADA VAN STONE HARRIS, Pittsburgh, Pa.-My treatment of this subject is a very simple one, indeed. I am to tell you briefly what we are doing along the lines of thrift in Pittsburgh. Here, as well as in other cities of the United States, we are applying the principles of thrift and have various committees at work. Last spring we spent much time in the review of our course of study in history and civics. We felt that such subjects as thrift, that have been thrown into our course by the pressure of war, should become a permanent part of it. Throughout the city teachers are taking in hand different phases of these thrift activities. As the work develops, we shall modify it to meet exist- ing needs. Our general aim is to show the true meaning of patriotism, to implant ideas of a perfect citizenship to the end that the child may habitually have a right attitude of mind and of action toward his fellows and toward himself. "We recognize in laying out this course that in the idea lies the great historical force; in the ideas are the great moral potencies." In order to establish this idea in the minds of the children, we must begin to guide them early. It is well to commence before they begin school life. It is certainly imperative that the work be taken up not later than entrance to school. From the very first we lay down the underlying principle of citizenship, gov- erned by good will, expressed in service-efficient democracy. "For we are mem- bers one of another"-this being strongly emphasized throughout the grades. The central idea of the first year is promptness and carefulness in home and school. This is thrift of time. We encourage promptness in leaving home and in returning, and we believe in keeping after this from every angle. Then there is thrift of talent in the use of what would be waste materials. Some of the teachers have done remarkable work in this respect. During the past years the lack of materials has been a problem and many of the teachers have shown unusual initiative in reclaiming waste. Charming furniture for dolls has been made out of empty match and candy boxes. The children save almost everything now, bon-bon paper wrappers, tin foil, button molds, empty spools. In fact, nothing is thrown away that could be put to any possible use. This reclamation has developed ideas in both teachers and pupils, and has opened their eyes to the use of what ordinarily would be discarded. Then we have thrift of energy, and teach the pupils to obey directions and to be governed by self-control. On losing his temper, one of the little boys was reminded that he was losing control, and thereby wasting. He turned ana walked back to his seat. At the end of the day, on asking how many children had done their very best, it was learned that three- fourths had not. It was then pointed out that there was a lack of thrift in energy and material. We teach that thrift of effort means good work at home and at school. It is very distressing to note the waste of material in public schools. The children will write a few words on a piece of paper and on making a mistake will crumple it up and throw it away. The same waste is true of other supplies. Not only is encouragement given for thrift in materials and school supplies, but in the care of toys and of clothing and of personal effects. In every succeeding grade we add one additional phase-one new point to be emphasized to the points already brought out. In addition to thrift of time, of talent, of energy, of effort, of material, there is thrift of food, bringing to the attention of the pupils the amount of food necessary and the kind best suited for their growth. Then, there is thrift of health, which is of extreme importance. We caution children to avoid getting their feet wet and against running out without wraps in cold weather. They are taught to use the handkerchief when coughing or Council] THRIFT EDUCATION 329 sneezing, and to go to bed early. These simple rules emphasized day after day count for thrift in health, and undoubtedly bring good results. Last on our list we have thrift of money. We have been encouraged here by Thrift Stamp sales. Part of one's earnings should be saved and invested, "A penny saved is a penny earned." In order to establish the ideas and ideals in our daily work, we review briefly the matters we have taken up. The next year we drill in the old things and add from time to time one new thing. In the second year it is pleasing to note the improvement in the pupils; the development of character; the added industry and perseverence of the children. I thoroughly believe that this training, simple as it is, is essentially helpful and necessary in training future citizens, and we are hopeful of results. This is the story of what one city is trying to do toward thrift. Its results are very gratifying. OUTLINE of CIVICS-THRIFT GRADE I CENTRAL IDEA : Promptness and carefulness in home and school "A penny saved is a penny earned." Thrift of time Promptness in leaving home Promptness in returning home Thrift of talent Use of waste material Thrift of energy Obey directions Self-control Thrift of effort Good work at home Good work at school Thrift of material Care of clothing Care of toys Care of school supplies Thrift of food Amount necessary Kind best suited for growth Thrift of health Avoid getting feet wet Avoid running out without wraps in cold weather Use handkerchief when coughing or sneezing Go to bed early Thrift of money Save part of it Buy Thrift Stamps GRADE II CENTRAL IDEA: Promptness, carefulness, and perseverence in home and school and neighborhood "Waste not, want not." Thrift of time Promptness in doing errands Promptness in leaving home Promptness in returning home Thrift of talent Selecting waste material for constructive activities 330 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Thrift of energy Quick response Self-control Obeying directions Thrift of effort Thoroughness in work Good work at school Thrift of material Care of clothing Care of toys Care of school supplies Thrift of food Source and freshness of food and water Amount necessary Kind best suited for growth Thrift of health Care of teeth Use of handkerchief when sneezing and coughing Keeping bodies and clothing clean Avoid getting feet wet Avoid running out without wraps in cold weather Go to bed early Thrift of money Unnecessary expenditure for pencil, paper, chalk, etc. Save part of it Buy Thrift Stamps GRADE III CENTRAL IDEA : Promptness, carefulness, perseverance, and generosity in home, school, neighborhood, and community "Habit is ten times nature." Thrift of time Promptness in attendance and lessons Promptness in doing errands Promptness in leaving Promptness in returning home Thrift of talent Adaptation of waste material Selection of waste material Use of waste material Thrift of energy To find and give the best Quick response Obey directions Thrift of effort Thoroughness in work Good work at home Good work at school Thrift of material Care of clothing Care of toys Care of school supplies Council) THRIFT EDUCATION 331 Thrift of food Care of food- value of cold storage Source and freshness of food and water Amount necessary Kind best suited for growth Thrift of health Report unsanitary conditions in the neighborhood Be careful of things we borrow and lend Sleep with open windows Care of teeth Use handkerchief when sneezing and coughing Keep bodies and clothing clean Avoid running out without wraps in cold weather Go to bed early Thrift of money Careful expenditure : quality rather than quantity Unnecessary expenditure for pencils, paper, chalk, etc. Save a part of it Buy Thrift Stamps Share with others who need it MRS. S. L. OBERHOLTZER.-The School Savings Plan, which is only a part of the great thrift movement, was started about twenty-five years ago. We used little cards at that time, which are still in use even now in many of the schools. This was the original School Savings System which Mr. Thiry brought over from Belgium and started in the schools of Long Island City, New York, in 1895. My idea of the object of "thrift" is to eliminate poverty and to a great extent, lessen crime. I advanced this work through organizations such as the World's and National Woman's Christian Temperance Union of which organi- zations I am president, by trying to eliminate the drinking habit and convincing people they should not use liquor. Here in Atlantic City we have a School Savings Bank of the old system. Many of the boys of Atlantic City have sent themselves to the normal school in Trenton out of their thrift savings. I have a letter from Mr. Henderson, Commissioner of Education in Alaska, saying their schools are planning to take up this work. He had been through the general schools in the territory and he wants more of thrift litera- ture to distribute. KATHERINE D. BLAKE, Principal Public School No. 6, New York, N. Y.- I wish to emphasize the fact that it is not right to say, "Let's get back to the old idea of economy." There was waste in the old days. The other day I was looking in my grandmother's cookbook and could find not one recipe for a cake that called for less than a dozen eggs . I am glad that the work of this committee has resulted in placing emphasis on thrift, not merely from the viewpoint of money. We now hear of thrift in talent, thrift in health, thrift in energy, in food, in time, in strength. 332 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National SECRETARY'S MINUTES DES MOINES MEETING OFFICERS President-HOMER H. SEERLEY, president State Teachers' College .......... Cedar Falls, Iowa, Vice-President-JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, state superintendent of public instruction .... ......Olympia, Wash. Secretary-ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, federal agent for home economics..Washington, D. C. FIRST SESSION-FRIDAY MORNING, JULY 1, 1921 The meeting was called to order by the president at 9:30 A. M. in the Ball- room of the Hotel Fort Des Moines . The president gave a brief address on THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER IN THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM . This was followed by a preliminary report from Milton Bennion, chairman of the Committee on CITIZENSHIP AND CHARACTER EDUCATION, outlining the plan and policy of the committee for the study of its problems. Mr. Bennion then took charge of the Round Table dis- cussion on the proposed work of this committee inviting J. H. Phillips, a member of his Committee to discuss the PLACE OF RELIGIOUS SANCTIONS IN CHARACTER TRAINING. In the general liscussion that followed John R. Kirk, Cora Wilson Stewart, Mary C. C. Bradford, W. P. Evans, J. M. Gwinn, Olive Jones, Adelaide S. Baylor, and T. A. Mott participated. The chairman of the committee recommended that the committee topic be made simply Character EDUCATION in order not to conflict with the study of another committee dealing with CITIZENSHIP, and that the work be continued and a permanent committee appointed. On motion, these recommendations were approved, and the present com- mittee continued. SECOND SESSION, FRIDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 1, 1921 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:00 P. M., in the Ball- room of the Hotel Fort Des Moines. On recommendation of President Seerley, the Council created a new type of membership to be known as active ex-officio membership and to apply to the U. S. Commissioner of Education who, because of the numerous demands upon his time at the N. E. A. and elsewhere, is unable to retain membership in the Council under the present ruling, which makes such membership expire by absence from meetings two successive years. By this action J. J. Tigert, recently appointed U. S. Commissioner of Education, became a member of the Council. The report of the membership committee was read by the Secretary and unanimously approved. The report follows : Your committee on membership submits the following recommendation for filling vacan- cies in office and in membership in the Council and the disposition of requests for excused absences. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE ( 1 ) Anna Laura Force-term expiring in 1921, to succeed her- self with term expiring in 1924. MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE (1 ) Carroll G. Pearse-term expiring in 1921, to succeed himself with term expiring in 1924. (2) J. Stanley Brown-term expiring in 1921, to succeed himself with term expiring in 1924. MEMBERSHIP- Class of 1921-terms expiring in 1927, to succeed themselves-May Trumper, Helena, Mont.; Georgia Alexander, Indianapolis, Ind.; W. A. Lewis, Hayes, Kans.; D. B. Waldo, Kala- mazoo, Mich.; J. H. Wagner, Las Vegas, N. M.; I. I. Cammack, Kansas City, Mo.; N. C. McDonald, Bismark, N Dak.; Annie Webb Blanton, Austin, Tex.; J. E. Burke, Boston, Mass.; David B. Corson, Newark, N. J. to succeed L. L. Wright, (membership lapsed) . Class of 1916-terms expiring in 1922. Minnie Nielson, Bismark, N. Dak., to succeed J. Y. Joyner, (membership lapsed) . Council] DES MOINES MEETING 333 Class of 1918-terms expiring in 1924. P. E. McClenahan, Des Moines, Iowa, to succeed W. H. Elson, (membership lapsed) . Class of 1919-terms expiring 1925. Miss Anna Willson, Crawfordsville, Ind., to succeed Mrs. Una B. Herrick, resigned. Thomas D. Wood, New York, N. Y., to succeed Thomas D. Miller, (membership lapsed) . Class of 1920-terms expiring 1926. Frank B. Gilbert, Albany, N. Y., to succeed P. P. Claxton, (membership lapsed). P. P. Claxton, J. Y. Joyner, Thomas C. Miller and W. H. Elson were placed on the Honorary Active list. Eligibles to supply new vacancies in the Council membership of appointees by the Council are as follows: M. G. Clark, Sioux City, Iowa. Willou Gray, Columbia, S. C. Lida T. Tall,, Towson, Md. Emma T. Wilkins, Ft. Collins, Colo. E D. Dillinghurst, Reno, Nev. Elsie Toles, Phoenix, Ariz. The Committee further recommends that the National Education Association be advised of vacancies in the Council membership to be supplied by that body and requested to sup- ply such vacancies from the eligibles agreed upon the preceding year and prepare a new list of eligibles for new vacancies. Letters or telegrams came from fifteen members asking for their absences from this meeting to be excused as important local matters would detain them until too late to attend the Council meeting. The committee reviewed and filed the correspondence and recommends that the absences be excused as requested. (Signed) H. H. Seerley, chairman, ex-officio Cora Wilson Stewart John R. Kirk Carroll G. Pearse A. S. Baylor, Secretary, ex officio. With the approval of the Council the president appointed J. F. Sims and A. J. Matthews as a committee to join the secretary in presenting to the President of the National Education Association, the recommendations of the Council for the filling of vacancies in the Association list of membership in the Council. A request from Dr. Yocum, Chairman of the COMMITTEE ON DEMOCRACY APPLIED TO EDUCATION, that the title of his committee be changed to THE COM- MITTEE ON THE TEACHING OF DEMOCRACY was granted. The program was then turned over to John F. Sims, chairman of the Com- MITTE OF RURAL SCHOOLS. This committee was scheduled to give at this time reports of progress in its work. These reports were presented as follows : TEACHER TRAINING AND DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS-John F. Sims, chairman. CONSOLIDATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS-Adelaide S. Baylor ; J. C. Muerman. THE CURRICULUM OF RURAL SCHOOLS- H. W. Foght. IMPROVING RURAL SCHOOLS BY STANDARDIZATION- Edith A. Lathrop. RURAL RECREATION AND SOCIAL LIFE-Macy Campbell. TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS-Fred D. Cram. CAN ADFQUATE SUPPORT BE SECURED FOR RURAL SCHOOLS ?-George L. Towne. A general discussion followed these reports in which the following took part: John F. Sims, H. H. Seerley, A. E. Winship, Margaret McNaught, Arthur Chamberlain, and C. P. Cary. THIRD SESSION- SATURDAY MORNING, JULY 2, 1921 The meeting was called to order by the president at 9:30 A. M. in the Ball- room of the Fort Des Moines Hotel. The program was opened by Fred M. Hunter, President, National Education Association, in a greeting to the members of the Council. In the symposium that followed, the progress of the year, in various phases of education, was given in brief addresses by W. A. Jessup, W. A. Brandenburg, J. M. Gwinn, and Carroll G. Pearse. In the absence of P. P. Claxton, former U. S. Commissioner of Education, who was to speak on GENERAL PROGRESS IN EDUCATION FOR THE YEAR, J. J. Tigert, the present U. S. Commissioner of Education, spoke on the organization of the 334 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Bureau of Education and his plans and policies for conducting the Bureau that it might be of the largest service to the educators of the country. In the absence of Helen C. Putman, chairman of the committee on RACIAL WELL-BEING, the report of that committee was read by the secretary. The report of the committee on EXTENSION EDUCATION was presented by Lewis H. Minkel, chairman of the committee. At the request of Mr. Minkel, the following gave brief reports of extension work with which they were identified or associated in their respective official capacities ; Irving H. Hart, Cedar Falls, Iowa, director of extension education; Josephine Corliss Preston, state sperintendent of public instruction ; Cora Wilson Stewart, chairman N. E. A. Committee on Illiteracy ; Charl O. Williams, county superintendent of schools, and Olive M. Jones, school principal, New York, N. Y. FOURTH SESSION- SATURDAY P. M., JULY 2, 1921 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:00 P. M., in the Ball- room of the Hotel Fort Des Moines. At the suggestion of the president, it was decided to notify those on the list of eligibles to supply new vacancies in the Council of their designation as such eligibles and invite them to attend meetings of the Council and participate in the discussion. The Secretary read the following report of the executive committee which was approved by the Council : The executive committee of the National Council of Education met in the Ballroom of the Hotel Fort Des Moines, at 8:30 A. M., Saturday, July 2nd, 1921. At the request of the president, those in attendance suggested topics for research work in the Council. The topics agreed upon, and acceptances of chairmanships, at the request of the president are as follows : GRADUATE EDUCATION, W. A. Jessup, chairman; VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, Adelaide S. Baylor, chairman; ADULT ILLITERACY, Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, chairman; STATUS OF THE AMERICAN WOMAN TEACHER, Anna Laura Force; CONTINUITY OF EDUCATION, J. M. Gwinn, chairman; STATE LEVIES AND OTHER STATE FUNDS FOR THE SUPPORT OF ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION-A. J. Matthews, chairman. (Signed) Homer H. Seerley, chairman, ex- officio Anna Laura Force J. M. Gwinn A. J. Matthews Adelaide S. Baylor, Secretary, ex-officio. By invitation of the officers of the Council, the N. E. A. committee on pen- sions appeared before the Council in a round table, under the leadership of John W. Carr, a member of the committee, substituting for Joseph Swain, chairman, who was unable to be present. In the discussion of the subject of pensions, R. O. Clarida, secretary of the Board of Trustees of the Illinois State Teachers Pension and Retirement Fund, Olive M. Jones, New York, N. Y.; A. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz.; Wm. McIntire, Athens, Ohio ; T. A. Mott, Seymour, Ind., and Nina O. Buchanan, Seattle, Wash., described the operation of the pension laws in their respective states or cities. No conclusions were reached and no recommendations offered. C. P. Cary, chairman of the committee on STATE ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOLS, reported for that committee. At the invitation of Mr. Cary, E. W. Butterfield spoke on FINANCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL EQUALIZATION. A. E. Winship, chairman of the committee on EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS, and Arthur H. Chamberlain, chairman of the committee of THRIFT EDUCATION, pre- sented the reports of their respective committees. In the general discussion that followed, Peyton Irving, Jr., of the Government Savings Division of the Federal Reserve Bank, Dallas, Tex., described the work of his division on THRIFT EDUCATION. A motion by Arthur Chamberlain that a committee on TEACHER WELFARE be organized with John W. Carr as chairman, was carried. Council] DES MOINES MEETING 335 On motion, the president of the Council was requested to appoint a com- mittee on appropriations whose business it would be to present to the Executive Committee of the N. E. A., the financial needs of the committees doing research work in the Council and request the necessary funds to carry on the work. The following were named on the committee : Arthur Chamberlain, chairman, John W. Carr, A. E. Winship, Anna Laura Force, and Adelaide S. Baylor. The president requested the research committees appointed at this meeting to endeavor to bring their studies and investigations to a focus within a year, or as soon as possible. FIFTH SESSION- TUESDAY A. M., JULY 5, 1921 This session was resolved into two open forums, one of which was a meet- ing of the joint committee on HEALTH PROBLEMS in co-operation with the joint health commission of the Iowa Medical Society and the Iowa State Teachers Association. This forum was held in the Ballroom of the Hotel Chamberlain with the following program : BRIEF REPORT FOR THE JOINT HEALTH COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCA- TION ASSOCIATION AND THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION-Thomas D. Wood, chairman, Columbia University New York, N. Y. Report of the session on HEALTH WORK IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS AT THE BOSTON MEETING OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION-John M. Dodson, chairman, Committee on Health Problems in Education, American Medical Asso- ciation, Rush Medical School, Chicago, Ill. INTEREST AND CO- OPERATION IN SCHOOL HEALTH WORK BY THE TEACHERS OF IOWA-Homer H. Seerley, president National Council of Education, State Teach- ers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. WHAT THE PHYSICIANS OF IOWA HAVE DONE AND WILL DO FOR THE STATE PROGRAM OF HEALTH FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN-AIMS AND PLANS OF THE IOWA SCHOOL CHILDREN-Bird S. Baldwin, director Iowa Child Welfare Bureau, Iowa City, Iowa. The other forum was held in Parlor A of the Hotel Chamberlain for the purpose of hearing and discussing the report of the committee on CHANGES NEEDED IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM . Katherine D. Blake, chairman. ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Secretary. OFFICERS FOR 1921-22 OFFICERS, STANDING COMMITTEES, MEMBERS HOMER H. SEERLEY Cedar Falls, Iowa.. President ... Term expiring in 1922 JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON Olympia, Wash... Vice-President Term expiring in 1922 ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR .. Washington, D. C... Secretary ... Term expiring in 1923- EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE THE PRESIDENT, ex officio, chairman ANNA LAURA FORCE Denver, Colo......... Term expiring in 1924 J. M. GWINN New Orleans, La...... ...... Term expiring in 1923 A. J. MATTHEWS Tempe, Ariz . .Term expiring in 1923 COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP THE PRESIDENT, ex officio, chairman CORA WILSON STEWART Frankfort, Ky. Term expiring in 1922 OLIVE M. JONES.. New York, N. Y......... Term expiring in 1922 JOHN M. KIRK Kirksville, Mo. Term expiring in 1923 WILLIAM B. OWEN Chicago, Ill. Term expiring in 1923 CARROLL G. PEARSE ..... Milwaukee, Wis . Term expiring in 1924 J. STANLEY BROWN De Kalb, Ill. Term expiring in 1924 336 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National MEMBERS TERMS EXPIRE IN 1922 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council J. H. AMES, River Falls, Wis. L. R. ALDERMAN, Washington, D. C. LORENZO D. HARVEY, Menomonie, Wis . W. A. JESSUP, Iowa City, Iowa. J. M. GWINN, New Orleans, La. JAMES H. VAN SICKLE, Springfield, Mass. CARROLLG. PEARSE, Milwaukee, Wis. GRACE M. SHEPARD, New York, N. Y. CALVIN N. KENDALL, Trenton, N. J. MINNIE NIELSON, Bismark, N. D. E. E. OBERHOLTZER, Tulsa, Okla. ROBERT J. ALEY, Orono, Maine. J. W. BUTCHER, Emporia, Kansas. CHARLES E. CHADSEY, Urbana, Ill . GEORGE D. STRAYER, New York, N. Y. E. M. BAINTER, Kansas City, Mo. ELIZABETH M. SHERMAN, Oakland, Calif. J. STANLEY BROWN, De Kalb, Ill . W. A. BRANDENBURG, Pittsburg, Kans. ALBERT E. WINSHIP, Boston, Mass. TERMS EXPIRE IN 1923 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council R. G. JONES, Cleveland, Ohio. ADA VAN STONE HARRIS, Pittsburgh, Pa. WILLIAM B. OWEN, Chicago, Ill. JOSEPH SWAIN , Swarthmore, Pa. W. E. PEARSON, Kansas City, Kans. SUSAN M. DORSEY, Los Angeles, Calif. UEL W. LAMKIN, Maryville, Mo. E. E. BASS, Greenville, Miss . A. J. MATTHEWS, Tempe, Ariz. FREDERIC E. FARRINGTON, Washington, D. C. S. A. BAKER, Jefferson City, Mo. G. W. A. LUCKEY, Washington, D. С. WILLIAM P. BURRIS, Cincinnati, Ohio . GEORGE L. TOWNE, Lincoln, Neb . J. G. CRABBE, Greeley, Colo . THOMAS W. PALMER, Montevallo, Ala. MARGARET S. MCNAUGHT, Sacramento, Calif. T. E. JOHNSON, Lansing, Mich. ELMER L. CAVE, Vallejo, Calif. J. A. C. CHANDLER Williamsburg, Va. TERMS TO EXPIRE IN 1924 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council THOMAS A. Мотт, Seymour, Ind. SARAH LOUISE ARNOLD, Boston, Mass. *JOHN H. PHILLIPS , Birmingham, Ala. EDWIN S. MONROE, Hammond, Ind. FRANCISG. BLAIR, Springfield, Ill. P. E. MCCLENAHAN, Des Moines, Iowa. E. W. BUTTERFIELD Concord, N. Н. J. W. K. DWYER, Anaconda, Mont. M. C. BRITTAIN , Atlanta, Ga. GRACE STRACHAN FORSYTH, Brooklyn, N. Y. CHARLES S. MEEK, Toledo, Ohio. ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, Washington, D. C. LINNAEUS N. HINES, Indianapolis, Ind. CARLETON B. GIBSON, Savannah, Ga. H. W. FOGHT, Aberdeen, S. D. CORNELIA S. ADAIR, Richmond, Va. C. E. BEACH, Olympia, Wash . OSCAR T. CORSON, Columbus, Ohio. HELEN C. PUTNAM, Providence, R. I. JOHN W. CARR, Frankfort, Ky.. TERMS EXPIRE IN 1925 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council THOMAS E. FINEGAN, Harrisburg, Pa. FANNIE FERN ANDREWS, Boston, Mass. MARY D. BRADFORD, Kenosha, Wis. ANNA WILLSON, Crawfordsville, Ind. MARIE GUGLE, Columbus, Ohio. CHARLES H. KEYES, Saratoga Springs, N. Y. JESSE NEWLON, Denver, Col. J. F. SIMS, Stevens Point, Wis . GEORGE REAVIS, Baltimore, Md. CHARLES H. JUDD, Chicago, Ill . J. G. COLLICOTT, Columbus, Ohio. R. O. STOOPS, Joliet, Ill. GEORGE N. CHILD, Salt Lake City, Utah. A. DUNCAN YOCUM, Philadelphia, Pa. PAYSON SMITH, Boston, Mass. JOSEPHINE C. PRESTON, Olympia, Wash. FRED M. HUNTER, Oakland, Calif. THOMAS D. WOOD, New York, N. Y. CHARL O. WILLIAMS, Memphis, Tenn. E. C. BROOKs, Raleigh, N. C. TERMS EXPIRE IN 1926 Elected by the Association Elected by the Council CHARLS MCKENNEY, Ypsilanti, Mich . W. M. DAVIDSON, Pittsburg, Pa. DAVID FELMLEY, Normal , Ill . EDWARD BUCHNER, Baltimore, Md. JOHN R. KIRK, Kirksville, Mo. FRANK B. GILBERT, Albany, N. Y. DAVID B. JOHNSON, Rock Hill, S. C. HARLAN UPDEGRAFF, Philadelphia, Pa. ELIZABETH HALL, Minneapolis, Minn . CORA WILSON STEWART, Frankort, Ky. MARY C. C. BRADFORD Denver Colo. KATE DEVEREUX BLAKE, New York, N. Y. ARTHUR CHAMBERLAIN San Francisco, Calif. OLIVE M. JONES, New York, N. Y. P. W. HORN, Houston, Texas . CAROLINE WOODRUFF, St. Johnsbury, Vt. H. L. SMITH, Bloomington, Ind. C. P. CARY, Madison, Wis. JAMES W. CRABTREE, Washington, D. C. H. H. SEERLEY, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Council] THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER 337 TERMS EXPIRE IN 1927 Elected by the Association Elected by Council J. W. SEARSON, Lincoln, Neh. MAY TRUMPER, Helena, Mont. H. B. WILSON, Berkeley, Calif. GEORGIA ALEXANDER, Indianapolis, Ind. AGNES W. DOHERTY, St. Paul, Minn. W. A. LEWIS, Hays, Kans. MILTON BENNION, Salt Lake City, Utah. D. B. WALDO, Kalamazoo, Mich. ROBERT H. WRIGHT, Greenville, N. C. J. H. WAGNER, Las Vegas, N. М. ANNA LAURA FORCE, Denver, Colo. DAVID B. CORSON, Newark, N. J. WALTER R. SIDERS, Pocatello, Idaho. I. I. CAMMACK, Kansas City, Mo. L. H. MINKEL, Fort Dodge, Iowa. NEIL C. MCDONALD, New York, N. Y. F. L. MCVEY, Lexington, Ky. ANNIE WEBB BLANTON, Austin, Tex. W. C. BAGLEY, New York, N. Y. J. E. BURKE, Boston, Mass . *Deceased since the Des Moines Meeting. THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER IN AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE , CEDAR FALLS, IOWA In the United States of America supremacy in control of educational organization and management is attempted in indirect and influential ways that are not provided by law or by government. This conforms to the system employed in politics and in party management existing in the nation by substituting dictation and types of accrediting or recog- nizing that indirectly are more powerful and more effective than either national or state law. This invisible government accomplishes results, decides policies, and requires conformities that are among the most re- markable educational phenomena of American civilization and progress. The capitalization of resources, of talent, and of influence is shown by the "drives" that have been projected to secure unprecedented sums of actual money as incomes for endowed institutions, for state organ- ized and conducted institutions, for co-operation with popular govern- ment to develop conditions, impose ideals, and secure power. These organizations for human advancement and welfare are unable to be fully appreciated for their magnitude, and are unable to be fully understood because of their immensity of plan and immediateness of procedure and for their greatness of aim through organized effort. The history of all the past centuries does not show any equivalent organized plan for the determination, the formulation, and the control of the power of mind and of spirit to certain immense ends through invisible government. The struggle going on in American democracy for all these varieties of supremacy, however benevolent in design and in object, is gradually arraying against each other large combinations of classified citizens who, through organization of well-planned and well-organized propaganda, seek to dictate every standard of educational effort and proceed by very powerful presentations to assume the responsibility to introduce and to enforce their will and their judgments upon all others by a system of rejection, repudiation, and annihilation that is commonly overlooked or uncomprehended by the masses who pay the taxes, finance the enter 338 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National prises, and admire the power of self-organized and self-determinative civilization in its exhibitions of efficiency and enterprise. Graduate schools are assuming their part of this invisible govern- ment in education. The universities with which they are connected are appropriately and deservedly very powerful in all matters of higher education. These graduate schools have gained in appreciation and dis- tinction the last few years and some of them assume to hold the prestige of preparing the men and women that are eligible to admission as teach- ers in college and university work. Recently these graduate schools have perfected an organization to conduct a plan of promotion to en- large their quotas of students . The developments thus formulating should be of unusual interest to this National Council of Education because it is not yet established that the graduate work offered and the methods of research employed are the best for the preparation of college-grade teachers. In connection with this suggestion it may also be said that the system of graduate work and the standards required for the doctor of philosophy degree are not yet as definite or as comprehensive as they ought to be. Many credit- able students in graduate schools are of the opinion that the master's degree is given so easily that it is of no importance to receive it and that the doctor's degree is so exalted and so hedged about with im- possible difficulties that it is a useless expenditure of time and effort to seek such assumed distinction. On this account they are beginning to question the good faith of the graduate schools in seeking the expansion of their enrolments when there is no assumed intention to allow a rea- sonable number of such candidates to graduate with the honors given by such recognition. In the meantime the growing colleges find immense difficulty to get such graduates as new members of faculties and are obliged to fall back upon the supply of teachers who have attended graduate schools but have not yet secured the doctor's degree. This situation is as critical and as much deserving of attention as is the supply of trained teachers for the service of the public schools. Class- consciousness has been making remarkable progress in America during the past quarter of a century. There is growing promise that with the ideals possessed and esteemed by Americans, there is developing a separation of the intellectual, the authoritative, and the leadership elements from mass humanity so that democracy can easily pass by evo- lution into an oligarchy of attitude and of assumption that will eventually degenerate into conditions that are not assurances of success or peace for the American people. The genius of American institutions depends upon human rights, human justice, human opportunity, and human enlightenment of the many rather than of the few, of the possibility of the universal human attainment of happiness and of remunerative occuц- pational employment. Council] THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER 339 Higher education is the most astute and the most productive in this struggle for supremacy and control. This originates from the time ac- corded its propagandists for thinking, for planning, and for promoting. It assumes that the province of higher education is so to work out the whole scheme of education that it culminates directly and positively for the support and the enlargement of the functions it possesses. It tries to dictate every standard in elementary, secondary, and collegiate edu- cation and thereby seeks to control public ideals and public efforts. This attempt is so prominent that there is an accompanying peril of in- creasing extravagance in public expenditure until public patience is be coming exhausted while an unprecedented remodeling of endeavors tha are so tentative and so uncertain that reasonable limits are forgotten to such extent that the burdens required can become impossible. It is here that practicality should examine the findings of philosophy and that superiority should identify the importance of possibility. In this category of investigation the annual legislation that is con- stantly projected by the states and by the nation is all evidence of dis- satisfaction of the people with the systems of regulation, direction, and financing that exist, the attempt thus being made to restrain, restrict, and eliminate this invisible government which inspects, centralizes, dic- tates, and doininates without law or precedent or reason, the simple purpose being that of exercising power and of enjoying supremacy in the field of indirection. This indefinable controversy is one of the ele- ments of the struggle that tests democracy to the limit the same as is being done by economic revolutionary tactics and the unending strife between capital and labor. It is of the highest importance that the National Education Asso- ciation remember its allegiance to the everyday working American on whose shoulders rests the burden for cumulative prosperity and in whose heart lurks the real love of home and of community. The per- petuation of longevity, the resisting of decadence, the saving of human- ity, the sustaining of society, the perfection of free government are all parts that are necessary in order to keep alive the traditions of democ- racy and the supremacy of pure idealism in every part of the United States. The historian says that it took Rome three hundred years to de- generate, to lose vitality, to absorb the elements of destruction, to possess the fatal conditions of class contention and class ambition, and such experience should admonish the educators of the youth of America that such destiny can only be postponed and prevented by a devotion of spirit, by a conscientiousness of purpose, and by a graciousness of aim that refuses to accept any absolute conclusion except the amelioration and the uplift of all the people of every race, every degree, and every 340 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National class that live under the laws of the American Republic and honor its emblem of liberty and justice, the Stars and Stripes. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR J. M. GWINN , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW ORLEANS, LA . We may have to go backward to go forward. Education went backward, due to the world-war, but the recoil has come, resulting in little short of an educational revival. The standards for teacher's qualifications have been greatly advanced. By legislative or constitutional provisions normal schools are every- where becoming teachers' colleges and four years' of training are replacing the two-year courses. Teachers are crowding into summer schools by the thousands, many thousands more than ever before, due to the raised standards. The greatest advance in the South has been in teachers' salaries and more money for operating and building schools. The people have been stirred by the grave dangers threatening the nation due to short- age of teachers and inadequate facilities and have everywhere re- sponded by legislation, constitutional changes or by votes of the people largely increasing financial support. The story for Louisiana and New Orleans for the year is typical of other states and cities. During the year the people voted a 60 per cent increase in the state school tax, a 100 per cent increase in the local school tax for New Orleans ; a new severence tax on oil, gas, lumber, sulphur, salt, etc., was laid and $7,000,000 of this tax given to the state university for grounds, buildings, and equipment and a mill tax provided for its maintenance. In New Orleans the operating expenses of the schools were 43 per cent greater this year than last and teachers' salaries advanced 53 per cent during the year and the salaries paid elementary school teachers increased 167 per cent since 1916. School buildings are bursting open with the greatly increased num- bers of children attending school. A new attendence law in Kentucky has practically doubled attendance in rural schools in one year ; a new law in Mississippi brought 60,000 more children into school this year than last year. The year has seen the extension of the county unit plan for school administration, e. g., in Missouri and Kentucky, an increase in the support of schools from the state and county taxes, two vital elements in equalizing educational opportunities, for to do this, large units for taxation and administration are necessary. The year has been great in the development and molding of public sentiment in favor of more and better schools. Newspapers and maga- zines are printing more about schools and education than ever before. A large support has developed during the year among the lay public Council] U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 341 and non-educational organizations in favor of a Federal department of education and Federal aid to education . In three elements we are where we were before the war. School teaching is harder due to the decreased home control and direction and because childhood has responded to the madness in modern amuse- ments, dress, and other means of gratifying selfish desires. It is high time that parents employ a firmer and more constant control over their children and for the school to guard against lowered standards of conduct and discipline. The spirit of the times is against hard work ; the schools must not substitute entertainments for intellectual effort and must re-enthrone the old maxim, "No excellence without great labor." Finally, the teachers must not permit the bad treatment they have received, the lack of appreciation and rewards and the materialism of the day to cause them to discard the idealism which has always been their peculiar and most valuable contribution to the social weal and become a class of workers who magnify self and self-interests and minimize the service rendered. ADDRESS BEFORE THE NATIONAL COUNCIL J. J. TIGERT, U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION , WASHINGTON , D. C. It is a great honor and pleasure to have the opportunity of speaking for only a few minutes to this important body. Let me express my appreciation for the election to membership upon your Council. I especially appreciate this honor because I understand you have taken unusual measures in order to make it possible to admit me to mem- bership. I am taking the place on your program of my distinguished pred- ecessor, Dr. Claxton, but I trust that you will not expect from me such a complete survey of the progress of education during the past year as he would be able to give you. I think that I may more profitably discuss the nature and functions of the Federal Bureau of Education. This Council is primarily interested, I believe, in research work. As I conceive it, research must be at all times one of the most important functions, if not the chief function, of the Federal Bureau. I think that some explanation of the Bureau and my proposed policies will be valuable because, if you understand these more clearly, it will result in a more effective co-operation in our respective programs. I am sure that you desire, as I do, the most effective interrelation of out work. Among the laity practically nothing is known about the Federal Bureau of Education, and even among educators the uncertainty and ignorance in regard to the Bureau is amazing. One of my tasks is to 342 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National carry on some kind of campaign of publicity that will acquaint the public and especially educators with what the United States Bureau of Education is trying to do. Some people ask me if I am the only one in the Bureau. Others ask, "Do you do anything besides collect statistics ? " Certainly the effectiveness of the Bureau could be greatly increased if those interested in education were acquainted fully with the activities of the Bureau so that they might use it more intelligently. The Bureau has certain administrative functions, including the adminis- tration of education for the natives of Alaska and the administration of the federal funds for land-grant colleges, but its chief functions are non-administrative. I am sure everyone in this body realizes that the adminstration, control, and direction of education in this country is vested in the hands of the state authorities and not in the federal government. With reference to education in the United States, there- fore, our function is largely that of an advisory character. May I take this opportunity to explain that the United States Commissioner of Education cannot properly support or favor legislation pending in the Congress of the United States ? An injustice is done the commis- sioner by many who make the unwarranted assumption that the com- missioner is favoring or opposing certain educational bills. Should the commissioner of education favor or oppose a bill pending in Congress, it would be an act of gross discourtesy to the President of the United States and the Congress of the United States. The commissioner may properly express an opinion at the request of the President or of Congress. I am sure that members of this Council appreciate this fact but a great many people interested in education do not seem to under- stand it. For carrying on the work of the Bureau we have now in the offices at Washington eighty-seven people. Under the administration of my predecessor the activities of these people were very largely personally directed by the commissioner of education. Let me say at this point that Dr. Claxton and the present commissioner are good friends ; that I have no words of criticism or disparagement for his splendid admin- istration. He was a tireless worker. It is said that as a boy he ploughed horses to death. I am convinced that he ploughed himself almost to death in the discharge of his duties and ploughed others unmercifully. His experience during the past ten years in the com- missionership gave him a knowledge of education and its technic which perhaps no other man in America could have. In attempting to assume the duties which he had been discharging, I found it impossible to attempt to carry on the activities of the Bureau as he had done. It became necessary for me to affect some kind of reorganization. This I have done according to the following general lines : We have in the Bureau two general types of activities-first, the activities of a more Council] U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 343 or less routine character which I have termed "Stated or Continued Activities"; secondly, the activities of highly trained experts in various fields of educational endeavor which I have designated as "Technical Activities." The organization which I have undertaken to effect is not unlike that of the organization of an institution of higher learning. My entire career has been in the service of colleges and universities. Perhaps that accounts for my leaning to this type of organization, yet I am unable to see how I could attempt to carry on the activities of the Bureau in any other fashion. There are seven divisions of those activities which I have termed " Stated or Continued Activities." They have all been placed under the general direction of the chief clerk. The chief clerk, Mr. L. A. Kalbach, has served most efficiently for more than thirty years in the Bureau. He is generally recognized as a man of exceptional ability and devotion to his duty. Under him are the following departments : publications, library, Alaskan division, stenographic section, statistics, mails and files, messenger service. The technical staff has been organized under the direction of William T. Bawden, who has been designated as assistant to the com- missioner. Dr. Bawden took his doctorate at Columbia University, and is exceptionally well qualified to organize and direct technical investiga- tions. Most of you, I dare say, recognize his ability. Under him are the Division of Higher Education, headed by Dr. Zook, the Rural School Division, headed by Mrs. Cook, the City School Division, headed by Mr. Deffenbaugh. Certain individuals and smaller divisions have been consolidated into one group which is termed the Service Division. In the past the members of the technical staff have worked very largely as I have stated under the personal supervision of the Com- missioner of Education. For a definite correlation of their activities, in order to bring about more efficiency through the Bureau by some plan for co-operation, it seemed advisable to bring all the various activities of the Bureau and especially of the technical staff, under a general advisory body corresponding roughly to the council of deans or similar advisory bodies which exist in colleges and universities. I have appointed such an advisory council composed of the heads of the various divisions in the technical staff, and I have made Dr. Bawden chairman of this committee. We propose, furthermore, to bring the technical staff into conferences as often as possible so that their various activities can be discussed and planned with a higher degree of co- operation than has existed in the past. The administration of the activities of the Bureau and the ex- ecutive powers are exercised by the Commissioner of Education. Neither the assistant to the Commissioner, nor the Chief Clerk, nor the 344 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National advisory council possess executive functions other than by way of suggestion, recommendation, and advice. Matters for consideration pass through the hands of the heads of the several departments up through the Assistant Commissioner or the Chief Clerk and are finally passed upon by the Commissioner of Education. We do not doubt that we have made mistakes and will continue to make mistakes. Cer- tainly there will be criticism of our organization. We have attempted to organize the Bureau in the only way that we can undertake to direct it. If there is any other way that it can be done, it does not occur to us now . It is well for educators and others to realize the limitations under which the Bureau is operating. Our funds and personnel are entirely inadequate to meet the demands that are made upon us. It is obvious that we have no provision for service in the field of secondary schools, normal schools and teachers' colleges, junior colleges, and many other important fields that might be mentioned. It is necessary for us to confine ourselves to those activities for which we have expert advice and for which we have funds provided. It will be one of the great tasks of the Commissioner of Education to secure more adequate provision in the future for investigation in many of the important fields of education which we are now compelled to neglect. Allow me to thank you again for the privilege of addressing you and for the very patient and appreciative way in which you have listened to me. PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CITIZENSHIP AND CHARACTER EDUCATION MILTON BENNION, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH , SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH , CHAIRMAN . Training for citizenship in the broad sense must include character education and character education cannot be complete without training for citizenship. Since, however, the committee on DEMOCRACY IN EDU- CATION and The American School Citizenship League are dealing with education for citizenship in the more technical sense, this report may best deal with the general problem of CHARACTER EDUCATION. In theory, at least, character education has long been one of the most fundamental aims of the school. Yet the methods employed have not been as well worked out as have the methods of teaching geography and arithmetic. The common school virtues often cited as examples of the moral influence of the school are, for the most part, but secondary virtues- virtues that may as well be directed toward selfish as toward unselfish Council] CITIZENSHIP AND CHARACTER 345 ends, e.g., industry, perseverance, punctuality, accuracy, thrift, courtesy. Necessary as these qualities are to the complete development of charac- ter, unless the possessor of them is governed by intelligent and worthy ideals, these qualities may have no moral worth at all. They may even add to the efficiency for evil of the thoroughly bad man. This is not said to disparage the secondary virtues, but to emphasize the necessity of other and far more fundamental phases of character education. In consideration of the great importance of character development in education and the fact that this subject is not fully covered by other committees of this Council, we recommend the appointment of a per- manent committee on CHARACTER EDUCATION to work in close co-oper- ation with the committee on DEMOCRACY IN EDUCATION and with the American School Citizenship League with the understanding that all important phases of education for citizenship shall be included in the work of these three organizations. For the committee on CHARACTER EDUCATION we suggest the follow- ing outline of topics for investigation : 1. THE FOUNDATION OF CHARACTER EDUCATION.-The metaphysical and socio- logical bases of character education. (a) The religious sanctions of character education. (b) The meaning and place of conscience in character development. (c) The validity of the scientific sanctions. 2. DETERMINATION OF THE OBJECTIVES OF CHARACTER EDUCATION. (a) The primary virtues-The nature of these virtues and their place in education. (b) The secondary virtues-The dependence as virtues upon the primary virtues. 3. THE METHOD OF CHARACTER EDUCATION . (a) Character education through instruction. (1) How to use the regular school subjects as a means of moral instruction. (2) To what extent may discussion of problems of conduct be used as content in classes in English ? (3) To what extent and in what grades may ethics be taught as a separate subject ? (4) The intellectual appeal in moral instruction. (5) The emotional appeal-its place and importance. (6) How to develop dynamic ideals. (b) Character education through training. (1) How may the methods of health education be applied to moral training? (2) How may various forms of recreation be utilized as means of moral training? (3) How may the school co-operate with the home, the church and other educational agencies in directing the recreational and other leisure-time activities of children and youth ? (4) How secure moral training through the practice of thrift, in- cluding earning, wise spending, and saving ? : 346 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatioN [National (5) How may wise selection of and thorough training in a vocation be a means of moral training ? (6) How secure moral training through junior civic activities ? (7) How may youths best be trained in all matters pertaining to sex life ? (8) How may the administrative and supervisory work of the public schools be so organized as best to carry out character education plans? 4. TEACHER TRAINING FOR CHARACTER EDUCATION. (a) How should the course of instruction and training in teachers' col- leges be modified better to prepare teachers for efficient service in char- acter education ? e. g. , Should courses in professional ethics, social ethics, and character education methods be required? Should applica- tion of these methods be made part of the practice teaching ? Should training include supervision of out-of-school activities of pupils ? (b) What is the best method of providing this instruction and training for teachers in the service ? DISCUSSION OLIVE M. JONES, PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL 120, NEW YORK, N. Y. The most interesting part of the discussion, it seems to me, is that relating to religious education. The war, more particularly the general disturbance in social conditions incident to and subsequent to the war, has turned our thoughts to a consideration of religion. We are looking, whether we know it or not, for some unshakable fundamental on which to base our human relationships so that confidence will be restored. We feel that morality, ethics, social codes, do not provide sufficient hold and do not suffice to govern practical life in the business or even the social world. These things have failed and we have discarded the church. The old-fashioned fear of God, which made an oath binding, no longer makes a man's sworn word sacred, and so many men have failed to keep their spoken or written word that our ideals of reliability and honesty sometimes seem almost to be lost. But all our relationships depend upon confidence in human honor, honesty, uprightness . Hence we are turning once again to religion as a means of con- trolling our acts according to our recognized ethical code. We are seeking that which alone can build up and sustain character, at least for the most of us- belief in God and adherence to religion. Since neither the church nor the home seemed able to supply a firm foun- dation for character and righteous conduct, people turned in blind trust to the schools. Inevitably, as we teachers give careful thinking to character-training, we find ourselves seeking some means of religious education. I do not see how we can give religious education in or by the use of the public schools, and I believe that the way must be found to secure it through the churches, to restore the churches to their former interest for us and influence on our lives, even if we need a Savonarola, a Luther, or a Wesley to do it. Our experience in New York during the past year makes me hesitant about using the schools, ever so indirectly, for the promotion of religious education. Through the activities of a group known as the Interdenominational Committee on Religious Education, a resolution was introduced in the Board of Education, providing that on one day a week, Wednesday being the day suggested, the children should be dismissed at two o'clock and instructed to go to the classes for relig- ious education to be organized in the churches or institutions of their own relig Council] RELIGION IN CHARACTER TRAINING 347 ious faith. This resolution was referred to the Committee on By-Laws of the Board of Education where, as yet, no final action has been taken. The New York Principals Association discussed this resolution at two meet- ings, one a special meeting requested and called for the purpose. The Com- mittee on By-Laws held several public hearings for the consideration of the question. At all these meetings, feeling ran exceedingly high. Bitter speeches were made and faces wore looks of unusual strain, fear, and anger. The leaders in the movement did their very best to preserve harmony and impartiality and to prove that it was not intended that any one faith should have an advantage. What might have happened or what may yet happen, no one knows . The plan was halted because several apparently insurmountable difficulties presented themselves : ( 1 ) Who would see to it that the children did go to religious in- struction during that hour ? (2) What should be done with children whose parents refused to permit any religious instruction ? (3) How make up the loss of that hour from a school week already greatly overcrowded ? (4) And, most important of all the churches were compelled to acknowledge their absolute inability to meet the demand in space accommodation, in teachers, or in a prop- erly arranged course in religious study. There is going on, however, in New York, an organized effort to give week-day religious instruction in a large number of churches that have estab lished such classes. Roman Catholic and Protestant churches are using their organized lay workers, nuns, deaconesses, and so on, and there are now enlisted in the work several hundreds of public-school teachers who do it as a labor of love outside of school hours. More than a thousand each of Roman Catholic and Protestant public-school teachers have banded themselves together in two separate organizations for the promotion of religious education. They occasion- ally hold open meetings at which members of both faiths participate. They may find a way out and show us how to give our people a sorely needed religious instruction and reliance upon a faith in God. THE PLACE OF RELIGIOUS SANCTIONS IN CHARACTER TRAINING JOHN HERBERT PHILLIPS¹, SUPERINTENDENT of CITY SCHOOLS, BIRMINGHAM , ALA. We may be permitted to assume that character-training should be the supreme aim of American education, and that morality as a basis of citizenship should be the chief objective of the school and its processes. That this fact needs to be emphasized today as never before in our history is an obvious commonplace. As a nation, we are without any established moral character. We are leading an experimental life, without any basis of settled habits or definitely fixed moral convictions. All the races and nationalities of the earth jostle each other here in a ceaseless struggle for material existence. Each has brought with it its own language, history, traditions, and moral standards. Whatever unity of aim may have been established by the fathers of the Republic has been submerged in this deluge of alien political theories and con- flicting moral standards. We have drifted far from our colonial Dr. Phillips died July 21, only a short time after the delivery of this paper. 348 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National moorings, and the American public school is today demanding for the citizenship of the future a safe moral anchorage. The American people today is a heterogeneous mass, without any common background or common outlook ; without common history, common standards, or com- mon ideals. America is as yet a vast experimental laboratory in economics, education, and morality. The iconoclasts have taken ad- vantage of this state of educational fluidity and have sought to remove the ancient moral landmarks. The old religious sanctions for moral conduct have been too generally ignored, and futile efforts have been made to find adequate sanctions for morality in the fields of science or sociology. As a result, the social and economic heresies emanating from some of our leading educational institutions are threatening the very life of the state. However desirable or expedient scientific formulas and social con- ventions may prove to be, there is urgent need today for their re- enforcement by at least a frank avowal and recognition by our school authorities of those old-fashioned religious sanctions that are still admitted to be fundamental to all morality. The complete separation of church and state does not necessarily mean an equally complete separation of religion and state. Religion unfortunately is too generally identified in the popular mind with some one of the many historical forms of religious expression. Organized sects and formulated creeds are only so many forms designed for the expression of the religious instinct of the race. Any education that ignores the religious instinct of the child to be educated and the religious character of the state, of which the child is to be a citizen, neglects two important fundamental factors. Lest I be misunderstood, let me state explicitly that I am not advocating the introduction into the school of any formal religious instruction. Under present conditions, the teaching of religious creeds and sectarian tenets should be left to the people, very sensitive with reference to the intro- duction into the school of any form of sectarian teaching. We contend, however, that there are certain ultimate religious conceptions upon which all people of all creeds are practically agreed. The fundamental problems of philosophy-God, immortality, freedom, and duty-are at the same time the great theses of spiritual faith. These are the great questions that any personal religious faith must answer in order to lay a foundation for moral conduct in the social life of man . These conceptions throughout human history have been regarded as sanctions of conduct and powerful incentives to personal and national morality. One of our current mistakes for true educational theory, is the assumption that some truths are secular while others are sacred; that education is an affair of this world only, to satisfy our hunger, pride, and ambition, while religion is for eternity, satisfying and saving the Council] Religion IN CHARACTER TRAINING 349 soul. The universe of human life is organized and made intelligible by the law of moral order, just as the physical universe is held together by the law of gravity. While they are different laws, operating in different planes, they are both equally God's laws, and therefore equally sacred. The violation of either is certain to bring punishment. The laws of health should be as sacred as the Decalogue. All the subjects of instruction prove their right to a place in the curriculum by contribut- ing to ethical development and adding moral values to life, personal and social. Surely, the assertion of the sacredness of the common-school branches in no way detracts from the sacredness of a class of truths usually regarded as sacred. It is a levelling-up process that gives a new meaning to all education. We would then insist upon the frank acceptance by the school of these ultimate truths, common to both philosophy and faith. They should be accepted, not merely as the sanctions of our morality, but as the common foundations of all education, whether it be called secular or sacred. If it be claimed that this is unscientific, that it introduces into the school the method of faith and authority-the dogmatic method of theology and religious instruction-I would ask whether it be more dogmatic than the method of the scientist. Back of every science and underneath all scientific theories there are certain fundamental truths which the scientists must accept on faith. Upon his acceptance of these metaphysical facts rest all his theories and hypotheses. He has no absolute knowledge of either mind or matter, but he accepts on faith the reality of both. He cannot prove that the universe as a whole is an intelligible system, and that law is universal and invariable, but he accepts them, acts upon them, and leaves to the metaphysician the task of proving their validity. We may thus claim that the acceptance by the school of certain ultimate metaphysical facts as religious truths and sanctions for moral conduct is entirely consonant with sound educa- tional theory and with the spirit and practice of science. These fundamental principles already constitute the creed of the vast majority of the teachers of America, and are accepted by the adherents of all religious sects. When all the differences of our divergent religious faiths are eliminated, when all the separating and dividing creeds of Jew, Protestant, and Catholic are excluded, with all their definitions, requirements, and accumulated human traditions, there will still remain, as a common possession, a valuable residuum of creed embodied in these four fundamental theses of philosophy and religion, the indestructible pillars of all stable human institutions. The American public school has a right to assume without apol- ogy, these primary concepts, and it has the right to assume further that the vast body of religious workers in this country has at least one common end in view the training of a moral and loyal American 350 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ National citizenship. It has a right also to assume the sincerity and efficiency of this great body of religious teachers, and to undertake the task of transmuting their teachings into religious and moral citizenship. The religious instruction of home, church, and Sunday school, if it has any value at all, should find its ripe fruitage in the expression of a genuine religious spirit, the practice of the accepted moral virtues, and com- formity to the highest moral standards of our civilization. The public school must not only sympathize with the religious citizenship of our country, but must be in a position to co-operate actively in the attain- ment of the common aim. To attain this end, the school must adopt as its platform without quibble or apology those fundamental sanctions which constitute the common basis of religion, morality, and citizenship. I beg therefore to recommend to the committee the inclusion in its report to the National Council, of these fundamental religious sanctions as a basis for character-training and education for citizenship. TEACHER- TRAINING AND DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS JOHN F. SIMS, PRESIDENT OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, STEVENS POINT, WIS. 1. No problem today bulks larger in the public consciousness than rural education. For the first time in our history the urban population exceeds the rural population, according to the census of 1920. Since the adoption of the Constitution the drift cityward has been certain, gradual, until now 54 per cent are urban and 46 per cent rural. 2. Over 50 per cent of the school population is housed in one-room schools. 3. America has faith in education, believing that intelligence of all is the standing army which safeguards the liberty and promotes the pro- gress of the Republic. 4. Schools, urban as well as rural, must send out boys and girls approaching the threshold of manhood and womanhood who shall be vigorous in health, keen and resourceful in intellect, endowed with moral stamina which shall "render unto Caesar the things that be Cae- sar's and to God the things that be God's." 5. All instruction is for the benefit of the physical, moral, and men- tal development of the child. There can be no development along these lines except by the exercise of body, mind, and conscience, mak- ing for right thinking and right behavior. 6. The teacher is the soul of the school. 7. In general, urban schools demand successful experience or its equivalent in training. Rural communities, as a whole, do not make such demands . 8. What is given to rural schools is too often in the nature of an Council] DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS 351 alms because the heart does not go with the offering. Ours is the duty to take up this task and make for equality of educational opportunity through better teacher training in the rural schools. School is not mere school but a section of life and we must make the most of it. 9. Active agencies are normal schools, county training schools, and training courses in high schools. 10. Contents of courses :- PROFESSIONAL ACADEMIC ENVIRONMENTAL Psychology Common Branches Community Health Principles of Teaching Agriculture Recreation Methods Seat Work Production and Observation Farm Mechanics Marketing of Rural School Organization Cookery Farm Products School Management Sewing Consumption of School Supervision Musicand Drawing Goods needed on Study of Manual Parliamentary Law Farm Educational Tests and Measurements Rural Economics Co-operation of Appreciations Rural Sociology Farm with other All culminating in Skills Picture Study Agencies Social Amenities Public Speaking Club Work Ideals Nature Study Literature Plays and Games Library Work 11. Length of courses-One, two, three, and four years beyond high school graduation as rapidly as public sentiment can be aroused to the necessity of better teacher training. 12. Observation and demonstration schools-All institutions for the training of rural teachers should maintain schools of this kind, in order that students may observe skillful work of exactly the same kind as those in which they will function as teachers. Following ob- servation they will practice in them, or act as assistants to expert rural teachers in other districts. None but the best-qualified teachers should be engaged for this highly important work. 13. Leadership in rural education-Only those can lead who have sympathy for, and a knowledge of the conditions, needs, and aspirations of the people who live in rural communities. The divine faculty of imagination must be wedded to knowledge, skill, and industry. "Where there is no vision the people perish." The teacher must arouse the interest latent in all communities so that communities themselves will demand better teachers. People get what they want when they want it hard enough. America must have first-class schools in every com- munity, rural as well as urban. 14. Objective-Equality of educational opportunity is the con- summation devoutly to be wished. Halfway, pitiable, temporizing measures will not answer. Let us organize a five- or ten-year program at the end of which time every rural teacher will have a minimum of 352 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National two years of professional training beyond high-school graduation. Rural education must be more liberally financed and America is rich enough to finance it through adequate State and Federal aid. Educa- tion must be looked upon as an investment rather than an expenditure. REPORT OF SUB -COMMITTEE ON CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, FEDERAL AGENT FOR HOME ECONOMICS, WASHINGTON, D. C. To one of the subcommittees of the National Council on Rural Edu- cation, appointed two years ago, was assigned the topic of CONSOLIDA- TION OF RURAL SCHOOLS . The chairman of this subcommittee has made three brief general studies of consolidation in parts of the coun- try and presented reports of them to the National Council in 1913, 1919, and 1920 respectively, the first report being made through mem- bership in an earlier committee and the last two through membership in the present committee. Since a number of comprehensive studies have been made from time to time on the general subject of consolida- tion, the subcommittee chairman decided to turn her attention to spe- cial phases of consolidation and sought advice from experts in the study of consolidation as to what the next step in such a study should be. One very interesting topic was suggested, that is, a competitive study through tests and measurements of the advancement of pupils in the consolidated schools as compared with those in the one-room school. Some attempt was made to do this, but the results were so indefinite the chairman was led to believe that such a study could not properly be made at this stage in the progress of consolidation. Statis- tics are not available as to mortality and ranking of pupils in preceding years and many conditions destroy the validity of tests that could now be made. At the last meeting of the full committee on RURAL EDUCATION (February, 1921 ) , it was decided to enlarge the committee and seek co-operation for further work outside the Council membership, among specialists in rural education, a final report to be made in Febru- ary, 1922 . J. C. Muerman, of the U. S. Bureau of Education, kindly accepted the invitation to work on the subcommittee on consolidation and in conference with him on the next step to be undertaken, it was mutually agreed that although there were many agencies that promoted consolidation and many situations that hindered it, some were far more crucial than others and that two especially would lend them- selves to the present service of consolidation and might with profit precede the study of others : Council] CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS 353 1. The limits of the district within which consolidation can suc- cessfully be made cannot be fixed arbitrarily, but depend wholly on the economic and geographical situation, and the site of the consolidated school should always be the economic center of the community, if there is one. How to determine the economic center, how to deter- mine the geographic center, where the two coincide, etc., would be a profitable study. 2. Conditions that hinder consolidation : What are they ? How overcome them ? Some of these conditions are : (a) difficulties of transportation ; (b) poor legislation ; ( c) lack of initiative on part of county superintendents ; (d) lack of information on part of people and teachers as to merits of consolidation ; (e) lack of administrative and social qualities on part of principal ; (f) inefficient teachers. The sub-committee was not aware of any special study of trans- portation in itself having been made in relation to consolidation, and so it was decided to choose this one topic for investigation and include this study in the final report. The following outline prepared by J. C. Muerman will be used as a basis- for this study: Introduction- 1. State school laws on transportation- (a) State aid for transportation. (b) The problem of transportation in cities. (c) The problem of transportation in rural districts. 2. Types of transportation- (a) The improved school wagon. (b) The motor bus or school truck. (c) The trolley, launch, and railroad. (d) Number of pupils transported. (e) Comparison of the best types of transportation. 3. Cost of transportation by the school district- (a) Conveyance owned and operated. (b) Driver's salary. (c) Private contract. (d) Total cost and per capita cost. 4. Safeguards- (a) The garage and care of wagons. (b) The driver, his contract, and bond. (c) Daily schedule, rules, and reports. 5. Present status of transportation- (a) Difficulties encountered and overcome. (b) Types of schools offering transportation. (1) The Consolidated School in the Open Country. (2) The Consolidated School in the Village or Smaller Town. 6. Summary of statistics. 354 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National IMPROVING RURAL SCHOOLS BY STANDARDIZATION EDITH A. LATHROP, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 1. Definition of standardization. The setting up of certain min- imum requirements without which a school is unable to do efficient work. 2. Importance of the subject. There are in the United States 194,500 one-teacher rural schools. Perhaps, in the course of time, two-thirds of these schools can be consolidated. Therefore, standard- ization is important because for years to come the one-teacher school must serve a large number of children. In some localities it will al- ways be the only school possible. 3. Present status of standardization. (a) What is being done :- At present twenty-nine states are attempting to improve the one-teacher school by standardization. In the following sixteen states the plan is promoted as a policy of the state department of education : Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Washington. The thirteen states where standardiza- tion is specifically authorized by law are Delaware, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Most of these states print the requirements on a score card. In twelve states numerical values are assigned the items on the score card. Twelve states do not differentiate the standard schools into classes. A few states have three classes and the remainder two classes. The term "standard" and "superior" are common. Seventeen states give schools meeting requirements some sort of insignia such as banners, tablets, and certificates. State aid is given in the following states : Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, West Virginia, and Wisconsion. The standardization movement has resulted in an improvement of grounds and equipment. Better teachers have been secured and better salaries have been paid. Communities have been awakened educa- tionally. (b ) Inadequacies in the present systems :-Some states emphasize only grounds and buildings and omit items pertaining to administration and organization. Some score cards are so complicated that a rigid enforcement of them would result in stultification. Others are in- definite, vague, and liable to loose interpretation. A study of the methods of administration of standardization in the various states indicates that the means now lacking for effective administration are an insufficient number of inspectors, and a general lack of time and money for the efficient promotion of the plan. 4. Recommendations for improvement.- (a) The following items should be considered in scoring a school for efficiency: grounds, build Council] RURAL RECREATION AND SOCIAL LIFE 355 ings, physical and instructional equipment, qualifications, personality and salary of the teacher, matters pertaining to the organization, administra- tion and supervision of the school, community interests and tangible results. (b) Score cards should be definite but not complicated. (c) The committee on standardization should consist preferably of a member of the local school board, and rural representatives from the state and county superintendents' offices . (d) Standardized schools should be checked frequently in order that both state and county officers may know when a school " falls from grace." (e) A state or county should not undertake standardization with- out first being assured of the proper machinery for effectively promot- ing the plan. This involves added office and field helpers and money for traveling. (f) Experience shows that state aid has a stimulating effect in inducing schools to measure up to requirements. 5. Legislation involved in carrying out the foregoing recommenda- wns.-(a) In view of what has already been accomplished it is highly uesirable that states, which are not promoting standardization, enact such legislation as will authorize the state department to promote in an efective manner the standardization of one- two- and three-teacher rural schools. States already standardizing schools should make such im- provements in existing plans as will result in a better administration of the same. (b) To this end sufficient appropriation should be made in order that the project may be efficiently administered in the office of the state department of education. The same may be said for the office of the county superintendent. (c) The state aid plan of Iowa is commendable. Here the law provides $6 a year for each pupil who has attended said school at least six months in the previous year. One-half of this subsidy goes to the teacher as a bonus over and above her salary. The remainder is ex- pended for local improvements. RURAL RECREATION AND SOCIAL LIFE-OUTLINE OF REPORT TO COMMITTEE ON RURAL EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION MACY CAMPBELL, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION, IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA 1. Scope of Field. This field includes : (a) The chief recrea- tional and social (leisure time) activities of the men, women, and children who live on farms or in farm villages in the Unted States. Among these are, reading, music, auto trips, visiting, playing games, 356 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National participation in competitive and mass athletics, movies, fairs, lyceums and entertainment courses, community meetings, picnics, parties, church sociables, dancing, hiking, camping, boating, swimming, skating, fishing, hunting, and various forms of excursions. (b) The chief organizations for promoting rural recreation and social life, namely: consolidated schools, revitalized one-teacher rural schools, county-wide school organizations, county libraries, state de- partments of physical training, and bureaus of community service, rural churches, and county Y. M. C. A., the Farm Bureau and other farm or- ganizations, boys and girls clubs, athletic associations, Boy Scouts, and Campfire Girls. Each will be illustrated by examples of some of the most successful results achieved. (c) The chief contributors to recreational and social activities are automobiles, good roads, meeting places such as schools, rural churches, or community halls which are provided with auditoriums, gymnasiums, cooking and serving rooms, playgrounds, play apparatus, moving- picture projectors, film-library resources, and musical equipment. Dance floors, bathing beaches, and amusement parks also contribute. 2. Present conditions. In exceptional communities some of which are to be described under the foregoing section, conditions are adequate and satisfactory. As a general rule conditions are very inadequate and unsatisfactory. Literally millions of country people are without proper recreational and social opportunities. This is one reason that the most competent often leave the farm. 3. Unsatisfactory conditions. Conditions are unsatisfactory in a large proportion of rural communities because of (a) Inadequate leadership ; ( b ) Inadequate organization ; ( c) Inadequate teaching in the public schools ; (d) Inadequate earning power of part of the farm population. 4. Measures recommended. The inculcating during school days of an appetite for good reading and an appreciation of the possible en- richment of life through proper use of leisure hours; the organization of consolidated schools providing buildings equipped with auditoriums, gymnasiums, rooms for preparing and serving meals, moving-picture machines, film-library resources, playgrounds and play apparatus; the encouragement of pupils and teachers to participate actively in plays and games at school ; the encouragement of mass athletics and competitive athletics between individuals, classes, and schools; the organization of community activities around the consolidated school. In addition, en- couragement should be given to community singing, county play days, development of social activities of the Farm Bureau and other social organizations named above, and the creation of state bureaus of physical training and community service. Especial emphasis should be put on Council] TESTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS 357 the development of recreational leaders in the public schools, normal schools, and colleges. 5. Helpful Legislation.-(a) Making it easier to consolidate schools. (b) Providing for organization and support of state bureaus of physical training and community service along the line of those in Michigan and North Carolina. (c) More funds available for recreational purposes in community activities centered about the public school. TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS- TENTATIVE CONCLUSIONS FROM THE SPECIAL IN- VESTIGATION BEING CARRIED ON FOR THE COMMITTEE ON RURAL EDUCATION FRED D. CRAM, EXAMINER, IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, EXTENSION DIVISION 1. Testing one-teacher rural schools is a time-consuming process, results obtainable being out of all proportion in number to results to be obtained in same length of time in graded schools. (a) schools are at least two miles apart ; ( b ) roads between are often bad, sometimes impassable for automobiles ; (c) enrolment is small. 2. The testing work interferes with all other activities within the school. (a) Classes not taking test can do little but listen to procedure unless sent from the room, which is often not feasible. ( b ) Classes idle during test pick up ideas concerning procedure which give them an advantage over those who take the test first. (c) There is danger that idle pupils may be a disturbing element. 3. Therefore, tests which can be given to an entire school at one operation are especially recommended, excepting in case of such tests as are suitable for a limited group only, the other pupils not taking the test at all (examples, Kirby's Grammar Test, Terman's Intelligence Test) . (a) For a concerted program covering the whole country the following tests are recommended. (Tests not listed are either not suit- able or have not been tried out by the examiner. ) (1) Monroe Silent Reading (3-8) (9) Hundred Spelling Demons (2-8 ) (2) Courtis Silent Reading (2-5) (10) Ayers Gettysburg Pen- (3) Cleveland Survey Arith. (3-8) manship Scale (5-8) (4) Courtis Series-B Arith. (4-8) (11) Kirby Grammar Test (7-8) (5) Monroe Diag. Arith. Tests (12) Charters Lang. Test (3-8) 1-6 (2-8) ( 13) Willing Comp. Scale (6-8) (6) Stone Reasoning (5-8) (14) Courtis-Barnes Geog. Test (7) Ayres Spelling Scale (2-8) U. S. (5-8) (8) Iowa-Ashbaugh Spelling (15) Harlan History (6-8) Scale (2-8) (16) National Int. Test (3-8) 358 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National (b.) From the foregoing list we especially recommend the fol- lowing : (1) Monroe Silent Reading (3-8) (4) Gettysburg Pen. Scale (3-8) (2) Cleveland Arith. (3-8) (5) Charters Lang. (3-8) (3) Iowa-Ashbaugh Spell. (2-8) (6) National Int. Test (3-8) (c) The six tests above listed should be given in three visits. (1) reading, spelling, 1st half arithmetic ; (2) second half arithmetic, language, writing ; (3) National Intelligence Tests. (d) If the foregoing program is not feasible, we recommend the Illinois Examination entire, as worthy of trial, as a substitute. 4. Conclusions already reached from too meager data seem to make the following statements verifiable: (a) Rural children are mentally as bright as town or city children. Exceptionally bright, average, and exceptionally dull children occur in about the same ratio everywhere. ( b ) Rural children are as good readers in the lower grades ( 1-3 ) as are town and city children. (c) Above fourth grade, rural pupils are not up to scholarship standards as set by measuring urban school systems. (d) The two or three children in any one grade in rural schools are frequently on planes of attainment so different as to nullify, in effect, the whole grading system. ( e) Children trained in one-teacher schools up to the middle grades and then transferred to graded systems rarely overcome handicaps in full, particularly in drill subjects. (f) The tendency is toward higher I. Q. for the class median as we progress from year to year in the high school, and in consolidated schools, due to elimination of the low I. Q's . CAN ADEQUATE FINANCIAL SUPPORT BE SECURED FOR RURAL SCHOOLS? GEORGE L. TOWNE, EDITOR Nebraska Teacher, LINCOLN, NEBR. The chief trouble with the rural school is its lack of financial sup- port. It is being literally starved to death. It is manned by an ineffi- cient teacher, is housed in a hopelessly bad building, is criminal in its heating and ventilation, is inadequate to the last degree in its equipment, its textbooks, and its necessary supplies. Here are the facts as to the financial support given the rural school in typical counties in several states chosen at random. These figures indicate that about one-half of all our schools have less than $1000 a year for all purposes. NEBRASKA Typical county in most prosperous section of state (York) 103 Total number of schools in county ... 70 Number spending less than $1000 a year Smallest amount spent for nine months school of 18 pupils . ..$ 310 Largest amount spent for one-teacher school giving 8 months schooling to 47 pupils ..$1350 Council] FINANCING RURAL SCHOOLS 359 OKLAHOMA Typical county in richest section of state (Cherokee) Total number of schools in county ... .... 69 Number spending less than $1000 a year .... ... 38 Smallest amount spent for school with 27 pupils. .$ 510 Largest amount spent for one-teacher school with 56 pupils $2138 WASHINGTON Typical county in best section of state ( Lincoln) Total number of schools in county .. ..130 Number spending less than $1000 a year 53 Smallest amount spent for school of 6 pupils .$ 386 Largest amount spent for one-teacher school of 35 pupils . .$2037 WISCONSIN Typical county in best section of state (Outagamie) Total number of schools in county .117 Number spending less than $1000 a year 76 Smallest amount spent for school of 9 pupils for 8 months .. ........ $ 604 Largest amount spent for one-teacher school giving 9 months schooling to 26 pupils .$4079 ΜΟΝΤΑΝΑ Typical county in rural section of state ( Broadwater ) Total number of schools in county . .28 Number spending less than $1000 a year .. ..10 Smallest amount spent for school, enrolment not given . . $ 396 Largest amount spent for one- teacher school of 23 pupils . .$2709 SPECIAL SURVEY OF ONE COUNTY Here is another way of stating the facts for a typical Nebraska county (Buffalo) . This is not one of the poor counties of the State, but one of the richest . Total number of schools in county .... .118 Number running at total cost of less than $750 a year for 8 years . 80 Number running at total cost of less than $500 for 8 years ..... 13 Lowest tax levy in county .. .5.85 mills Highest tax levy in county 44.69 mills Lowest expenditure per $1000 of actual value of property in county ........ $0.88 Highest expenditure per $1000 of actual value of property in county ........ $9.82 Two schools in this county did not graduate a single pupil from the eighth grade in 8 years. The medium number of graduates from all the rural schools in this county for 8 years was 1.06 pupils. These figures are taken from a special report on rural conditions in Buffalo County, by Professor H. C. Olson, of the State Teachers' College, Kearney, Nebr . Are these communities spending all they can afford for the educa- tion of their children ? Nearly all these districts that are spending less than $1000 a year are levying less than ten mills on the assessed valua- tion of their property. There are a few exceptions but so few as to prove the rule. Does anyone think that a ten-mill tax represents the maximum ability of any community ? Of course it does not, for many 360 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National communities are assessing themselves several times that much and are willing to pay still more if necessary to secure good schools. Here is the range of assessments in the counties shown above with one exception where the levy was not given : NEBRASKA Lowest levy 3 mills Highest levy ..64 mills OKLAHOMA COUNTY Lowest levy 2 mills Highest levy 15 mills WASHINGTON COUNTY Lowest levy 2 mills Highest levy 20 mills ΜΟΝΤΑΝA COUNTY Lowest levy .... 2mills Highest levy 15½ mills These low levies are not exceptions. There are many like them or only slightly higher. Neither are the high levies exceptions. In the Nebraska county there are 24 districts levying 20 or more mills. There are two levying above 60, one above 50 and several above 40. These are not the highest in the state. The city of Lincoln levies 80 mills and several cities levy close to 100 mills, which is the maximum allowed by state law. These facts lead me to conclude that most rural districts are not paying anywhere near what they can afford to pay for a good school . Is there any reason why country people cannot pay as high a tax- rate as the people in the neighboring towns and cities ? Do farmers spend less on the average for other things ? On the average it would seem that their standard of living is higher than that of town and city people. They also spend as much for luxuries, especially the automobile. What is the reason for the low amount spent for schools in the rural districts ? Is it not fair to assume that the reason lies in the school itself ? The one-room rural school is a poor school. Country people are paying all it is worth. In some cases they are paying more than it is worth- much more. Offer the farmer a better school and prove to him that it is better for his children and he willingly pays more money for it. The proof of this is shown by the consolidated schools already established. These are usually good schools. They cost as much as good schools in towns. But they are paid for willingly. This is also evident where the county and township unit school districts have been established. The better schools that have followed have been willingly paid for. It would seem fair then to conclude that adequate financial support can be secured for rural schools. The way is a campaign of merciless publicity. The patron of the poor one-room school must be shown its inherent weakness. He must be shown what a good school is like and Council) FINANCING RURAL SCHOOLS 361 what a good school costs. He must see how little he is paying for the education of his children and be made ashamed of his parsimony. For instance a farmer in York County, Nebraska, owning 160 acres ofthe best farm land in the world, worth approximately $32,000, is pay- ing $30 each year for the education of his children, if the district levy is 5 mills, and $60, if the levy is 10 mills. ( The assessed valuation in Nebraska is 1/5 the real value.) In the county-seat of York County, the man with property worth the same amount is paying $384 each year for the education of his children. The farmer must be made to face the facts : 1. His rural one-room school is not a good school . 2. The good school in the country, just as the good school in the town, will cost very much more money. 3. What the average farmer is now paying for the education of his children is shamefully inadequate. 4. The farmer can have a good school for his children but he can get it only by paying what a good school costs. The educators of the country must show their country clients these facts about good schools and their cost. Wherever they make their case clear the farmer will choose the good school for his children at the higher cost. What is this good school ? The one-room, ungraded, rural school - can never be made a good school. 1. There are too few pupils. The fair average teacher load is thirty pupils. The average attendance in Buffalo County for eight years was thirteen pupils per school. The average for the nation is probably less than thirteen. 2. Even if thirty could be provided there would be an average of less than four pupils to the grade. The actual average attendance of thirteen pupils in Buffalo County, Nebraska, provides 1½ pupils per grade. 3. There can be no adequate supervision of isolated schools where untrained and inexperienced teachers need supervision more than else- where. 4. The cost of even an average school under these conditions is prohibitive. Buffalo County, Nebraska, spent on an average for eight years $88,185 a year to educate pupils not in school. The good school can be secured for the rural community only by increasing the size of the school unit. This means the consolidated school, successful examples of which we have in almost every state ; or the township or county unit school system and successful examples of these schools are to be found also in all parts of this country. The larger unit school provides :-( 1 ) An equalization of the local tax burden. (2) The proper number of pupils for a fair teacher load 362 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National in a graded school. (3) Possibility of real supervision of instruction. (4) A community spirit and community leadership both of which are necessary to the morale of the real school. Besides the larger school unit there must also be State and Federal responsibility and financial aid. This is necessary to remove inequalities of burden that will remain even with the larger local unit. It is the duty of each State and of the Nation to see that all children, no matter where they may happen to live, are given approximately equal educa- tional opportunities. It is our duty as citizens, and especially as edu- cators, to see that the coming generation shall possess common Amer- ican ideals, inspired by an efficient educational system. SECOND REPORT OF PROGRESS OF COMMITTEE ON RACIAL WELL-BEING HELEN C. PUTNAM, PROVIDENCE, R. I. The Committee on Racial Well-Being of the National Council of Education during three years has offered honorariums of one thou- sand dollars for certain studies by groups of senior students prepar- ing to teach. The third series of studies is due in 1922. The studies are on the proposition ; " It is as much the duty of educa- tors to assure through educational procedures that individuals shall be well born as that they shall be well reared." The committee suggests presentation of facts and statistics of history, wars, criminals, defectives, poverty, alcoholism, infant mortality, con- servation and waste of natural resources. It invites co-operation by groups in biologic sciences, civics, history, home economics psychology, pedagogy. It calls for examples of methods for developing racial ideals both in elementary grades, and in continuation, vocational, and extension classes for adolescents and adults, to secure lessened rates of life-blunders and life failures as disclosed by Federal censuses . It invites initiative from teachers in working out projects that are of deep concern to the progress of civilization. It asks whether this ideal of personal responsibility for racial well-being should be one of the avowed ideals to definitely motivate education in order to correct and to elevate individualism and nationalism . STATE ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOLS E. W. BUTTERFIELD, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, CONCORD, N. H. 1. The state has become the smallest unit for efficient and econo- mical school administration.-( a) American educational history has shown the inadequacy of the district or community, of the town or township and even of the county as a complete unit. (b) Changed con Council] STATE ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOLS 363 ditions of civilization have enlarged our outlook and interest from the earlier parochial limitations. ( c) The varying degrees of wealth and the relative school population of the cities and townships and of the several counties of a state make it increasingly difficult to provide equal educational opportunities for all. (d) We have a mobile popula- tion and the result of poor schools and of ignorance cannot be localized in the village or county of origin. 2. To safeguard childhood and its own future the state should en- act uniform educational standards with local application.-(a) By le- gal enactment these standards should be in general terms only. (b) This law should give to the state department of education large power to establish binding regulations for administration. (c) The state depart- ment should be organized to explain, administer, and enforce the laws and regulations. 3. There should be state supervision of the educational process, with local responsibility.-( a) The superintendents should be well quali- fied and well paid, with units small enough to permit actual supervision and first-hand personal knowledge of local needs and ambitions. (b) Superintendents should be employed by the state but nominated from qualified persons by the local boards. They should be directed by and responsible to their school boards in order that local initiative and re- sponsibility may be cultivated. ( c) One of the chief duties of any state department of education is to organize the body of superinten- dents to secure united action on essentials and the morale which comes from co-operation in leadership. 4. In all states there must be financial equalization of state aid to a greater degree. (a ) The child is the ward of the state. ( b) The rich town must help the poor, not as charity but for its own future prosper- ity, and even for its safety. (c) Poverty and wealth can not be local- ized. (d) The proper distribution of state-aid funds is a most impor- tant duty. It demands a scientific study of needs, sympathetic aid to districts of low vision, and strict accounting that neither waste nor pauperism may result. 5. Necessary qualifications of a state department of education.- These important duties demand administration at the hands of a de- partment highly qualified and secure in tenure. A SURVEY OF THE SURVEY A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR "JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON, MASS. The next need in educational progress is an adequate professional survey of the survey. We should know where we are, how we came here, and where we are going in the survey business. There should be a faithful, adequate survey of every state survey, every city survey, every county survey, and every special survey. 364 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ National There should be an authoritative report on the origin of each, its originators, their relation to the schools, what prejudices were involved, what politics involved. It should be known how the survey was car- ried out, who made it, why selected, by whom paid, why paid. As to cost, it should be ascertained how much public money was spent, how much local money, and how much non-local money. If run by contri- butions, who contri uted and why should be made clear. Before ana- lyzing the results, these general questions might be answered : How thorough was it ? How scientific was it ? How much professional surveyism was in it ? The value of a survey depends upon its results, hence in a state sur- vey, it would be well to emphasize the legislation achieved as well as the legislation attempted. In a city survey the nature of the recommen- dations made should be understood, and the good actually achieved as well as any harmful consequences resulting from the survey must not be overlooked. All sides of each controversy should be studied and opinions pro and con furnished. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON CHANGES NEEDED IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COURSE KATHERINE DEVEREUX BLAKE, PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 6, NEW YORK, N. Y., Chairman. In the last decade of the last century the National Education Asso- ciation published the "Report of the Committee of Ten" and the "Report of the Committee of Fifteen," and these two reports set the standards for the course of study in the elementary and in the high schools of America. There has been no important report on this subject since that time, and courses of study in most places have not materially wandered from the standards then set. Yet a generation has come to maturity since then; the world has learned to use the trolley, the auto- mobile, wireless telegraphy, the airplane, the phonograph, moving pic- tures, the submarine, and poison gas ; the world-war has destroyed the old map of Europe and changed living conditions all over the world. The child of today faces a new world, and should not be tied to the course of study of the world of 1895. ENGLISH In most courses of study the literature read and studied in school is "classic. " The real difficulty before the school is that we are training children who face not yesterday, but tomorrow. Some of the best modern writing should be presented to the youth of America. In any event, the literature of the schools should lead away from the supersti- tions and folk-lore follies of the days when our ancestors painted them- selves with woad, and so feared strangers that anyone painted differently was killed as soon as seen. Council] THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COURSE 365 No fairy story should be told to children unless it has a real ethical value. The old-fashioned allegory trains imagination quite as well as does the fairy story, and has a moral value that lasts through life. Any- one with average intelligence and even a low order of imagination can tell fairy stories by the hour. Knowledge of life, reality, or verisimili- tude are not required. That is why fairy-story telling is so popular. But to invest with life and interest, real people Me have moved the world requires study and a high order of imagination, as well as a cer- tain dramatic ability. Yet such are the only stories worth telling to our children. Such are the tales that will kindle their imagination and lead them to higher levels, and will fit them to take up the burden of life, knowing that each must give his share of work and self-sacrifice in order that all may be happier. Most of the Mother Goose rhymes were originally lampoons, po- litical or personal. As, for instance, "London Bridge," which was a lampoon of the time of Charles II. When their history is taught, those which have a historic value may be taught with advantage ; the others might better be omitted, and simple songs with equal rhythmic value, written by our great authors, be substituted for them. It is absurd to teach solemnly in school to children six or seven years old the foolish rhymes that we older people learned in the nursery at the age of two or three. The task before us in all English work is to try to make it vivid to the pupil. No child should ever be asked to write a composition on a subject which is not clear and distinct to him as a personal experience. Vague subjects and glittering generalities destroy a child's interest in the composition lesson. It is better for him to write bad English with a punch to it than to write good English that is dead. In the conference of the Council held July 1, 1920, it was unani- mously voted to omit technical grammar from the first six years in school. It was the concensus of opinion that the grammar studied in the seventh and eighth years should be simple in character. HISTORY America thus far has been the greatest experiment in democracy that the world has seen. The children of today face a new world and must learn history in the light of present-day developments . While world-conditions of today must not be neglected, the best training for the child is a study of the laws and government of his own community, the things which he can readily understand. History, as taught in the past, has focused the pupils' attention upon military greatness. Democracy demands that the pupils of today shall study the progress of nations and races rather than the story of kings and generals. To this end periods of history should be chosen and the life of the people during these periods made real by means of research 366 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National and project-teaching, culminating in pageants. The life of the mass of the people in each period should be studied and the causes for their advancement or retardation discussed and the far-reaching effect of new discoveries, new inventions, and new ideas should be shown. Each period studied should be vividly contrasted with the everyday conditions of the present time. This will render interesting research into our own life and community conditions, and these should be care- fully studied, defects noted, and the pupils taught that it is their duty to make the world better, and to bring nearer the brotherhood of men and the peace of the world. Teachers should be leaders in their community, not followers. Sir Auckland Geddes, British Ambassador to the United States, in his ad- dress last November, before the Annual Convention of the Minnesota Education Association, stated that improved education would make future wars impossible and that the schoolroom is the hope of peace. He said, "An ambassador's duty is to promote the cause of peace." How infinitely more it is the duty of the teacher. Continuing, he said, " I have participated in two wars, and I have no desire to see another, nor for my children to see one. You and your companions in the teaching profession have an almost absolute control over the mental bias of the citizens of the future. That knowledge emboldens me to say that if you are understandingly faithful to your trust there will be new hope for mankind and for the peace of the world.” SPELLING The N. E. A. should issue an authoritative list of the one thousand words which form the vocabulary of the average human being who has not had the benefit of a high-school education. This list should be made by a study of all the present lists of scientifically chosen words, as well as those taught in good business schools. It could be published either by the N. E. A. or the Bureau of Education . With this could be arranged a simple compendium of the rules re- quired for punctuation in proofreading. TRAINING FOR PARENTHOOD By scientific research and patient study we have learned the best methods of feeding and environment for plants and animals. The flowers are infinitely more beautiful, the fruits larger and more perfect, the farm animals more productive, than those of half a century ago. But during this half-century we have done little to improve the human animal. The training and environment of children have been forgotten while human beings struggled for a livelihood. As a rule, the most wasted years of life are those from birth to school age. Nevertheless, the schools as a whole are not yet awake to their duty in preparing boys and girls for parenthood. This does not mean sex hygiene, but a con- tinuous training in the ideals and joys of parenthood, and a knowledge Council] THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COURSE 367 of the self-sacrifice needed in order to win the crown of loving devotion that children give to wise and affectionate parents. Such training must not be left to the high schools but should be taught in the first six years of school life, for the majority of the school population leave school at the end of the elementary school course or earlier. Humane education, care of babies, training for health of children of pre-school age, and the training of their powers of observation, and games that will help to develop either the body or the brain of the younger brother or sister, or the child that may come to their arms later in life-all these should be taught in the schools, to both boys and girls . In our factory-built world of today thousands of children are acting as little mothers or little fathers to younger brothers and sisters. Un- tutored in the care of children and in the joy of training them aright, their little charges are merely heavy burdens borne in silence, or with grumbling, and sometimes with the abuse taught them by their illiterate parents. Such training as this would come to these little foster-parents as a revelation and a delight. It would help toward bringing to the schools in a short time better-trained, little kindergarten children, and, for the future, would mean an infinitely better generation than the one with which the teachers of today now struggle. SCIENCE AND MANUAL TRAINING The world is calling for people who think, because the life of today is dependent on scientific research. Science, more than any other study, demands thought; it is therefore imperative that our children should study at an early age the beginnings of science, both organic and in- organic. The child of today faces a world that is dominated by machines. Life is made easier for him by machines, and a great majority of the children will earn their living by caring for machines. It is well, there- fore, that their training in the use of machines should begin early. There is a toy typewriter that is not expensive that would train for accuracy in spelling as no amount of written work will do, and there are simple arithmetical calculating machines that are interesting and helpful. These and similar little devices can be used for "busy work," and will save the voice and the nerves of the teacher-and of the child -for the machine, like nature, is quietly inexorable. Science work, in so far as it relates to machines, should be spread through the child's school life and not left for the last two years of school, as is frequently the case in courses of study. In the city and on the farm, in its daily life, the child sees machines in use, and its toys frequently contain applications of the lever, pulley, wedge, and the like. A seven-year old child can learn something of the force of gravi- tation when illustrated by its own bumps, and cohesion, when it glues a picture to a piece of cardboard. As it progresses in the school the 368 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National child should learn to watch for examples of the power of gravitation, cohesion, capillary attraction, light, heat, combustion, electricity, magne- tism, the lifting power of the screw, inclined plans, and other mechanical devices. Our great inventors did not postpone their work until they were ready for high school or college, but tinkered in their childhood, trying to find new ways of doing the things their parents did more slowly. Just as inorganic science should be studied through the grades, so also should simple organic science. The fundamental difference be- tween living organisms and inorganic matter should be taught with special emphasis on feeding, breeding, and growth. In large cities this study must perforce focus on plant life and human life for dusty, dead specimens from a museum do not train a child in true nature study. Only in rural or semi-rural communities can the great panorama of nature really be studied. Nevertheless, school gardens, parks, and her- bariums can do much for the city child, while corn clubs, calf clubs, and farm culture, generally, will open the eyes of the rural child to the wonders possible of achievement in the plant and animal world through right feeding and environment. In all study of growth, the needs of plants and animals should be compared with those of growing children, and likenesses and differences studied to the end that the next genera- tion may be better equipped for the struggle of life than the present one. Shop work and cooking should not be confined to the seventh and eighth years, as at present because of expense, but should be taught throughout the school life of the child, the younger children taking the place of helpers to the older girls and boys. All manual training, science, and art work should follow taste and ability lines, rather than sex lines . Boys should be free to learn cooking or sewing, and girls to do shop work; for in the industrial world today thousands of men are cooking and sewing, while in thousands of homes women are doing upholstery and carpentry work. Department of Business Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-THOMAS A. BEAL, Director School of Commerce and Finance, University of Utah ........ ..... Salt Lake City, Utah. Secretary W. S. PETERSON, Commercial Department, Ogden High School....Ogden, Utah. The annual meeting of the Department of Business Education was held Wednesday afternoon, July 6, in the Courthouse, Des Moines, Iowa. In the absence of the secretary, the chairman, Clay D. Slinker, appointed Chester M. Jones, East High School, Des Moines, to act as secretary. ARTICULATION OF UNIVERSITY AND HICH SHOOL BUSINESS COURSES-C. Ο . Ruggles, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. QUALIFICATIONS FOR TEACHING COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS-G. F. Knipprath, Head of the Bookkeeping and Accounting Department, High School of Com- merce, Omaha, Nebr. CO-OPERATION BETWEEN BUSINESS HOUSES AND BUSINESS SCHOOLS-R. L. Hamil- ton, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Sioux City, Iowa. A COMMERCIAL PROGRAM FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS-C. A. Blake, Amos Hiatt Junior High School, Des Moines, Iowa. VALUES OF BOOKKEEPING AND PENMANSHIP FOR EVERYDAY LIFE-A. N. Palmer, New York, N. Y. The following officers were elected for 1921-22 : President-CLAY D. SLINKER, Director Business Education, Des Moines, Iowa. Secretary-G. F. KNIPPRATH, High School of Commerce, Omaha, Nebr. CHESTER M. JONES, Secretary Pro Tem. THE ARTICULATION OF SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDU- CATION IN BUSINESS C. O. RUGGLES, UNIVERSITY OF IOWA; IOWA CITY, IOWA The proper co-ordination of secondary schools with collegiate schools of commerce will demand that the colleges and universities take a broad view of business education in the secondary schools and of the recent extension of the secondary schools to include the Freshman and Sopho- more years of college work. If the secondary curricula in commerce are to be formed primarily with the large number in mind who will never go to college this will mean a liberal choice of curricula in the secondary schools which in turn will demand that colleges and uni- versities broaden the scope of units which will be accepted for entrance or for which they will give advanced credit. The college has much enriched its own curriculum and the exits through which a graduate may pass with a degree have been multiplied. It would appear that the higher educational institutions ought to expect the same thing in the secondary schools and to recognize a variety of possible routes by which 369 370 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Business students may approach college. "College entrance," it would seem, must be conceived as "university entrance." That there is some ap- preciation of such a shift in emphasis in entrance requirements may be seen from the present provisions of some of our universities concern- ing entrance credit and advanced credit for commerce work in the secondary schools. The University of Chicago, and the universities of Illinois, Nebraska, Michigan, and Wisconsin all give credit for all commerce courses taken in the secondary schools. In Illinois, for ex- ample, it is possible for a student to take certain advanced courses in commerce built upon secondary-school courses. In fact, a student who has had bookkeeping in certain secondary schools in Illinois is not permitted to repeat it in the university with credit. And in Wisconsin students may take certain advanced courses if the work they have taken in the same field in the high school was equivalent to the Freshman work. In this institution, however, they give an examination in the subject. Without doubt the movement to extend secondary education upward two years is in the interest of general education. If two more years were added to secondary schools, more persons would avail themselves of additional education. Moreover, it would offer an opportunity to col- leges and universities to do a much higher grade of work than is now possible with the presence of large first and second-year classes. In content and character, the work of Freshmen and Sophomores is much more closely related to secondary education than it is to college and university work. It was President Jordan, I believe, who said that a big university library is about as much an embarrassment to a Fresh- man class as a big Freshman class is to a library. This is certainly of vital interest to the universities and to the colleges that offer gradu- ate work. We ought to face the fact squarely in this country that our universities cannot be universities in the true sense of the word until Freshman and Sophomore classes are greatly reduced, or what is better, where it is feasible, eliminated entirely. Already our higher educational institutions must bow to the American corporation in im- portant fields of research. The corporation, however efficient in its investigations, is interested in those phases which affect it most. It is the university which must be expected to seek the truth for its own sake. The field of business is much in need of thoroughgoing and scientific research. If the higher educational institutions take a broad view of their relations to the secondary-school system they will do three things which will make for more effective correlation. First, they will modify their entrance requirements so as to give credit for work done in those sub- jects outside of the customary classical group, provided these courses are made worthy of credit ; second, they will give advanced credit for Department] EDUCATION IN BUSINESS 371 work of standard grade which is taken in the secondary schools be- yond the four-year high-school course; and third, they will give more attention to the training of teachers for work in commerce in the secondary schools. Modern psychology has not given much comfort to those theorists who have maintained that only certain studies afford so-called mental discipline. It would appear that it is more important that a high stand- ard should be set for the studies that are taken, and that enough work be taken in certain lines to give the student opportunity to get a point of view in the field and to test his ability to do advanced work. At present it is not necessary, with very few exceptions, that entrance units required by colleges and universities represent both elementary and advanced courses in the same field. There has been some investi- gation in the universities of Minnesota and Michigan of the records of the students who entered these universities with secondary- school credits made up almost entirely of elementary courses in the high school. The records of these students in their university work has been compared with the standing of other university students who sub- mitted for entrance credit many advanced courses; courses which were open only to those high-school juniors and seniors who had taken cer- tain elementary prerequisite courses in the first two years of high school. The evidence shows for the class of 1918 in the University of Minnesota, for example, that half of the students, who presented less than the average of advanced work for entrance credit, secured two-thirds of the failures in university courses. In other words, those who avoided advanced studies in the high school showed a scholastic death rate about twice that of those who took advanced courses in high school. Of course, there is a process of selection here that must not be overlooked for probably the weak students had a tendency to select only elementary high-school subjects. The second way in which the higher educational institutions can operate with the secondary schools is by allowing advanced credit for work done in the so-called junior colleges. Any one who has witnessed first hand the enormous growth of our universities must have been con- vinced that either our university plants must be doubled in size, be du- plicated in other parts of the state, or that additional facilities must be provided in secondary schools for the first two years of college work. Most of our first-class high schools are better equipped to do the first and in some cases the second year of college work than are many of the small colleges of the country. Of 574 higher educational in- stitutions reporting to the U. S. Bureau of Education in 1915-1916, 207 had incomes of less than $50,000. Yet these weak colleges are the ones that attempt to compete with the universities by offering a variety of courses. That the quality of their work is becoming well known is evi 372 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business denced by the growth of those institutions that are well equipped to offer a strong four-year course. If the weak colleges would center all their attention on the first two years they could hold some Freshmen and Sophomores who are now crowding our universities and thus better provision could be made by the strong institutions for the work for Juniors, Seniors, and graduates. Finally, the collegiate schools of commerce can co-operate very ef- fectively with the secondary schools of commerce by giving more at- tention to the training of teachers for these schools. Without efficient teachers in this field the proper type of course cannot be given by the secondary schools. If the higher educational institutions object to giving entrance credit, or advanced credit for work done by the second- ary schools, then it would appear that the secondary schools, especially those that are a part of a State supposed educational system, can de- mand of the State universities that they make it possible for the second- ary schools to offer work in commerce which is worthy of university recognition. This can be done only where there are available competent teachers in this field for the secondary schools. Such a correlated system of education is imperative in a country which has committed itself to government by majority rule. A com- plete educational program from elementary and secondary education through the colleges and universities ought to accomplish at least two things. First, there should be every opportunity for the proper educa- tion of the masses, and second, adequate training of leaders. These in turn are dependent upon an efficient secondary-school system and its proper co-ordination with higher educational institutions in which there is the opportunity to do graduate work and research of the high- est order. Our public education ought to enable the great mass of young per- sons who now leave the school system somewhere between fourteen and sixteen years of age to obtain a training which will make them citizens capable of self-support and self-respect ; it ought to provide a knowl- edge of our own institutions and government and inculcate some ap- preciation of the duties and privileges of citizenship. We speak of culture in connection with our educational programs. But we must not overlook the fact that it cannot come from homes that have not enough economic independence to be self-supporting. If our educational system would provide training for the great mass of boys and girls who now leave school in their early teens many more of them would possess sufficient skill to enable them to carry their own weight in society. From the mere basis of dollars and cents then, it would pay to give training to our youths through our public-school system. Department] TEACHING COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 373 But is is not enough for the secondary schools and colleges to give technical training in the field of business. Our educational system ought to embrace the opportunity which it has to raise the standards of busi- ness ethics. If our schools do their duty in this regard, the men who would find themselves in business within a generation or two, would have been accustomed to a very different "business ozone," and the re- sults would be registered in improved standards of business conduct. ✓QUALIFICATIONS for teaching coMMERCIAL SUB- JECTS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS G. F. KNIPPRATH, HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, OMAHA, NEBR. The idea that an experienced teacher of business subjects is qualified to teach almost all of the strictly commercial subjects listed in the cur- riculum is still prevalent among us. A recent study of the applications of teachers on file in our high school of commerce reveals the fact that teachers commonly consider themselves capable of teaching from five to eight more or less unrelated subjects. Here is a list of subjects which an experienced teacher claimed to be especially qualified to teach : (1) commercial arithmetic, (2) rapid calculation, (3 ) bookkeeping, (4) accounting, ( 5 ) auditing, (6) commercial law, (7) commercial geog- raphy, (8) shorthand, (9) typewriting, ( 10) correspondence, ( 11 ) business English. This person, if called upon, could also teach pen- manship. The absurdity of this would become apparent to all had the claim been made that the teacher mentioned was particularly trained to give instruction in some such groups of subjects as English, history, mathematics, and a language. It is quite the usual thing for teachers to say they are prepared to teach shorthand and typewriting, and arith- metic and bookkeeping, and one or two additional subjects. Some of the reasons for this view are suggested by the special prep- aration commonly considered adequate by teachers. 1. According to one group a high-school course in bookkeeping or stenography, with or without business experience, prepares one to train bookkeepers or stenographers . 2. A second group offers a business college course in these subjects as sufficient. 3. A third group says practical experience as a salesman enables one to teach salesmanship. 4. A fourth group believes successful teaching in an academic sub- ject will qualify one to give instruction in bookkeeping, business law, salesmanship, and advertising . 5. A fifth group, having a little higher notion of the requirements, would add six weeks special study in a summer school as sufficient preparation. 374 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Business One could enumerate still other groups who hold equally inadequate or narrow conceptions of the preparation required for training boys and girls for the business world of today. Let us turn our thoughts, how- ever, to an analysis of the qualifications a teacher must have if he is to give efficient instruction in commercial subjects. In this discussion keep in mind that we are considering the type of business training that may be given either in a high school of com- merce or in a business department of an academic high school. We can- not escape the fact that we are training students both in the ways of modern social life and modern business life. A broad outlook on life is a first essential for all boys and girls. This conception at once forces practically all of the standard secondary school subjects into the cur- riculum of even a high school of commerce. Consequently teachers of business subjects must possess the same culture demanded of other high-school teachers. A college education thus becomes a first requisite in the business teacher's preparation . The second requisite, that of training students in the ways of modern business life, makes it also necessary for the business teacher to have special training beyond his general college course. He is responsible for giving the student an opportunity to acquire a thorough under- standing of the principles that underlie all business. He must also make it possible for the student to obtain a knowledge of and a skill in efficient business practice in some one field. To be able to meet these require- ments, it is clear that the business teacher himself must be thoroughly acquainted with the principles upon which business is operated and that he must have a first-hand knowledge of up-to-date business practice. Present-day business, however, is so varied and so complex that the teacher can no longer hope to be familiar with all phases of business practice. He must select for his effort some one type of business prac- tice such as is represented by retail selling or by record keeping. More- over the teacher must keep up with the progress made in his field. From personal experience with the record-keeping departments of Omaha business houses, I have learned that observations are largely out of date within five years from the time they were made. This progress imposes upon the business teacher the task of keeping abreast with his field of business through personal observation and study and perhaps through some actual experience in business houses. Definite provision should be made by school boards so that the teacher of business subjects may be given both the time and the opportunity to keep himself quali- fied on this important but much neglected side of his instruction . One means by which a business teacher may obtain business experience would be to secure employment during the summer months. Another method would be for the school board to grant a leave of absence for a semes- ter and arrange with two or three business houses for temporary Department] TEACHING COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 375 employment in the teacher's special field, the school board to make up the deficit in salary that would probably arise. A third plan, and per- haps one of the best plans, would be to relieve the teacher of one class for a semester and arrange a regular plan of observation in a consider- able number of representative business houses, the teacher being re- quired to observe systematically and make written reports thereon. If the analysis of our theme is at all correct thus far, we have come to the point where the business teacher is a specialist in some type of business activity. This should mean that if he is qualified to teach retail selling, he cannot be expected to be qualified to teach stenography, or, if he is qualified to give instruction in bookkeeping, he cannot be expected to be able to give instruction in stenography. Finally it should be noted that a business teacher who possesses all of the previously mentioned qualifications is not yet fully equipped to teach. The business teacher, no less than the regular high-school teacher, must be trained in the psychology and the pedagogy of his particular subject. Fortunately it is now possible to take courses of this type in a number of our universities. Methods of teaching stenog- raphy and typewriting and methods of teaching bookkeeping are among those regularly available. Perhaps we have sketched the equipment of the almost ideally pre- pared teacher. What shall be said of the less well-prepared teacher now in the service? For him the following program is suggested. We will assume, for the sake of concreteness, that he has a college education, but little business education, and that he is a bookkeeping teacher. It is to be hoped that such a teacher is willing to attend two or more sum- mer sessions at a university. Granting this, he should first make up any deficiency that may exist in his knowledge of economics. He then should take a course covering the general principles of accounting, some work in business organization and administraton, and business law, and a course in the methods of teaching bookkeeping. Further, the school board should see to it that he has opportunity to secure some business experience and to observe generally in his field of business. By following this or an equivalent plan, he should become, in time, an efficient teacher of his subject . If teachers in the service and those entering the service will en- deavor to acquire the qualifications outlined, it is the belief of the speaker, that business education may be so given in the secondary school as to serve permanently a useful purpose in each community. 376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Business CO- OPERATION BETWEEN Business Houses AND BUSINESS SCHOOLS ROBIN LYNN HAMILTON, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SIOUX CITY, IOWA Co-operation between business houses and business schools depends first upon acquaintanceship, mutual respect, and mutual understanding of the ends attainable and to be attained. Such acquaintanceship may be brought about in various ways. One of these is active participation of school men in business and civic problems through membership in the commercial clubs, advertising and salesmanship organizations, Rotary, and other organizations of similar type. Some clear outline of business and educational needs should be made, considered from the standpoints of ( 1) a national program with its underlying educational and economic factors, (2) a state program showing the nature and business peculiar to a state, (3 ) a local program which takes into consideration the specific local factors and the predominant local industries . Employers' associations should assume the responsibility for com- piling the essential trade information in their businesses and industries. Some of them have already, through a national association, organized bureaus taking up common matters of research and service, cost accounting, advertising, technical features, and legal problems. Before the business or other technical schools can do very effective work among the employers, the employers need to know the general problems ✓affecting their industries. The managers of the separate businesses should be conversant with these problems. They should pass on the ✓ information through their department heads, co-operating. The em- ployes will be truly benefited in the resultant schooling because the pro- gram is definitely worked out. Some of the specific means and methods of co-operation that can be employed locally are : ( 1) legislation, (2) material for courses of study, (3) industrial surveys, (4) industrial excursions, (5) talks by business men, (6) individual interviews. by pupils with business men, (7) placement of pupils in the industry, for which the school assumes the responsibility for ability and achievement tests, character estimates, personality and school records, (8) conduct by schools of special classes or groups. Other special methods might be found adaptable to various com- munities, the committee on education of the chamber of commerce, a junior chamber of commerce, and other formal organizations. In conclusion, co-operation is quite imperative both for business and the school and it is the wise school department that takes the initiative in promoting such co-operation. Department of Child Hygiene SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President O. B. NESBIT, director medical inspection... .Gary, Ind. Vice-President-MAUDE A. BROWN, supervisor of hygiene... Kansas City, Mo. Secretary WILLIAM A. HOWE, state medical inspector for New York .... Albany, N. Y. FIRST SESSION TUESDAY MORNING, JULY 5, 1921 The Department of Child Hygiene convened in regular session on Tuesday morning, July 5, at two o'clock, in the Court House at Des Moines, Iowa. The meeting was called to order by the chairman, and the following program was presented : AN EFFICIENT PLAN FOR CONTROL and Prevention of COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN SCHOOL-Thomas D. Wood, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. HEALTH SUPERVISION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN ON A STATE- WIDE BASIS-C. P. Knight, P. A. Surgeon, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C. SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE IN NEW YORK STATE-William A. Howe, State Medical Inspector of Schools, Albany, N. Y. A SCHOOL TEACHER'S OPPORTUNITY FROM A HEALTH OFFICER'S STANDPOINT- H. O. Jones, M. D., Division of Child Hygiene, Health Department, Chi- cago, Ill. SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921 At a luncheon of the department at 12:15 o'clock the following papers were given: NEW STANDARDS OF HEIGHT AND WEIGHT MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE AS AN INDEX TO NUTRITION-B. T. Baldwin, Iowa University, Iowa City, Iowa. CERTAIN FACTORS IN RESPIRATION AND CIRCULATION IN CHILDHOOD AND THEIR INTERCORRELATIONS-A. W. Bray, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. The regular afternoon session was held at the Court House, and the follow- ing program was given : REDUCING THE COURSE OF STUDY IN HYGIENE TO ITS Lowest TERMS-Maude A. Brown, Supervisor of Hygiene, Kansas City, Mo. VITALIZED HYGIENE TEACHING-F. M. Gregg, Nebraska Wesleyan University, University Place, Nebr. A CARD FOR SCORING THE BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES OF SCHOOL CHILDREN-W. A. Evans, M. D. , member of the Chicago Committee, Chicago, Ill. TEACHING FIRST AND SECOND GRADERS HEALTH HABITS-Florence A. Powell, Observation School, Cleveland, Ohio. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF CHILDREN OF PRE- SCHOOL AGE WITH NUTRITIONAL EXPERT IN ATTENDANCE- H. DeLamater, M. D., Director of Hygiene in Public Schools, St. Joseph, Mo. REPORT ON METHOD USED IN WIPING TRACHOMA OUT OF LINCOLN PUBLIC SCHOOLS-Katherine H. K. Wolfe, Supervisor of Hygiene, Lincoln, Nebr. THE CORRECTION OF STAMMERING AND COGNATE DEFECTS OF SPEECH-Frederick Martin, Director of Speech Improvement, New York, N. Y. THIRD SESSION-THURSDAY MORNING, JULY 7, 1921 At the Court House a round table of medical inspection workers was held, with C. P. Knight, U. S. Public Health Service, as leader. 1 FOURTH SESSION- THURSDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 7, 1921 A second round table for medical inspection workers was held with W. A. Howe, M. D., Albany, N. Y. for leader. Many interesting subjects were discussed. 377 378 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene AN EFFICIENT PLAN FOR CONTROL AND PREVENTION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN SCHOOLS THOMAS D. WOOD, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y., CHAIRMAN, JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION The public school is well fitted to act as a center for the distribution of children's diseases throughout the community. Frequently this is just what occurs. Crowded movies and street cars may act in a similar way as spreaders of disease among children. The observation and action of conscientious, responsible parents and teachers, supplementing the service of school doctors and nurses, are necessary to make the school a health center and not a disease center. To wait until the communicable diseases of children can be con- fidently diagnosed by the physicians is to defeat the success and effi- ciency of a plan to minimize and prevent communicable disease among school children. Children should be kept at home or excluded from school for the signs of health disorders and, if possible, before they have developed the symptoms of active disease. The child who has in the morning one or more of the following signs should be kept at home by the parent : nausea; vomiting; chill or convulsions (fits) ; dizziness, faintness, or unusual pallor ; eruption (rash) of any kind; fever; running nose; red or running eyes ; sore or inflamed throat; acutely swollen glands in neck; cough; failure to eat the usual breakfast ; any distinct change from usual appearance and conduct of child. The foregoing signs should be used also by teachers as a basis for excluding pupils from school for the day, or until signs have disap- peared, of until the school doctor has authorized the return of the pupil to school. Children may be taught (without disturbing fear or attempt to de- ceive) to notice the foregoing signs in themselves or their compan- ions and thus contribute their part toward protecting the school from contagious disease. The catarrhal cold is communicable. Measles is infectious two, three, and sometimes four days before the rash appears. The child "coming down" with measles should be excluded from school because of the running nose, the red, inflamed eyes, the fever or the loss of appetite, and well before the rash shows itself. Other diseases of childhood are communicable well before the commonly known distinctive symptoms can be recognized. Many Department] STATE - WIDE HEALTH SUPERVISION 379 of the serious diseases of children are conveyed by the droplets of moisture (the spray) from the nose and mouth in coughing and sneez- ing. Every school child should be trained to use the handkerchief to cover the nose and mouth in sneezing and coughing. It should be considered as bad manners and as unhygienic to sneeze or cough with- out covering the mouth and nose as to spit on the floor. HEALTH SUPERVISION OF SCHOOL CHILDREN ON A STATE- WIDE BASIS C. P. KNIGHT, SURGEON , U. S. PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Child hygiene is the foundation stone of public health. In all the field of public-health activity school hygiene offers the greatest re- turn in the way of health dividends if placed on a sane and sound basis; and yet it may be stated that there is no program so promising in a prospectus and yet more disappointing in fulfillment than is the school hygiene program. There are several factors which account for this state of affairs . First, supervision is essentially a community problem or responsibility and as yet most communities have failed to take cognizance of this fact. Second, there is a lack of central control and lack of inaugura- tion of standardized methods and uncertainty as to which authority- school or health-should rightly assume the function of school hy- giene. Third, lack of or ambiguously worded laws make health super- vision from the state standpoint more or less a farce. Health supervision or school hygiene, as some are wont to call it, may be stated to be the science of health preservation or life-exten- sion as applied to the school child. We may now rightly consider what constitutes the fundamentals of state health supervision. We must, first of all, have adequate laws under which to act, and secondly, we must have appropriate funds in order to carry out the law. State statutes may be of an optional or permissive nature, or they may be mandatory. It is under the former method that the state of Missouri is now working. Before the year 1919 school hygiene in Missouri was practically an unknown quantity except perhaps in the two large cities of the state. In that year the legislature enacted a law creating a division of child hygiene which authorized the Board of Health, through this division to promulgate rules and regulations for the physical inspec- tion of school children. Nothing in the law compelled school boards or others to conduct such examinations nor was there any money appropriated for carrying out the purpose of the act. After the enactment of this law the State Board of Health requested the United 380 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene States Public Health Service to organize the division and carry on surveys and investigations in order that communities might be stimu- lated and the needs ascertained. Accordingly, in November, 1919, the writer was assigned to duty with the State Board of Health for the purpose of formulating a program and directing child hygiene acti- vities throughout the state. A comprehensive program was mapped out with school-health supervision as the predominating feature. It was realized that effi- cient results could be obtained only by co-ordinating all existing health agencies working in the conservation of child health with the staff of the Public Health Service. Conferences were held with the various volunteer organizations which resulted in outlining a policy which gave all organizations definite functions delimiting the field of their special activities and secured their agreement to co-operate through the Public Health Service with the State Board of Health . Different organizations co-operating on a state-wide basis were the Missouri Tuberculosis Association, the American Red Cross, the Agri- culture Extension Service of the Missouri State University, the Parent- Teachers' Association, the W. C. T. U., and the medical and dental professions. The Public Health Service placed a staff of field work- ers consisting of physicians, public-health nurses, and trained school workers in various communities for the purpose of making demonstra- tions and standardizing methods for school hygiene. The American Red Cross furnished nurses for district clinics and health centers and also for the purpose of school inspection; the Missouri Tuberculosis Association detailed field agents for organization purposes and to assist in state-wide publicity. They also featured the Modern Health Crusade; the Agriculture Extension Service of the State University detailed its home demonstration agents and nutrition specialists to conduct or assist in the conduct of nutrition clinics in the schools; the Parent-Teachers' Associations lent valuable aid in assisting the school workers ; the W. C. T. U. furnished the division with a multigraph for publicity purposes ; and the medical and dental professions gave valuable aid in conducting physical examinations and donated much time to clinic and health center work. Scope of workers. On request of the local school authorities a field staff was detailed to make demonstrations and a survey in a given city. This demonstration was usually started by weighing and meas- uring the children. This was an easy approach as it did not antagonize and served to interest the children and the parents in other form of health work. After this procedure, nutrition clinics were established for the underweight children. Mothers were particularly invited to attend the lectures and informal conferences. In conjunction with the clinic the physical examination was then conducted to determine the Department] STATE-WIDE HEALTH SUPERVISION 381 possible cause of malnutrition. Beside the special examination of under- weights all children were examined and notices were sent to parents with the suggestion that the physical defects be given attention by the family physician. Follow-up work was then instituted by the nurse in the homes explaining the necessity for having such physical defects corrected. To June 30, 1920, the end of the fiscal year, demonstrations were conducted in twenty-five cities and in four counties of the state. Com- plete tabulations were made on the children of eleven towns, comprising a total of 17,561 children. The total number of defects were 34,823 or an average of two defects to a child. Defects noted were the com- moner gross defects, such as decayed teeth, defective vision and hearing, large tonsils, adenoids, and underweight. Besides the defective teeth the most serious condition noted was that of malnutrition. About 50 per cent of the school population were from 7 to 10 per cent under- weight and these were suffering from two or more defects. Accord- ingly, nutrition clinics were established in nineteen towns of the state. The results of this demonstration became known all over the state so that at the beginning of the school term of 1920, requests came from many school districts and counties for similar demonstrations. Our policy at this time was somewhat changed, and we proposed that the communities carry on their own work, the state giving such supervision as would be needed in order to procure standardization. The result of this policy was that school-hygiene activities were carried on in fifty counties and in seventy-five towns in these counties. Approximately 100,000 school children are being examined this school term. All of the results of these examinations have not yet been tabulated but esti- mating on some districts taken at random, reports show about thirty per cent correction of defects. Tabulations to date for 1920-1921 are as follows : School children examined in twenty-four towns.... 8,728 School children examined in rural districts. 6,486 Total in above schools-- -15,214 Defects found : Vision -2,305 Hearing 662 Mouth breathing 1,368 Defective teeth 9,572 Nasal 976 Throat 7,408 Skin eruptions 322 Total 22,613 382 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene Miscellaneous : Heart Affections 68 Orthopedic 54 Spinal 23 Conjunctivitis 583 Trachoma 143 Suspected trachoma 136 Blepharitis 173 Others 167 Total 1,347 Legislation. The success of this work had its reaction on the legis- lature and in March 1921 there was passed an act known as the Physical Education Bill, patterned somewhat after the proposed Fess-Capper Bill now before the National Congress. This state bill provides for the physical education of school children including inculcation of health habits, the making of periodical physical tests, and the recording and reporting the finding of these tests and the promoting of the correction of physical defects in all children of the public schools and in educational institutions supported in whole or in part by the state. The important features of the Act will be found in Section 4 which, by its wording, definitely co-ordinates the functions of the Board of Health with that of the Board of Education in health supervision. Section 4 states that each county, city, or town school board may employ a supervisor of physical education who shall par- ticipate in making periodical physical examinations to be conducted as provided in Section 5775, Revised Statutes of Missouri 1919. Now, Section 5775 provides that the Board of Health through the Division of Child Hygiene shall make rules and regulations for conducting physical examinations of school children. Section 6 of the Act states that all of the provisions of the act insofar as they pertain to the Public Health shall be carried out with the advice and co-operation of the state Commissioner of Health or authorized executive officer of the State Board of Health. State guidance. Experience in Missouri has shown that progress of health supervision of school children will be slow unless under some form of state guidance. Community initiative and growth has been preserved but it has been necessary to give demonstrations and advice and standardize methods for the aid of the local school authorities. As mentioned above, the Physical Education Bill has had its effects in co-ordinating the two departments and will be the means of furnishing the communities with proper state guidance. The funds appropriated are by no means sufficient for carrying on extensive work. It is, how- ever, enough to allow for a certain amount of state guidance. For child hygiene, the legislature appropriated $ 17,000 for salaries and Department] STATE-WIDE HEALTH SUPERVISION 383 exhibits and an apportionate amount of $10,000 for travel and field workers. There was also appropriated $20,000 for rural-health admin- istration to be used on a co-operative basis with the outside agencies. One predominating activity of this rural-health administration will be school-health supervision. Local Activities.----What has been said regarding the proper function of the state authorities likewise applies to local authorities. The local board of education and the local health board each has its responsibility for the welfare of the child of the public school. Although the employ- ment of personnel for health supervision and medical inspection is prac- tically in the hands of the local school boards, this does not preclude free co-operation between the school board and the local health organi- zation. Particularly in counties, best results have been obtained by the co-operation between the County Superintendent of Schools and the Deputy State Health Commissioners . Personnel. Entire supervision of the school child requires a high degree of skill on the part of the teacher, the medical inspector, and the nurse. The intelligent co-operation of the three is necessary for the best results in health supervision. It is indeed necessary for the teacher to be familiar with the condition of the child in order to obtain the best results in its studies. Training and experience on the part of the medical inspector and the nurse are essential for efficient school hygiene. Standardization. Standard rules and regulations and methods of examination throughout the state are necessary for efficient health super- vision. Accordingly, the State Board of Health has adopted rules and devised standard forms for examination and follow-up work. These examinations have been placed in two classes : that to be conducted by the nurse and that to be conducted by the physician or medical inspector. The nurse's examination comprises weighing, measuring, chest measure- ment, and detection of the more common defects, such as vision, teeth, and mouth breathing, and it is her duty to call to the attention of the medical inspector those children who need a more intensive examina- tion. The function of the medical inspector comprises examination in actual eye and ear defects, heart lesions, orthopedical defects, pulmonary diseases, nutritional disorders, etc. These examinations are expected to be sufficiently thorough to detect any defect which would deprive the child from getting the full benefit of his education. Each child is en- titled to a thorough examination, but as a rule only those cases which the nurse suspects of needing such an examination are given it. 384 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE IN NEW YORK STATE WILLIAM A. HOWE, M. D., STATE MEDICAL INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS, ALBANY, N. Y. "First health then wisdom" is one of the mottoes of the State Department of Education. We believe that normal health is essential to normal wisdom, that physical fitness and mental fitness should go hand in hand in our educational program, that in our school health service health training should articulate or correlate closely with mental training, that as all knowledge is valuable only as it can be used in a practical and beneficial manner, so must health knowledge be so applied to our daily lives that health habits will become automatic. Except in the control of communicable diseases as a function of the health authorities, school health service should include all the activities in the public schools in the state having for their purpose the conserva- tion and improvement of the physical fitness of all teachers, of all pupils and of all school attachés, and the establishment and maintenance of modern sanitary conditions of school buildings and school premises. School health service is mostly a matter of education, a problem of training in practical or applied hygiene and in sanitation. It also in- volves school organization and school administration. Many activities must of necessity unite in this proper organization and efficient admin- istration. It must be made a daily part of the educational system of the state and of the community. While central supervision is essential for its standardization and guidance every community must be made to realize and assume its own responsibility of efficient administration. As being conducted at present our school health service in New York State might well be classified as follows : school buildings and grounds, physi- cal education, mental hygiene and diagnosis, oral hygiene, nutrition, school nursing, medical inspection in schools, and health education and health training. The general administration of all these health activities in the public schools in the state is under the State Commissioner of Education. The third assistant commissioner of education for elementary schools is charged by the State Commissioner of Education with the more direct supervision of the work. Each subdivision of work is administered by a specialist appointed for that purpose by the State Board of Regents upon recommendation by the Commissioner of Education. The specia- list in each line is held responsible for the administration of the work intrusted to his or to her direction. There is no part of the health service that does not come into co-operative articulation with every othe part of the general health program. This is true in our work in the department and in the field. The State Medical Library assisted by our staff of health directors has recently compiled its second edition of a twenty-page bulletin o Department] SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE 385 bibliography of books on health work in schools. This bibliography covers every phase of our school health service. The books are furn- ished free to all people doing health work in the public schools in the state. An excellent bulletin on "Co-operation in the Control of Com- municable Diseases Among School Children," prepared by the State Department of Health, furnishes to the school authorities definite and practical instructions * that* are followed * closely * and with good results. * 3.1 Mental hygiene and diagnosis. An important part of school health service is the work of the Division of Mental Hygiene and Diag- nosis. The advantages and in fact the necessity of determining individual mental differences and intelligence levels is gaining wide appreciation and support. No program of health education or medical service in the schools is complete without adequate psychiatric and psychologic ex- aminations. The early recognition of pathological deviating types in the schools is of supreme importance in preventive medicine. This, however, is only part of the work of mental hygiene and diagnosis. The examination of the great group of retardations unfolds individual problems in single or combined disabilities or defects and points the way to educational treatment and vocational guidance. The work of this division is closely allied to that of the Division of Educational Measurements. These two services often combine in group-testing surveys. The follow-up individual examinations of those obtaining low scores is carried on by the Division of Mental Hygiene and Diagnosis. The organization and supervision of the special class for backward or mentally deficient children is a part of the work of the Division of Mental Hygiene and Diagnosis. There are at present about 450 such classes in the State enrolling about 7,000 pupils. About 275 of these classes are in Greater New York while 175 are in other parts of the state. A number of other cities are organizing special classes and with- in the next few years it is expected that all the larger localities will be equipped with special classes. It is a part of the system of the state department to receive summaries of the examinations and findings of each child in a special class. These summaries followed up will furnish valuable data concerning the children who find their way into the classes and will guide the course of the work itself. This work closely correlates with school medical inspection. In reality, the two cannot be separated, as subnormalties are very fre- quently associated with or resultant from physical defects. 1 Dr. Howe's complete paper consisted of discussions of eight headings: (1) school buildings and grounds, (2) physical education, (3) mental hygiene and diagnosis, (4) oral hygiene, (5) nutrition, (6) school nursing, (7) medical inspection in schools, (8) health education and health training. 386 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene The central office personnel of the division consists of a psychiatrist, a psychologist, and a supervisor of special classes. A larger personnel is needed to meet the demands made upon the services of this force. Close co-ordination with the traveling clinics of the State Commission for Mental Defectives is effected, but the major portion of the work of mental measurements and diagnosis is necessarily done within the school system. A much greater future awaits this branch of school health service not only in further development along lines already indicated but in mental prophylaxis or individual and group mental hygiene in a more general use of the term. The value to the commonwealth through this sociologic application of mental hygiene is far-reaching. A TEACHER'S OPPORTUNITY FROM A HEALTH OFFI- CER'S VIEWPOINT H. O. JONES, M. D., DIVISION OF CHILD HYGIENE, HEALTH DEPARTMENT, CHICAGO, ILL . Physical examination of school children is by no means a new movement. For hundreds of years the development of the physical as well as the mental child has been advocated. The Greeks favored it as a means of obtaining ideal citizenship. They regarded the training of the body of equal value to the training of the mind. They sought to develop the entire child. England had strong advocates of school in- spection and physical education, notably Cohn, Locke, Edwin Chad- arks, Archibald McLaren, and Doctors Francies, Warner, Beach, and Shutteworth. As early as 1891 medical officers were appointed in London and Bradford for the purpose of examining children absent from school, presumably sick. France made special regulations for school inspection in secondary schools as early as 1833 ; in primary schools in 1895. School medical inspection in Germany dates from 1891, when it was started in Leipsic, followed by Wiesbaden. Brus- sels had medical school inspection as early as 1884. In our own country medical inspection for contagious diseases was begun in Boston in 1892. In 1896 Chicago recognized the need for medical inspection of school children, and physicians were appointed to visit schools when called by principals. Inspections were only made for contagious diseases. In 1908 by co-operation with the Board of Educa- tion the work of the school physician in Chicago was enlarged to take in the examination of school children for physical defects, and the same year a corps of nurses was employed for the necessary follow- up work to secure corrections of the physical defects found in school children. Department] A TEACHER'S OPPORTUNITY 387 Communicable diseases. Let us first consider the control of com- municable diseases, the primary object of early medical inspection of school children. A successful plan for this work must make use of the recognized scientific measures known in the various diseases, and must have the hearty co-operation of parents, educators, and public health workers. The morbidity and mortality in children from contagious diseases is entirely unnecessary and can be reduced by concerted effort and the application of the knowledge we now have. No school has been closed in Chicago by the Department of Health on account of contagious diseases since medical inspection was estab- lished. ! The progress of a child in school depends largely on the regularity of his attendance. Preventable sickness is accountable for much loss of time, and every effort should be made to eliminate this cause, and thus add to the efficiency of the school machinery, and help the progress of the child. Physical defects. The experience of the United States Examining Board for the selective draft during our recent war, showed that about 30 per cent of the men examined had physical defects of suffi- cient degree of severity to warrant their rejection for army service. All of these young men were school children a few years ago, and no doubt were then suffering from the same physical defects. Dr. Frederick Peterson asserts that 75 per cent of the 20,000,000 school children are physically defective to the extent that their defects are a serious handicap to both their physical and mental progress . * * * * * Truancy and delinquency. It is the educator's privilege and op- portunity not only to supervise the child's development, physically and mentally, but also to be a factor in molding his character. A report of the Parental School of Chicago, an institution conducted by the Board of Education, for truants says : "Speaking generally the causes of tru- ancy as of crime are physical and mental defects and environment." This institution found that from 17 per cent to 18 per cent of the truant class are made up of children decidedly below normal, both physically and mentally. Their defects cause them to fall behind their grades. They become discouraged and as a result become truants, and soon learn to become criminal by falling in with bad associates. Unfavorable home and social conditions are probably the cause for the remaining 80per cent of the children in the Parental School becoming truants. The following cuts show the record of Chicago for the past ten years in the communicable diseases of childhood : 388 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene MEASLES WHOOPING COUGH MEASLES WHOOPINGCСолен MORBIDITY MORBIDITY 200 100.000 100.000 ER 1000 -PER - P 150 50 MORTALITY MORTALITY 7 100.000 -P100,000 6 ER ER -P 0 0 YEAR YEAR Morbidity Statistics MorbidityStatistics Noof Cospa 109.30 6520 6764 15/32 439 18964 75 10621 2683 16075 9028 Cases 2552 95 2462 1480 5317 1334 2853 5/56 4345 3404 4:54 Anteper 4972 2899 2947 642.8 1821 769.6 30LS 7637 101.0 800.0 3308 162 423 106.9 629 2235 561 113.5 2006 1687 1273 1523 Mortality Statistics MortalityStatistics 129 128 292 75 240 134 J 63 197 173 55 142 for 230 59 721 Deathe Zer 186 140 R Rateper 125 31 24 74 33 79 25 62 ‫هب‬ 96 24 44 82 71 52 56 100,000 67 57 50 3.8 52 95 F00,000 Found inSchool Round in Schools Ma Cosca 123 94 140 130 398 449 78 191 219 77 Cases 45 143 30 275 82 135 273 125 55 22 CHART 3 CHART 4 CHICKEN POX SMALLPOX CHICKEN POX. SMALLPOX 200 MORBIDITY con 100,000 170 MORBIDITY -PER 160 100.000 . 150 -PER 140 130 120 110 4 ueo MORTALITY 1 MORTALITY 80 IDQOOO PER 60 100.000 PER 40 20 100 YEAR 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 YEAR O Morbid Statistics Morbidity Statistics No d 2456 2027 71835 48.31 4868 5192 3010 2091 3984 Co 106 68 197 67 35 51 336 266 154 Rate per 6091215 1551 1956 1934 2020 115.1 1531 1460 14 47 30 58 2.5 14 20 FOL 37 56 Mortality Statistics MortalityStatistics 2 2 1 10 6 5 3 7 2 4 000010 0809039 011 022 018 0.04 Οι 03 0.04 004 007 OIS 004 Found in Schools Vaccinations 201 375 674 11.33 1726 1240 1184 720 807 347 No 39559 83934 57.302 70816 23960 96688 TISE B303 45744 CHART 8 Department] A TEACHER'S OPPORTUNITY 389 TUBERCULOSIS DIPHTHERIA CARRIERS TUBERCULOSIS(ALL) DIPHTHERIA CARRIER MORBIDITY 210 -P100.000 ER MORBIDITY 176 159 100,000 . ER - P MORTALITY 70 100000 60 PER 50 40 3 YEAR 6 117 201 20 MorbidityStatistics ١٥ 121 8:57 7872 95 10009 12108 13726 14908 16587 15607 10747 YEAR 1911 1312 1913 1934 13/5 1916 1917 1918 1919 1320 78736253203 3958 4132 5158 545.3 500/6318 5815 3939 Morbidity Statistics Mortality Statistics No Games 1:72 772 1030 2608 34:5 4302 6262 1719 2784 2950 2900 3786 2763 3006 3908 4804 37.34 3800 3827 3844 2602 Rate for 780160919164 1632 1717 1494 1491 1474 1213 972 22 ‫ کد‬137 1381 1367 1709 213 656 124.1 10:35 Found in School Found in School Caree 39 40 40 37 23 147 198 50 4 14 0 454 1395 2320 2784 296 331 336 CHART 6 MUMPS GERMAN MEASLES Mumps GERMAN MEASLES १२२ 95 ‫ده‬ 65 MORBIDTY 100.000 100.000 PER 60 ER - MORBIDITY - P 45 10 25 YEAR 1830 1411 1912 1913 19 :4 1915 16 17 1818 139 1320 5 VEAR 19:0 1911 1912 Morbidity Statistics 194 1315 1947 1918 1919 1920 2098 2469 2126 8676 3040 1427 1295 806 8 Morbidity Statis No of 8311019 8601055 1175 544483 756 167 136 317 141 302 124191 1455 219 174 Rate Per Found in Schools 74 59 160 141 122 483 858 555 81 64 120699 1116 1020 1132 1347 663 511 426 Found in Schocks 12 10 ‫ور‬ 74 36 3/4 346 215 8 390 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene PNEUMOΝΙΑ SCARLET FEVER SCARLET FEVER PNEUMONIA (ALL) MORBIDITY 400 -P100.000 MORBIDITY ER 100,000 -P ER 500 MORTALITY 190 50 100,000 MORTALITY -PER 300 100,000 200 PER FOXXO 102 50 198 1917 TEAR YEAR Morbidity Statistics Morbidity Statistics Ha of N Coses 6427 7422 8703 70,600 3518 3366 868 (3444 1809 4550 8557 Casco 3286 4929 4892 4871 6422 7706 9034 9308 23309 10820 4505 Aateper 2927 3300 3781 4502 1459 866 3449 5232 68.9 по 337 Rafeper προόδο 240.8 2195 23 / 2018 2664 377 3588 3621 8889 404.5 1651 Mortality Statistics LIB Mortality Statistics 404 474 620 906 228 160 623 48 1946 1512 2574 4077 3560 3867 5018 7000 3355 39:5 oud Aateper 4 386 95 31 64 244 18 44 66 673 86.5 657 1093 1703 1576 1546 1970 269.6 1254 1396 000x 22 FoundinSchools No of Casca 246 281 192 110 123 626 501 80 244 258 CHART CHART 5 AGE INCIDENCE Hospitalized Susceptible DIPHTHERIA Secondary Contacts School CLASSIFICATION 1874 Cases 1531 1240 1124 15471 6431 DIPHTHERIA 1413 4241 Cases 482 Age 9025 8557 127. 4154 7761 No. No. of MORBIDITY heria Meesels 5428 4478 3016 Whoop 3505 2955 1105 3115 Intense Scarlet Fever 2984 Choeken Dipht 100.000 100 Small Lobar Folio- Tuber Cer Ep ER -. - P DISEASES 30 Record Myelitis Menpha culosis Cough ON 541 263 151 an 65 10 OF 30180 10747 2810 4505 3984 1554 868 MORTALITY 62 626 50 154 78 79 50 35 27 2 0 -P100.000 40 4567 2656 3120 19997 6759 2150 3496 2191 383 538 32 272 ER 126 67 16 28 •Recovered Record Record 2362 BYAGES No Record 797 1940 • YEAR 1515 NO Morbidity Statistics No . трем 7667 7268 6530 7071 6980 10290 53086 TTEI 81-153 362.5 3409 Ne6 649 2233 237 2713 4005 2177 2378 2545 Po NO Mortality Statistics 877 940 952 764 619 767 1228 720 592 630 229 314 409 406 ‫ית‬ 452 277 2 231 Por 20 64 FoundinSchools 71 8 Coece 292 139 130 67 74 161 99 90 46 CHART 2 Department) NEW STANDARDS OF PHYSICAL GROWTH 391 No doubt if teachers would interest themselves more in the physical phase of the child, the physical defects that lead indirectly to truancy and delinquency would receive attention early, and thus save the child from becoming a truant and possibly a criminal. NEW STANDARDS OF PHYSICAL GROWTH AND THEIR USE IN NUTRITION CLASSES : ABSTRACT B. T. BALDWIN, M. D., IOWA UNIVERSITY, IOWA CITY, IOWA The nine basic criteria for formulating standards of physical growth are that: 1. Growth standards be based on the results of consecutive meas- urements on the same individual children, since single measurements cannot furnish accurate data on how children grow. 2. All measurements should be carefully made by trained anthro- pometrists. 3. Measurements should include the exact date of birth and the date of measurement . 4. Standards should be based on measurements of nude children, and the weight of clothing added later according to sex, season, and age. 5. The standards should be expressed in terms of half-year measurements . 6. Other measurements other than weight and height should be included. 7. There should be different standards for tall and for short children. ! 8. There should be different norms for native and for foreign- born children . 9. The standards should be based on selected children falling with- in a normal growth zone and the criteria for selection and the nationality of the children be definitely stated. New standards are now being worked out by the writer for the Na- tional Health Council, with the co-operation of Dr. L. E. Holt, Dr. W. R. P. Emerson, Dr. F. A. Manny, Dr. W. T. Porter, representatives of the U. S. Department of Public Health, Federal Children's Bureau, Teachers College of Columbia University, the Elizabeth McCormick Foundation, and other agencies . The lowa Child Welfare Research Station has just published a 400-page volume on the Growth of Children, by Dr. Baldwin. Part I states the problem under consideration, and discusses the anthropomet- ric service of the Child Welfare Research Station, with some results from 5,772 Iowa children. Part II gives, as original data, 5,000 weight measurements on 400 infants ; the height and weight of 9,074 infants, with comparative curves from other investigations; the height and 392 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene weight of 27,912 preschool children ; 600 individual growth curves and 1,548 total and partial coefficient of correlation. Part III presents an analysis of original data in the anatomical and physiological ages from 6,500 boys and girls. Part IV includes a historical survey, in classified and chronological order, of 911 investigations in physical growth in this country and abroad. Part V summarizes in 643 compara- tive tables of measurernents on infants, preschool children, school children, and adults under 30 years of age, data from all available au- thorities, comprising approximately 5,385,400 recorded cases in various countries. Part VI is an annotated bibliography, in alphabetical order, of the 911 references on the problem of the growth of infants, children, and adults. Part VII furnishes in the form of a supplement the English equivalents for the metric units of measurements, since all data are given in the French system. A practical score card is also given in the English units of measure. Summaries, or conclusions are arranged in paragraph form at the end of each section or chapter. CERTAIN FACTORS IN THE RESPIRATION AND THE CIR- CULATION IN CHILDREN, AND THEIR INTERCOR- RELATIONS A. W. BRAY, RESEARCH ASSOCIATE IN CHILD WELFARE, UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY, IOWA The preliminary investigation, of which the following is a brief summary, was undertaken with a view to obtaining if possible, some general physiological criteria of health and physical efficiency. The factors dealt with were the blood pressures, vital capacity, tidal air and the usual weight, height, stem-length, and chest measurements. Over eighty subjects were examined and every possible effort was made to minimize the disturbing factors. There appears to be a constant relation between the body weight under normal conditions and the vital capacity which may be expressed by the formula, Wx/ V.C= C, where x equals .77 and C equals .134. In a selected group of subjects from 8.5 to 35 years, the average de- viation of the measured from the calculated vital capacity was 2.2 per ' cent. In a non-selected group of subjects, elementary and high-school students, the average deviation was 6.4 per cent. The claim that similar constant relation exists between the vital ca- pacity and measurements of the stem-length and the chest circumfer- ence is not so well borne out. The relation between the stem-length and the vital capacity can be approximately expressed by the formula, Wx/ V.C.=C, where x equals 2, C equals .235. The average deviation between the vital capacity as measured and that calculated in the select- ed group was 4.4 per cent, and the non-selected group 9 per cent. The Department] COURSE OF STUDY IN HYGIENE 393 correlation between the positive and the negative deviations of the measured from the calculated values of the two formulae was .73 , Ρ.Ε. .011 . Correlations between the various weight-height indexes of nutrition and such factors as the systolic blood pressure, the mean pressure, pulse pressure, vital capacity, output of the left ventricle per minute, air breathed per minute per kilogram of body weight, etc., were worked out on groups of the same chronological age. These correlations ranged trom .28 to 72, with fairly low P.E. in each case. On the whole the correlations were highest with the Davenport index, W/ H2 . It is interesting to note that in a group of nineteen ten-year-old students, the correlation between the pulse pressure (within the normal) and the intelligence as measured by the Terman Scale, was .68, P. E. 016. There appears to be no correlation between the vital capacity and intelligence in this group, but the more intelligent, as thus measured, were the deeper breathers. The cardio-vascular indices and the Crampton index were calculated for different times of the day, and under different working conditions, but no significant results have as yet been obtained. THE COURSE OF STUDY IN HYGIENE ReduceD TO ITS LOWEST TERMS MAUD A. BROWN, SUPERVISOR OF HYGIENE, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO. Aim of the classroom teaching of hygiene-to make children healthy. Up to date this important subject has so signally failed to accomplish its purpose that one-third of the children of the country are in definitely poor health, while three-fourths fall below the lowest standard of efficiency. A record of one-third " failure" and more than one-third more "conditioned" in arithmetic or spelling would cause the country to rise in protest against the inefficiency of our educational system. The reason for this failure has been the lack of any standard by which the teacher can measure health. The criterion of success--At last by the application by the very sim- plest common sense the teachers have been given a means whereby they can measure health. The business of childhood is growth. If a child stops growing, something is wrong. Methods ( 1 ) The periodical weighing, measuring, recording, and reporting of results to the parent. The wall-chart and the tag of the Child Health Organization leave little to be desired in method of procedure in this respect. (2) The wall-chart record of the child's accomplishment in observance of health essentials. This chart should hang beside the weight-chart, so that a glance from one to the other is a glance from cause to effect. (3) Informal discussions among 394 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene teacher and pupils, emphasizing the causal relationship between the two charts. (4) Laboratory application by the giving of mid-session milk and rest-periods to the underweight children of all grades and to all pri- mary children. VITALIZING THE TEACHING OF HYGIENE F. M. GREGG, DEPT . OF PSYCHOLOGY, NEBRASKA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, UNIVERSITY PLACE, NEBRASKA "Fumigation is purifying the blood." "Mastication is the beating of the heart." "A common disinfectant is smallpox. " "The diaphragm is the frame of the body." "Respiration is the study about the voice." "Pericardium is something that will put you to sleep." So run the answers to eighth-grade examination questions in "fiz- zology" in one of the educationally progressive counties in an Ameri- can commonwealth proud of its educational eminence. A fair survey of the physiology and hygiene teaching in the ele- mentary grades reveals three errors in teaching a vital school sub- ject, shortcomings incidental to pioneering for somewhat more than a generation in one of the relatively modern subjects in the school cur- riculum. The first of the errors is in the contents of the course. Anatomical facts and physiological intricacies must give way to vital hygienic principles still kept above the level of mere health platitudes. The second error is one of aim. Instead of seeking to equip our public-school pupils with a scarcely understood technical phraseology, we must seek to inform, motivate, and train in good health practices. The third error is in the highly significant field of method. Words, books, and preachments, must give way to the pursuit of health proj- ects, hygienic interests, and sanitary enthusiasms, made compellingly worthwhile through the use of psychological rather than logical pro- cedure. Nature-study lessons must be the means of approach to every major and even minor health topic. The use of books will thus naturally come in as a keenly felt desideratum gratefully sought for by mentally awakened boys and girls eager to satisfy a worthy hunger for health in- formation and ambitious to attain a high degree of physical fitness. How shall we vitalize the teaching of hygiene in the grades ? (1) Aim at a vigorous physical boyhood and girlhood. (2) Select topics at the center of the pupil's life interests and needs. (3) Em- ploy the nature-study method as the Midas touch by which to transfer leaden teaching-practice into golden pedagogy. Department] PLAN FOR SCORING DIFFICULTIES 395 A PLAN FOR SCORING THE BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES OF SCHOOL CHILDREN W. A. EVANS, M. D., CHICAGO TRIBUNE, CHICAGO, ILL . We submit for your criticism and advice an outline of the report which they (a committee of Chicago citizens ) plan to offer to Superin- tendent Mortenson with the request that it be tried in a few schools in the session of 1921-22 to determine its good and its weak points. The method proposed is divisible into two parts. The first part seeks to divorce those pupils whose behavior, person- ality, and conduct are such as will, if unchanged, seriously handicap them in after life in the struggle to get on in the world, regardless of their intellectual capacity or training. A part of this plan contemplates some training of such pupils to lessen their handicaps. The second part we term vocational scoring since it forms an effort to evaluate the aptitudes and capacities of each student as a basis for election of future school work and vocational guidance as well. i For the carrying out of part one there are two score cards. Score card No. 1 is to be filled out by each school teacher for each child in his or her room . A requisite for this card is that it must be simple ; must ask but few questions, and those capable of being quickly and categorically answered -with replies based on easy observation and calling for a minimum amount of opinion. The card as proposed after the usual identifying questions calls for replies to these four questions : ( 1 ) Does the child stand out because of bad behavior ? (2) Has the child been truant ? (3) Does the child fail to get on with other children ? (4) Is the child troublesome ? The questions are to be answered "yes" or "no." The degree of the quality with a "yes" returned is indicated by one to four check marks. These cards when filled in are returned to the principal. With these cards as a guide, and in consultation with the teachers, the principal will send some of the pupils to the Department of Child Study, some to the Medical Inspector, some to the Department of Compulsory Education, some to special schoolrooms , and some to other agencies. Most of them will call for no special treatment. It is figured that about two children in each schoolroom will be sent back to the teacher with instructions to score him, or her, on what is termed Score Card No. 2. Score Card No. 2 begins with usual data identifying the pupil, the time, the schoolroom, and the teacher. It next asks fifty-one questions relative to the family history, the social history, medical history, and other history of the child, bearing on behavior, personality, and con- 396 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene duct. The answers to these questions are to be obtained by teachers, school visitors, and others, and from the parents, as well as from the school and the pupil. Next follows forty-two questions, the answers to which serve as a basis for classification of the pupils into one of seven types, namely, seclusive type, egocentric type, overactive type, depressive type, neu- rotic type, unstable type, inadequate type. Here again the questions are to be answered by "yes" or "no," and the degree of the bad quality is indicated by one to five check marks. The questions relate to rather easily observed characteristics. Tech- nical matters are avoided. No abstract scientific points are raised. An effort is made to call for simple observations as much as possible, and to keep away from opinion answers. * * * * * TEACHING FIRST AND SECOND GRADERS HEALTH HABITS FLORENCE A. POWELL, OBSERVATION SCHOOL, CLEVELAND SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, CLEVELAND, OHIO In the first and second grades the main problem of the teacher is properly initiating and teaching right habits. Establishing hygienic habits is the most difficult and most important part of teaching hygiene We as teachers must recognize the vast difference between instructing a child about the principles pertaining to health and inducing him to put such principles into action. Health problems must be correlated with the story hour, language, reading, dramatization, phonics, seat work, art, story plays, games, music, supplementary reading and arith- metic. The subject of hygiene then becomes to the child a living sub- ject. Health inspection by doctor, nurse, teacher, or pupils is import- ant in establishing health habits as well as in checking and recording results. The credit given for desired results does much to establish correct health habits. Without added expense every elementary school- room may be converted into a fresh-air, rest, and nutrition room. The child is the adult of tomorrow, and the type of health habits we teach him determines his future usefulness in låter life. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF PRE- SCHOOL AGE CHIL- DREN WITH NUTRITIONAL EXPERT IN ATTENDANCE H. DE LAMATER, M. D., DIRECTOR OF HYGIENE, CITY SCHOOLS, ST . JOSEPΗ , ΜΟ . Defects occurring in preschool children have their inception during infancy. Economic conditions and ignorance on the part of the mother are responsible in a large majority of cases. Great stress should be Department] WIPING OUT TRACHOMA 397 laid upon infant's feeding during first two years of life by physicians, but none to any extent after that. Defects discovered upon entrance to school by physician and nurses consume time and money. Defective nutrition is largely responsible for subnormal, backward children. Physical defects, viz.: rickets, clubfoot, bowlegs, heart trouble, anemia, cares of bone and spinal cord, etc., result from parental ignorance, en- vironment, and economic conditions. Cardiac and pulmonary condi- tions following contagious troubles are caused by ignorance on part of both family physician and parent. Nutritional experts connected with public schools should give in- struction to parents on proper valuation of foods to nourish body and mind. Nutritional and examination clinics should be held in school buildings under auspices of parent-teacher association or other organi- zations. Clinic should be in charge of trained specialist in children's diseases on full-time basis. There should be frequent consultations in the home with mothers to note progress of feeding instructions and recommendations to all school authorities, as far as practicable to establish clinics of their own, with appointing staff. WIPING TRACHOMA OUT OF THE LINCOLN PUBLIC SCHOOLS KATHERINE H. K. WOLFE, SUPERVISOR OF HYGIENE, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LINCOLN, NEBR . Trachoma is an ancient infectious eye disease, manifested by in- flammation, secretion, hypertrophy of the conjunctiva, and trachoma follicles or granules. It tends toward the formation of cicatricial tissue and results in more or less blindness when the cornea is involved. Trachoma is supposed to have a specific causal germ, but such a germ has not been proved. The Lincoln school health authorities are less concerned with the pathology of trachoma and its differential diagnosis than they are in eliminating both trachoma and its allied diseases from the schools. While the majority of cases found in the Lincoln schools are in children from German-Russian extraction, a number of well-developed cases are in American children who came to Lincoln from Florida, Kentucky, Ohio, Colorado, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, and Wyoming . Lincoln has had a trachoma problem since 1908, when cases were found in two school buildings attended by German-Russian-American children. In January, 1919, the school trachoma campaign received a new impetus when cases of acute follicular conjunctivitis were diagnosed by an experienced eye-specialist as possible trachoma. An emergency was declared to exist and a complete trachoma eye survey 398 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Child Hygiene for the school system was recommended by the hygiene department. The city was divided into five sections with a volunteer eye-specialist in charge of each section. The eyes of all the children were examined by the hygiene supervisor and those found to have trachoma or an allied disease were re-examined by the eye-specialist, who diagnosed the case and recommended necessary treatment, which was recorded by the school nurse . The federal method of treating trachoma was studied at close range at a Middletown, Ohio, federal trachoma clinic. Similar trachoma clinics were organized in Lincoln, with the difference that there was instituted a follow-up supervision with treatment of each case operated upon. It was decided to hold these clinics in a series of three at monthly intervals, the length of the intervals between the series to be determined later by the requirements of the work. This plan was found to be impracticable and was changed to regular monthly clinics. Eleven trachoma clinics were held from June, 1920, to June, 1921 . Dr. John McMullen, the federal director of trachoma, who took a personal interest in the trachoma activity in Lincoln, sent a federal trachoma specialist to Lincoln to take charge of its first two-day clinic and to demonstrate to Dr. W. L. Curtis, the school specialist, the federal method of treating trachoma. The results of this method of treatment have been most gratifying. Most of the 108 cases of trachoma or suspicious trachoma treated in the clinic are entirely cured. Some cases are on home treatment under observation, and only five cases require further operative treatment. LINCOLN EYE SURVEY No. Children No. Children Percentage No. Children Percentage Time Examined Fol. Conjunc. Fol. Conjunc. Trachoma or Trachoma or Sus. TrachomaSus. Trachoma Spring 1919 .... 5611 3740 66.7 163 2.9 1919-20 ........ 8620 3373 39.2 、 240 2.8 1920-21 ........ 10746 347 3.2 37 .34 NOTE :-As a result of prompt vigorous follow-up work, most of these children received eye treatment in the office of the private specialists or in the school eye clinics which were in operation the year round. Department of Classroom Teachers SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President--SARA H. FAHEY, Teacher of Community Civics, Manual Training High School ... New York, N. Y. Secretary-MARGARET RICHARDSON, Grade Teacher . .. Spokane, Wash. The Department of Classroom Teachers held its annual meeting in Central Presbyterian Church, Des Moines, Iowa, Tuesday morning, July 5, 1921, at ten o'clock. FIRST SESSION TUESDAY MORNING, JULY 5, 1921 The meeting was called to order by the vice-president, Ethel M. Gardner. Miss Flora Menzel, Milwaukee, was made secretary pro tem. Miss Sara H. Fahey's paper WHAT THE CLASSROOM TEACHERS' DEPARTMENT CAN DO TO PROMOTE THE N. E. A. PROGRAM OF EDUCATION was read by the sec- retary pro tem. Addresses were given as follows : PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER TO THE BOARD OF EDUCATION- Edward A. Fitzpatrick, secretary state board of education, Madison, Wis . PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER TO HER COLLEAGUES- Frank Cleve- land, Manager Bureau of Conventions and Publicity, Milwaukee Association of Commerce. The nominating committee was appointed, and the meeting adjourned. SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, July 6, 1921 The second session of the Department met in Central Presbyterian Church, Des Moines, Iowa, at 2 o'clock, Wednesday afternoon, July 6, 1921. The presi- dent being absent, the meeting was presided over by the vice-president, Ethel M. Gardner. In the absence of the secretary, Margaret Richardson, Alice J. Macy, of Spokane, Wash., acted as secretary pro tem. The following program was given : HOW TO TEACH PATRIOTISM-Katherine D. Blake, Principal, New York, N. Y. RELATION OF PENSION SYSTEMS TO PERMANENCY OF TENURE-James Ferguson, Chico, Calif. NEW PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION-Fred M. Hunter, president, National Educa- tion Association, Oakland, Calif. THE NATIONAL LEAGUE OF TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS : ITS PLATFORM-Nina O. Buchanan, president National League of Teachers' Associations, Seattle, Wash. WORDS OF COMMENDATION FOR THE LEAGUE-Fred M. Hunter, Oakland, Cailf . DESIRABLE WORKING CONDITIONS MORE ATTRACTIVE THAN SALARY-Josephine Colby, field secretary, American Federation of Teachers, Normal, Ill. PRACTICAL REMEDIES FOR TEACHER SHORTAGE-Delia R. Reilly, principal, De Witt High School, De Witt, Iowa. THE SCHOOL BUILDING IN ITS REACTION ON THE TEACHER'S WORK-Ethel M. Gardner, president, Milwaukee Teacher's Association, Milwaukee, Wis . A short business session followed the regular program. The nominating committee made the following report : for president, Ethel M. Gardner, presi- dent, Milwaukee Teachers' Association, Milwaukee, Wis.; for vice-president. Sara H. Fahey, Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N. Y.; for secretary, Mary Dwyer, grade teacher, Chicago, Ill. Signed by the Committee. The report of the committee was adopted and the secretary instructed to cast a ballot for the officers nominated. 399 400 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Classroom Teachers' Margaret Haley, Chicago, moved that a committee be appointed by the presi- dent to draft a plan of organization in accordance with the suggested changes in the by-laws of the National Education Association. The motion was second- ed and carried. Meeting adjourned. ALICE J. MACY, Secretary Pro tem. THE TEACHER'S RESPONSIBILITY TO THE BOARD OF EDUCATION EDWARD A. FITZPATRICK, SECRETARY WISCONSIN STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, MADISON, WIS. * * * * * * The great professional responsibility of the teacher to the board of education relates to educational policy. It is frequently assumed that this is a matter for the superintendent only and the board of education. It is consequently assumed that the teacher has no business with ed- ucational policy. The practice in many school systems is to ignore entirely the teacher. This presumption leads to what I regard as one of the greatest wastes in public education ; the failure to utilize the day-to-day experience of the teacher in the formulation of educational policies or the other constructive work of the school system a failure to utilize the experience of those who have the only direct contact with the pupil. The vicarious experience of supervisors will never take the place of this intimate experience. In this regard education lags far behind industry. Even with unskilled workers and certainly with skilled workers, industry is, more and more, organizing methods and devices to bring to bear upon the probleins of the company this experience, and industry is, more and more, informing the employee of the progress of the company, its problems, its outlook, its plans. And note that in- dustry is not dealing with professional workers nor with public servants. In spite of this difference of personnel, industry regards the co-opera- tion of its workers as essential. An important writer on business organization says : Modern business had been learning rapidly prior to the War and during the War with such amazing speed that for success of any organization the co-opera- tion of the men forming it is essential. To enlist co-operation, these men must have some part in forming the plans, some share in devising the systems. They must be made to feel that the methods are their own. They must be consulted frequently and thoroughly concerning the difficulties and encouraged to suggest ways of overcoming them. In education this co-operation must be sought because it is the necessary condition of permanent educational advance. It matters not how perfect or how superior or how finely co-ordinated a school pro- gram is unless it can be translated into the attitudes and habits of the classroom teacher, it is futile. And the most effective way to make it possible to translate policies into classroom habits and technique is to have the teachers assist and co-operate in the formulation of program or policy. Department] THE TEACHER'S RESPONSIBILITY 401 It should be said, therefore, that the enlistment of the active co- operation of all the classroom teachers in the formulation, improvement and administration of a comprehensive, progressive, educational policy in the community is the most important task of the superintendent. The responsibility of the superintendent is not the responsibility of an individual to the board of education, but it is the collective responsibility of the entire professional force to the board of education. Very obvious evidence of the fact that this point of view does not exist is that various forms of teachers' councils are being forced on school authorities, and various forms of teachers' organizations are necessary in order to get adequately before the board of education and the public the point of view and the valuable experience of the teachers, and the conditions that make or mar her success in the classroom . The primary professional responsibility of the teacher to the board of education is the responsibility of making available to the board of education, ordinarily through the superintendent, the experience of the classroom. Teachers, of course, should maintain toward their practice an attitude of constant effort to improve it. Any fresh material or new device or method on the technical side should of course be made available for the next revision of the course of study or for supplements to the course of study. And so with all the other experiences of the class- room, in relation to all the professional problems of the school system. An educational policy once determined upon by the board of educa- tion and ordered put into effect is not like a law of the Medes and Per- sians, unchanged and unchangeable. The teacher's attitude toward every policy, however formulated, is one of conscientious effort to put it into effect, but with the professional attitude of actually recording experience and watching for methods of still further improvement. In educational program and educational policy there is no such thing as a law of the Medes and Persians as a matter of actual school administration and organization. So the teacher must always bring to bear upon the policies as formulated and put into effect her ripest knowledge and particularly her professional conscience. Underlying this paper is the following conception of a school system : on the one hand, a board of education made up of representative men of good judgment and common sense and sensitive to educational needs ; on the other hand, all the professional workers in the school system charged with a collective professional responsibility for rendering the best service possible and for continuously working toward an improve- ment of the educational service rendered to the community. All pro- fessional workers of whatever rank or position are mutually reinforc- ing everybody else's work, co-operating for the welfare of the whole and developing an esprit de corps that makes possible single-minded, 402 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers' whole-hearted devotion of the professional officers of the school system to training of the children. * * * * * * * * * DESIRABLE WORKING CONDITIONS MORE ATTRACTIVE THAN SALARY JOSEPHINE COLBY, FIELD SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS, NORMAL, ILL. Service is the highest compensation. Futility is the worst poverty. Thomas Carlyle was asked why he had left the practice of law. "Because money was the only pay I got," he said. Professionally minded persons will always prefer satisfactory teaching conditions to inferior teaching conditions accompanied by high salary. Instructors in our universities have for decades preferred their pay reckoned in hundreds to the salaries of high-school men, salaries which are sometimes reckoned in thousands-just a few thousands, to be sure, but still, thousands. What is it that they value above money ? ( 1) Association with mature minds in their classes. (2) Opportunities for office consultations with students. (3 ) Com- parative freedom to create courses of study and to administer them in an individual way. (4) More frequent freedom from petty super- vision. ( 5) The incentive to continued self-development. (6) A lighter schedule in hours with the accompanying time for preparation of class work and original research. (7) Readers for papers. (8) The sabbatical year. (9) Access to libraries and laboratories. ( 10) The recognition and social distinction which attend intellectual achieve- ment. ( 11 ) Contacts with the outer world of business and society. (12) Inter-relationships with other colleges-exchange professorships, and service in other summer schools . ( 13) The community life of a college faculty-often very beautiful in its atmosphere of culture and its charming social contracts, " ... not much bread, but plenty of hyacinths." (14) Better tenure, which makes this community life possible. ( 15) In a few instances a more democratic organization of the faculty and administrative officers. ( 16) Comparatively greater academic freedom . But some of us do not care to live on Parnassus, and some of us prefer the contact with little children and with adolescent boys and girls. Desirable working conditions in the elementary and secondary schools are conditions which interfere least with the effective contact of teachers and child. I have worked with two kinds of administration . I know the value of the right kind of principal. I knew a high school where in the office of the principal appeared this sign, conspicuously placed: "Do Right Because It Is Right To Do Right." Such was the influence of this principal that he made of his school a great co Department] DESIRABLE WORKING CONDITIONS 403 operative society, each finding his own in the others' good. On one day in each year the routine of the school was administered by the pupils of the school. Recitations were conducted, work was graded, reports of school work and attendance were turned in to the office by the pupils. The pupils were the sole authority, for not a teacher remained on the school grounds. The principal himself had put himself beyond the reach of the telephone. The tradition of that school was such that for several years the plan operated successfully in the direction of an increasing sense of responsibility, especially among the older boys and girls-who in fact deserved the dignity of being called young men and young women and a teamwork which I have never known to be equaled. To work in that school was in itself a high form of com- pensation. President Gilman, of Johns Hopkins, once took Professor Gilder- sleeve into a room which was furnished chiefly with pupils, a bare room, not a beautiful room, and said, "Now radiate." We need work- ing conditions which will enable more of our teachers to radiate. I know of one teacher who let his light so shine that it penetrated the walls of the classroom and reconstructed a whole nation. The nation was Denmark, the educator, Bishop Grundtvig. Nikolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig is honored for the fact that he changed his country's destiny as no other educator and few statesmen have done. He lived through a period when the people of Denmark were crushed by a sense of political and economic disaster and educational futility. He saw no remedy for the ills of his country but education. Education to Bishop Grundtvig meant rousing, awakening, and inspiring to activity. The essential education was the education of the workers. He never saw one of the schools he had called into being, but the Folks High Schools are now all over Denmark. Men and women from eighteen to forty attend these schools, Denmark has been roused, awakened, and inspired into activity. It is now a country of generally diffused pros- perity, a country in which illiteracy has been reduced to one in fifty thousand. What were the desirable working conditions which enabled the teachers of Denmark to be of such great service to their country ? Because I must be brief, I shall say it in just three words, "Freedom to radiate." The story of the schools of Denmark is, as Kipling would say, another story. I cannot leave a discussion of desirable working conditions without making a plea for classification of children into ability groups, and above all for smaller classes. But this paper has not attempted to be exhaustive. I have attempted to set before you desirable working con- ditions for the teacher in his threefold aspect: first, the teacher free to develop in his profession with all which that implies in scholarship and rich relations with other teachers ; second, the teacher freed from 404 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers conditions which interfere with effective contact with childhood; third, the teacher free to become a leader in the community. Desirable working conditions imply an interlocking directorate in which the teacher, the children, and the community consciously co-operate in work- ing for a better civilization in which His will may be done upon earth. 1 THE SCHOOL BUILDING IN ITS REACTION ON THE TEACHER'S WORK ETHEL M. GARDNER, PRESIDENT MILWAUKEE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, MILWAUKEE, WIS . Everybody knows that the suspension of building operations during the war has intensified deplorable housing conditions throughout the country. Few people realize, however, that the school-building ques- tion, already serious enough on account of the negligence and indif- ference of the public, has become crucial. Lack of sufficient school buildings has had the most important reaction on the teacher's work. The first result and perhaps the most far- reaching in its effects on educational methods is the crowded class- room. ( We should say "massroom. " Teachers no longer teach classes . They try to teach masses.) The "best" teacher in the eyes of the modern city principal or superintendent is she who can handle the largest number with the least friction. Individuals are lost sight of in the mass. There is no time to consider them. Indeed any attempt on the part of any individual to attract attention to his individuality is necessarily repressed. The so-called "best" teacher is she who can bring the greatest number up to a certain set standard by a certain fixed time and the more uniform the response of the multitude, the greater the success of the teacher-the greatest goal being, of course, 100 per cent . Under these circumstances it is impossible to apply the best methods of teaching, to develop individuality, initiative or even much character. * * * * * * * * Though the scarcity of school buildings has had the greatest effect upon modern educational ideas, it is nevertheless true that school build- ings are from time to time being erected and in general the modern type is a great improvement over the old from the standpoint of both beauty and utility. At least it has less the appearance of a penal institu- tion. Indeed, the modern tendency appears to be toward the other extreme. Skillful architects design imposing structures of cut stone and tile to which reluctant tax payers point with pride, and yet too often details of construction which are vitally connected with the teacher's work or convenience are lost sight of principally because the teachers who have to do the work in the building are not consulted. Department] THE SCHOOL BUILDING 405 Many practical suggestions could be given by the teachers and their work could be much more effectively and agreeably accomplished if these suggestions were carried out. In Oakland, California, all plans for school building must be "O. K'ed" by a committee of teachers and parents. This is a step in the right direction. It is peculiar that in the majority of the graded schools throughout the country so little provision has been made for the comfort and con- venience of pupils and teachers outside of the classroom. The worker in the average factory, store or office would be horrified if she had to put up with the lack of lunchroom, toilet, or restroom facilities which most teachers endure uncomplainingly. It is strange that in a pro- fession, the results of which are so greatly affected by fatigue on the part of either teacher or pupils, so little effort has been made to guard against it. If business men find that it pays to build factories to conserve the health and strength of employees engaged in work of a mechanical nature, would it not be worth while to safeguard the health and strength of teachers and pupils so that the delicate psychical process of education may be better accomplished ? There is a third aspect of the reaction of the school building upon the teacher's work and that is the care of the building-heating, ventilat- ing, cleaning, and repairing. The improper administration of any of these factors has an immediate and obvious effect upon the teacher's work. Children cannot study in a room heated to a temperature of 80 ° or undress for swimming or gymnastics in a temperature of 50 ° and yet teachers frequently find themselves confronted with these distressing conditions. Inadequate ventilating systems under incompetent management too often serve merely as an excuse for depriving classrooms of the fresh outdoor air and for collecting and spreading disease geims. As for cleaning, office buildings and animal cages at the zoo are cleaned every evening, while schoolroom floors are washed twice a year if everything goes well. In an address on " Minimum Health and Sanitation Standards in Schools" Dr. Louis I. Harris, of New York, says, "Fatigue is greatly aggravated by any unsanitary condition which may obtain in the school or classroom. Excessive heat, poor ventilation, inadequate lighting, dust in the air-all of these, and many other environment factors tend to aggravate as well as induce fatigue." In industry it has frequently been possible for experts who study fatigue to recognize its presence and to estimate its degree by the amount of spoiled work which is produced by those who are suffering from this condition. Unfortunately, this test cannot be applied in dealing with that intangible product of a teacher's labors, namely, 406 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers knowledge and character development. It would be of inestimable value if the "spoiled work" of teachers as the result of the fatigue from which they may be suffering could be even approximately estimated. It would be most valuable to know how many children were unfavorably influenced with respect to the acquirements of character and knowledge, or were "spoiled" or marred in the process of their making as the result of fatigue in the teacher. Unfortunately, it has been found that workers themselves are not always conscious of fatigue, nor are their sensations a reliable guide as to its presence. For these reasons too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of having proper and sanitary environment, so that children who spend a considerable part of their growing years in the school environment shall not be unfavorably affected by unsanitary conditions and teachers likewise and so that conditions of work shall not be productive of fatigue which may cause a marked susceptibility to disease in both pupil and teacher, or be reflected ultimately in the character of the children who come out of our schools . While it is true that no school building, however ideal it may be, can ever compensate for the lack of well-trained teachers, yet proper build- ing conditions can vastly improve the work of a good teacher and materially lessen the harm which can be done by a poor one. It is the duty of educators everywhere to educate the public to build more schools and fewer prisons and reformatories; to build better, more sanitary schools and fewer hospitals and sanitariums ; to conserve the energy of the teacher and reduce the number of attendance and pro- bation officers . Department of Deans of Women SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-MINA KERR, dean Milwaukee-Downer College . Milwaukee, Wis. Vice-President-GEORGIA L. WHITE, adviser of women, Cornell University ...... Ithaca , N. Y. Secretary-KATHERINE S. ALVORD, dean of women, DePauw University ..... Greencastle, Ind. Treasurer-FLORENCE L. RICHARDS, dean of women, Winona State Teachers College, Winona, Minn. FIRST SESSION- FRIDAY MORNING, February 25, 1921 . The eighth annual meeting of the Department of Deans of Women opened Friday morning, February 25, at the St. Charles Hotel, Atlantic City, N. J. In her opening words, the president of the Association, Dean Mina Kerr, Milwaukee-Downer College, struck the keynote of the meeting by saying that the purpose of such a conference is to bring to the members of the Association new cheer, hope, courage, and power to serve students . After the announcements of the general and sectional meetings, the president named the following committees : Nominations-Eva Johnston, University of Missouri ; Elizabeth Hamilton, Miami University ; Florence Purington, Mt. Holyoke College. Auditing-Pearl R. Wasson, University of Vermont ; Mattie C. Ellis, Normal School, Peru, Nebraska. Revision of the Constitution-Georgia White, Cornell University ; F. Louise Nardin, University of Wisconsin ; Florence Root, Pennsylvania College for Women ; Edith Tuttle, Washington Irving High School , N. Y.; Anna V. Day, Milwaukee Normal, Milwaukee, Wis. Following the announcements, the program for the morning session was carried out as published. The general subject was Health and the first speaker, Dr. Kristine Mann, emphasized the price that must be paid for good health; the reasons for lack of health among women ; the scanty attention that is paid to the preserving of health in our educational institutions ; and the need of more dignity and more importance being given to the physical education de- partments which should have a physician at the head. The next speaker, Miss Stoddard, of the Bureau of Scientific Temperance Investigation, emphasized the health considerations in the enforcement of the Eighteenth Amendment and presented results of investigations showing how alcohol lowers the level of health and effectiveness, together with charts show- ing the decreasing death-rate from alcoholism since the Amendment has been in effect. Dr. Welsh, of Goucher College, gave a most excellent address on HEALTH INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION. After making clear how closely connected are the problems of personal and community life with hygienic problems, Dr Welsh discussed first, the need of adequate courses in health or hygiene in all schools ; second, that the teaching of health or hygiene must be standardized as is English or history; third, that in teaching health, the approach must be normal, not pathological; fourth, the necessity of examination for basis of work with the individual; fifth, the individual contact with the girl in not only the care of the girl herself but in her relations to others in the community ; sixth, the necessity of ample provision for supervised and regulated recreation in the interests of health; seventh, that from high schools and colleges, there is mat 407 408 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Deans of Women erial for physiological investigation of far-reaching importance. Dr. Welsh's plea was that this department be devoted to sending out through its doors "an educated womanhood, able and willing to practice the ways of health." Following the program, Miss Anna Pierce, of the New York State College for Teachers, gave a report of the January meeting of the Women's Founda- tion for Health . At the close of the discussion of the general subject of health in colleges, it was moved and seconded that the Health Committee of the Association bring in resolutions at the business meeting regarding the matter of health in colleges. Carried and ordered. Dr. Tracy, Women's Medical College of Philadelphia, presented the plan of hygiene in the medical college and spoke of the proposed Anna Howard Shaw Memorial for Preventive Medicine. Thereupon the meeting adjourned for the sectional luncheons that had been arranged by the chairmen of the sections. SECOND SESSION- FRIDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 25, 1921 . At the evening meeting, Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt in her subject, THE NEW CALL TO WOMEN, presented the important and timely problem of women's new responsibility as to suffrage. Because of the speaker's close association with the struggle which ended with the Nineteenth Amendment and her clear- sighted vision of what is still to be done by women, Mrs. Catt's address made a very real contribution to the program of the Association. The informal reception which followed the address gave the audience an opportunity to greet Mrs. Catt. THIRD SESSION- FEBRUARY 26, 1921 . The business meeting was called to order by the president and the minutes of the seventh annual meeting were read and approved. The secretary reported that to date there is a paid membership for this year of 139 as against 97 in 1920, and that 190 have registered at this meeting. The Committee on Nominations, Miss Johnston, Mo., chairman, reported that the only vacancy for this year is that of vice-president. The Committee nominated Miss White, of Cornell, who was elected to succeed herself. The Committee on the Foundation of Health, Miss Wells, Indiana Uni- versity, chairman, presented the report of the representatives of the National Association of Deans of Women in the House of Delegates of the Women's Foundation for Health, together with the following resolution : Whereas, The National Association of Deans of Women indorses the funda- mental belief of the Women's Foundation for Health as follows : "The fundamental belief of the Women's Foundation for Health is that health is normal and realizable. It defines health as the condition of being which allows an individual the full development and mastery of herself, the power of her physical body, her mental processes, her emotional force, her spiritual expression. Fully recognizing the importance of proper treatment of disease when it occurs, and of prevention, the Foundation purposes education in the building of health. While recognizing the collective responsibilitiy for receiving sanitary, hygienic, economic, and recreational conditions favorable to well-being, it rregards the attainment of health as a matter of individual and personal responsibility. Therefore, be it resolved, That the ideals of the Foundation for Health which are also our ideals, can best be realized by (1 ) The establishing and perfecting in our educational institutions, adequate departments of health or hygiene for all students, which shall be equal to other departments in recogni- tion, in budget, and in academic credit, and (2) That this department shall include instruction in individual and community hygiene, proper treatment of disease when it occurs, prevention, and physical training and athletics. Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 409 The Committee on Standing Relations, Miss Potter, Northwestern, Chair- man. In addition to the report, the chairman spoke of the generous response of organizations in placing material before the Association which is available at the door of the conference room. A recommendation was made that a committee be appointed to take up the relationship to state organizations of deans of women and the president ap- pointed the following members on such a committee: Anna E. Pierce, chairman, New York College for Teachers; Katherine W. Jameson, University of Arizona; Margaret Knight, Pennsylvania State College. The Committee on Publications, Miss Doan, Earlham College, chairman.-The report of last year's conference was sent to various educational journals and mat- erial has been collected relative to forward-looking work in colleges, which will appear in the A. C. A. journal, as soon as it is organized. The committee recommends that material of this type be given wider publicity through " School and Society" and other educational journals. Report accepted. The report of the special committee on revision of the constitution, Miss White, Cornell, chairman. The committee reported that they were recommend- ing no changes at this time but that a committee should be appointed to consider changes in the present constitution and present a report next year. The report was accepted and the following committee was appointed to report at the next annual meeting : Thyrza Amos, University of Pittsburg, Chairman ; F. Louise Nardin, University of Wisconsin ; Florence Root, Pennsylvania College for Women ; Anna V. Day, Milwaukee State Normal School ; Anna E. Pierce, New York State College for Teachers ; Edith M. Tuttle, Washington Irving High School. Miss Florence Jackson, of the Women's Educational and Industrial Union, made announcement of a list of graduate fellowships open to women, which will appear the last of March, prepared by the Union and issued by the A. C. A. At the suggestion of the president, a motion was made and carried that this Association through the secretary send a message of greeting and good wishes to the former president and secretary. Then followed the appointment of standing committees for the next year : Health-Agnes E. Wells, Indiana University, chairman (2 years ) ; Anna E. Pierce, New York College for Teachers (4 years ) ; Jean C. Palmer, Vassar College (3 years ) ; Harriet Dalton, Lincoln High School (1 year ) . Relations to Other Organizations-Anna Klingenhagen, Oberlin, chairman ; Mary Ross Potter, Northwestern University ; Kathryn Sisson Phillips, 316 W. 94th St. , New York ; F. Louise Nardin, University of Wisconsin; Ada Comstock, Smith College. Publications-Pearl R. Wasson, University of Vermont, chairman ; Martha Doan, Earlham College; Irene Nye, Connecticut College for Women. Sectional chairmen-State Universities, Agnes E. Wells, Indiana University; Colleges, Florence Root, Pennsylvania College for Women ; Normal Schools, Anna V. Day, Milwaukee State Normal School ; High Schools, Mary C. Robin- son, High School, Bangor, Me. Miss Pierce presented a plan for revision of the constitution and a copy was filed for consideration. At this time, Miss Kerr left the chair, and Miss White, the vice-president, presided for the remainder of the morning session. The first speaker of the morning was Susan Miller Dorsey, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, who discussed the POSITION AND RESPONSIBILITY OF WOMEN IN PUBLIC EDUCATION. The question was taken up from the point 410 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Deans of Women of view of the public schools and the speaker made very clear the need of a sane progressive policy for women. Sarah Louise Arnold, dean of Simmons College, presented A CIVIC OP- PORTUNITY FOR WOMEN. After stressing the danger to the teacher or admini- strator of living within the walls of the school and the obligation of the profession to give, not receive, Miss Arnold emphasized two forms of service which should receive attention-the moonlight schools of Kentucky and the Girl Scouts. Emma Hirth, director of the Bureau of Vocational Information, presented in a brief but convincing way the present situation as to business and profes- sional openings for women. At present there are not so many positions as supposed because the workers are not ready for them. There is need of graduate training, of steady work rather than excitement, and of more complete under- standing of the standards of the kinds of business women desire to enter. The plea was for more trained workers. At twelve o'clock the meeting adjourned for the luncheon at which the general subject of international relations among educated women was discussed, with reports from two of the American representatives to the International Federation of University Women held in London, in the summer of 1920. Dean Ada Comstock, Smith College, and President M. Carey Thomas , Bryn Mawr College, gave interesting and stimuating talks on the possibilities of friendliness, interchange of students and of educational ideas among university women through the International Federation. KATHARINE SPRAGUE ALVORD, Secretary. HEALTH INSTRUCTION AND HEALTH SUPERVISION LILIAN WELSH , M. D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, GOUCHER COLLEGE, BALTIMORE, MD . Today we look to the high-school graduate, the normal-school grad- uate, and the college graduate for leadership in those movements which are destined permanently to improve the human stock and the environ- mental conditions of living. The most pressing problems of her per- sonal life, and of her relations to the community life are fundamentally hygienic problems. Is it not, therefore, the duty of those who are particularly charged with the study and observation of the results of education and the needs of education in their practical bearings on human conduct and I take it that this is one of the great functions of women deans-to consider methods by which we shall see to it that these educated women shall have during their later school years an entrance, at least, into the field of hygiene and an educated outlook upon its problems ? It is for us to see that the educated woman shall, in the process of her education, become acquainted with the newer knowledge of health and of the methods of its practical applications to her own well-being, to that of the family, of the community, and of the race . On account of its fundamental importance to the welfare of the individual, of the family, and of the race, every girl is entitled, in the progress of her school education, to receive adequate health instruc Department] HEALTH INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION 411 tion adapted to her age and to her intelligence. Until our colleges provide adequate courses in hygiene and public health we cannot expect adequate courses in secondary schools. While health propaganda by isolated lectures, moving pictures, and other popular methods may serve a useful purpose in presenting health problems to the general public, if health education in the schools is to be placed on any per- manent foundation it must have a place in the curriculum. That such courses are not generally given in high schools or colleges is proved by the dearth of suitable texts, and, until very recently, the lack of high-grade journals devoted to hygiene and health. That such courses on health and hygiene as are found in curricula of high schools, normal schools, and colleges are not standardized is proved by the fact that we have no associations of teachers of hygiene and health in colleges and secondary schools, such as we have for English, for mathematics, or for history. That various associations exist which give consideration to the teaching of phases of health education such as physical training does not invalidate the statement. Because of the lack of any agreement as to the content of a course in hygiene for high schools and colleges, and because the occasional lecturer is apt to emphasize some special hobby it is extremely difficult for the deans of women and girls who are often the sole advisers on health matters, to discriminate between the essentials and the non- essentials. The inexperienced adviser is apt to overlook what is really harmful and emphasize what is only a source of irritation. After all, the hygienic code is simple and we all stand on pretty firm ground when we give advice on food, air, cleanliness, rest, sleep, and exercise, and that is about as far as the layman can safely go. Nor does the student have to come to high school or college to learn about fundamental health habits. "She knows the right and yet the wrong pursues." We urge the teaching of hygiene in high schools and colleges not in order to teach a student what to do and how to do it, but that she may learn the why of the doing. Our teaching is building for the future. We must make these young people understand in how far heredity, environment, personal habits are the determining factors in the health and happiness of the individual and their importance to the racial life. Over thirty years ago, the teaching of physiology was introduced into public and private schools in the interests of the movement against the use of alcohol and narcotics. Doubtless that teaching, poor as it was and wrong as it was in scientific statement, had much to do with the progress of the prohibition movement and its success in less than a generation. Today a similar insistent demand comes in the interest of the movement known as social or sex hygiene. While the control of the venereal diseases and the suppression of prostitution form the 412 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Deans of Women core of the sex-hygiene movement from the standpoint of adminis- trative public health-the more fundamental problem is that of chang- ing the mental attitude of society toward questions of sex-to create, as it were, a healthy mindedness in regard to sex in its relation to human life. This is the great task of sex education. I am confident that the easiest, if not the best, approach to sex education in any formal instruc- tion is through well-organized courses in the general subject of hygiene; and if no other reason existed for such courses, this one alone would be sufficient. But whatever formal instruction may be undertaken in sex hygiene in a school, it is of primary importance that those stand- ing in an advisory or supervising relation to girls should themselves think straight on questions of sex. Whatever the place health instruction may have, now or in the future, in the curricula of the higher schools, the ultimate problem of the conservation of the health of the individual student is the super- vision of the individual. Methods of public-health administration are rapidly becoming intensely individualistic. The campaigns against tuberculosis and other infectious diseases, the infant-welfare movement, the medical inspection of schools, the social-service work of hospitals and dispensaries all have demonstrated the necessity of " follow-up" work if public-health work is to be effective. Medical and physical examinations in secondary schools, in colleges, and in universities originally undertaken to determine the fitness of students for engaging in gymnastics or athletics are now undertaken to fix a starting-point for the promotion of the health of each individual student. Effective health supervision, having ascertained the physical and mental condition of the student on entering the school, will see, first, that the school does the student no harm; and second, will en- deavor to improve her health and her attitude toward health. It must protect the student from the school and the school from the student. Effective supervision in girls' schools needs, whatever other provision may be made, the services of a woman physician with special training in public health. That ample provision should be made for all those activities which center around the college gymnasium and athletic fields and that all such activities should have adequate health super- vision needs neither discussion nor defense. A department of health should make provision for health investigation. A properly organized department affords an opportunity to follow up for four years the daily lives of hundreds of girls between the ages of fourteen and twenty-two, and this opportunity should be improved to study certain physiological problems of great importance and interest to women, for example, to ascertain and fix standards of physical efficiency; and to Department] TRAINED WOMEN IN EDUCATION 413 scotch, as it were, the snake of tradition as to the functions and dis- abilities of the adolescent girl . POSITION AND RESPONSIBILITY OF TRAINED WOMEN IN EDUCATION SUSAN M. DORSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIF . Presumably this subject contemplates primarily the position and responsibility of trained women engaged in the actual work of public- school instruction and administration. The trained woman who is in the home or engaged in some other occupation than that of teaching has a responsibility to public education quite as significant as that of the actual teacher. No citizen may escape responsibility for this dis- tinctively American institution, since its prosperity depends upon the intelligent oversight and sympathetic support of trained men and women outside the group of professionals quite as much as upon teachers and superintendents, and it is the trained person whose help must be had. Nothing is more dreaded by school people, and justly so, than esti- mates of school procedure and of the school product made by persons not qualified to pass judgment. Such estimates often based on un- warranted assumptions and wholly insufficient evidence, though none the less urged with insistent assurance, tend only to confuse the public mind and to create wrong impressions and convictions difficult to remove. The trained woman outside the public school with her leisure, her knowledge of life, her ability to sense situations should in some way be drawn into a closer, more interested, more helpful relation to that institution. Her constructive suggestions are needed and above all, her help in winning the support of the public for progressive measures. Especially is there a place for trained women on boards of education and in centers of large population. Only trained women should attempt to serve in this capacity because of the varied, important, and diffi- cult duties of the position. To refer to a few of these: the intricacies of school law, which even legal advisers often bungle to the infinite cost of the schools, need to be understood in their broad outlines by board members; the business of a large city-school district is "big business " it involves the purchasing of enormous quantities of sup- plies, the maintenance and repair of school plants, the financing of salaries, the administering of bond moneys all of which call for ex- perience and good judgment in matters of finance; even more than business ability in board members is there a need for patience, poise, and discretion in dealing with the general public. Trained women with no aspiration except the service of children, society, and our loved land are needed, as well as fine men, to hold 414 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Deans of Women things steady, straight, and true, to see that children have a fair chance in this land of boasted free public schools.. It sometimes seems as though trained women were still giving in their clubs and kindred organizations a disproportionate amount of time and energy to agitation for social and educational betterment while shunning somewhat those arduous and responsible positions where decisions must be made and the measures initiated which bring results. Listening to finished, well-conned lectures of theorists and propagandists will not cause a reluctant public to tax itself for educational betterment much less secure the consummation by ceaseless effort of those advances which public education must make to meet the changing needs of a progressive civilization. As to the possibilities of creating or developing new positions for women in this field of endeavor, existing offices do not by any means exhaust the openings or complete the tale of service that may be ren- dered by trained women in the public schools. That they should seek to fill in the teaching profession only those higher positions now largely occupied by men is a great oversight. There are undeveloped possi- bilities of higher service much more to the liking of women than those already existing which will prove as diversified, as desirable, as remunerative as the better ones already existing and which will be in a real sense the inalienable offices of women because none but women can suitably fill them. To illustrate my point : Twenty-five years ago, in what was then a small Western city, a thoughtful woman in the one high school of those days became convinced that there was in the school a work which should be done by a woman, and that it was of equal importance with that of the principal. She accordingly went to the Board of Education and presented the case, pointing out that girls at the adolescent age in high school, in the interests of good taste and good morals, should be under the especial supervision of a woman; she explained that delicate situations and perplexing home problems often arose in a young girl's life with which a male principal should not be made acquainted; that the finest sensibilities of a young girl must be offended when obliged to report to a male principal for excuses; that unscrupulous girls took advantage of the situation, know- ing that explanations could not be insisted upon and that as a result loose habits of veracity and punctuality were engendered. The woman was made vice-principal of that high school. Today there are thirty women in that city holding similar positions of trust and service be- cause one woman had the vision of a new service that needed to be rendered. To illustrate my point by another instance: A few years ago in one of the Western cities another woman of social vision realized that much of the work done for foreign children in the public schools failed Department] TRAINED WOMEN IN EDUCATION 415 of its fullest realization because the parents, especially the mothers, remained utterly foreign and uncomprehending. This woman con- ceived the idea of a teacher who should be attached to the public schools and serve as a medium of understanding between the home and the school. She was to be called the home teacher and her duties were to be as diversified as the needs though unified through the one aim of bringing the foreign parents within the range of the educational oppor- tunities of the school. In a single city of that state, there are now thirty- four home teachers working daily in the foreign districts . These two instances illustrate how unexplored fields of school ser- vice which are woman's very own may be developed into new positions of opportunity for trained women. New positions of trust and re- sponsibility must evolve out of the broader conception of the public school as the conservator and promoter of national well-being. To develop such openings for service is the responsibility of trained women while they must at the same time be watchful to advance present standards of performance and to give a tone of dignity and reasonable- ness to the profession while insisting always on progressive policies. A consciousness of the responsibility to do well whatever they undertake acts as a deterrent many times when positions of importance are offered to women. Added to this is the overdrawn publicity when- ever a woman is chosen for a position of more than ordinary educa- tional prominence. Is it not time for trained women to accept respon- sibility as a matter of course, and for those in the more arduous posi- tions to be spared the embarrassment of frequent references to their status as one of exalted singularity. Whatever else is expected of trained women in public education, it is incumbent upon them to see that they exalt the educational aspects of their work. The position of vice-principal or dean in a high school should never degenerate into something akin to a matron's task. Prin- cipals of elementary schools, so many of whom are women, need to be constantly exhorted to function educationally in the community and in the school, to be leaders and instructors of their teachers, not clerks and managers of detail. Surely trained women can be depended upon to find ways of apportioning the detail work so that time may be had for the great business of education, for whatever else the public school may be set to accomplish, its first and absorbing mission is the intellec- tual and spiritual training of children . To establish in the minds of the people a conviction of the necessity of public education and the peril of any abatement in its activities seems to be peculiarly the responsibility of trained women inasmucn as the public school with its compulsory education, its day nurseries, its clinic, its numberless humanizing activities is fast becoming the greatest single 416 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Deans of Women factor in the conservation of the child, and the child is woman's charge. So critical is the situation at the present time that the American people understand the value and possibilities of their schools and the necessity of supporting them ungrudgingly that it forces an obligation upon trained women to assume as their peculiar responsibility the interpreta- tion of public education to the public. THE INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF UNIVERSITY WOMEN ADA COMSTOCK, DEAN SMITH COLLEGE, NORTHAMPTON, MASS. The International Federation of University Women was organized last July at a conference held at Bedford College, London. Repre- sentatives were in attendance from fifteen countries-England, Canada, the United States, Czecho-Slovakia, France, Holland, Italy, Spain, Australia, Belgium, Denmark, India, Norway, Sweden, and South Africa-in eight of which countries organizations of university women already exist. In spite of the diversity of its membership the con- ference succeeded in performing three important tasks. It set up the organization of the Federation, it defined the purposes to be achiev- ed, and it named the methods first to be employed. Professor Caroline Spurgeon was made president of the Federation, a council was created, and the date of the next conference was set for the summer of 1922. The International Federation of University Women is in no way a propagandist organization. It has no theories of education, politics, or economics to disseminate, nor does it seek to enforce uniformity of any kind among its members. It is based on two beliefs. One of these is that education the world over can be greatly enriched by the free exchange, among the countries, of teachers and students. To this end the Federation will do all that it can to promote such ex- changes, and will coöperate gladly with all existing agencies engaged in such work. A plan of coöperation with the Institute of International Education, the American Council of Education, and the American Universities Union in Great Britain has already been worked out. But it is not only in colleges and universities that the Federation hopes to bring about some increase in international interchange and friend- liness. By means of club houses and hostels in the centers which university women visit, and by the organization of committees of hospitality, the Federation hopes to bring about personal friendliness and understanding among the college-bred women of the world. The International Federation of University Women will have served a great purpose if in times as unsettled as these it has been a means, however limited in scope, of promoting international comprehension and good will. Department] FUNDAMENTAL ETHICAL PROBLEMS 417 FUNDAMENTAL EThical problems OF TODAY PEARL R. WASSON, DEAN OF WOMEN, UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT, BURLINGTON, VT. In any brief consideration of fundamental problems of today it is necessary that we should differentiate between superficial tendencies which we may designate "phases of youth" and deep-lying conditions which form the basic root of modern problems. What is the relation- ship of these more or less superficial outbursts of youthful activity to those problems which voice fundamental reactions to life and which may manifest themselves in more or less changing ways but which remain, under erratic outbursts, as the basic structure of our modern civilization ? Broadly considered, then, what are the deep-seated ethical characteristics of this generation ? What is the prognosis for the social and ethical standard of the generation just ahead of us ? Let us briefly state some of the symptoms which cannot be explained as war by-products because they were beginning to be manifest before the great world-conflict had cast a preliminary shadow. What is the cause for the tremendous restlessness, the intense individualism, the clamorous demand for a selfish, unrepressed personal freedom, the right of the individual to seek and demand gratification of his or her personal will, regardless of tradition and oblivious to many ethical standards which we, perhaps conservatively, consider foundation stones of civili- zation. The ever-present conflict between things as they are and a "desire for a change" has been accelerated, during the past one hundred and fifty years, by scientific discoveries and the steadily developing progress of individual freedom. Psychological research has opened a new field, one which appeals to personal egoism. We have become accustomed to the microscopic study of ourselves and have at times unduly emphasized our individual importance to the universe. There has been a more or less unconscious slogan that all the evils of the world may be attributed to repressed desires. This philosophy has permeated our art and our literature. At times the "lid seems to be off" all reticence. The in- fluence of this "probing and specifying of human emotion" is showing in all fields of modern life. Radicalism of the most advanced kind is answering every criticism or mild protest with the modern catch- word, " repression." The danger from repressed desires has been amplified but the conclusion added by trained neurologists seems, in many instances, to be forgotten. The repressed energy must be re- leased but no authority can be found to insist that the energy must be released in the form of the original desire. A definite substitution of outlets for constructive energy following self-analysis may be the means of a progressive policy of real advancement. An insistence upon 418 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Deans of Women the right of the individual to realize his individual desire must inevitably lead to chaos . What is our modern ethical standard? Is it expressed in the movie comedies, in the exaggerated dance, in the unrepressed magazine ? I be- lieve that these are manifestations of nothing more than superficial reac- tion, a lack of a blazed mental and spiritual trail. The law of substitution is the logical sequence of psycho-analysis. Let us turn to literature in our search for an expression of ideals. Modern prose may seek to speak with ungoverned tongue concerning the great elemental passions of nature and of man, but in modern poetry we find the deep ethical feelings, the triumphant chorus of the present generation that "man is no longer the almost helpless sport of natural forces, but the in- heritor of powers by which he may before long master and direct them." The youthful mind is ready for conviction: the youthful soul will find it; and the solution will be based upon fundamental law. The new freedom and steady progress must rest upon a lesser emphasis of individual desire and a greater emphasis upon individual responsibility. DOES THE COLLEGE EMPHASIZE SERVICE FOR OTHERS TO THE DETRIMENT of PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT FLORENCE PURINGTON, DEAN, MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE, SOUTH HADLEY, MASS . We all agree that there can be no true personal development apart from service for others, neither can there be efficient service except as it results from personal development of the best type. Our problem is to keep the proper balance between the two and to decide where and how the emphasis shall be put at different periods in the life of an individual. The problem is a rather more difficult one for a college located in a city where students are very closely in contact with the currents of life in the outside world than for a country institution. The public in its attitude toward the college, and the students them- selves in their attitude toward their college work are likely to forget that the main concern in the four short years of college life should be, not the student's active service to the community, but the mental develop- ment of the student. Although filled with a desire to serve others, she should somehow be made to feel that her chief business in college is personal enrichment of mind and character and the training of her powers for what lies ahead-not active service at the moment. The college then has two duties to perform: first, to convince its students that there is need of development, that it offers priceless things that can be secured only by interested effort on their part; and second, to persuade the public that young women are not in college to be exploited by every kind of organization outside. Department] THE EMPHASIZING OF SERVICE 419 A limited amount of outside work-service for others may be a real stimulant to the best intellectual development. It furnishes an outlet for the interests and enthusiasm of young people and keeps their college work from becoming irksome and stale. It may be to certain courses in economics, history, or literature what the laboratory is to courses in science, or the studio to the study of art. But if work in church, in settlement, in homes of the poor or unfortunate, or with study classes of young people is to serve such a purpose, it must be a part of a carefully organized and intelligently supervised effort. Otherwise false standards of work are established, the student is satisfied with ineffective efforts, and nothing is accomplished for others and worse than nothing for herself. Much of the work undertaken by college students, so far as my experience goes, has been of the unsupervised, irregular, slipshod, ineffective kind. A healthy interest in civic and national matters creates a desire for reading and is a stimulus to personal development. I believe such an interest should be encouraged, and certainly in a college located as Mount Holyoke is there is little danger of overmuch active partici- pation in these matters. If there were danger of giving much time to such activities I should think it wise to set a limit in some way. For example, it would seem to me most undesirable to have students involved to any extent in so-called Americanization schemes until some more definite aim and plan has been evolved. It has seemed to me that the organizations in college which are con- nected with those outside ought to be carried on more especially to serve the peculiar needs of the college community. Could the Christian and social organizations, for example, spend less time in organization and activity that has to do with the outside world and study college problems, college ethics, college atmosphere, and college responsibility, they would accomplish more that was worth while. The colleges need to emphasize good manners, morals, honor, love and appreciation of the beautiful, refinement, culture in its best sense, character. The importance of scholarly habits and scholarly interests should be often stressed. Instructors who can really interest the student in art, in literature, in philosophy, in history are solving the problem to a large degree. Much can also be done by the faculty outside the classroom by talking with students unaffectedly as friend with friend, about sub- jects that are vital. There is too much talking down to the student, too little giving her credit for interest in serious, worth-while things. Once she is expected to be interested and to have opinions she sel- dom fails to respond. Much more could be done also by choosing lecturers more carefully with a view to stressing personal development. A few lectures by Dr. Goldthwaite aroused groups of students to re 420 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Deans of Women form in dress ; a lecture by Mr. Powis on the Bronté sisters stimulated reading of their work for many months. I am inclined to think that a large proportion of our students read as much as time will allow. One difficulty is that so many of them read very slowly, so that they are barely able to cover their assign- ments. Professor Scott, head of our Department of Education, has been trying some interesting experiments with students with a view to increasing speed in reading and the results have been quite satis- factory. If some method could be devised for giving such training to those who read very slowly it might be of great help in securing a wider interest in reading. Those who do read outside what is re- quired in their courses, too often confine their choice to the Woman's Home Companion, Ladies' Home Journal, Saturday Evening Post, and a light quality of fiction. The cause generally goes back to the home and there seems little prospect of bettering things greatly unless in some way the home can be reformed. Some, probably most, who specialize in literature, history, or philosophy gradually develop a taste for good reading. If there were time for old-fashioned reading circles, they might be of help. One member of cur English Department did a great deal to arouse interest in reading by herself reading to her students occasionally on Sunday evening. She was very particular to have the setting for these occasions just right-a harmonious room, an open fire, her gown just the proper color. The result was such an appeal to the students' sense of the beautiful as to make a lasting impression upon them and to create a longing for beautiful things. I am aware that I have emphasized the importance of personal development at the expense of service to others. This is not because I underestimate the importance of service. An individual cannot be happy in a life that does not include service for others, but the world has held the idea of service before our students so constantly and we have allowed it so to eclipse the real purpose of the college course that we need to restore the balance. I would not ask then that service should be less emphasized, but rather that culture as the true preparation for life should be properly stressed. Department of Educational Publications SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-GEORGE L. TOWNE, president University Publishing Company ... Lincoln, Nebr. Secretary-C. W. TABER, western manager Lippincott & Company . Chicago, Ill. WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921 The meeting of the Department of Educational Publications was held at Des Moines, in the Chamberlin Hotel, Wednesday afternoon, July 6, at two o'clock with George L. Towne, president, in the chair. The following program was given : "How TO IMPROVE TEXTBOока"-Sensing the Demand-B . E. Dill, assistant manager, University Publishing Company, Lincoln, Nebr. "HOW TO RAISE STANDARDS OF AUTHORSHIPYARDSTICKS FOR MEASUREMENT OF AUTHOR'S PRODUCTION"-Arthur H. Chamberlain, editor, Sierra Educational News, San Francisco, Calif. "ACQUAINTING THE PUBLIC WITH CLASSROOM NEEDS"-J. W. Studebaker, superintendent of schools, Des Moines, Iowa. "INFORMING THE PUBLIC OF RELATIVE COSTS OF CLASSROOM MATERIALS"- E. L. Holton, director of Teacher Training State Agricultural College, Man- hattan, Kans . Mr. George L. Towne, president of The University Publishing Company, Lincoln, Nebr., was unanimously elected president for the coming year, and Mr. C. W. Taber, western manager of The J. B. Lippincott Company, Chicago, was unanimously elected secretary for the same period. C. W. TABER, Secretary. HOW TO IMPROVE TEXTBOOKS—SENSING THE DEMAND B. E. DILL, ASSISTANT MANAGER UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY, LINCOLN , NEBR . In view of the fact that vast numbers of textbooks are being published each year, it may be well to pause and to ask whether or not these books are in response to a clear-cut demand, or whether they are published for various other motives. The term "demand" as here used means the sum total of all the evidence that certain types of books are indispensable to fundamental educational movements. That is, when the plays-and-games movement spread throughout the country, it soon became evident that teachers of plays and games could go only about so far unaided. The stronger workers in this line set about preparing textbook guides to help all teachers in the country, and plays and games through definite guidance became a definite part in the educational system. 421 422 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Educational The farsighted publisher, having sensed the demand for this help, co-operated with the outstanding leaders to develop and publish the necessary texts and helps. Clearly these demands are naturally divided into two classes, (A) the demands for new texts and helps arising from new conditions ; (B) the demands for new or more broadly developed texts and helps in fields with which we are already familiar. A.- SOME OF THE AGENCIES OF NEW CONDITIONS WHICH HAVE GIVEN RISE TO DEMANDS FOR NEW TEXTS AND HELPS I. The opening and the settlement of new territory. 1. The Philippines. 2. Alaska.. 3. Porto Rico. 4. The Canal Zone. II . New nation-wide movements . 1. The manual training movement. 2. Vocational education movement. a Domestic science. b Agricuture. C Commerce. 3. Musical study and appreciation movement. 4. Health and sanitation movement. a Health crusaders . b Personal hygiene and sanitation. 5. Community center movements. 6. Civic and citizenship movement. 7. New modern language movement. 8. Junior High School movement. Each of these movements has become so clearly defined as to form a specific demand for texts and helps . III . Special state-wide movements 1. Delaware service citizens' movement . 2. Nebraska history movement. 3. Iowa constitution and citizenship movement. 4. Georgia parent-teacher movement. While some of these movements have not become strong enough as yet to demand texts and helps, they are strong enough to keep the wide- awake publisher alert and ready to produce texts and helps as needed. IV. Specialized local movements. In the effort to improve our public-school system, educators attempt to make the best in any locality apply to every other locality. There- are local movements with real force tend to become nation-wide. Publications] HOW TO IMPROVE TEXT BOOKS 423 Among these movements which have attracted attention in recent years are : 1. The Gary system . 2. The Batavia plan 3. George Junior Republic and various local plans for student self government. The keen publisher must watch such movements carefully. V. Public Service Movements . Supplementing these local movements and standing somewhat in contrast to them are the great public-service movements which affect the course of study and consequently express themselves in demands for new textbooks. Among these movements are : 1. The Gary system. 2. The Batavia plan. 3. Boy Scouts and Camp Fire Girls . 4. The good-roads movement. 1 5. Junior Chamber of Commerce. While all of these movements have not become universal enough to create a demand for new books or changed subject-matter in books already created, they are worthy of the keenest attention on the part of alert publishers. Now, how does the textbook publisher find out when the demand for a book on any of these numerous movements justifies the making of such a book ? He will need to keep in close touch with educational thought and practices. He must know where any of these movements are being successfully worked out. Then, if he finds the movement educationally sound and becoming general, he gets in close touch with classroom teachers, supervisors, and others responsible for the success of the movement, and together they make a book to fit a special situation, but universal enough to fit any other similar situation. The publisher who publishes a book at the request of an author or to secure the temporary advantage of an influential educator's name on the title-page is not sensing the demand. That kind of publisher is a prospector digging little holes in the ground and can never become a real miner. B.-THE DEMANDS FOR NEW OF MORE BROADLY DEVELOPED TEXTS AND HELPS IN FIELDS WITH WHICH WE ARE ALREADY FAMILIAR Next to meeting the demands of these new movements the publisher, with a broad vision, must seek to sense the demand and the need for new and improved texts in the fields already covered. Naturally he thinks of these demands as dividing themselves into two classes, (1 ) the demands for new and modern subject-matter or content ; (2) the demands for new and improved methods. 424 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Educational 1. Subject-matter. There are certain industrial-life demands of every community with which we must reckon. In other words, the course of study must reflect the fundamental industry of the community. All communities expect that certain essential subjects, such as arithmetic, reading, writing, and so on, must be taught. In all of these subjects the subject-matter or content is constantly changing to reflect the pro- gressive life of the community. 2. Method. In the field of method the publisher must have an especially clear understanding. He must know that the methods of teaching these fundamentals remain relatively constant, while thousands of mechanical devices spring up as waves on the surface to attempt to help the mind of the learner to grasp the method and the subject-matter. The publisher who senses the constant fundamental method can build books, with right content, which will last and become a real contribution to education . On the other hand, publishers of mere devices are like the "wild- catters" of the oil fields who are often content with mere temporary gushers, but who overlook the long-term, steady flow upon which suc- cessful business is built. The keen-visioned, conscientious publisher is the one who senses these permanent demands, and who is consequently a real leader in educational thought. He is a pioneer in educational leadership. The alert publisher who keeps in close touch with these ever widen- ing new demands and produces textbooks to meet these demands is the publisher who not only is successful, from the standpoint of good business, but who is also doing a real educational service. The successful publisher, then, must keep in close touch with those movements which will create a demand for new textbooks, also those movements which express themselves in a demand for new subject- matter and methods in already familiar fields. He must even anticipate and shape these demands. If all this is done in the right manner, the publisher will not be thought of merely as a commercial agent. It is to the publisher that the teaching profession looks for educational leader- ship in the production of the newest and best textbooks, books repre- senting the latest development in both subject-matter and method. Conclusions. From the foregoing it may safely be concluded : 1. A reputable publisher is a distinctive educational leader. 2. The publisher must keep in intimate touch with the trend of modern educational thought and with actual educational practice. 3. The publisher can hope to publish no book that will live unless such publisher can cultivate authors who are familiar with modern educational theories and in closest touch with the field of actual school- room practice, and who have grown up with the work. Publications] INFORMATION ON TEXTBOOK COSTS 425 4. The book that is published in response to a real demand, a demand founded upon the educational rock of sound pedagogical prin- ciples, will succeed and live. On the other hand, a book that is published in response to some other motive, in almost every case fails, and is like the house builded upon the sands. 5. Textbook-making is not a mere craft, but is a profession requir- ing the most refined professional skill exerted through a long period of the study of educational movements . 6. The publishing of textbooks standarized on this high professional plane is not only good educational practice, but in the long run is the best business practice. INFORMING THE PUBLIC OF RELATIVE COST OF TEXTBOOKS E. L. HOLTON, DEAN OF EDUCATION , KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURE COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, KANS. What I shall say on this subject is based upon two fundamental propositions, basic in American democracy : ( 1 ) all the children of all the people should have an equal educational opportunity to make the most out of their God-given possibilities; (2) when the people have the indisputable facts on what is the best for the all-round development of their children, they will demand the best, provided the cost is not prohibitive. A distinctive feature of public education in our country is the im- portance we place upon textbooks in building courses of study for our public schools. No other country has given the classroom textbooks so important a place in the education of its boys and girls. In the language of H. G. Wells, the classroom textbooks make up the "Bible of civiliza- tion" for the children of America. It is out of textbooks that our children get the common elements of democracy. Since this is true, it is highly important that we furnish our children with textbooks that represent the highest standards in mechanical make-up and artistic appearance, and that embody up-to-date hygienic principles. The con- tent of this "Bible of civilization" must be the richest achievements of our social inheritance. When our children ask for bread, we should not give them a stone. There has been a vast amount of misinformation given out con- cerning the profits of publishers of textbooks. "Cheap-John" politicians, office-seekers, " friends of the taxpayers", "friends of the farmer," and sometimes agents of competitive publishers have put out this mis- information. I have the statement of high authority on textbook publication that every dollar the publishers of textbooks receive for books is distributed as follows : Fifty cents is paid out for illustrating, 426 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Educational plating, printing, and paper; twenty-one cents for editing, development, and revisions ; twenty-one cents for advertising, selling, and shipping; eight cents for profit. Eight per cent is not a profiteer's share of the returns. It is only a reputable banker's rate of interest. These same dispensers of misin- formation have emphasized the vast sums of money the people pay out for textbooks compared with other school expenses. On this subject the United States Bureau of Education, in its bulletin Free Textbooks and State Uniformity, says : Confidential data have been obtained by the Bureau of Education from forty-three textbook publishers in the United States relative to their total sales for 1913. The list of forty-three includes practically all of the textbook pub- lishers in the United States whose business is more than purely local. They handle probably 99 per cent of the total textbooks business. These publishers sub- mitted figures stating their total sales of textbooks for use in public schools and their total sales for both public and private schools for the year 1913. The aggregate for public schools, elementary and high, amounted to $14,261,768.25. The total enrolment in public, elementary, and high schools for the year was approximately 18,609,040. Excluding the elementary school enrolment of Cali- fornia, as California prints her own elementary books, the number becomes 18,213,786. Therefore, for each child enrolled in the public schools in the United States the total annual sale of textbooks is 78.3 cents. The total expenditure per child for textbooks is greater than this amount by from 10 to 15 per cent, as local dealers receive a commission on sales fixed in many States by legisla- tion at the per cents given. The cost of textbooks is, therefore, but little more than 2 per cent of the total cost of maintenance, support and equipment. The sale per child on the school population basis (5-18 years of age) is 56.6 cents : the annual per capita sale of textbooks on the total population basis is less than fifteen cents. To summarize these facts : (1) The average child enrolled in the public schools of the United States pays about 92 cents a year for his textbooks. (2) Out of every dollar the public pays for maintenance, support, and equipment for the public schools, 2 cents goes for text- books. It seems to me that the leaders in education, especially city and county superintendents, should get these facts out to the public in clear- cut statements and understandable charts. It is highly important that the people have the indisputable facts concerning textbooks, in order to offset the misinformation that has been spread abroad. The leaders in education can get these facts to the public through the press, the chambers of commerce, the Rotary clubs, the Kiwanis clubs, the women's clubs, and all other organizations that are interested in public education. When the people have the indisputable facts, and when they know the cost of the highest grade of textbooks is not prohibitive, they will demand and they will get the best textbooks for their boys and girls . Department of Elementary Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-P. W. L. Cox, Head Master of the Washington School . New York, N. Y. Secretary-ANNIE E. LOGAN , assistant superintendent of schools ........... Cincinnati, Ohio FIRST SESSION TUESDAY MORNING, JULY 5, 1921 The Department of Elementary Education met in its first session, Tuesday morning, July 5, 1921, at ten o'clock in the First Baptist Church, Des Moines, Iowa, with Dr. P. W. L. Cox presiding. The topic for the session was THE LIMITS OF THE PROJECT. In the absence of Dr. W. W. Charters, Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa., his paper was read by the president. Florence Fox, primary specialist in the Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., set forth that the limitations of the project correspond to the limits of the teacher in her educational training and professional insight; that there must be concentration and co-ordination between the content and tool sub- jects according to their function. Grace Shields, primary supervisor in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, spoke on THE TRY OUT WITH THE PROJECT METHOD, emphasizing its value because of its con- crete and objective values of presentation. John A. Long, district superintendent, Chicago, emphasized the value of A PROJECT BASIS FOR SOCIAL STUDY IN THE UPPER Grades. Theodore Linquist, Kansas City Normal School, Emporia, Kans., in the topic of MATHEMATICS, THE PROJECT INSTRUMENT showed that clear thinking de- manded much real quantitative evaluation. A discussion of the topics of the morning by Ernest Horn, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, closed the program of the first session. SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921 At the second session of the department, held Wednesday afternoon, July 6, the subject THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AND THE READJUSTMENTS OF THE NEXT TEN YEARS was discussed. The following speakers took part: Dr. George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.; Leonard Power, Port Arthur, Tex.; Anna Baker, Ben Blewett Junior High School, St. Louis, Mo; Ide G. Sargeant, Paterson, N. J.; George C. Minard, superintendent of schools, Arlington, Mass.; Sara L. Rhodes, Brooklyn, N. Y.; and P. P. Claxton, ex-commissioner of education, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. С. On the recommendation of the president, a motion by Mr. Linquist was passed authorizing the president of the Department of Elementary Education to appoint a committee on continuity of policies, one person to serve for three years, one for two years and one for one year, for the purpose of acting with the retiring and incoming presidents of this department in order to institute and to aid in carrying out programs of continuous policies, to co-ordinate the work with that of other departments, and to eliminate unnecessary duplications. The president appointed the following nominating committee : Anna Logan, Cincinnati, Ohio; Anna Baker, St. Louis, Mo.; and Ide Sargeant, Paterson, N. J. 427 428 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Elementary Education THIRD SESSION- FRIDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 8, 1921 The third session of the department was held in the Plymouth Congrega- tional Church, Friday afternoon, July 8, with P. W. L. Cox in the chair. The subject of the afternoon was THE USE OF SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT AS A BASIS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF INSTRUCTION. Dr. J. Worth Osburn, director of educational measurements, Madison, Wis., used silent reading as the basis of his discussion; Carroll R. Reed, superintendent of schools, Akron, Ohio, through charts and slides demonstrated the values of tests in the Akron schools; Bessie B. Goodrich, director of elementary education, Des Moines, Iowa, showed results of tests in spelling and diagnosing difficulties ; E. E. Chiles, Ben Blewett Junior High School, St. Louis, Mo., emphasized the close analysis of results of tests to determine strength and weakness of teachers, to correct weaknesses, and to retain and to refine methods giving best results ; Maude McBroom, Detroit Teachers College, Detroit, Mich., analyzing the complex reading abilities, chose for dis- cussion THE TECHNIQUE OF WORKING WITH BOOKS to show the possibilities of improving study habits through the diagnosis of the results from tests ; F. B. Knight, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, using illustrations, summarized that educational tests stimulate competition, clarify the objective, combine with intelligence tests to show what to expect, arouse a vigorous analysis, thus re- vealing specific difficulties and through diagnosis determine problem of method. At the close of this session, the following officers were elected : president, Mary E. Lawler, principal, School No. 12, Paterson, N. J.; secretary, Bessie Bacon Goodrich, director of elementary education, Des Moines, Iowa. THE LIMITATIONS OF THE PROJECT W. W. CHARTERS, CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PITTSBURGH, PA. Unfortunately, when the project was brought into the non-vocational field in the elementary school and high school, it lost one of the elements to which we have referred. By some means one of our colleagues, who has formulated the definition of the project which has become current in the literature and is accepted by his many students, failed to take account of the natural setting and laid stress upon motivation. To him, and currently to the educational world in general, the project is a pur- poseful act. By this definition any act which is wholeheartedly purposeful be- comes a project. This is true of "the making of a dress, running a newspaper, listening to a story, or working an original in geometry." In short, I think it is fair to say that upon such a basis any school problem, example, topic, drill, exercise, test, review, application, illus- tration, demonstration or practicum, becomes a project as soon as it becomes genuinely and "wholeheartedly" motivated. Therefore, every school activity may be a project-providing the learner prosecutes it with a "dominating purpose." But as soon as we attempt to use this definition as a method of collecting school activities we are completely at sea. We cannot possibly claim beforehand that anything is a project. Is making a dress a pro- ject? We do not know until after we have watched the individual en Department] THE LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT 429 gaged upon the operation. When we find that the activity is whole- heartedly purposeful, we call it a project, but rot till then. The result of the incomplete definition has been naturally produc- tive of chaos in the use of the term. We find, in essence, in the liter- ature and in school courses of study, that anything, whether it be a drill, topic, question, problem, exercise, is called the project, if the teacher thinks his pupils are pursuing it with a "dominant purpose." The more sanguine the teacher, the larger the number of "projects" he thinks he uses, because in that case the larger is the proportion of the school ac- tivities which the children seem to study "wholeheartedly." If we take the project in its correct sense-an act carried to com- pletion in its natural setting-there are two obvious limitations to which I wish to call attention. In the first place, a dominant purpose and wholehearted participation are not inherent in the project. While pro- jects should be selected upon the basis of their alignment with the domi- nant purposes of children, any teacher of projects knows that in his courses he has children who are not interested in corn projects, pig projects, or dairy projects. The mortality in all voluntary project work, such as boys' agricultural clubs, is very high, and the eliminations from the Smith-Hughes vocational schools are admittedly considerable. Projects clearly may not be interesting, but it is equally evident that when a project is interesting, it is very interesting. The boy who studies how to raise potatoes from the book has interest perhaps in the grade which he may make, but if he raises potatoes as a project, he has in addition a large number of social incentives, such as pride in contesting with his father, joy in providing potatoes for the table, pleasure in the prospect of selling them to purchase suits, ponies, or baseballs, and in- terest from many other sources. The project is like the notorious little girl with the curl, who when she was good was very, very good. For when the project is interesting, it is very, very interesting, but when it is not interesting, it is decidedly not interesting. In the second place, a great deal of subject-matter cannot be taught by the project method in the school. It is at present impossible to pro- vide projects in school which will exactly parallel, with the proper pro- portions, the activities which a child will carry on outside the school . Consequently it cannot be expected that efficiency in carrying on the particular projects taught in school will provide efficiency in carrying on all kinds of projects, and it is therefore the better part of wisdom, until we know more definitely what should be the content of school work, to teach the fundamentals of school subjects, by projects where possible, but also by means other than the project, such as drills, problems, and exercises. It is clearly apparent to anyone who looks over the project curriculums which have been worked out, that we are completely at sea 430 NATIONAL education ASSOCIATION [Elementary Education as to the amount or kind of subject-matter which should be taken care of in the selection of the proper projects. To one who follows the line of thought with care, it is obvious that I have been speaking about the project in relation to the curriculum rather than to methods of instruction, and I have done this consciously because of the fact that the current definition of the project has been worked out with methods of learning in mind, and has therefore, caused confusion when it has been applied to problems of the curriculum. With these limitations in mind, it is entirely desirable that courses of study should include as many projects as it is possible for the teacher to use while giving due regard to all the objectives of school work. In all attempts to revise the course of study, the project becomes the adjusting means by which the content of the subjects may be applied to extra- school activities. It makes the contacts with extra-school life, it pro- vides abundant possibilities of motivation, and it offers the technique for the maximum amount of intellectual thought and effort. Controlled with accuracy, and used with good judgment, it is one of the most promising of our recent methods . HOW CAN THE PROJECT BE SAFEGUARDED ? GRACE M. SHIELDS, PRIMARY SUPERVISOR, CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA This is important because many projects that look well to the ob- server bring slight reaction in the mental and moral life of the child. The true test of a project is what a child learns. It may be well to come closer to the subject-matter of the school and consider the classification of the different types of projects. The child is the center of school procedure and has a right to the quality of work that is consistent with, and congenial to, his age. Prior to his school life he has gained much intimate knowledge of the home associations with which he is familiar, he is led through the work of the father to community activities that provide him with the necessities of life. Beginning with the immediate environment of the home conditions, activities, industries, and occupations, the work of the first three grades should gradually widen the horizon of the child's conscious life. The familiar experiences deal chiefly with the fundamental needs of man- food, clothing, and shelter-and parallel with the study of present-day problems should begin a study of the primitive people. The children do not find it difficult to pass from the immediate present to the remote past, and this widening circle of experience is the child's introduction to an appreciation of history. The aim is to make concrete the un- familiar, and to use the known for the purpose of comparison. Department] SAFEGUARDING THE PROJECT 431 Good pictures used for the purpose of furnishing the child's mind with the material whereby he may have a mental picture of a waving field of wheat, "hay cocks," farm activities, primitive Indian life and Eskimo life, help the imagination to verify and realize the facts de- scribed. Lantern slides have been found helpful in giving the child clear, definite, mental images and accurate ideas. Here the child has the opportunity to visit, through the medium of pictures, scenes otherwise impossible. For example, during the month in which we study cotton, the child may go with us to the cotton field, gain a clearer concept of the growth and development of the plant, see the workers picking the cotton, follow it to the ginhouse, and see it baled and shipped to the factory. Here he gains an understanding of the spinning of the thread and weaving of the cloth. He may follow it still farther to its final destination, the department store, where it is sold to be made into gar- ments. The value of this work lies in the fact that the essence of con- creteness is accuracy. It is easy to give abstract ideas of how things are not. The handwork should present two phases, (1) constructive activity in relation to the industrial problem, and (2) constructive work from the standpoint of expression. The projects should always be in direct relationship to the industrial situations, providing motive and meaning are in accord with the pedagogical principle that "doing is essential to the learning process." The reading-lessons, which are solutions of the material summarized, are valuable because they embody the child's own experience. They are a great source of delight to him. He may have helped to form that sentence or he may have given to the class the thought it contains. They serve as a means of review and of organizing the discussions and activities into a more definitely related whole. Any project that is occupying the children intensively will at some time need to find ex- pression through the medium of the printed symbol used in reading. Reading is as much a part of the entire scheme as nature study, geography, or any other content-matter. The possibilities of teaching reading in these connections are great . Project-teaching can be effectively combined with any well-organized course of study and the regular work enriched and reinforced. There are some important tools of knowledge that needto be acquired through drill. In reading, spelling, phonics, and arithmetic the forms and symbols must be mastered as individual facts, but in geography and history it is a mistake to suppose that isolated facts have any signi- ficance. With attention to essential correlation of the subject-matter, the elimination of waste in useless drill, and provisions for adequate drill through perfectly and scientifically organized drill material, the 432 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Elementary Education goal can be reached quickly and efficiently and with less effort on the part of both pupils and teachers. In conclusion, the presentation of subject-matter which results in activity, in carrying out the act of completion as over against the passive acceptance of information, is one of the most significant contributions of the project method. A PROJECT BASIS FOR SOCIAL STUDY IN THE UPPER GRADES JOHN A. LONG, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. When we are to discuss any method of teaching, the fundamental question is, does the method proposed conform to the natural movements of the mind ? Does the human mind work that way? If it does the method is correct. If it does not, nothing can save it from failure. In the discussion of the topic we have before us, our first question is, does the human mind do its work by projecting vague ends, that is, pro- jects, attempting to realize those ends, and adjusting its activities to whatever obstacles it meets upon its way? Is the story of human prog- ress the story of a succession of projects thrown out somewhat vaguely into the future, or into new conditions, followed by the solution, or at- tempted solution, of the problems that are raised by the effort to realize those projects. If so, we have the psychological basis for the project method, and we have only to analyze social progress and adapt our method to our material to get a program of procedure. Let us take a concrete example. In the year 1900, the Panama Canal was a project ; the people had determined to build such a canal. But they knew little of the meaning of that project. What the canal would cost in money, labor and sacrifice, what difficulties were likely to be en- countered in the process of its construction, they could only in the vaguest way estimate, and estimates are vague things at best. Most of the people did not stop even to estimate the cost. They wanted the canal, believed the project feasible and insisted that it be undertaken. But, as soon as those who had been intrusted with the execution of the project began to act upon it, a series of problems arose ; problems of location, problems involving the kind of canal to be built, problems of construction, sanitation, finance, and a thousand others problems within problems-and it is the stress and strain necessary to the successful solution of these problems that has filled in the first vague project and given meaning to the concept, Panama Canal. In other words, the canal began as a project, one of these large vague purposes projected by the human mind; it was constructed by the solu- tion of a long list of problems which, as soon as men began to act upon the purpose they had projected, arose within the project, all of them Department] SOCIAL STUDY IN THE UPPER GRADES 433 project and problems-becoming essential elements in the final result, and all of them necessary to the full meaning of the final result. The completed canal is not original empty project, but that project modified, enriched, filled in, and given meaning by all the pains and pleasures, losses and gains, failures and successes, disappointments and triumphs, that entered into its construction. It is a human project built up by human experience. While the portion of human progress here given as an illustration is a rather compacted one, compacted in both the short time required for its completion and in the definiteness with which the original project was grasped, yet I think it could be shown to be typical. I believe that it could be demonstrated that all social movements, every element of social progress, whether it be recorded in history, geography, or in some governmental institution, is wrought out in this way. Sometimes, it is true, these projects are held and acted upon by a large number of individuals without any conscious concert, and sometimes their com- pletion requires generations instead of years but these facts do not affect the validity of the fundamental idea as a project. Individuals are all the time acting upon that idea; it is directing and controlling their movements ; they are constantly striving and contriving to overcome the difficulties that are found to be in the way of its achievement just as truly and as persistently as if the whole project had been conceived by a single individual and had been directed by a single mind. That a group acts in a certain way only proves that the individuals that make up that group think in that way. The large general project is only an aggregation of a number of smaller individual projects. True, the relation between project and problem here indicated is only relative. From one point of view, a thing may be a problem, while from another point of view it becomes a project. The Gatun dam, for in- stance, or the Culebra Cut, when looked at from the point of view of the canal as a whole, were problems. But each, taken as an individual enterprise, is a project, full of its own problems, whose solution is essential to its successful accomplishment, and whose understanding is essential to its complete meaning. True, also, since some of the problems that arise within the project cannot be forseen, it sometimes happens that the project as completed differs from the project as begun, and that some of the problems that arise become projects of far greater significance and far wider scope than the original. The discovery of America, for instance, looks like an accident, as in one sense it was. But Columbus was working on a project, in the pursuit of which he came upon what was for him an in- surmountable obstacle. The project of Columbus was worked out by others, but the problem his voyage raised became one of the largest proj- 434 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Education ects in history-the settlement of a new world and the development of a new civilization . Of course, the project of the Panama Canal, going back to our original illustration, grew out of other human experiences. It is equally true that its completion will lead to other projects whose completion will depend upon the experiences gained in realizing this one. It is thus that the continuance and the continuity of human progress is assured. Com- pleted projects, rich with the experiences of their achievement, become starting-points, building blocks, organized groups of experience, with which to conceive and work out still larger and more comprehensive projects, the whole progressing along a definite line and constituting in the end an achievement undreamed of in the beginning by anyone, but nevertheless somewhere conceived as a final project and wrought out on precisely the same lines as are the simplest projects of our daily lives. The British colonial empire, for example, was not, in the beginning, in the mind of any man or set of men. But the germ of it was there, when after the discovery of the New World, the English people decided to make agricultural settlements in America. The working out of that project brought them to Bermuda, to the West Indies and the Bahamas, and thus enlarged their original conception of colonial possessions. The transformation of the British Isles from an agricultural to a sheep- raising community, the discovery of coal and iron on the island, and the invention of manufacturing machinery still further increased their de- pendence upon colonial lands as producers of raw materials and con- sumers of manufactured goods. All this was simply enlarging and en- riching the original project of an island kingdom with colonial depen- dencies, until, in the Seven Years War, there burst upon the master mind of William Pitt the British colonial empire much as it stands today. He prosecuted the war with that end in view, and England came out of the war the master of Canada, India, the colonies of North America and the West Indies-a colonial domain that has been the admiration of the world. Each completed project becomes an organized body of experience with which to solve the problems of new and greater projects in the endless onward march of human progress. If the foregoing illustrations are sufficient to establish a principle, this would seem to constitute the project basis for social studies in the upper grades. It is this upon which the method is based. Human prog- ress has been achieved and is being achieved by projecting vague ends and then realizing them by working them out through the problems they raise. The human experience involved in the solution of these problems is what fills the projects with human meaning and human significance. Adult human beings think that way. If we are to teach children the meaning of the completed projects which make up human progress, we must build up in the minds of the children the concepts that consti Department] MATHEMATics, the project instrument 435 tute a knowledge of human progress in very much the same way as the projects have been built up in the lives of those who wrought them out. The bare facts of human achievement have no more meaning for the child, nay not so much, as had the original projects to those who conceived them. As the original projects had to be filled with ex- perience, even with individual experience, before they had meaning, so the children's concept must be filled with experience, even with their own experience, before they will have meaning. But the children cannot have first-hand experience in solving the problems of the past or of remote conditions. What then shall we do ? Appeal to such experiences as the children have had, and arrange your geographical or historical concepts to suit those experiences, rather than attempt to force upon the children some logical or chronological order of development which means little to them because they cannot bring their experiences to bear upon it. * * * The fundamental concept in American society is democracy. It was conceived in a vague way by the early American settlers, but it has taken three hundred years of American life to work it out even in its present form. In the process of working it out, its advocates have met with many obstacles and had to solve many problems. Incomplete as it still is, American democracy of today is a very complex thing, so com- plex that children cannot understand it. Indeed, many adults never do understand it. But if it is presented to the children in simple and con- crete forms, such forms as it assumed in the early periods of our his- tory; if it is permitted to grow up in the minds of the children as it grew up in the minds of the generations that have wrought it out, they will understand it. I need go no farther. My time is exhausted. My plea is for a proj- ect teaching of history-a method that will build up in the minds of the children historical concepts which, originating in the experience of the children, will remain as organized bodies of experience to help the children to correct interpretation of the life that is about them. Such a method will be worked out when and only when the elementary-school people, the people who understand children, undertake to say how his- tory shall be taught in the elementary schools. MATHEMATICS, THE PROJECT INSTRUMENT THEODORE LINDQUIST, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, EMPORIA, KANS. In the problem-project the child learns to carry to a successful conclusion an enterprise involving several different elements. One of the purposes of this paper is to show how various phases of mathematics aid in carrying projects to successful conclusions. In the progress 436 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Elementary Education of the project the child is also learning the application of the various educational instruments studied, as reading, writing, measuring, and computing. A second purpose of this paper is to point out some values to mathematics through its application in the project. The third and last purpose will be to consider the mathematical instruments in them- selves which should be selected, how modified if necessary, and how developed to produce the greatest usefulness . Mathematics is one of the most useful as well as one of the most used of the project instruments. It arises first in all measurements. Kindergarten and primary construction work, such as making the simplest kind of box, or scrapbook, or doll's house, all require measuring. The more accurate the measurements are the more mathematical the work has been carried on the better will be the result. Measurements are necessary in a great number of projects of the intermediate grades and of the more advanced grades. They are necessary in many descriptions, as of a house. To say that a house is large or small gives no definite conception of its size, for which a statement of its length, width, and height are needed. Many projects require quantitative comparisons throughout while others require the final result to be expressed as a definite quantity. To be sure, some teachers may express such results in the loose way of a qualitative statement in the place of the definite quantitative state- ment. But such qualitative statements lack force and power of conviction. For instance, a number of years ago a teacher in a rural school in Illinois had a class working on the fertility of seeds. He asked his pupils to bring to school samples of their fathers' seed corn to test. Some of the children brought the samples while others brought word from their fathers that they "did not need no teacher to tell them what was good seed corn." In due course of time the samples were tested and some found to rank very low in fertility. The teacher might have told John, who brought corn that tested only thirty kernels seed out of fifty planted, to inform his father that he had very poor seed corn and that it should not be planted. That would, however, have been too indefinite. What was actually done was that the children first computed what percentage of the corn was seed and then found how much this was below a good average of 95 per cent. John brought the further information that his father had raised 120 acres of corn the previous year which yielded twenty-six bushels per acre. From this data the children computed what the yield would have been per acre if 95 per cent seed corn had been planted in the place of the 50 per cent seed; how many bushels were lost on the 120 acres ; how much it would have cost additionally to harvest and market these extra bushels, as that would have been only added expense; and finally, Department] LIMITS OF THE PROJECT 437 how much John's father lost in money by planting corn that was only 60 per cent seed in place of planting corn that was 95 per cent seed. Note that the quantitative statement gives the real force to the findings of the project which it would lack without mathematical computations . The old-form arithmetics contained a very large number of ex- ercises applying each principle and operation studied. Each set of such exercises, however, applied only the one principle or operation just studied and the exercises were formal in nature, lacked motivation, and were wholly unrelated to other things. It is the application of principles and operations in the general situations, where the pupils do not have a principle or an operation stated in bold-faced type on the page before them, which should be the main contribution of the project to mathematics. Such applications further bring up considerable review which is a positive necessity in good mathematics teaching. In order to carry out this program of application of mathematics we must recognize the necessity of teaching a kind of mathematics that is serviceable to such applications and the teaching of it in such a manner as to make it applicable. This will mean mathematical training and much of it. A woodchopper who takes time in the morning to sharpen his axe will soon make up the time thus taken out. It is the same with the mathematical instrument used in projects. Drills are neces- sary properly to equip the pupils with a mathematics for project applica- tions. These project applications may serve as motives for the drills and the learning of principles and operations but cannot take the place of this intensive study. For the best results mathematical study and its application later in projects must be so arranged that each supple- ments the other. 4 LIMITS OF THE PROJECT FLORENCE C. FOX, SPECIALIST IN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Organization of subject- matter a vital requisite ( 1 ) Concentration and co-ordination between the content subjects and the tool subjects according to their function. ( 2) Analysis of the major projects, the home, the farm, and the village expressed in terms of subject-matter. The word "limits" in our topic, "The Limits of the Project," suggests a gauge by which to measure the efficiency of such a unit of study. How shall a project be organized so that the subjects in the school program shall function properly and shall contribute to the effective working out of the central idea around which the project must concentrate ? How shall an untrained teacher be able to formulate her projects in terms of subject-matter unless she understands the 438 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Education function of each? I wish to present in this connection the outline before you as the last word on this subject by the father of the project- method in America. It expresses the idea of the Herbartian philosophy of education, in a tangible, workable form and has stood the test of practical demonstration for twenty-five years in some of the best schools in this country. ORGANIZATION OF SUBJECT MATTER Life (Observing ( History ( Gesture Energy Ethnology Music Anthropology Making Form THE Central Zoology Hearing- Modeling CHILD Physics Sub- Botany Modes Language Modes Painting Modes Meteorology of of Drawing of jects Matter Astronomy Atten- Expres- Specch Judg- Geography tion sion (Oral Rd.) ment Geology Writing Chem- Mineralogy Reading Number istry (Silent) We hear much today regarding the child's interests and experiences as bases for our work. Just what does this mean, the child's experience, and how may it become the dominating idea in primary education ? What are the child's interests and experiences ? What are they before he enters school, what are they now with the added school experience increasing day by day, and what are they destined to become as we look forward toward the future through the next year, and the next, and for many years to come ? A great educator has said : The child's home is of paramount interest to him; he is interested in the brute life about him; he loves the flowers ; the passing of the seasons and the changing phases of nature affect him; pebbles and stones, the forces of nature, wind and rain and heat and cold, growth of plants in garden and field-all these come within the realm of his daily observation and interest. These interests and experiences are classified in our outline as the central subjects and include history, ethnology, anthropology, zoology, botany, meteorology, astronomy, geography, geology, and mineralogy. Here stands the child surrounded by energy and matter, expressed through life, and physics, and chemistry, and touched on every side by the central subjects, which being reduced to lower terms, are known as elementary science, history, myth, and geography. Here within these central subjects lies our opportunity for educative material upon which to base our projects. Anything less than these is unworthy. The method of presentation is suggested in the remaining sections of the outline. Impressions received by the child through the modes of attention, observation, hearing-language, and reading, and expressed by him through the modes of expression, gesture, music, making, modeling, painting, drawing, speech, and writing. Finally Department] LIMITS OF THE PROJECT 439 these impressions received through the central subjects and expressed through various media and methods are made definite and real to the child through the modes of judgment. Their adequacy depends upon his ability to visualize the elements of form and proportion in his mental picture. Here we have concentration and the unification of thought and ex- pression. "Each subject, means, mode, and method finds its absolute and relative educational value, its definite place in conditions for self- activity and self-support." No teacher can wander far afield with a classification of this kind in the back of her mind when she essays to organize her subject-matter and method into units of study, and to use the project-method as a basis of her work. But unless she does build around a central subject, unless she knows that reading is a mode of attention and not a subject of study, unless she realizes that oral reading is a form of speech, not a subject of study, but a mode of expression, unless, in other words, her subject matter functions, "ac- cording to its relative and absolute educative values," she will find her project falling about her ears like a house of cards and she will return to the beaten paths with which she is familiar and will continue to hinder the spontaneous growth of the child and to misuse and pervert the educative function of the subjects in her daily program . Here, then is a measure by which to gauge the educative process and upon which to build our schoolroom procedure. Great minds have contributed to this organization of subject-matter, Herbert, Ziller, Stoy, Rein, and Froebel, and our own great reformer, Colonel Parker, of blessed memory. It remained for him to take the best from this system of educational philosophy and to found a school in which the theory might be tried and tested by actual schoolroom practice. Some of us today who sat at the feet of the great master are surprised to find a method we have used for twenty years which was taught in the old Cook County Normal School so heralded and paraded as a new discovery. Fortunate are the children who are entering school next year that even a tardy recognition has been given the greatest educa- tional movement of our times. That it requires study and preparation on the part of the teacher and that its limits are expressed by her education, training, and professional perspicuity there is no doubt. If we wish to "carry on" this great movement we must understand the child's attitude toward the life about him and in what particular way the environment that surrounds him can be made to function in his education. Here follow descriptions of the major projects : ( 1 ) real-the study of a mill village and an historical pageant, the May festival ; (2) play projects-building a town on the sand table; the farm ; the home. 440 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Education ABSTRACT1 OF REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ELE- MENTARY SCHOOL ENGLISH EDWIN M. HOPKINS, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS ., Chairman . In a limited time it is possible to state only the general character of the report without going into detail. It has been in progress eleven years, the time somewhat extended by illness ; and the complete report may extend from 150 to 250 pages . The survey was suggested by the unsatisfactory results of English teaching in all schools-unsatisfactory from the standpoint of the teacher and the public with intent to locate and identify the causes if possible. It began as a study of secondary-school English. It was then extended to include college English, and six years ago that of elementary schools ; and at the same time it was broadened in scope. At first it at- tempted to study only the comparative labor and the comparative cost of English and other subjects; but when the elementary school was in- cluded the survey was made to include also administrative and pedagogi- cal problems. In the study of elementary schools, larger cities were dis- tinguished from smaller, and departmental from non-departmental grades. Hence the final survey consisted of three parts, treating of three phases. The first is purely statistical, dealing with the comparative labor and cost of English teaching in all schools. The general results of this part of the survey are found to be the same for all schools. From kindergarten to college it is found that English is overweighted ; perhaps most so in the college (this statement referring particularly to college English composition) and least so in the grades, but in all cases the over-weighting exists. It is somewhat harder to explain why it should exist in the grades but in the final report it is probable that the cause may be indicated. Overweighting, as here used, means assigning a far larger proportion of pupils to the teacher than is to be found in any other subject in any school ; and with this appears the correlative fact that in comparison with other subjects English is underbudgeted ; that is, because of the larger number of pupils in English as compared with other subjects, the average budget cost for one pupil for one time unit is less for English than for any other subject. The administrative part of the survey attempted to discover whether a typical course of study was in existence in elementary schools and if so upon what principles it was based. The results of this part of the work are largely negative; a typical course of study is not to be found. That is perhaps not altogether surprising ; but it also seems to be true that there is no ascertainable agreement as to the basic principles upon which such a course of study should be founded. There seems to be no agreement as to what English itself is, or as to the Department] ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ENGLISH 441 special English needs of the pupils in successive stages or grades ; things that come first in one place may come last in another, without discoverable reason for the difference. In elementary as in other schools, dissatisfaction exists and seems to increase in a fairly steady ratio from the first grade to the eighth. The causes assigned for it are in general the overweighting already spoken of, the almost universally unfortunate home conditions, and to some extent the insufficient training of some teachers. In suggest- ing specific remedies there seems to be little agreement, and those that are suggested do not apparently go to the root of the matter, though they include such points as the need of more time, more thorough cor- relation of subjects, and better organization of the English work it- self. Some charge English troubles to the traditional attitude of some administrators toward English and English teachers ; such administra- tors often making it impossible for a good English teacher to do the good work that might otherwise be done. In the pedagogic part of the survey an effort was made to ascertain how far approved methods and standards are observed in the teaching of English and what those approved standards are. It appears that defective methods are not so greatly at fault as was anticipated, though a considerable proportion of teachers are still following outworn traditions ; and in such cases the cause often lies with administrators rather than with the teachers themselves. But sometimes it is to be ascribed to insufficient training on the part of teachers as well as of administrators. The teaching of composition and grammar is least effective, and the underlying causes seems to be those already sug- gested; that is to say, teachers who have the best training and follow approved methods so far as they can find it still impossible to obtain satisfactory results because of adverse conditions within the schools and unfortunate influences without. In summary, it may be said that the survey seems to establish that English is in no way on equal terms with any other school sub- ject. To make it equal in budget and in teacher equipment would do much to improve the quality of English work ; but it is very doubtful if mere equality would be sufficient. Viewed in the simplest and most practical way, it seems that as a matter of course English should have economic and financial recognition above other subjects , not alone because it is the mother-tongue, but because the demand made upon it is constant and very much greater than upon any other subject. A deficiency in mathematics or in science may not show itself in the daily life of a pupil for a considerable time, but the quality of his English is in evidence every moment. Again, no other subject has to counteract such invariably and excessively bad outside influences . No one at home or on the street ever tries to make pupils think that 442 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Education two and two make five or that Paris is the capital of London; but the preponderance of outside influence upon English is directly opposed to the teaching of the schools in the proportion of perhaps ten to one. While this general statement because it's general must be largely negative in character, the complete report will endeavor to show what and how much is needed to remove the present disabilities of English teaching; to present evidence that will aid in a scientific approach to a solution of the English problem; to show with some exactitude how : much money is needed and what for, what kind of teachers and how many; and at least to suggest the direction that further study of problems of system and method should take. It is possible that the data of the complete report may specifically indicate what is the next step to be taken. Whether this is enough to justify the more than ten years of work on the part of the committee, the committee does not undertake to say; but it hopes that its labors may contribute something of value toward establishing the foundation upon which efficiency in the teaching of English must eventually be based. THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS TOWARD BETTER WORLD-LIVING ANNA BAKER, BEN BLEWETT JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO . An increase in the reach of life today has widened our relationships and added weight to our simplest acts. Our world is a big world, yet the affairs of the men and women in it are so intimately related, that what one thinks, feels, and does become elements of powerful poten- tiality in the lives of all. One no longer can remain a member of an isolated group and indulge in the smug conceit that he is sufficient unto himself or that he can remain indifferent to the claims of others. He must realize that his welfare is conditioned by that of his associates. The problem of world-living remains to be solved. What an achieve- ment it would be to eliminate from the minds of men every anti-social concept and to establish instead ideas conducive to broader sympathy, wider understanding, and greater co-operation. This seems to be an immense contract, one beyond the power of human endeavor, yet we know it to be an accepted fact that ideas and ideals may be imparted and impulses may be stimulated in definite directions. We can never hope to build a more humane and just social order through coercion. Such a method is out of date. Nor is the cure for social ills to be found in legislation. The social order is based upon personality, not law, and this must be developed through education. It is a task that demands the support of every agency through which atti- tudes, sentiments, and conduct might be modified. Society today needs men and women who possess traits and dispositions essential for general welfare. Department] BETTER WORLD -LIVING 443 The elementary school through its organization and its relation to the public possesses ideal conditions for making these elemental con- cepts familiar to the mind of the young citizens. The schools cut through everyphase of society, there are no class distinctions ; they reach directly or indirectly a large part of the population; they serve the individual at that time of life when he is most susceptible mentally and morally to influence. Hence the matter of giving explicit and conscious training for living harmoniously in the world community should become one of the essential features of the school system. The material offered in the curriculum should not only present the fundamental classes of knowledge necessary to understand the world, but should be selected and treated so as to build up ideals that will bring conduct measurably into har- mony with the larger social life. The history teacher without lessening the emphasis on national ideals and duties, must aid the child in inter- preting human relationships and interests in the broadest sense. He must see the men and women behind events. He must feel the current of life beneath the surface, in order to understand the hidden springs of action that control its ebb and flow. The time has come when these hidden springs of action must be consciously controlled for the welfare of all. Events must be seen in their relationships. The story of our national life must not be told in a narrative separate and distinct from that of the rest of the world. The United States must be seen as one of the nations of the world with duties and responsibilities to the rest of the world. The ideals of America a longing for liberty, for a square deal, for genuine democracy-must be given a new force in a world-setting. Sometimes the social background of the class will furnish valuable material for setting a problem in its proper relationship. For instance, the attitude toward the immigration problem may be materially modified if an approach is made through the experiences that lie behind the lives of the members of the class. Such an experiment was carried out with 163 pupils doing parallel work in the same school. These children were closely associated, they had many interests in common, and they had many opportunities of estimating at close range the worth of each individual as a member of the school group. A questionnaire was arranged to secure data for obtaining the percentage of American- born parents, grandparents, and great grandparents. It was found that 80 per cent of the fathers and mothers, 48 per cent of the grandparents, and 22 per cent of the great grandparents were born in the United States. The family lines were traced back to England, Germany, Russia, Ireland, France, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, and Italy. Such a study clarified this particular problem and afforded an unusual oppor- tunity to break down barriers of isolation and exclusiveness and to develop a common social will which would carry over into the broader relationships of life. Every problem should be presented with a view 444 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Education of promoting open-mindedness, and of arousing the spirit of "I want to know." An attitude of intelligent curiosity is needed today in order to tathom the complex conditions of the social order. The school possesses ideal possibilities for educating the young citizen in habits of social co-operation and service. There should be deliberate planning to use the school environment as a medium through which definite modes of action might be stimulated and the social capacities of the child might be liberated and organized. Morning assemblies, clubs, societies, orchestra, athletic contests, pageants, etc., furnish opportun- ities through which each individual may contribute toward the associated activity and feel that its success is his success, or its failure is his failure. It is an accepted fact that the range of work to be accomplished by the schools cannot be determined by textbooks and curricula. The schools are recognized as a social agency and they must be judged by the social product. A community has a right to look to them for certain results, such as the rousing of certain attitudes and the developing of certain modes of behavior. These results are as useful socially as is the possession of fundamental bodies of knowledge. In the future, the schools must become an increasing influence in lessening friction and instability and in bringing about an era of deeper sympathy and wider understanding. THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AND THE READJUSTMENTS OF THE NEXT TEN YEARS IDE G. SARGEANT, PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL NO . 10, PATERSON, N. J. The great tragedy in American education has been the utter break- down and failure of school boards to understand American institutions and to provide for the needs of their communities. In a number of our communities we are developing splendid groups of intelligent, highly patriotic citizens who are giving service of a high order as board members . They spare neither time nor effort in creating a strong public sentiment in favor of a full support of all educational needs. They have provided proper housing and equipment for their schools, teachers of high ability and training, security of tenure, and adequate salary schedules. They understand that modern education has become a science requiring a high degree of skill in its operation. For which reason they do not interfere with the professional side but give their supervisors and teachers complete control in its management. But this is not true of school boards throughout the nation as a whole. They have not acted as special guardians of the schools but rather as factors to scrimp the schools to the most abject parsimony. Their inefficiency in not providing good schools has been the main cause of the decline in population in the rural districts of the nation. A decent American will Department] ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AND READJUSTMENTS 445 not stay where his children cannot have good schools. The biggest problem of readjustment in the immediate future is the replacing of these inefficient boards by agencies which will measure up to the needs of our cominunities. Certain definite qualifications should be made mandatory by statute and determined by examination of a civil service nature. It is the height of absurdity to entrust the expenditure of vast sums of money, the control of great numbers of highly trained teachers and millions of children to a haphazard group thrown together by the vicissitudes of political partisanship. This policy in the past has led to a waste of millions in school expenditures. To remedy this will require the united effort of our best citizens and most progressive teachers. The readjustment next in importance to securing competent school boards is providing adequate financial support for the schools. Salary schedules cannot be left to local adjustment but must be worked out on a state- or nation-wide basis for various positions. This must be done with an eye single to securing for these positions the best ability and training in the land. This means that these schedules must provide equal financial returns with those received for like ability and like training in other professions and in commercial life. These schedules should be established by law as minimums and accompanying them definite qualifications for their attainment. No school should be allowed to exceed 1,500 pupils ; one larger than that is impossible of proper supervision. Classes must be reduced in size. No teacher should be allowed to attempt to instruct more than twenty-five pupils in any grade. Build- ings and equipment must be largely increased, all of which calls for an additional outlay of money. For this reason the raising of school funds should be entirely divorced from other municipal taxation and all ex- penditures placed under the complete control of school boards. The parents of this country will see that the schools have adequate financial support if we can show them clearly where it is needed and that it is honestly administered and goes to the purposes for which it was appropriated. What we teachers need to do is to go to the people fear- lessly, honestly, and clearly present our case. We need have no fear for the outcome. The third readjustment that must come before we can remedy our educational ills is the elimination of Kaiserism or autocracy in the office of the superintendent of schools. All of us recognize that there must be central authority-a co-ordinating head-and this is best vested in the superintendent. But because this central executive is necessary in ad- ministration, it does not follow that a man placed at the head of a large body of highly trained principals and teachers should dictate the educa- tional policy of his city; determine courses of study; transfer teachers without consultation with the parties affected; feel resentful if a member of his force expresses an opinion to the board or to the public 446 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Education without using him as the mouthpiece; take upon himself the authority of determining what information coming to him shall be passed on to the schools and what the attitude of the teachers in his system shall be ; deny members of his force the right of individual action, or to initiate local policies which experience has shown to be desirable; assume credit as his own for the good work done by his principals and teachers without giving praise specifically where it belongs. With the coming of larger salaries and greater freedom of individ- ual initiative for principals and teachers there must follow, as the day follows night, a greater feeling of responsibility for the full success of our work and a higher esprit de corps. There are many principals and teachers totally unfit for their work. This very fact is the best evidence of the weakness of the present system. With the coming of teacher councils and a wider participation in shaping school policies, the rank and file must clean house. The inert, the incompetent, the vision- less, the misfits, must be eliminated entirely. We, the teaching body, must do it, and we are the only agency by which it can be done. Merit alone must determine preferment. HOW A TEST MAY BE USED TO IMPROVE INSTRUCTION IN READING MAUDE MCBROOM , DETROIT TEACHERS COLLEGE, DETROIT, MICH . Commonly recognized among those doing research work in the field of silent reading is the fact that there are certain definite abilities involved in all efficient reading. These are: remembrance, comprehen- sion, speed, organization, and the ability to use books. Most teachers and supervisors have used tests in measuring the speed with which their students read, in measuring how much they remember of what is read, and how well the material read is comprehended; and acting upon the results of these tests, they have devised means of raising the standard of accomplishment. But the measurement of the other two abilities, organization of subject-matter, and the ability to use books, has not been so easy. After noting the difficulty with which children all through the grades found material on a given topic in geography, history, or any subject whatsoever, even in cases where the rate of reading was rapid and the comprehension score high, the following test was devised in - endeavor to analyze that difficulty. In purpose it was fourfold. We wished to discover whether using an index and finding and organiz- ing material suggested by that index presented any difficulties, if so, what they were, to what extent the ability to use an index increased throughout the grades, and the variability in its use within grades. If there is doubt that knowing how to use an index for finding material in a book is necessary knowledge for children to have, one Department] IMPROVING READING INSTRUCTION 447 need only think of some of the common school practices of today. There is, in almost every school subject, the problematic handling of topics, which involves the gathering of material from various sources ; or one might mention the present tendency toward project teaching, with its accompanying requirements in the way of searching for data. To go outside of school, occasions could be named, all the way from the use of the telephone directory, to the most complicated research work done by advanced students, where this same knowledge is needed. However, this investigation was conducted on the hypothesis that such training is valuable, and no attempt will be made here to prove it. The test given was in two parts: the first testing only ability to use the index, the second testing the ability to organize material, to use the index, and then to find the material in a book. It was given to 261 children, in grades 4B to 7A inclusive, as well as to 66 college freshmen. Resources and Industries of the United States, by Elizabeth Fisher was the text used. In the first test, the children were instructed to turn to the index of the book, find the item listed, and record the exact page on which materia. concerning it could be found. A record of the time required ior completing the test was made by the examiner. in the second test, the children were instructed to read the sentences, choose the main topic discussed, find that in the index, and then turn to the page which contained the required material. If the statement given in the test was identical with the statement in the book, they were to underline the word "yes," if not, then to underline the word "no." This last of course was to insure that children actually turned to the page and read the sentence given. The results reveal several things: in the first place, the use of the index evidently does present some difficulties all the way through the grades; there is great variability within a grade; there is little improve- ment from grade to grade; and evidently the ability is not acquired in- cidentally, so it must be provided for in the course of study. They also suggest several fields for investigation : Why should the record be so low in some of the higher grades ? What are the methods used by teachers in grades where the scores are high ? In view of the fact that the dictionary is introduced in grade five, and according to standard tests, the rate and comprehension scores in reading increase from grade to grade, why is there not a more marked advance in scores in the higher grades ? All these are questions which might suggest administrative action to a supervisor. As to the difficulties which arise in solving a test, a teacher is often able to make an analysis of these by going over the individual papers. The chief problems which presented themselves in solving this test were these: the location of the index, the use of an alphabetical arrange 48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Education ment, choosing main points in a topic, the analysis of subtopics in an in- dex, punctuation, cross-reference work, and the organization of ma- terial. There were students in every grade, including college fresh- men, who did not know the difference between the table of contents and the index in a book. Many more did not realize that words in an index are arranged alphabetically beyond the first letter of the word. In such topics, from test one, as "Uses of flaxseed," or "Scarcity of wool," children did not seem to be able to discern what the main thought was, but spent considerable time in looking for "uses" and "scarcity" and finally omitted the answers entirely. Analyzing the subtopics in the index seemed to present one of the greatest difficulties. In looking for such a subject as "prevention of forest fires," children would turn to the index and find the total pages on which the subject of " forests " was treated, but did not read under that main heading until the subtopic, "prevention of forest fires" was found. In the use of any cross-reference, children seemed to be all at sea. The topic "kerosene" was given in the test. Under "kerosene" in the index it said, " see petroleum." There were children all through the grades, and even a few college freshmen who, in place of turning to that topic in the index, wrote " see petroleum" opposite that item on the test, or omitted it entirely. There were many errors due to a poor understand- ing of punctuation as found in the index. The meaning of the dash between numbers, the difference between the comma and the semi- colon, and the fact that the page number always followed the topic, was the chief knowledge lacking. It is not that a record of these dif- ficulties indicates exactly what to do next, but by showing up the er- rors they give the teacher a clue as to what the remedy should be. THE USE OF SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS AS A BASIS FOR INSTRUCTION CARROLL R. REED, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, AKRON, OHIO This paper is not a theoretical discussion of educational tests. It does not attempt to point out all possibilities back of their use. Itisa report of what we have accomplished in our first year's experience with them in Akron. During the year both intelligence tests and educational tests have been used. This paper reports just the work done with the latter. This report will be useful in showing what one city of 200,000 popu- lation accomplished in one year by the use of standard tests. Our school enrolment is 30,000. There are four high schools and twenty-seven grade schools in the city. So the problem of supervision is a large one. Standardized educational tests had never been used in the system. The principals and teachers had had no training in the use of these tests. Neither the City Normal School nor the Municipal University had ever Department] IMPROVING READING INSTRUCTION 449 given courses in educational measurements. There was abroad through- out the city the impression that the schools were doing exceptionally good work in the fundamentals, without any good evidence to support the belief. This situation suggested a number of things that needed to be done. First, it seemed wise to determine just how Akron did measure up in certain fundamental subjects when compared with the results secured in other city systems. It was felt that we ought to have all the facts that were available which would tell us how well we were teaching cer- tain subjects. It seemed well worth while to give tests that would enable each to see wherein his school was weak and wherein strong. Likewise, he would know how his school compared with schools in other cities in these same subjects. Second, and we feel this to be the most important, the teacher needed all the help obtainable in meeting her classroom problems. She had been getting but a minimum of super- vision. Therefore something had to be done to assist her in her task. Third, Akron is distinctly a manufacturing town. Men are accustomed to talk in terms of production. They want to know what certain groups of men actually produce, what has been done. In school parlance, this means, "What progress have your children made through the grades ; what percentage is the gain actually made of the gain that should have been made, that is, the standard gain?" This sort of thing had not been done before. Fourth, upon the part of the principals and the teachers, there was the need to acquaint them with the means available for doing the work just suggested. They needed to know what we mean when the term " standardized educational test" is used to know the difference between such an educational test and an intelli- gence or mental test. They needed to understand clearly the method of giving these tests and the importance of adhering closely to all in- structions listed for the giving of any such test. They needed instruc- tion in the interpreting of the results of such tests and a knowledge of the instruments used in helping make such interpretations. Most im- portant of all, they needed to know how to use the results of these tests so as to help them do better teaching. In the face of such a situation and such needs, a new department was organized to take charge of this measurement work. In order that its work be not limited just to educational measurements, the term "Bureau of Research" was given the department. There were two peo- ple in the department-a director and an assistant. One clerk was provided. Early in the fall the following program in educational measurements was decided upon. Tests were given first, during the last week in October and the first week of November, 1920. Similar tests were given again the latter part of May, 1921. The tests given were in the 450 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary Education fundamental operations of arithmetic, silent reading, spelling, and hand- writing. * * * * ACCOMPLISH ACCOMPLISHMENTS First, we have made a study of just what gains have been made during the year in arithmetic and silent reading. Second, we have installed the Courtis Practice Tests in three schools and the Studebaker in two. In all these schools their use has met with hearty approval and the teachers are more than pleased with them. Third, we have made an experiment endeavoring to determine the better methods for teaching the arithmetic drill. Fourth, we are using the Courtis Supervisory Tests in seven schools. The principals or their assistants give these tests, have the papers scored, and send the results, tabulated, to the office of the bureau. Fifth, we have tried to acquaint the teachers of the system with the educational tests. This has been done : (a) by having them observe testing work as it was throughout the city, (b) by having meetings with the principals, who in turn carried certain facts to the teachers, (c) by meeting from time to time with the teachers of different buildings and talking with them concerning the meaning and use of the results of these tests, (d) by training the twenty normal Seniors who are to teach in Akron next year. Sixth, there has been a great increase in interest upon the part of the teachers in educational testing. This is shown by the fact that large numbers have already signed up for extension courses in educational measurements which will be given next year. It is also shown in the great number who are attending summer sessions at different uni- versities. In Columbia University alone there are to be nearly fifty Akron teachers. Many of these are taking courses in measurements. THE USE OF SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT AS A BASIS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF instruction. F. B. KNIGHT, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION , UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY, IOWA. L First, scientific measurement makes possible comparisons between grades and school systems. Second, scientific measurement makes pos- sible more defensible classification of students. Third, scientific meas- urements are of genuine aid in diagnosing weaknesses in the schools and the capacities of individual students. Fourth, when it is uncertain whether one method of instruction is superior to another, a deter- mination of superiority on the basis of product is made possible through the use of scientific measurements. Fifth, scientific measure- ment allows for the creation of objectives in elementary school sub- jects in terms of amounts rather than in terms of general description. Department] MEASUREMENT IN INSTRUCTION 451 To the extent that a superintendent values the above five factors in supervision, namely: comparing grade with grade, skillful grading of pupils, diagnosis of individual weaknesses, experimental determination of the superiority of one method over another, and the creation of concrete objectives-so far as these help in supervision-scientific measurement may be thought of as aiding in the improvement of instruc- tion. Department of Elementary School Principals SECRETARY'S MINUTES The Department of Elementary School Principals, was organized at Atlantic City on February 28, 1921, as the National Association of Elementary School Principals with Leonard Power, principal of the Franklin School, Port Arthur, Tex., as president. The Association met at Des Moines with the following program : FIRST SESSION TUESDAY MORNING, JULY 5, 1921 THE STATUS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL THE PRINCIPAL as an EDUCATIONAL EXPERT-Leonard Power, Principal High School, Port Arthur, Texas . THE PRINCIPAL AS AN ECONOMIC EXPERT-Katherine D. Blake, Principal Public School No. 6, New York, N. Y. THE PRINCIPAL AS A COMMUNITY FACTOR- Ide G. Sargeant, Principal School, Paterson, N. J. THE STATUS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL, A STUDY-Worth McClure, Principal, Seattle, Wash. SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921 SYMPATHETIC CONSTRUCTIVE SUPERVISION EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION-J. H. Kneisley, Principal, Seattle, Wash . THE RELATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TO THE TEACHER and Standards For JUDGING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING-Olive M. Jones, Principal Public School No. 120, New York, N. Y. THE PLACE OF TESTS IN SUPERVISION- Margaret P. Rae, Principal, New York, N. Y. THIRD SESSION-FRIDAY AFTERNOON , JULY 8, 1921 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ORGANIZATION BREAKING THE LOCK STEP IN THE ELEMEntary Schools ( Illustrated) -Georgia Alexander, Indianapolis, Ind. ADVANTAGES OF THE INTENSIVE PLAN CO- ORDINATED WITH THE DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEM IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS-Frank Hanson, Principal, Newark, N. J. BUSINESS MEETING REPORTS OF STANDING COMMITTEES : Program Committee-Thomas Agnew, Jr., chairman, Bayonne, N. J.; Publicity Committee-Florence Holbrook, chairman, Chicago, Ill.; Membership Committee-Courtland V. Davis , chairman, Norfolk, Va. REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON CONSTITUTION AND BY- LAWS-Morris Magee, chairman, Tulsa, Okla. The following officers were selected for 1921-22 : president, Leonard Power, Principal of the High School, Port Arthur, Texas ; corresponding secretary, J. Bracken, Public Schools, Duluth, Minn. At the meeting of the Representative Assembly in Des Moines, Friday, July 8, 1921, the Association was by unanimous vote made a department of the National Education Association. 453 Department of Higher Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-GuY STANTON FORD, University of Minnesota . ..Minneapolis, Minn. Secretary-J. J. PETTIJOHN, assistant to the president, University of Minnesota... ..... Minneapolis, Minn. FIRST SESSION TUESDAY MORNING, JULY 5, 1921 The Department of Higher Education convened in the House of Repre- sentatives, Chamber, State House. The following program was announced : Meeting opened by Dean Ford, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn . Professor Bass, Chairman of Education Committee of the University of Minnesota, read a paper on AN ALL FRESHMAN YEAR. In the absence of Professor Angier of Yale University, who was to lead the discussion, Professor O. B. Clark, of Drake University, read Professor Angier's paper at the meeting. Dean Russell of the State University of Iowa read a paper upon WHAT STANDARDS SHOULD DETERMINE LENGTH OF COLLEGE COURSE. Professor Kelly of the University of Kansas introduced the discussion of the paper by an address, without notes. Open discussion followed by Professor Clark of Drake University, Mrs. Million, wife of President Million of Des Moines University, President Phillips, of Laurenceburg, Mo. About forty were in attendance. SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921 Meeting called to order by the president of the section. Mrs. Boyd, of Des Moines College, acted as secretary. About fifty were present. Principal R. T. Hargreaves of Central High School, Minneapolis, read the first paper of the session on To WHAT EXTENT SHOULD THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE BE MODIFIED TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR COLLEGE. The discussion was general and led by Ex-State Superintendent Knoepfler, of Iowa, Dean Kelly, of Kansas, and President Amelia Henry Reinhardt, of Mills College, Oakland, Calif. The paper by Dean Loeb of Missouri on WHAT SHOULD BE THE CHARACTER OF A REQUIRED COURSE IN CITIZENSHIP FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS was read by Pro- fessor Williams, one of his colleagues. At the close of the discussion, the section elected the following officers for the coming year : president, Dean F. J. Kelly, of University of Kansas ; secre- tary, Professor F. H. Hodder, of University of Kansas. It was the sense of the meeting that the work of making a program would be much simpler and more effective if the officers were so elected as to render co-operation easy. Meeting adjourned. MRS. JOHN J. BOYD, Des Moines University, Secretary, pro tem . 455 456 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher Education THE ALL- UNIVERSITY FRESHMAN YEAR FREDERIC BASS, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. The American university at present consists of a number of colleges or units each devoted to excellence in the training of students in the professions or major department of knowledge, either through formal instruction or research or both. Its existence is justified by the belief that the graduate, by reason of his university training, has added not only to his own satisfactions and appreciations, but is in a position to contribute to the wealth of the community, materially and otherwise. Matriculants are accepted and may go directly into the major work to which their instincts guide them. All, of whatever level of intelligence, are grouped quantitatively in classroom work, being graded according to their performances therein, and later lost in "outer darkness" or graduated as the case may be. The all-university Freshman year is proposed as a means of present- ing at the beginning of each student's course, a survey of the university, the nature and purposes of its various units of instruction and research and particularly the ideal of devotion to public service which is the bond of unity, the soul of the institution. It has the definite purpose of recognizing the individuality of each freshman and of assisting him in determining the best means of developing his latent powers, either with- in or without the university. This selective process is of mutual ad- vantage both to student and institution. It is hoped by thus deferring a choice of life-work until after a year of liberal education a more intelligent choice of work may be made and a more serious purpose be established. The Freshman year is predicated upon evidence of the coming demand for leaders with a liberal education combined with professional ability beyond the present supply. With this object in view the most able teachers are required for the task. A selected faculty with a special staff of student advisors, in close contact with the university administration, is suggested. THE REQUIRED COURSE IN CITIZENSHIP FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS ISIDOR LOEB, DEAN OF THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND PUBLIC ADMINIS- TRATION, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO. This paper has been prepared at the request of the secretary of the Section of Higher Education for the purpose of giving an account of the experience at the University of Missouri of the required course in citizenship. To an understanding of this matter, some consideration of the evolution of the course is essential. The study of the social sciences in the University of Missouri has passed through much of the same general course of development as in Department] THE ALL- UNIVERSITY FRESHMAN YEAR 457 other institutions. The original curriculum leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts did not make adequate provision for the study of any subjects except the classics and mathematics. In order to meet the de- mand of the natural sciences, a second curriculum with the degree of Bachelor of Science was established and this was followed later by other curricula leading to the degrees of Bachelor of Philosophy and Bachelor of Letters, respectively. In all of these curricula, the subjects were prescribed, though a tendency appeared in later years to introduce elective subjects for upperclassmen. The social studies were late in the field, and little or no provision was made for them in the prescribed subjects in any curriculum. As the electives were concentrated in the upper year, it was impossible for the student to pursue social studies in any regular sequence. These, and other conditions, led to the introduction in 1900 of the elective sys- tem, under which the student was unrestricted in the choice of nearly one-half of his work, and given great latitude in the selection of a major and minors for the remainder. Moreover, while the courses open to a Freshman were naturally limited in number, he was entirely free in exercising his election among these. This extreme situation brought about a natural reaction in a few years when, without abandoning the elective principle, it was required that the student, during his first two years, should complete a fundamental course in English, in history, and in each of five other groups of subjects. While these requirements were correlated with the student's work in the secondary school so that one or more might be waived in case the student offered a certain num- ber of entrance units in such subjects, no exception was permitted from the requirements in Freshman English . This was the situation when in 1918 the course in War Issues was introduced with the Student Army Training Corps. The committee of the War Department on education and special training, impressed with the evidence of lack of knowledge on the part of college students of the fundamental social, economic, and political issues involved in the war, strongly urged colleges and universities to make permanent provision for the course in war issues, or for some similar course. Accordingly, shortly after the armistice, a conference of Missouri college teachers of history and the social sciences was held at the Uni- versity of Missouri. This conference decided to recommend that all Missouri colleges establish a course in problems of citizenship of from six to twelve semester hours' credit, to be required of all underclassmen, with the understanding that students who take one or more of funda- mental courses in any of the social sciences will be exempt from the corresponding portions of the required course . It was also recom- mended that where possible, the written work in this course should be correlated with the required work in English . 458 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATIÓN [Higher Education During the early months of 1919, the recommendation of the con- ference was considered by the departments of history, economics, polit- ical science, and sociology, and by the committee on educational policy of the College of Arts and Science of the University of Missouri. Ac- cording to the plan which was worked out, the first term's work would be devoted to a discussion of historical background and the development of political institutions ; and the second term's work would include social and economic problems. It was proposed that the teaching staff of the four departments co-operate in giving the course, but it was understood that a section would be under the control of only one teacher during a term. The new course was to take the place of the history requirement for underclassmen which was to be abolished. The fundamental courses in the social sciences were to be modified so as to prevent duplication of work, and there were to be no exemptions from the requirement, which was to be a prerequisite for all courses in the social sciences. While the matter was still under discussion in committee, and be- fore it had been formally presented to the faculty of arts and science, it was brought to the attention of the deans of the college of agriculture and the school of engineering, the only divisions of the university be- sides the college of arts and science, which do not require at least two years of college work for admission. Each of these divisions had large numbers of Freshmen and Sophomores for whom there existed a re- quirement in English, but no requirement and but slight opportunity for election in history and the social sciences. On account of the interest of the deans of these divisions in the proposed course in citizenship, the president of the university submitted the question to the university faculty which has jurisdiction over matters affecting more than one division. The university faculty decided to establish a course in citizenship for five hours a term for two terms, and to require it of all Freshmen in all divisions of the university. It was provided that the work in English composition and rhetoric should be combined with the course in citizenship, and the existing Freshman requirement in English was abolished, as was the underclassman requirement in European history in the college of arts and science. The details in the administration of the new course were left to the determination of the president of the university. The first matter which required determination was the question whether the course should be treated as a unit and given by one person or department, or divided among related departments. One of the chief objections urged against the original plan by the committee on educa- tional policy of the college of arts and science was the lack of unity which would result from the division of the work among different de- partments. It was accordingly decided that the determination of the THE ALL- universITY FRESHMAN YEAR 459 Department] content of the course, the preparation of a syllabus, and the lectures to be given in the course, should be placed in charge of one man . The most important problem was that of the proper content of the course. Fortunately, there was ample time for its consideration. As the faculty action regarding the giving of the course came late in the session of 1918-19, it was decided to postpone its introduction until the fall of 1920. As finally announced, the course opens with a brief dis- cussion of the physical basis of society, including population with its problems of race, migration, growth, etc., as well as land and its re- sources. The historical background is then presented in about twenty lectures with chief emphasis upon modern and recent developments. This furnishes an introduction to the consideration of American political institutions. After a discussion of fundamental considerations, applic- able to all divisions of American government, the organization and functions of the national government are studied more in detail. The final division of the subject deals with economic organization and problems. It was anticipated that the outline prepared would be only tentative in character. As a result of one year's experience, it is probable that some changes will be introduced. One of the most important is a shift of the economic section to the earlier part of the course, as it is believed that the subject-matter can be utilized to more advantage among freshmen than some of the political material . There are three lecture and three quiz periods weekly in the course. The character of the quiz work, and the arrangements made for it, constitute one of the unique features of the course. It was indicated above that the conference of Missouri teachers held at the university in the winter of 1918 recommended that where possible the written work in the proposed course in citizenship should be correlated with the re- quired work in English. This problem had been under consideration for many years. The written work of students in history, the social sciences, and other departments was frequently quite unsatisfactory. The teachers in these subjects felt, as a rule, that their responsibility was limited to the subject-matter of the paper, and the student was thus tacitly encouraged in his slipshod method. On the other hand, many members of the faculty were not satisfied with the results of the instruction in Freshman English, and maintained that this was due in part to the topics assigned for themes, which in many cases had no relation to the interests or activities of the students. The university faculty in establishing the course in citizenship went farther than recommended by the conference. It provided that the Freshman work in English composition should be combined with the new course, and abolished the separate requirement in that subject. In planning for the course in citizenship, it was agreed from the outset 460 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher Education that the quiz work should be based upon the content of the lectures and required reading. At the same time, it was emphasized that the in- structor in both oral and written quizzes should criticize and hold the student responsible for the form of his expression as well as for the subject-matter. This decision necessarily involved the selection of in- structors who had been trained in the social sciences as well as in English. The selection of these instructors and the general supervision of their work was left to the department of English. It was under- stood, however, that appointments should not necessarily be restricted to specialists in English, and as a matter of fact, some of the instructors were primarily interested in the social sciences. The introduction of the new course was not received without mis- givings on the part of some members of the faculty. Particularly in the department of English it was felt that the student would not receive an adequate substitute for the required course in English composition. As originally planned, there were only two quiz periods each week. As a result of the attitude of the department of English, a third period was added, in which instruction in formal English could be given. The course in citizenship has made it possible to recast the funda- mental course in European history, and to reduce the work in Amer- ican government from five to three hours. It is probable that the course in general economics will also be modified by the elimination of matters which are dealt with in the new course. The first year's experience with the course in citizenship has been satisfactory. The students' interest has been stimulated and this has had a favorable reaction upon the form of his expression. On account of certain difficulties, absences from the lectures were not recorded, but this did not result in any serious decrease in attendance. A great part of the success of the course was due to the instructors in charge of the quiz sections. A special effort was made to secure persons who were not only well qualified by training, but who were good teachers with real interest in students and their problems. The course will continue to be modified from time to time, and it is anticipated that much benefit can be derived from the experience of other institutions with similar courses . DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT EDUCATION The Representative Assembly in session at Des Moines on July 8, 1921, on motion of Miss Abby Porter Leland, of 60 West 10th St., New York, N. Y., unanimously voted to establish a department of Immigrant Education. Officers will be selected, and the department will hold its first meeting in 1922. Department of Kindergarten Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-MARION S. HANCKEL, kindergarden-primary supervisor .......... Richmond, Va. Vice-President-BARBARA GREENWOOD, director of kindergarten department, Southern Branch of University of California . Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary-ANNA H. LITTELL, supervisor of kindergarten and primary grades .. Dayton, Ohio FIRST SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 5, 1921 The meeting of the Department of Kindergarten Education of the National Education Association was called to order by the president, Miss Hanckel, who announced that, in the absence of the secretary, Miss Irene Hirsch would act as secretary pro tem. The following program was presented : REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENCE MEETING AT ATLANTIC CITY IN FEBRUARY AND OF THE MEETING OF THE INTERNATIONAL KINDERGARTEN UNION IN DETROIT IN MAY-Nina C. Vandewalker, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. After Miss Vandewalker's address a short business meeting for kinder- gartners was held. The president submitted the following question : "Shall we re-organize for more definite purposes and plan of work in order to be more constructive and to work in close co-operation with the programs and work of the I. K. U. and section meetings held during the superintendence meeting ?" A discussion from the floor followed, in regard to reorganization in such manner as to allow one or more officers of the department to hold office more than one year. Section 5 of the original by-laws was read by the secretary. It was moved and seconded that arrangement be made to amend the article read to make provision for automatic tenure of office for two or more years. Carried. The nominating committee was appointed by the president as follows : Irene Hirsch, Des Moines, Iowa ; Grace Hemingway, Chicago, Ill.; Mrs. E. W. Jones, Los Angeles, Calif. Meeting adjourned. SECOND SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 5, 1921 At five o'clock Tuesday afternoon, an hour of song and story was held on the lawn at the Drake University elementary school. Stories were told by Prudence Nicholas, Des Moines ; Stella L. Wood, Minneapolis, and Grace Hemingway of Chicago, Illinois. Mrs. George Polk- Hippee gave three groups of children's songs. THIRD SESSION- WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921 The Department of Kindergarten Education convened, Wednesday, July 6 at 2:30 in the Chamberlain Hotel Ballroom. The following program was presented. THE UNITY IN AIMS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE KINDERGARTEN AND EARLY GRADES Stella Louise Wood, principal, Kindergarten and Primary Training School, Minneapolis, Minn. 461 462 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Kindergarten METHOD AND EQUIPMENT WHICH WILL MAKE FOR CONTINUITY THROUGH KINDERGARTEN AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS-Ella Victoria Dobbs, assistant pro- fessor of industrial arts, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. SUGGESTIONS FOR DERIVING STANDARDS OF MEASURING ACHIEVEMENTS OF KINDERGARTEN - Primary Children-Carl G. F. Franzen, professor of secondary education, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa. A short business meeting followed the program. The president called for the report of the nominating committee. The chairman brought in the following report: President, Marion Hanckel, Richmond, Va.; Vice-president, Mary Dabney Davis, Duluth, Minn.; Secretary, Nina C. Vandewalker, Washington, D. C. A motion that the report be accepted was carried. The meeting then adjourned. IRENE HIRSCH, Sec. pro tem. REPORT ON TWO MEETINGS NINA C. VANDEWALKER, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Miss Vandewalker's address was a report of the two kindergarten meetings held during the year-the one-day program of the Interna- tional Kindergarten Union and the National Council of Primary Educa- tion at Atlantic City in February and the meeting of the International Kindergarten Union at Detroit, May 2-6. She showed the difference in the character of these two meetings, the latter dealing mainly with the problems of the kindergarten in itself and the former with those of its adjustment to the school as a whole. The Detroit meeting was unusually large and enthusiastic. In ad- dition to delegates from twenty-six states there were over fifty from Canada, two each from China and from France, and one each from South America and Australia. The program had two main objectives, the first of which was to give practical suggestions for the improvement of the work with the children. The importance of adequate attention to children's health during these years was stressed by two speakers, Dr. Arnold L. Gesell, of Yale University, and Professor Patty S. Hill, of Teachers College. The newer methods and the materials best suited to these were illustrated and discussed at two conferences, one in charge of Frances M. Berry, of Baltimore, and the other of Louise M. Alder, of Milwaukee. In connection with the latter Patty S. Hill gave an ad- dress on the PROJECT METHOD. In view of the present interest in tests and measurements a most profitable exposition of their use in classify- ing children and measuring their progress was given by Detroit's three experts, Stuart S. Courtis, Charles F. Berry, and Harry J. Baker. The meeting on Kindergarten Extension was addressed by Mrs. Milton P. Higgins, president of the National Congress of Mothers and Mrs. W. R. Alvord, president of the Michigan Federation of Women's Clubs. They showed how their organizations had assisted in bringing about a wider adoption of kindergartens. Department] UNITY IN AIMS AND PRINCIPLES 463 The meeting at Atlantic City was of unusual value because the In- ternational Kindergarten Union and the National Council of Primary Education agreed upon a common topic and met on the same day and in the same place, the program of the one being given in the morning and that of the other in the afternoon. The general topic was CONDITIONS THAT MAKE FOR UNIFICATION OF THE KINDERGARTEN AND EARLY GRADES . The sub-topics and speakers on the kindergarten side were : The cur- RICULUM, Luella A. Palmer, Assistant Supervisor of Kindergartens, and Annie E. Moore, Teachers College, New York, N. Y.; METHODS, Mary E. Pennell, Supervisor of Kindergartens, Kansas City, and Sup- erintendent E. H. Drake, Kalamazoo, Michigan ; EQUIPMENT, Julia Wade Abbot, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. The subtopics and speakers on the Primary Council side were : REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS, Mary J. Brady, Primary Super- visor, St. Louis ; TEACHING THE PRIMARY TEACHER TO USE FREE ACTIV- ITIES, Marion S. Hanckel, Kindergarten-Primary Supervisor, Rich- mond, Virginia ; NEEDS OF THE PRIMARY SCHOOL FROM THE STAND- POINT OF THE KINDERGARTEN, Kindergarten Primary Supervisor, Du- luth. THE UNITY IN AIMS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE KINDER- GARTEN AND EARLY GRADES STELLA LOUISE WOOD, PRINCIPAL, KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY TRAINING SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN . This program differs pleasantly from many that have gone before, in that nowhere upon it can you find any paper entitled, " How may we bridge the gap between the kindergarten and primary grades ? ", or, "How may we unify the work of the kindergarten and first grades ?" In the first place, we have discovered that the "gap" as we called it, this chasm which gave us so much anxiety, was not in the children and their interests, but with us, our concepts and methods. The child- ren's interests are related, connected, go on in logical development, and may be charted with a fair amount of exactness, for with them, as with all things in God's living, growing world,there is no break between stages of growth, just unfolding, "unhasting," "unresting," the flower and fruit following the leaf and bud in orderly fashion. So when we were finally convinced of that fact, we began to bestir ourselves and ad- just our concepts and methods. We decided that the place to work most effectively for the unbroker continuity in the work of kindergarten and early grades was at the s urce of things, namely, in the teacher-training institutions. The hard and sharp line between students preparing for the kindergarten and those preparing to teach in the lower grades was gradually eliminated, and today you will find in our best schools for teacher-training, the same 464 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten course given to all students who intend to teach the younger children. In many city training schools, the primary students are taking lectures, observation, and student-teaching in the kindergarten, while in many others, the whole group specializing in elementary training take the same courses and are thus entirely free from the consciousness of the chasm once supposed to exist. With student-teaching covering kinder- garten, first and second grades, the prospective teacher has a grasp upon the situation which will remove any sense of unfitness for any work which may come, involving the child from four to eight. This establishes a common viewpoint, and the work in these grades can be organized so that the relation is emphasized. Much reorganization of both kinder- garten and the early grades has taken place, with great benefit to both. In systems where teachers of the lower grades have not had the advantage of this broader training, a better understanding has been brought about by a definite statement of the aims, principles, and methods of the kindergarten. The International Kindergarten Union through its bureau of education committee has published a pamphlet called "The Kindergarten Curriculum," which sets forth in clear terms the aims, principles, and methods of modern kindergartens. This pamphlet has been found very valuable by those interested in making the kindergarten an organic part of every school system. A superinten- dent who says, as many do, "Alas ! I know very little about the kinder- garten" should have one of these pamphlets presented to him at once, a promise secured from him that he will read it, and then a bit of " follow-up" work done to see that he fulfils this promise. In one of our large cities in the northwest, an assistant superintendent used this pamphlet as the basis for a year's study with the principals of the city schools, with the result that each kindergarten was the richer be- cause of the more intelligent interest of the principal. The principals themselves gained an added respect for the kindergarten because of the clear, scholarly, and intelligible expression of the aims and methods of the kindergarten. We would like to urge every member of the kindergarten force and all its lovers, to make their special bit of propaganda work the sending of this pamphlet to superintendents, board members, primary teachers, club members, supervisors, kindergartners, anyone whose grasp of the kindergarten aims and accomplishments would thus be increased. And do not forget the " follow-up" work for it is fatally easy to accept a pamphlet with thanks, and then consign it to a pigeon- hole from which it only emerges at house-cleaning time ! A genially per- sistent reminder is a great aid to the assimilation of necessary knowledge. The methods and equipment of the kindergarten and early grades are becoming more and more similar, so that this oneness of the early period is every day making itself clearly seen. Department] METHODS AND EQUIPMENT 465 The practical working out of this recognition of the unity of interest in the early grades shows itself in many ways. In the city which I know best of all, many new teachers now being en- gaged are signing contracts which read "kindergarten or first grade.” In these same schools the experiment has been tried of having the kindergarten teacher go on into IC with her class, and one teacher whom I know well followed the same group through the second grade, returning to the kindergarten at the end of this experience with a greatly enriched appreciation of the work which the kindergarten may do in laying the foundation for the structure with whose building she had been concerned. One teacher took her class through the kindergarten and into the IC, and now says My experience of going on with my kindergarten class into the first grade and my observation of children in the second leads me to agree with the current educational opinion that the four- to eight-year period of child- hood is one period psychologically and that the teacher's training should comprehend the fundamentals of these first three grades ; for I found the children as intensely interested in handwork, building, games, and stories as when in the kindergarten, with the added interest of reading. In the first grade there was marked development in technique in handwork, a new inter- est in each other's work problems was evident, and there was the desire to work and play together in larger groups than in the kindergarten .. The experience was a distinct advantage to me for it showed me clearly that our work in the kindergarten should be to enrich the little child's experience that he may go into the first grade with clear concepts which shall furnish him with an adequate background for reading and which shall serve as a reservoir of inspiration for his handwork and building interests. It would seem that one of the most hopeful things in these days of readjustment, is the recognition of the means to satisfy the funda- mental impulses of children, the fact that these impulses and desires may be met by a broader curriculum for the grades, and that manual activities, dramatic expression, experiences with nature and humanity in social relationships need not be sheared off when the child leaves the door of the kindergarten. The new interest which comes with the read- ing and writing relates itself perfectly to the activities so well begun in the first school experience in the kindergarten, and the child, a unity in interests and capacities, goes on to the work, which, without "chasm" or "break" develops logically and smoothly to meet his in- creasing power. This unity of aims and principles is showing itself in our modern school . METHODS AND EQUIPMENT ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR INDUSTRIAL ARTS, UNI- VERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMΒΙΑ, ΜΟ . We are learning only slowly what "Come, let us live with our children" really comprehends. At first it helped us to substitute for 466 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten the labored acquisition of abstract facts supposed to be useful, a process of gaining many of those same facts by a playful process which from our adult point of view suited the undeveloped but active minds of little children. This was a great step forward, but school was still a very different place from home with a formal atmosphere and an autocratic method, albeit the autocrat was very kind and gentle and led the way in games and happy plays most of the time. Our latest and we believe our best interpretation is not only based on more genuinely democratic ideals but seeks to break down the bar- rier which has separated home and school so that school shall be an ex- tension of the best homes in which all children may share. Instead of imposing upon the children our ideas of what we think they should like to do, we have gone about with them to find out what they really do under natural, happy conditions and we are bringing back into the school our transforming discoveries not alone to the kindergarten, but, what is much more significant, into the primary schools as well. The keynote therefore in up-to-date furnishings is suitability to the child's needs and point of view and this is so true of primary as well as kindergarten rooms that it is hard in some cases to tell which is which. In comparing old and new the writer is impressed with the bigness of things. Instead of tiny imitations for each individual child full- sized and real things are provided for co-operative use. There are big blocks with which to build houses large enough to play in. The toy stoves, tables, dressers and chairs are large enough for practical use. The dolls have clothes that button and unbutton just like real folks and the dolls become real members of the social group demanding much thoughtful care. From time to time there are live rabbits and other pets which need food and care . Real tools-hammers and saws-to- gether with scraps of wood and plenty of nails tempt even timid ones to venture into the realm of mechanics. Another striking feature is the supply of low shelves and cup- boards where books, tools, and the most-used material as well as in- dividual belongings are conveniently kept. As a result the children early develop a sense of individual responsibility for the care of ma- terials. Under the old plan the teacher carried all the responsibility for all and the children were " to do as they were told." The relative value of these two attitudes toward life in a government of, by, and for the people is self evident. The work of early school years should lay the right- foundation and begin the cultivation of right habits. Methods in the accepted progressive school keep pace with the big- ness of the furnishings. There is a growing tendency to deal with subject-matter in larger units, with topics which bear a closer relation to everyday life, and to throw the maximum amount of responsibility DERIVING STANDARDS OF MEASURING 467 Department] upon the individual pupil while at the same time team work is developed as never before. These methods rightly emphasized must do much toward the formation of good habits of citizenship, which, formed in the small community of the school-room will carry over into the larger community of life outside of school and promise better results in the development of citizenship which is always the chief business of the public school. SUGGESTIons for derivinG STANDARDS of MEASUR- ING ACHIEVEMENTS OF KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY CHILDREN CARL G. F. FRANZEN, PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, DRAKE UNIVERSITY, DES MOINES, IOWA Before dealing with the actual attempt to measure the achievement of kindergarten-primary children, it will be well to discuss briefly the theory of individual differences and its application to intelligence test- ing. According to the widely accepted theory of the original nature of man, every individual at birth is as different in the construction of the cell combinations that make up the nervous system whose centers are in the brain, as he is in external bodily features and characteristics. Just as there are countless variations in the veining of leaves that grow on the same tree, so there are similar variations in the possible arrangement and myelinization of the neurons in different individuals. Consequently, it stands to reason that there are all kinds of possibili- ties and limitations in the development of any one brain. To the out- ward manifestation of this development we give the name, intelligence, but to define intelligence in terms that will be agreed to by all is an impossible task. In two recent numbers of EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY more than a dozen psychologists have attempted to give as many inter- pretations of this term. The speaker prefers to define intelligence as an innate capacity to acquire knowledge-power. Since this possession be- longs to the child from birth, it is extremely desirable that he be tested out before entering school in order that he may not be admitted unless he has reached a grade of intelligence that will permit him to do the work of the kindergarten or first grade. The problem of retardation, always a serious one, can here be met and halted before ever the child enters school. The objection is at once made on the part of those of you who teach in small systems that there is no place to send the child until he is ready for his first year's school work. My only answer is that you must, perforce, make the best of your situation as you have always done ; but, where the school system is large enough and financially able, these subnormal children should be immediately sent to a special school, there to receive such training as will enable them within a year or two to enter the regular school. 468 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Kindergarten There are two ways of testing intelligence, one by the individual method, as exemplified by Terman's revision of the Binet test, and the other by the group method, employed by Dearborn, et al. The group method is much more economical of time and has the further advantage that it does not demand as special training in its administration as does the individual method. But account must be taken of the fact that intelligence is not the sole criterion of future success, and that intelligence tests are not the only tests to be given a child. Intelligence is but one of the many factors whose product is called personality, and, before we can make a safe and sure prognosis of an individual's possibilities, we must work along such lines as the testing of his ability to originate, to concentrate, his possession of grit, energy, and similar qualities . After the child has been admitted to school it will be necessary to test his achievement in order to have a basis on which to promote him . Standard achievement tests have been worked out for the elementary school for grades III and up, but none of these tests can be used for grades below the third for two reasons, one because they deal with sub- jects of a content order, and second, because they depend much upon reading and writing. Consequently there is a necessity for a different type of test for the primary grades which will be less difficult to ad- minister. Tests measuring the achievement of kindergarten children should be based on the average achievement of several thousand children, because satisfactory norms can be obtained only from the measurement of a large group. In literature and oral expression, standardized stories of equal value can be selected and administered in the same fashion as Gray's " Tiny Tad," where the youngster reproduces the story orally and also answers a list of set questions to show his comprehension of the story. In this way he is tested for his ability to remember, repro- duce, and comprehend. The chief difficulty with this test is that it has to be administered individually and consequently consumes much time, but it is the only means available at present . For plays, games, and rhythms, a score card could be provided which would evaluate the child's ability to imitate and originate, and measure his degree of muscular control. In the measurement of the manual activities of clay, sand, paper, drawing, etc., standard models for reproduction or standard stories to be expressed in various forms of handwork should be given to the child- ren and a score card supplied to measure varying degrees of excellence of form, line, originality, faithfulness in adhering to the model, balance, and proportion. In music the system of tests being worked out by Professor Fuller- ton, of Cedar Falls, Iowa, but modified to meet the needs of first- Department] DERIVING STANDARDS OF MEASURING 469 grade boys and girls, can be used very effectively. Grade points for each type of test determine the individual's content progress . Standard block combinations or other mathematical arrangements can be worked out to test the growth of mathematical knowledge. For nature study that is concerned with the care of pets, yards, and gardens a score card is again the most effective means of judging where the individual stands. A model garden can be standardized and points given for all the qualities that are combined to make this garden. Similarly in hygiene a score card should indicate how close to the standard the individual comes in his records that show the care he gives to his body and to the observance of general health rules. Why these tests ? Because the subjective judgment of every teacher is faulty in estimating the true worth of the pupil. So long as there is promotion from one grade to the next, just so long will it be necessary to devise the most suitable bases for determining the grounds on which this promotion is to be made. Mistakes will be made in the effort to arrive at satisfactory norms, but, when these norms are obtained, the teacher will have a very important help in her judgment of the work of her pupils. Library Department SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-SHERMAN WILLIAMS, chief of School Libraries Division, Department of Educa cation ......... Albany, N. Y. Vice-President-M. WILFORD POULSON, Brigham Young University............. Provo, Utah Secretary-MARGARET ELY, Book Selection Department, Public Library........ Chicago, Ill. The Library Department of the National Education Association held meetings in the Des Moines Public Library on July 5, 6, and 8, 1921. At the meeting on July 5, the following program was presented : JOY READING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS-Adeline B. Zachert, Director of School Libraries for the State of Pennsylvania, Department of Education, Har- risburg, Pa. THE NORMAL SCHOOL LIBRARY AS A TEACHING INSTITUTION- W. H. Kerr, Librarian, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans. THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS-THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL LIBRARY-Sherman Williams. RELATION OF THE HIGH- SCHOOL LIBRARY TO THE OTHER DEPARTMENTS OF THE SCHOOL- Ellen F. Chamberlayne, High-School Librarian, Binghamton, N. Y. The meeting on Wednesday afternoon was a joint session with the Na- tional Council of Teachers of English. President Williams opened the meeting and recognized Mr. Johnson Brigham, Librarian of the Iowa State Historical Library who made the following announcement on the A. L. A. Booklist : The American Library Association publishes the Booklist as its official book-buying guide. The new books included each month (October-July) are chosen by librarians as those most suitable for general use. The book notes are short and to the point and represent in every case a consensus rather than individual opinion. Classification number and catalog information are given for each title. All future numbers will contain a short list of books especially useful for high-school libraries. The Booklist is published by the A. L. A., purely as an aid in book selection, for librarians and teachers. It is not a commercial venture; it is supported in part by an endowment fund. Will the library section of the N. E. A. formally endorse the Booklist as an aid to book selection for school libraries ? Following this announcement, a motion was made and carried, that the Library Department of the N. E. A. and the National Council of Teachers of English endorsed the Booklist of the A. L. A. and recommend its use as an aid in book selection for use on reading tables in all high schools and in courses of English as a basis of current book evaluation. President Williams then turned the meeting over to Miss Julia Robinson, secretary of the Iowa state Library Commission, who acted as chairman. The following program was presented : STEPPING STONES TO LITERARY TASTE-A. B. Noble, Department of English, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa. RECENT LITERATURE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS-Margaret Skinner, Director of Reading Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis. THE PART OF THE PUBLIC LIBRARY IN PUBLIC EDUCATION- Carl H. Milam, secretary, American Library Association, Chicago, Ill. The business session of the Department was held on Friday afternoon, 471 472 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library July 8. The by-laws of the Department were discussed and modified. In article VII, Section 1, the word "president" was changed to "officers." It was voted to strike out Section 8, of article VII, making the new article VII read : "All funds shall be turned over to the National Education Association, and credited to the Library Department." Article IX was changed to read : " These By-laws may be amended at any annual meeting by a majority vote of those present and voting, provided a written notice of proposed amendment or amendments has been presented to members of the Department, thirty days before such action is taken." A motion was carried that the by-laws be adopted in their new form. *The following statement regarding libraries in education was adopted, and the officers of the Department were instructed to give it the widest possible pub- licity: 1. All pupils in both elementary and secondary schools should have ready access tu books to the end that they may be trained (a) to love to read that which is worth while ; (b) to supplement their school studies by the use of books other than text-books; (c) to use reference books easily and effectively; (d) to use intelligently both the school library and the public library. 2. Every secondary school should have a trained librarian, and every elementary school should have trained library service. 3. Trained librarians should have the same status as teachers or heads of departments of equal training and experience. 4. Every school that provides training for teachers should require a course in the use of books and libraries and a course on the best literature for children. 5. Every state should provide for the supervision of school libraries and for the cer tification of school librarians. 6. The public library should be recognized as a necessary part of public instruction and should be as liberally supported by tax as are the public schools, and for the same reasons. 7. The school system that does not make liberal provision for training in the use of libraries fails to do its full duty in the way of revealing to all future citizens the opportunity to know and to use the resources of the public library as a means of education. Mr. Willis Kerr, of the Emporia State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas, read the report of the survey of normal-school libraries, with the recommendation that the committee on normal-school libraries be authorized : 1. To proceed with the survey of normal-school and teachers-college li- braries. 2. To present at the next annual meeting a formal report and statement of standards of organization and equipment for such libraries. 3. To seek opportunity to present such report, such statement of standards, at least in preliminary form, before the Department of Normal Schools at the next.mid-winter meeting. Recommended further that the Board of Directors of the National Education Association be requested to vote the sum of three hundred dollars to the com- mittee on normal-school libraries for the purposes of this survey and report during the year 1921-22. A motion was made and carried to accept the recommendation. The President reported that nothing had been heard from the Committee on Home Reading Clubs . The final report of the N. E. A. Elementary School Committee was pre- sented in the form of a list of children's books for departmental library work in elementary and junior high schools, with the hope that it would be possible to have it printed. The President declared that it would not be possible for the N. E. A. to have it printed. It was then moved and carried that the report of the N. E. A. Elementary School Committee be transferred to the A. L. Α. ecutive Board with the idea of their printing it. No new committees were appointed at this meeting. Department] BY-LAWS 473 The following officers were elected for next year : Sherman Williams, chief of School Libraries Division, Albany, New York, president. Grace Rose, Librarian, Des Moines Public Library, vice-president. Margaret E. Ely, Book Selection Department, Chicago Public Library, secretary. A library luncheon was held at the Harris-Emery tea room on Wednesday, July 6. About one hundred fifty people interested in phases of library work were present. Short talks were given by Fred M. Hunter, president of the N. E. A., Oakland, Calif.; M. Wilford Poulson, Provo, Utah ; Joy E. Morgan, Washington, D. C.; Cecilia M. Troy, Chicago, Ill.; C. W. Swain, Cedar Falls. Iowa. A high school library exhibit was held at the Public Library and was very well attended. Scrapbooks of high-school libraries throughout the country, showing various library methods, pictures of equipment, and "the library in action," were on display. The feature of the exhibit was a high- school-library map, indicating, by means of colored pins, places having trained high-school librarians. MARGARET ELY, Secretary . BY- LAWS (Adopted at the meeting of the Library Department, Des Moines, Iowa, July 8, 1921) * ARTICLE I - OBJECTS The objects of the Library Department shall be: 1. To promote the intelligent use of school libraries . 2. To work for the appointment of trained librarians in all high schools. 3. To urge the appointment of state supervisors of school libraries in all states. 4. To urge that all teachers, in order to be certified, shall give evidence of their ability to train pupils in the use of books and libraries and to develop good reading habits and tastes. 5. To foster well-defined co-operation between school libraries and public libraries. ARTICLE II-MEMBERS SECTION 1. Active members of the National Education Association are en- titled to become active members of the Library Department. Librarians and all others who are in any way interested in school library work, including superintendents, principals, teachers, and board members, will be welcomed at all meetings of the Department. SECTION 2. There shall be a class of registered members consisting of those who contribute annually to the support of the Department and promotion of its objects, such annual contribution to be fifty cents in the case of members of the N. E. A., otherwise one dollar. SECTION 3. Registered members shall be entitled regularly to receive free a separate copy of the proceedings of the Library Department and they shall be entitled to such other consideration as may be decided upon by the Department. First presented at the meeting of the Library Department, Salt Lake City, Utah, July 7, 1920. Prepared by the following committee: Sherman Williams, chief of School Libraries Division, Educational Department, State of New York, Albany, N. Y.; Mary E. Downey, library secretary and organizer, State Depart- ment of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah; Harriet A. Wood, supervisor of school libraries, State Department of Public Instruction, St. Paul, Minn.; and Rice, super- visor of school libraries, State Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. 474 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library ARTICLE III - MEETINGS AND SESSIONS SECTION 1. The annual meeting of the Department shall be held at the same time and place as the annual meeting of the NΝ. Ε. Α. SECTION 2. At least two sessions shall be held at the annual meeting, (Round tables and library luncheons shall be provided for as circumstances and conditions may warrant and require.) ARTICLE IV - PROGRAMS The program of the meetings of the Department shall be prepared by the president, after a conference with and under the general direction of the presi- dent of the department and with the members of the Advisory Committee. ARTICLE V-OFFICERS SECTION 1. The officers of the Library Department shall consist of a president, a vice-president, and a secretary-treasurer. They shall be elected annually at the last formal session of the department to serve for one year or until their successors are duly elected. No one shall be eligible to any office in the department who is not an active member of the National Education Association , and no person shall hold the same office in the department for more than two terms in succession. SEC. 2. In case of a vacancy in the office of president of the department it shall be filled by appointment by the president of the N. E. A. A vacancy in any other office of the department shall be filled by appointment by the presi- dent of the department. ARTICLE VI-ADVISORY BOARD SECTION 1. The Advisory Board shall consist of the president of the Library Department and one representative appointed by him from each State and the District of Columbia. Such appointments shall be made by the first of December each year. SEC. 2. Members of the Advisory Board shall be appointed for a term of one year beginning December 1. SEC. 3. Only active members of the N. E. A. shall be eligible to member- ship on the Advisory Board. SEC. 4. Ten members of the Board shall constitute a quorum. SEC. 5. The Advisory Board shall help to shape the policies of the Library Department. It shall appoint the members of the Advisory Committee with the exception of the ex-officio members, and its members shall be active in securing from their respective jurisdictions a good attendance at the meetings of the Library Department. In carrying out the policies of the Department the members of the Advisory Board so far as possible shall lead the associations and author- ities in their respective jurisdictions to give adequate attention and support to school libraries and what they stand for in education. SEC. 6. The Advisory Board shall hold its annual meeting in connection with the annual meeting of the Library Department and before the first session of said Department, at such time and place in the city in which the Department meets as shall be determined by the President of the Department, who shall give the members of the Advisory Board at least one month's notice of the time and place of the meeting. Special meetings may be called by the Advisory Board or by the advisory committee. Department] BY-LAWS 475 ARTICLE VII-ADVISORY COMMITTEE SECTION 1. The Advisory Committee shall consist of the officers of the department and four other members elected by the Advisory Board at its first meeting in connection with the annual meeting of the Department. SEC. 2. The term of office of the appointive members of the Advisory Com- mittee shall be two years, beginning with the final adjournment of the annual meeting. But at the first election two shall be chosen for one year and two for two years, so that two shall go out of office each year. SEC. 3. All vacancies in the Committee shall be filled till the time of the next annual meeting by appointment by the President of the Library Department. SEC. 4. The annual meeting of the Advisory Committee shall be held in the city in which the N. E. A. meets at such hour and place as the President of the Library Department shall name. The Advisory Committee shall hold a preliminary meeting immediately fol- lowing the last session of the annual meeting of the Library Department. Special meetings may be called by the Committee itself. If thought best the Committee may hold a meeting in connection with the Department of Super- intendence. The Committee may, if found necessary, transact business by corres- pondence. SEC. 5. Three members of the Committee shall constitute a quorum. SEC. 6. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to membership on the Advisory Committee, and no one may be elected to membership for more than two terms in succession. SEC. 7. The Advisory Committee shall nominate candidates for office in the Library Department, audit the books of the secretary-treasurer, make an annual report to the Department giving counsel and advice to the president of the department regarding programs, exhibits, meetings and such other matters relating to the Department as it deems wise. SEC. 8. All funds shall be turned over to the National Education Associ- ation and credited to the Library Department. ARTICLE VIII- COMMITTEES SEC. 1. The President of the department shall appoint all committees , ex- cept when otherwise ordered by the department. SEC. 2. No committee shall be continued beyond the time of the meeting at which it was to report unless so, ordered by the department. ARTICLE IX-AMENDMENTS These by-laws may be amended at any annual meeting by a majority vote of those present and voting, provided a written notice of the proposed amendment or amendments has been presented to members of the department thirty days before such action is taken. ARTICLE X-ADOPTION These by-laws shall go into effect when adopted by a majority vote of the members present and voting at the annual meeting of the department at which they are presented, and when ratified by a like vote at the next annual meeting of the department. 476 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library JOY READING IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES ADELINE B. ZACHERT, DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES FOR THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA . After visiting many schools, talking with teachers and giving library reading tests in classes in different cities, certain conclusions regarding school libraries impress themselves as being typical of of the condition existing quite generally throughout the country. There is a certain sameness in the lack of provisions for school libraries. It does not follow that because a school is an imposing monument of architecture that one may therefore reasonably expect to find a school library. The School Library Director with hopeful spirit has approached many such buildings, feeling confident that surely in so modern and expensive a structure either the architect or the Board of Education has had recognition of the need of planning a library room. Again and again disappointment awaited the visitor. The remarks of the principals become monotonous, nearly always the director is told : "No, we have no library. We have neither the room nor the money for one. Yes, it would be very nice to have a library, but our pupils go to the public library. We have some books in the principal's office. " With hopeful steps we turn to this sanctum and find bookcases or cupboards usually locked or else so high and deep that it is difficult to get at the books. A heterogeneous collection of books and pamphlets is displayed. It is usually an accumulation of the odds and ends that somehow find lodgment in a school building : gifts from publishers, imposing sets of books, usually still in their pristine freshness, just as they came after the persuasive book agent left, an encyclopedia, often of old vintage, a motley array of books bearing the marks of having lived in security and peace for many years in the home of some citizen who, upon removal either by death or by leaving town or in a moment of discouragement, has bequeathed these antiquities to the school library in the hope that they might do somebody some good. There are also the books, and these are usually of the sternly informational kind, which were bought from the partial proceeds of a school entertainment. It is usually only a partial appropriation since the purchase of a victrola or athletic para- phernalia makes the stronger appeal for these funds. It is a strong- minded principal who can withstand the demands for basket balls, tennis nets, and victrolas and rescue at least some part of the little fund for the library. But now and then there is evidence that someone on the teach- ing force recognized the need of having live, up-to-date books for the use of the pupils. A zeal for the purchase of books is usually coupled with an intelligent idea of book selection, based on some reputable list and supplemented by personal knowledge of books for young people. Department] JOY READING IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES 477 Occasionally one find evidences that someone with a sense of order or with some little technical knowledge of the classifying and cataloging of books has attempted to classify them, but more often the books are simply grouped roughly or not at all. In the collection one is sure to find some dilapidated copies of popular fiction. The Alcott books, some Henty, a more modern Barbour or Tomlinson. It would seem that the Pansy, Dinsmore, and Alger books would be entirely extinct in the school library, but such is not the case. Dear remains of these books can still be found, and evidently are still being read, to judge from their ragged appearance. Mixed in with this collection are fresh, clean, pro- fessional books such as are recommended at teachers' institutes by the speakers and in the first flush of enthusiasm are bought with school funds. Why these are not read more is always a mystery for surely they contain material which would lighten the labors of teachers and enrich their mental outlook. Such is the average school library. It is not limited to any one state. School people the country over are very much alike and the library as a potent force in the school organization to the greater majority of teachers has not yet reached their consciousness beyond being simply a collection of books stored in a more or less accessible place, offering an opportunity to the aggressive, ambitious boy or girl, but being practically beyond the reach of the average pupil. A school analyzed to its elements resolves itself into teacher, pupil, and book. During the years of their preparation, teachers have used books as tools. They still use them when they assume their duties in the classroom. But the collection is usually so pitifully small, a dozen or more books on the teacher's desk usually comprises the extent of the working library, and these are mostly of the purely textbook type. Courses of study are specific in their recommendations of textbooks. The time for the classroom period is limited and the conscientious teacher is confronted with the difficulty of covering as much of the course of study as possible. Unless she be one of the comparatively rare teachers who by training and instinct turns for further informa- tion to books, she can manage to live up to the letter of the law quite comfortably with only the little handful of books on her desk. * * * * * * * * * * Some of us have invaded the classrooms, and because the testing of pupils has in recent years become a popular practice, librarians also have been given the opportunity to do some testing and to get the returns on the effect of their reading directly from the pupils. If the person who makes these tests is unknown to the pupils and knows how to word her questions carefully, it is possible to secure quite accurate data. As the result of testing several thousand pupils in different cities, my conclusions are these: that those of us who are responsible for the 478 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library reading habits of children have been too easily satisfied with the popular theories regarding children's reading; that the voluntary choice of books by children in general is not what we fondly believe it 15. Because good books are on the shelves of children's rooms in public libraries and enthusiastic children's librarians tell stories, make bulletins, conduct reading-clubs, and occasionally visit schools and urge children to come to libraries, it does not follow that the children of the com- munity are reading the books in the library. Many do, as is evidenced by the worn copies of favorite books in every public library, but usually it is a comparatively small patronage when compared with the total child population of reading-age in the community. There are too many competing agencies. Department stores have sales of children's books and, during the holiday season, have attractively displayed all the thrillers together with the usual "harmless" variety of the mediocre juvenile output. These books are bought by parents and relatives and often by the older children themselves, regardless of their content, so long as the cover is attractive and the name is alluring. The Sunday-school library still flourishes, especially in the smaller com- munities, with its rows of "Little Colonels," its "Motor Boys," and " Pony Riders," its endless series of sophisticated boy and girl heroines. The results of the tests show that these are the books that apparently appeal most strongly to our young people. Quite naively, they confide that these books are so "exciting and adventurous and I like them kind of books." Recommendations of books are usually by a boy or girl friend, only now and then do we see the result of required reading in school and suggestions by teachers, or the efforts of children's librarians in public libraries. The movie, of course, is a very strong factor in determining the choice of books. Books such as Tarzan of the Apes become epidemic among pupils in schools near a moving-picture house where the filmed heroes take possession of the imagination of the youngsters. If all these gloomy accounts are true, and I assure you they are, then what shall we do about it ? The public library is doing its best with its usual meager funds, and its real desire to serve the young people. But it is obvious that the public library cannot reach all the children of the community. It is, of course, desirable that the home should exert its influence, but the average home does not. There are exceptions of course, and these are not always in the well-to-do-homes. The Sunday school touches a small percentage of the children very lightly, and judging from the book selection in Sunday-school libraries, we are glad that so few children read them. The school seems to be the obvious solution. The public school has come to be the most power- ful instrument for the launching of nearly all movements for the wel- fare of children. Is it then the duty of a school to direct the reading Department ] JOY Reading in the ELEMENTARY GRADES 479 of its pupils ? To those of us who have watched the program of library work with children during the last decade or two, there is a strong con- viction that the school is the solution. It is true that the curriculum of the school is so crowded that teachers find it difficult to comply with all the demands made upon them, but it is also true that the day of teaching facts is giving way to the newer conception of teaching which emphasizes the training of the child to gather information, to classify it, to make his deductions, and to think for himself. The project or socialized method of teaching is supplanting the inadequate fact- accumulating method. This new method requires books as tools. Many books-as great a variety as possible. The school that has not its book laboratory cannot compete with present educational methods. School people are at last coming to a recognition of the value of books as tools. It is no longer so difficult to convince them of the need of a school library. Classrooms are turned into library rooms in the more progressive schools. In overcrowded buildings, halls, and corners of study-rooms are being equipped as book laboratories. We are at the beginning of an era when the school library is com- ing into its own. This is a great step forward, but it still does not touch the full need of pupils. Teachers are open to suggestions regard- ing informational books, but they still have to be awakened to the need of directing the reading of the habit-forming, character-making type of book in the classroom, the books which children will read voluntarily and gladly, the joy-reading books. High schools have become more or less standardized. At any rate, we have a carefully worked-out, generally accepted standardization which is beginning to make itself felt in the organization of the high school. It provides for standards regarding the librarian, the room, the books, the furnishings and equipment, and the money apportion- ment. It provides in addition to the required reference and informa- tional books a carefully worked-out list of fiction which pupils will read with enjoyment, but the elementary schools are still woefully behind in established standards for adequately providing for the book needs of the pupils. There should be in every elementary school having several classes of the upper grades a reference collection of a few of the most im- portant general-reference books and a carefully selected list of infor- mational books relating directly to the subjects taught. These books should be within the comprehension of the pupils, not the professional type of book which is of interest mainly to teachers. Of equal im- portance are classroom libraries of general reading, small collections of from thirty to fifty worth-while, interesting books which will make their own appeal and which will be read with pleasure and profit-joy- reading books in fact. It is possible for a book to be both wholesome 480 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library and yet interesting. As far as possible, the classroom library should appeal to a wide range of interest. There are stories the scenes of which are laid in distant times and foreign lands-not necessarily the sugar- coated informational books, but stories of vivid interest and yet giving a background which will enlarge and develop the viewpoint of the reader; also there are books that incidentally refer to allusions and incidents which stimulate a curiosity on the part of the reader to learn more along the topics mentioned through the medium of other books. In selecting the books for these classroom libraries, it is interesting to note that there are only about three hundred titles which, by common consent of those who have given most thought to this matter, should be included. By process of elimination, by careful winnowing, the best books for this particular use are left. Certain types of books have no place in the ideal classroom library. Among them are textbooks, supplementary readers, and purely informational books. Textbooks have improved wonderfully in recent years in point of content, print illustration, and binding, so that a textbook may be a book furnishing joyful reading; but as a rule they are unmistakably textbooks supplying a very needed place as supplementary readers, but not taking the place of real books. An ample supply of textbooks in sets should be available for classroom use. Some of the more attractive ones may even as single copies be included in the classroom library, but as a rule the books for classroom libraries should be of the type that will make their own appeal as to subject-matter and general appearance. Another type of book which cannot qualify for inclusion in the classroom library is the ordinary boys' and girls' story-book which has nothing special to recommend it, which is neither good nor bad, which might possibly have a place among the large collection of children's books in the public library, but which has to be excluded from a small and choice collection. Valuable as " standards" and classics in attractive editions may be, these also are not for the classroom library. Children should have access to them, preferably in the home or in the children's rooms of public libraries, or if possible in the general school library, but these books are usually prohibitive in price. Moreover, they need special urging to popularize them with children. It is practically useless to buy such books for classroom libraries unless there is assurance that a book- loving teacher will make them function. Often books for classroom libraries are chosen because they appear on lists prepared by other libraries or schools. The fact that a book appears on a list, even though issued by a responsible organization, does not always insure its being a suitable book for classroom libraries. It may be ever so full of information, and we may have very definite views as to the need of children somewhere before they reach the high school having access to those books which are considered standards or even Department] JOY READING IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES 481 classics, but if they remain idle on the shelves year in and year out for lack of someone who can make them attractive to children, is it not a waste of money to buy these books ? It should be remembered that in the making of books there is no end. Each year new books are issued, most of them of little value for our present purpose, but among the great many there are always a few that do supersede the older books written before educational ideals and better understanding of the needs of children had advanced as far as they have now. While it is well to be conservative in admitting new titles to this carefully selected group of books, let us not be distrustful of a book just because it is new. The matter of editions and revisions is often neglected in the selecting of books in the elementary schools. There are often several editions of some worth-while books, as for instance, Robinson Crusoe or Spyri's Heidi. Among these are one or two editions which are exactly right. It is important to make just the right choice. It is important to keep in mind that the books must keep step with the mental development of the pupil. No group of books can be suc- cessfully fixed in any one grade, since the intelligence of children varies, it is quite possible that a second-grade child may enjoy a book ordinarily placed in a fourth-grade classroom and vice versa. But even so, it is well to make a grouping which will quite adequately serve the purpose. If a sufficient number of books are supplied for each grade, the element of choice on the part of the child will not be materially hindered. The ideal elementary school has a classroom library in every grade from the first through to the eighth. A pupil entering the first grade should be exposed, as it were, to the best books suitable for his needs during his progress from the first through the eighth grade, find- ing in each succeeding grade a new store of ever widening vistas of enchantment. To get the full value of certain phases of literature, such as myths, folklore, and legends, the pupil must get these at the time when they are best suited to his mental development, which is some time during the early years of his school life. It may be desirable that the books in classroom libraries correlate with the school work, but it is not at all necessary that they do so. The important thing is that they be read willingly, gladly, with pleasure, and with profit. The books must make their own appeal and then hold the at- tention of the readers if they are to be classed among joy-reading books. How shall these classroom libraries be managed ? Most of the public libraries in our larger cities supply schools with a set of from thirty to fifty different titles, often from a special school-library collec- tion, at the request of teachers or principals. It is usually optional with the teacher whether she has a classroom library or not. This means that 482 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Library the pupils who have an interested, ambitious, or conscientious teacher are provided with joy reading and that the rest are not. In order to give every child an equal opportunity, every grade from the third through the eighth grade should have access to a library of the choicest books in his classroom, so that the teacher who knows her pupils and who will eventually know all the books in her collection can bring about the ideal condition of fitting the right book to the right child at the right time. In some of the larger cities the provision of all elementary schools with classroom libraries has been brought about by an officially established co-operation between the library board and the board of education. In such cases the board of education defrays the expense of the initial instalment of libraries and gives additional annual appropriations to supply the replaced copies or worn-out books, the addition of a few new titles, and the expense of binding, repairs, and transportation, while the library gives the services of an expert in children's literature with usually several assistants to take care of the details of administration. It is often difficult to persuade boards of education that an ex- penditure of money for general reading is a wise and a necessary thing, but gradually even boards of education are beginning to realize that no investment of school funds will bring larger dividends in the actual enrichment and development of the minds of children and in laying the foundation for a valuable reading-habit. Dr. Sherman Williams has admirably summed up the reasons why books should be supplied to pupils in the grades as follows : 1. All pupils are in the grades at some time. 2. Only a small portion of the whole ever enter the high school. 3. The pupils have more time for reading while in the grades than they will have when in the high school. 4. Reading-habits like other habits are more readily acquired early in life. 5. A child who does not form the reading-habit while in the grades is not likely ever to do so. We who believe in the power of books to affect the soul of the child, and who have the present happiness and the future welfare of children at heart, must not only theorize and hope, but must be con- vinced, and then use every means in our power to convince teachers, principals, and especially boards of education, of a realization of the need of supplying all the children of the community with the proper books for the right kind of joy reading. THE NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARY—AN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION WILLIS H. KERR, LIBRARIAN, KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, EMPORIA, KANS. The phrasing of this topic suggests that the normal-school library should not only do library work, but should also be an effective teach Department] THE NORMAL- SCHOOL LIBRARY 483 ing department. It should have enough body and soul of its own to be an educational institution within and without its parent, the normal school or the teachers' college. The immediate, practical work of the normal-school library is to provide material from the world of print as needed by the instructors and students. This is perhaps a simple statement of the body of its work. The soul of its work, without which in the end there can be no body, is to teach the knowledge of books, the use of books, and the love of books to its clientèle within and without the campus. Body and soul, it is always conscious that it is helping in the education of teachers, whether in training or at work. To have such a body, to be such a soul, the normal-school library must have books and equipment, definite service expected of it, a staff of book workers and book teachers, and a conscious educational pur- pose. If it is deficient in any one of these, it suffers in all its service. Per contra, the stronger its book and building equipment, the more important will be the service expected of it, the more skilled and devoted must be its staff, and the more active an educational institution it must be. Likewise, a skilled and adequate staff of librarians goes far to get or make its equipment, creates and satisfies and again creates the demand for its service, and is always finding new ways to make the life that is in the world of print serve teachers and their pupils, the great public. If you had to choose among the four foundation stones for your teachers' college library-equipment, library workers, expecta- tion, and vision--if you could have two, which would you take ? Give me a staff with vision. Somehow we will get our books and equipment- although God grant that we shall not long have to make bricks without straw !-and we will soon be in the ever joyous cycle of creating and meeting great expectations, the ever new problem of making and filling great expectations. Is not that the essence of teaching ? If it is possible to think separately of the body and the soul of the normal-school library, let us try to set forth what each should be, and how and why they make an educational institution. The demands of modern life from the school are so many and so various and so lively that the school must call heavily and confidently upon all its arms of instruction and administration. To its library the modern school looks for dependable and accessible fact material, for a satisfying record of the wisdom and beauty of the past, for whole- some recreation, and for inspiration for the work of the day and the work of the world. All of this it must have for individual and collec- tive use, for the modern school thinks and works not only as individuals but collectively. To do this, the normal-school library must have books, pictures, maps, illustrative material ; equipment for displaying and handling and 484 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library preserving its stock in trade ; and a staff to see that student and book or teacher and the new idea get together. The scope of stock will be as wide as our ideals for the modern teacher. We are not content that our teachers shall merely know methods. We are insisting more and more that they shall also and equally know what to teach. You cannot circumscribe the field of the normal-school library today. It cannot be just pedagogy and necessary classics and reference books. As surely as you limit the field of your teachers' college library, you are limiting the possibilities for Johnnie Jones and Susan Smith. So it must be a seasoned, rounded collection of the best the world has to offer from art to automobiles, from biography to blueprinting, from consolidation of schools to the Covenant of the League of Nations, from dietetics to dramatics, from gas to the gods of Greece, from laundry work to law, from mechanics to Milton, from the Pole Star to the project method, from religion to Russian soviet government, from Shakespeare to surveying, from tariff to travel, from ventilation to vers libre, from zebras to zymotics. Amidst the classroom, the training school, and the library, your modern normal- school student ought to get a liberal education. Our stock of books, periodicals, and pictures will have enough duplicates so that groups or classes may pursue a subject intensively- collective study. We will have duplicates and single copies for another purpose (and here we get over into the active educational soul of our library) , namely : to lend by mail beyond the bounds of the campus. For having brought up a young teacher or superintendent to know and use and love books in a library with a body and a soul, why not follow him to the scene of his labor ? A teacher always follows his students. The stock of our library body will be as various as the world of print : books, periodicals, pictures, photographs, postcards, posters, maps, atlases, lantern slides, clippings from magazines and newspapers, pamphlets of every description, school reports, government documents, and even educational films and phonograph records. With all this, lest we may have a confused mass of inaccessibilia, there must be simple, accurate, and understandable (by your users) apparatus for displaying, using, filing, preserving, and again displaying and using, your materials for service. Here again we are giving our normal-school library more than a body, for it takes librarians with hearts and souls and lively minds to obtain and care for all this material so that it may be used and used again, or be used and be displaced by newer and fresher ephemera from the world of print. Library soul rises above library red tape, just as true teaching rises above the artifice of method. Another member of the body of our teachers' college library is the children's library. It is quite the fashion in these latter days to lament that children are the exception who form the reading habit Department] THE NORMAL- SCHOOL LIBRARY 485 in school or at home. Moreover, one of our magazines has carried several articles in the past few months on the general theme of what teachers read or do not read. The teacher who does not read and never has read is not likely to induce reading in her pupils. But more especially, the teacher who knows only the books of her college years, and who alas ! too often depends upon her lecture notes from a university professor for her book references, how can that teacher guide, much less stimulate, the reading of children? So, both for its body and for its soul, the normal-school library which is doing educa- tional work has its children's department of real children's books, not merely supplementary reading (would that our schools had never had that idea and used that term!) , and our teachers-in-training learn to know children's books, to love them for their own sakes, and to use them inteaching. To get the full value of the children's library in the training of teachers, it should preferably be a separate room or rooms in the main library, under special library supervision, and not an adjunct of the training school. For the children's department is a member of the body, but chiefly a part of the soul of the normal-school library. It goes out after the young teacher, gives him a fact and story and culture basis for natural teaching, and shows him how school subjects may be taught from a composite textbook. The children's department of a normal-school library may prepare the teacher to teach by the use of many books instead of one book; it may prepare the teacher to guide and stimulate wide reading by chil- dren; it may introduce the teacher herself to some of the world's book treasures; but it will not solve the whole problem of the teacher's own reading. How very much farther along we would be in the solution of a number of educational problems if more of our teachers had the poise, the charm of diction and thought, the reserves of information, the treasures for the rainy day, and the recreative values which come from the enjoyment of books ! We are proposing another member of the library body in order that the library soul may teach teachers to read. On the theory that an important way to get people to enjoy books is to have books around, with such inviting surroundings that one just has to sit down and read and enjoy, our normal-school library might well afford such a room as the Farnsworth Room in the Widener Library at Harvard ; a fireplace, big leather chairs, rugs, pictures, books in a tempting range of subjects and bindings, an air of leisure. You gasp with me; but why not ? Why should our teachers' colleges not take themselves seriously in this matter of the furniture of the minds which we strive so hard to teach how to measure, to motivate, to obtain purposive activity, to supervise study, to engineer consolidated schools, and to administer city schools ? 486 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library As members of the body of our teachers' college library, necessary for the soul of the library, which is its educational activity, and not always being able to distinguish between body and soul, we have named and somewhat described an adequate stock of books and other printed materials, sufficient equipment to make these materials usable, a chil- dren's department, and a room calculated to inspire the reading of books. We have said little about building and general equipment ; their details are rather evident from our proposed articulation of the parts. We have said little, but have suggested much, concerning the staff of librarians who take the body of the library and add soul to it. Certainly it should be understood that our normal-school libraries need staff enough in quantity and quality to keep the library body and soul to- gether. It is my conviction, based upon considerable correspondence and opportunity to know the conditions, that many of our normal- school libraries are pitifully staffed (in numbers) , often starved in book stock and equipment, sometimes assigned no particular field other than passively handing out books, and that the library is one of the greatest teaching opportunities in the normal school and teachers' college. The educational work of the normal-school library has been sug- gested over and over again in describing its stock and equipment. It is partly a matter of attitude or vision in the acquirement, arrangement, and handling of library materials. It is also a matter of conscious purpose. An example of educational attitude in the handling of library materials is the librarian at the loan desk or "reserve" desk when, at a busy time, a request comes for a certain book on, let us say, the teach- ing of the common-school subjects. Because the book referred to by the instructor is in use (perhaps eight or ten copies of it in use) , does the desk attendant turn the student away ? Sometimes it is with difficulty that the student is persuaded to use anything but the professor's reference, but the desk attendant gradually wins the confidence of the student and shows him how he may use many books for his purpose. All this requires the teaching instinct and attitude on the part of the librarian. A further example is the practice of going to the shelves with students, particularly new students, to find material; of taking students to the catalogue or the magazine indexes and explaining their use and purpose. With this teaching, showing, guiding attitude willingly and con- sciously assumed by the library staff, the problem of formal instruction in the use of the library is simplified. In three or four months, per- haps, the bright student would learn to use the library so disposed to his convenience, by using it. But we save his time and make sure that certain fundamentals are learned at once by a series of instruction and Department] THE NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARY 487 library-problem hours. Here is call for most skilled type of teaching. You have only a few instruction periods in which to put simply and appealingly before inexperienced students how to use a complex bit of machinery with its ever varying human characteristics. But it is being more and more successfully done by our normal-school libraries. Per- haps it is within the province of this department to inquire into the reasons why it is not so frequently done by the larger teachers' college and university education department libraries . Another educational contribution of the normal-school library, ex- amples of which are becoming more frequent, is bibliographic research, the preparation of class reading-lists, the digesting and annotating of masses of material. It is a recognition of the educational attitude and practice of the library when your professors who write books ask for help in whole or in part on their bibliographies ; when your depart- ments of instruction turn over an outline of the term topics, asking the library to make a detailed topical reading-list, with citations to chapter and page, and to furnish mimeographed copies for class use and ex- tension use in the state. Why should not every normal school and teachers' college so equip and staff its mental service station that it may co-operate confidently with its fellow teaching departments ? In describing the book stock of our normal-school library, it was said that we should follow our students into the field, with service both general and special. If the normal school is turning out educational leaders, supervisors, principals, and superintendents, why should not the normal-school library within its territory issue usable information as to the best literature available on subjects like playground supervi- sion, supervised study, project method, visual education, vocational guidance, the correlation of civics, economics, industries, and history in the high school, silent reading, school hygiene, pageantry, and school consolidation-to mention only a few of many ? To be valuable, infor- mation of this sort must be revised and reissued at frequent intervals. It is an educational opportunity for the libraries of normal schools and teachers' colleges. It is my conviction that it is a form of service that brings big returns, both from the campus and classroom and from the larger campus in the state. It is good for education, good for the normal school, good for the library. All this body and soul and we have described only the high spots- for the normal-school library is not more than it needs if it performs its proper educational service in the training of teachers for the great world of today. The ideal librarian for this library is: (1) broad in scholarship, so as to enter intelligently and tolerantly into many human interests ; (2) master of at least one branch of learning or skill, so as to understand the zeal and needs of the specialist ; (3) unselfish, but not to the point 488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library of loss of self-respect ; (4) persistent, but knows when to stop ; (5) systematic, but not red-tapish ; (6) social-minded, which means that the librarian loves people as much as books, because books were made for people to use ; (7) neat in person and dress, because the librarian is the ambassador of the wisdom, the wit, the truth, and the beauty of the ages ; (8) human, which means that the librarian believes in his work, enjoys living, understands the gravity of things, and can now and then enjoy a laugh at himself and the rest of the world. THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL LIBRARY SHERMAN WILLIAMS, CHIEF OF SCHOOL- LIBRARIES DIVISION, EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N. Y. Just what these purposes should be and how they may be accomp- lished are not, perhaps, as clear to the general public as they should be. The great dominant purpose of the school library should be so to train the boys and girls that they will make use of the public library after leaving school-use it not merely for pleasure, but as a means of continuing their education. This is of especial importance for pupils who leave school too early, and for adults who are seeking an oppor- tunity for self-education. In this connection it may not be out of place to say that com- paratively few even of those who are trained librarians have a very broad vision as to the possibilities of the public library. The public library should to the fullest extent be an educational institution as much so as the public school. It should provide courses of reading in connec- tion with every prominent industry in the community in which it is situat- ed. It should also have courses in history, civics, biography, essays,, travels, poetry, and every other subject in which any considerable number of people in the community are interested. Not only should there be a well-chosen set of books for each subject, but there should be a leader for each course who will meet with the readers for a purely informal talk, say once a week. Something of this kind is very important as comparatively few can be relied upon to continue a systematic course of reading if left wholly to themselves. To carry on such work, there is need of a stronger financial support than most libraries have, or ever will have until libraries are regarded as educational institutions, and supported by public tax as are the schools . In many states we hear much of the dangers arising from adult illiteracy and in some states large sums of money are raised to combat this evil, but illiterates are not the chief source of danger in this country. It is the half-educated person, the man who can read, and who has considerable knowledge, but who has not been trained to think straight, who is dangerous, who is the easy prey of the clever demagogue and soap-box orator. Department] THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 489 If we call most of the pupils who leave our schools, even those who are high-school graduates, half-educated, we are quite liberal. They know considerable, but they are not sufficiently mature to think clearly and accurately. Some of these go to higher institutions of learning, many go into business and come into daily contact with bright people. Most of these will acquire a pretty good education, but what of the far greater number who have neither of these opportunities-women who spend their lives in shirt factories making buttonholes, men who operate machines that punch holes for eyelets in shoes, and for the millions of people who spend their lives in work of this character, work that is drudgery pure and simple and can never be made anything else. There is little educative result from such work. There cannot be. Yet this work must be done. What can be done for the people so occupied ? The public library attempting the kind of work mentioned would at least give them a chance. In these days we hear much about the work of Americanization of our foreign-born citizens. It is sad to reflect that not very much can be done to change the views of the adult except as he comes in daily contact with such people as we would like him to become. The public library offers more in this direction than does any other agency yet attempted. It not only gives information, but to some extent establishes social relations, or should do so. With this general idea of the work that the public library should and could do, I wish to show the part that the school library can play in this very important work. Children must be led to read that which is worth while and to love such reading. This is a teaching-process and must be done at home or at school or not at all. Very few homes will or can undertake this work. It is quite beyond the power of the public library to do much work of this kind. Of course, something can be done through chil- dren's departments, but at best they can reach only a very small part of the children of the country. Not one-half of them ever enter a library, but they all go to school and may be reached there. If the children were all persuaded to go to public libraries, the latter would be literally swamped. In addition to this only a very few librarians are in any fair sense teachers, any more than teachers are librarians. What then should the schools do ? First, as has been said, they should create the reading-habit. This will not be brought about through requiring the pupils to read that which they do not like, no matter how good the matter may be, or how well it is presented. It is well to bear in mind the fact that no one derives much benefit through doing anything that he does not want to do. The problem of the teacher, whether it be training the child to love to read, or whatever the work may be, is not to compel the children to do that which they do not want to do, but so to train them that they will wish to do the things that they 490 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library ought to do. Once a child has formed the reading-habit it is compara- tively easy to direct its reading. It would be an ideal condition if there were a fair library in every home and the parents had the time and ability to direct the reading of their children, but there are comparatively few such cases ; therefore, the burden must fall upon the school and the public library. This work should be begun as soon as the child enters school. Be- fore he can read the teacher can read to him, or, far better, tell him worth-while stories, stories that please, but do more than that, in- troduce him to the elements of good literature. There are certain things in literature, certain writings, with which every child should be made somewhat familiar as early as may be practicable, not merely because of the immediate pleasure that will be afforded, but because he will come to know something of character, incidents, and allusions to which he will find frequent references in his general reading all through life, and if he is ignorant of them, his reading will to some extent be meaningless to him. This reading should include the Mother Goose melodies, and such fairy stories, folk tales, allegories, legends, myths, and epic poems as are frequently mentioned or referred to in literature. These include such "children's classics" as Cinderella, Red Riding Hood, Jack and the Beanstalk, Bluebeard, Beauty and the Beast, Puss in Boots, and similar stories. Of these Robert Collyer said : I pity the boy or the girl who must grow up without having made intimate acquaintance with Mother Goose, and the wonderful stories of Jack the Giant Killer, Bluebeard, and Cinderella, and those other strange tales as old as the race itself, and yet new to every succeeding generation. They are all a part of the inheritance of the English-speaking people, and belong as a kind of birthright to every intelligent child. So far as possible the children in school should read good literature instead of schooi readers, with the exception of those that are made up of selections from standard literature. To do well the work that has been suggested calls for a larger col- lection of books than is to be found in most schools. Therefore, the public library should supplement the school library. There should be in each grade room a collection of suitable books to which the children may have free access at all times when they are free to read. Chil- dren differ greatly in ability. Some will learn their lessons in much less time than others, and so have considerable spare time for reading. These classroom collections may belong to the grade, or be a part of the school library or the public library. They may be kept there per- manently or changed from time to time. This is a matter of detail that each community may wisely be left to determine for itself. Someone has said : " Tell me what use one makes of his leisure time, and I can determine pretty accurately his chances of success in life. " So reading Department] THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 491 in spare moments, which would not be practicable without the use of grade-room libraries, may help to fix the habit of using one's leisure profitably. Aside from the works already mentioned, the children should be fairly familiar with such works as Pilgrim's Progress, Robin Hood, King Arthur and Knights of the Round Table, the stories of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and the more common Greek, Roman, and Norse myths. This familiarity may be acquired through proper use of leisure moments . While the primary purpose of the school library is to lead the chil- dren to form the reading-habit, it has other purposes. One of these is to use the library to supplement the subjects taught in school. For this purpose it is very desirable that there be a good collection of books in each grade room. A school textbook in geography, history, or any other descriptive subject is in the main a mere skeleton, and any attempt to make it more than that is likely to result in an uninteresting book, and a book that is not interesting is not likely to produce satisfactory results. Aboy in describing a skeleton in a written examination said it was "what there was left after the outside was taken off and the insides taken out." Not a bad definition. A skeleton is not a very attractive object, whether it be a set of bones or the dead outline of a subject to be studied. Both need to be clothed, the one with flesh and blood, the other through well-selected supplemental reading. When the pupils are studying geography they are dealing with a text far too large for them and lacking in interest. In connection with this subject they need to read many interesting books of travel and books treating of industries and commerce-no course in reading, but as large a collection of such books in the grade-room library as possible, supplemented with a list of such books as can be had from the public library, and each pupil should read such as he may chance to fancy. The teacher, and the librarian of the public library, if possible, should give the pupils some idea of what each book has to offer. The same thing is true in connection with the study of history. In this connection the children should be led to read good and attractive biographies, popular histories that are trustworthy, good historical novels, and historical poems. The same course of reasoning will apply to all descriptive subjects. It must be apparent to everyone that in the study of English the school library is practically indispensable, and that in this subject the school library should be largely supplemented by the public library. We need to bear in mind that mere knowledge is of no great value. We all know much more than we make use of. You know that it has been wisely said that "knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers" ; also, that 492 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Library "knowledge and wisdom, far from being one, have ofttimes no connec- tion." It might with equal truth be said that knowledge and education, far from being one, have ofttimes no connection. Again, schooling and education are very different things. Lincoln had very little schooling but who would say that he was not educated. So the school should do far inore than merely furnish information and a certain amount of mental activity. It is not so much what one knows as what he does that makes him of use in life either to himself or to others. Therefore, our children should be led to have a purpose in life. This may be brought about through their reading more readily than in any other way. To accomplish this is not the easiest task. Pupils should read stimulating books, but the book that will stimulate one pupil may not have that effect upon another, and a book that would be helpful at one period of life might not be of much value at another time. Pupils should early in life begin to read what, for the want of a better term, may be called inspirational books. But what books are inspirational ? That will be determined by the child, his present in- terests, his maturity of mind, his associates, and many other factors some of which are not easy to determine. Unfortunately, not many of our teachers have had the training to enable them to do well the work outlined. All schools of whatever grade that are training teachers should fit their pupils, not to be trained librarians, but to know some good books for each grade and why they are good. Each large school should have some teacher who has had some library training in order to help the teachers in the use of the school library, to aid, but not to supersede the teacher. Large high schools have well-trained librarians. Children should be trained to use refer- ence books to the best advantage, especially such as a dictionary, an encyclopedia, and the World Almanac. Probably the majority of our teachers have little idea of the wealth of information that may be had from an unabridged dictionary. Pupils should know some good news- papers and magazines and be taught to use them to good advantage. It may seem as though I have outlined a pretty hard task for schools and teachers, but if it seems so it is apparent rather than real. If earnestly attempted, it will be found a delightful and attractive task and therefore not difficult. THE RELATION OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY TO THE OTHER DEPARTMENTS OF THE SCHOOL ELLEN F. CHAMBERLAYNE, LIBRARIAN, BINGHAMTON CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, BINGHAMTON, Ν. Υ. The library should be the heart of the school the vital organ that gives life to the entire student body. It should send out its streams Department] THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY 493 of usefulness and inspiration through all the varied and various chan- nels of school activity. Just as the planner of a garden must study the climate, soil, and position of his plot before planting seeds and setting out shrubs, so we, as school librarians, must study our schools, (1 ) in relation to the com- munity-Is yours the only high school in town? Is it near to and affiliated with the public library? (2) we must study the student body- Do the pupils come from all classes of the population? What propor- tion of them are foreign-born ? How many of them are taking com- mercial work ? industrial work ? We should make a thorough study of the curriculum, getting from the head of each department an outline of the work planned for the year. We should familiarize ourselves with the syllabus of the state department of education, which is usually the basis of the different courses. (I met a school librarian once who had never heard of the state syllabus, who had no list of supplementary reading, and who had held her position two months without meeting personally or learning the names of several of the teachers of English .) We will of course attend all general faculty meetings and the con- ferences of the English group of which we will be a member, and we will get from each English teacher, at least a week in advance, a list of her special topics. This gives time to look up references, as- semble books and pictures, or go to the public library for additional material. * * * It is a good idea to invite each teacher to the library personally and show her the books and magazines that cover her subject. One of the disappointments of life is the apparent apathy and lack of interest in a library of the average teacher. The average high-school teacher does not read. "It follows as the night the day," that the average high-school pupil does not read. The gentle art of reading in the home is fast becoming a lost art. It is in the school, if at all, that the future citizens of our Republic must gain through books and reading a knowledge of this old earth we live on, with its marvels of animal and vegetable crea- tion ; it is through reading and study alone that they can know anything of the myriads who preceded us here, of their toils, their struggles, their achievements ; it is through reading and study alone that they can know anything of the men and women of our time, of their inventions, their plans for the betterment of the race, their dreams for the future ; through reading and study alone they may be lifted above bodily discomfort, ad- verse social conditions, and everything that holds them back from the fulfilment of their higher destiny. 494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library "He ate and drank the precious words, His spirit grew robust. He knew no more that he was poor Nor that his frame was dust. He danced along the dingy days, And this bequest of wings Was but a book ! What liberty a loosened spirit brings !" What is it that we are trying to do in our schools today? Are we go- ing to be satisfied if we insure our boys and girls healthy bodies and train them so that they can provide proper clothing and the right kind of food for them ? Until man found that he had a mind that needed nourishing, he was nothing but an animal. Many people are living in the Stone Age today, entirely content if their bodily wants are satisfied. From their ranks come the criminals and ne'er-do-wells who are a bur- den to society and a menace to our so-called civilization. All honor to the teachers who do read ! Who constantly bring something fresh and inspiring to their classes. Who believe, tremendous- ly, with the librarian that no person is fitted for life, unless he has the broadened and deepened outlook which can come alone from famil- iarity with the best literature. It is these teachers who are fulfilling the purpose for which alone our school system is maintained. They "hold the bright torch high, and pass it triumphant on." It requires courage and optimism of a high order to break through the seeming indifference of the average teacher and establish a library relation with each and every one of them. When we have convinced a teacher that the intelligent use of the library will simplify her task and make her work easier, we have made the right beginning. We convince her, I need hardly say, by suggesting a helpful book or maga- zine article or by assembling material for the use of her class or of herself that she would have difficulty in finding. I have a large easy chair, the gift of a departing class years ago, which I reserve for teach- ers in what I call the teacher's corner, and on a small revolving case I keep a few of the latest professional magazines the Classical Journal, English Journal, Education, School Review. ** * * ** * * A librarian is successful who can anticipate the possible needs of every department, and can be on hand with the needed articles or books or pictures. We need to keep ahead of the game, to use a slang ex- pression. Is there to be a prize speaking-contest, or a public debate, or a Near East drive, with the whole school writing papers on it, let the library have the material needed, reserved, and easily accessible. If a teacher of civics comes in and wants to know who is the presi- dent of the local water board and you don't know, step to the telephone and find out. Never turn down any inquiry until you have exhausted Department] THE HIGH- SCHOOL LIBRARY 495 the resources of your own library, the public library, the earth, the sea, the sky, and all that in them is. Get a reputation for knowing and teachers as well as pupils will come to you in ever increasing numbers. When you have the teachers intelligently using the library your prob- lem is solved. If you have a small annual appropriation for new books, still manage to add a few up-to-date books on science, civics, and history. Add a few books of new poetry and a little of the best fiction. Feature these in your school paper, but don't be content with this. Waylay a teacher in the corridor and tell her "I have a new book in the library I think you would like to look over." Then when she comes in, hand her, per- haps, those beautiful volumes on The Wild Flowers of New York State. Then show her all you have on nature study, or show her Brew- er's Vocational Guidance Movement, and if she is interested, show her all you have on vocational guidance. Sometimes leave a book on a teacher's desk with a note, asking her kindly to look it over and tell you her opinion of it ; Comstock's Nature Study, for instance, asking, "Is this too young for our pupils ?" or O. Henry's biography by Smith, asking, "Is this too old for our Freshmen ? Keep your book collection alive. Retire to obscure corners, or to a separate room if possible, all obsolete and dead material. A big collec- tion of junk will dampen the ardor of the most enthusiastic booklover. For example, I asked the head of our history department to look over our books on civics and to weed out everything that could not be used in this day and generation. I retired over a dozen books with his ap- proval. Similar conferences with the heads of departments will help them to realize that the library is theirs, and they will be glad to co- operate with you in giving it its widest usefulness. Three years ago a little twelve-year-old Slavic boy named Stephen came to us from SS. Cyril and Methodius Parochial School. He was quite overwhelmed by the bigness of things, and one day he leaned over my desk and whispered: "I don't understand English very well. If I don't know what things mean and I come to you, will you tell me ?" Of course I promised. Stephen's brother Joe was gassed while fighting in France, and I was shown the picture of the small brother that was sent over to him while he was in the hospital. At last the day came when Joe was coming home, and Stephen came in the library beaming. Pointing to the rubber silencers on the bottom of our chair legs, a makeshift till we can do better, he asked : "How much do them things cost ? Where can you buy them ? We've got a surprise on Joe when he comes home. We've got some new dining-room chairs for a surprise on Joe, and I want some of them things on 'em." Friends, that made me happy. I wonder-Do you feel as I do that places as well as people have an atmosphere of their own ? An aura, a something, 496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Library that emanates from them that is almost a tangible presence ? There was something about that room that small boy wanted to take home with him. The Americanizing influence of our libraries and our schools is be- ing exerted all the time on the children of our new Americans. It is far-reaching and permanent. A boy or girl is more vitally influenced by what he does voluntarily than by what he is compelled to do. Here is the school librarians's unique opportunity. The library is one place where the pupil gets something more than just what he comes for. The books and magazines constantly appeal to him. Here is a place where he can explore on his own initiative. I cannot make too strong my feeling that we should have very many attractively illustrated and attractively written books on American history, containing many personal narratives of historic happenings ; books that, as Superintendent Ettinger says, "reveal the enduring Anglo-Saxon principle of personal liberty." The principle that found- ed and has maintained our Republic. It is all too easy to let our under- takings trail off in glittering generalities or in spasmodic efforts that barely touch the surface of our Americanization problem. W. Clark Hall says : "Much has been done for the child, much is now being done, but the best is not being done. It is toward the best that all social endeavor should aim, and short of the best, neither the state nor the individual should rest satisfied." In conclusion I want to say that there is no such thing as perpetual motion. Nothing that moves goes of itself. A clock has to be wound. If the heart stands still, the body dies. If a library is a vital part of a school organization, co-ordinating with all of its departments, it is because a live librarian manipulates it and makes it go. Library work means untiring service. It has its great rewards ; many of them are in- tangible and are seen clearest with the eyes of the spirit. STEPPING-STONES TO CORRECT TASTE A. B. NOBLE, DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH , IOWA STATE COLLEGE, AMES, IOWA Helping pupils to distinguish a good book from a poor book is an important service-one that comes directly to librarians and teachers of English. If pupils are interested in trash, how can we lead them to appreciate something better ? What test have we for determining what isbetter? The test I propose is the classification made by Professor Brander Matthews,¹ who has pointed out four types of events in the chrono- logical development of fiction: first, the impossible, as in The Arabian Nights; second, the improbable, as in Cooper and Dumas ; third, the probable, as in Balzac and Thackeray, and fourth, the inevitable, as in Hawthorne and George Eliot. This classification is based on a single On Pleasing the Taste of the Public, in Aspects of Fiction, pp. 63-64. Department] STEPPPING-STONES TO CORRECT TASTE 497 fundamental principle-truth. For our immediate purpose this division is very suggestive and helpful. Dr. Holmes¹ said that while the child is at first attracted to the lie, he soon learns to prefer the truth. Few lessons are more important; the future of the youth depends in large measure upon his ability to perceive truth and to use it. On a percep- tion and knowledge of the truth he must base his future success ; with- out a knowledge of truth, there is no enduring progress for the indi- vidual or for a nation. We shall serve our pupils whenever we help them to distinguish between falsehood and truth. The fundamental ob- jection to most trashy fiction is that it is untrue. * * * * * To be specific, let us consider one recent book, very popular with young people-Tarzan of the Apes. Published in 1914, it was continued by another Tarzan book each year for five years. On these books have been based three motion pictures, each a "thriller." This paper concerns the first book only. Tarzan was born of English parents in a jungle of West Africa. After the death of his parents the day he was a year old, he was suckled and reared by a chimpanzee. With a devoted ape for a foster mother, Tarzan of course developed into a superman, " fully as strong as the aver- age man of thirty, and far more agile than the most practiced athlete ever becomes. And day by day his strength was increasing. He could spring twenty feet across space at the dizzy heights of the forest top and grasp with unerring precision and without apparent jar a limb waving wildly in the path of an approaching tornado." Can anybody who stops to think believe such bosh? With a rope which he taught himself how to weave out of jungle grass, and which he taught himself how to cast as a lasso (what a genius he was !) he caught wild boars, panthers, lions, chimpanzees, black men, hung them from the limb of a tree, and with his father's knife, stabbed his defenseless victims to the heart. Im- agine him stealing through the tree tops, dropping a noose over the head of an unsuspecting lion, standing on the precarious footing of a limb, and pulling a lion weighing from three to four hundred pounds into mid-air, tying one end of the rope about the trunk of the tree, and des- cending leisurely to the ground, to finish the poor beast with a single stab of a knife left by his father. Is it permitted to wonder what the lion was doing after the noose settled about his neck the lion with four feet on the ground and Tarzan bracing himself for this unique pulling contest on the limb of a tree? If the king of beasts should be strong enough to jerk the limb when he tugged on the rope, what would prob- ably happen to Tarzan ? But as excited readers are supposed to gulp the whole tale down without stopping to think or daring to ask a ques- tion, probability may of course be utterly disregarded. Once when a The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, p. 116. 498 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library fierce lion was pushing in through the window of the hut built by Tarzan's father, and just about to seize a beautiful young woman, Tarzan, having neither lasso nor knife at hand, grabbed the huge beast by the tail, pulled him back through the window, jumped on his back, and-necessity being in Africa, also, the mother of invention-passed his arms under the forelegs of the lion, clasped his hands on the back of the lion's neck, and so marvelous was Tarzan's strength or so weak the lion's neck, slowly bent the head forward and broke the poor beast's neck. How fortunate that Tarzan discovered the wrestler's " full Nelson" just in the nick of time ! Would that impertinent fellow from Missouri dare to ask what the fool lion was doing all this time ? Once, on a wager, Tarzan went, naked and alone at night, into an unfamiliar jungle, stalked his lion, lassoed and killed him, threw him on his shoulder, climbed the nearest tree, raced through the treetops with the lion on his back-lions are probably very light when one gets them into treetops and won the wager, all in an hour. If Tarzan is to be left at large in Africa, the lions had better apply for cages in Ringling's menagerie. No safety for a lion in a jungle when Tarzan is on the job! * * * * * For librarians and teachers of English it is easy to see that Tarzan is utterly preposterous, mere bosh. But how can we make our pupils see this ? Simply by asking them to think as they read. Suppose we ask them to analyze it according to the classification made by Brander Matthews . What intelligent youngster could fail to see that it consists almost solely of the improbable and the impossible ? We are poor teachers if we cannot lead our pupils to see how utterly impossible are the events, and how unreal the hero. We might ask our pupils to consider the descriptive details, and report whether they are clear or vague, definite or indefinite. Kipling's rhyme might help : I keep six honest serving men (They taught me all I knew) : Their names are What and Why and When And How and Where and Who. Consider a few examples : "He could drop twenty feet at a stretch from limb to limb in rapid descent to the ground, or he could gain the utmost pinnacle of the loftiest tropical giant with the ease and swift- ness of a squirrel." But how ? Being a man he does not have the feet of a squirrel or of a monkey? Having dropped twenty feet- twenty feet !-how does he secure himself on the new limb before he drops again to the next? Do jungle trees have limbs conveniently arranged in perpendicular succession, like the rungs of a ladder ? Are there no intervening limbs, no gaps of more than twenty feet, which even Tarzan dare not attempt? Department] STEPPPING - STONES TO CORRECT TASTE 499 When Kipling tells us about Rikki-Tikki-Tavi's attacking Nag, the big black cobra, he describes just how Nag was lying, just where Rikki struck him, and why he struck him there, and then what a furious shaking and battering Rikki received, how doggedly he held on, and how dizzy, aching, and shaken-to-pieces he felt when it was all over. From that single short story in the Second Jungle Book students may get more real information about jungle animals than in all of Tarzan. Although in Kipling's stories there is a large imaginative element, the basis is truth, fidelity to actual traits in the various animals, and the pictures are definite, distinct, and clear. Again, we are poor teachers of English if we cannot make our pupils see how vastly superior is Kipling. If we can get them to read the Jungle Books and other animal stories by Kipling, such as Mobi Guj-Mutineer and Plain Tales and Mine Own People, there is little danger that they will ever again care for Tarzan or any other book of that type. As a composition exercise we might ask them after reading Mark Twain's Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses to satirize something in Tarzan after the same fashion. Bright youngsters with a gleam of humor would relish such an exercise. One could hardly find better opportunities for satire. Roosevelt's African Game Trails will furnish details about the actual killing of lions. Let them read that and then whet their satirical dagger for Tarzan. The youngster that would not enjoy such an exercise has either no imagination or no sense of humor. Even the dullards ought to succeed at this task. Perhaps Afri- can Game Trails might lead on to Hunting Trips of a Ranchman and The Winning of the West. If so, a taste that began with Tarzan would end in something worth while. * * * * * Probably, however, the attraction of Tarzan is not so much in jungle conditions or in animal life, as in action, stirring events. If so, it may be compared with any one of many novels and romances that abound in action. Every teacher in English knows dozens of such books, the poorest of which is doubtless far superior to Tarzan. It would be idle to attempt to make a list. But let me name one which I happen to have read recently-The Patrol of the Sun Dance Trail by Ralph Connor. This book has stirring action, thrills, heroism, idealism. It also has suspense and climax, which Tarzan lacks. Its background is historical. The events are clearly possible, even prob- able, and the characters are consistent and natural. Such a book is instructive, and its influence elevating. As soon as pupils come to know such books, Tarzan and books like it will cease to be attractive. In the last analysis books of the Tarzan type are simply literary dramshops, intoxicating their readers while they linger there, and weakening their power to reflect and to reason. To accept as truth 500 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library such bosh as Tarzan is to cease to think; and to cease to think is to cease to grow. One who indulges frequently in such literary in- toxicants is likely to consider the daily routine dull and uninteresting, likely to neglect daily tasks and duties, likely to seek pleasure not in the actual world about him, but rather in an imagined impossible world of thrills and marvels. Let no one consider that books like Tarzan are harmless. They tend to make their admirers incapable of continuous mental effort. * * * * * All life is developed from within. "Out of the heart are the issues of life." Character grows from ideals; or, as some one has put it, "Character is caught by contagion." One may catch this contagion from a friend; one may also catch it from a book-a biography, a drama, a poem, a novel. A novel true to life may easily convey this contagion of fine character and high ideals. To imbibe high ideals from books is therefore to prepare one's self for right conduct. If it be true that conduct is three-fourths of life, then books that nurture high ideals and prepare for right conduct are among our priceless possessions. But no such benefit comes to any reader except as he thinks and discriminates. If he loves Tarzan and dreams of Tarzan his fate is sealed. We are nourished, not by marvels and lies, which lead us nowhere, but by realities the things that surround us daily, and which, if we are to succeed, we must understand. In the daily round of things commonplace the thinker, the genius, develops his power. Darius Green's dream of a flying machine, because it had no basis in physical laws, ended in disillusionment and broken shins ; the Wright Brothers, by mastering certain laws of physics, developed a machine that really flies, and the world is benefited by their thinking. After years of incessant effort and such sacrifice by strong, devoted men and women who understood better than did others the truth about intoxicating liquor, the world seems about to be freed from this evil. Are we librarians and teachers of English, who probably understand better than do others the truth about intoxicating books, nerved to wage unceasing warfare against the literary dramshops of today ? When we have led our pupils to prize truth, we may then lead them on to works of constructive imagination and beauty. Tarzan has imagination without truth, and hence leads to nothing. The fantastic career of Peer Gynt resulted from an overdeveloped imagi- nation and an unwillingness to face facts. Although Peer realized at times that his imaginings were mere lies, he had played with them so long that he could not shake them off. In contrast with Peer's wild, freakish imagination we might ask our pupils to consider a construc- tive imagination, anticipating and pointing the way to a real achieve Department] PUBLIC LIBRARY IN PUBLIC EDUCATION 501 ment. For example, in the field of scientific invention, Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea, once denounced as impossible, but now realized in the submarine. In the realm of social welfare, Sir Walter Besant's All Sorts and Conditions of Men, a dream which Arnold Toynbee declared to be too good not to be true, and which he set to work to realize in the People's Palace of Pleasure, erected in the slums of London to serve the end imaginatively described by the novelist. From this first People's Palace have come social settlements in all the great cities of Western Europe and America, and also in many smaller cities, such as Des Moines. Such imaginings as Verne's and Besant's are constructive and prophetic because they are based on truth. Forerunning every great accomplishment is a vision : a vision, then a bridge, a steam engine, a telephone, a wireless telegraph; a vision of something better in government, then the Constitution of the United States, preparing the way for a great nation. But if a vision is ever to be realized it must have a solid foundation in truth and it must be worked out with mastery of detail. If the pupils now under our guidance are to help solve the problems of the coming day they must be able not only to observe, to discrimi- nate, to compare and classify, but also to construct-to construct visions of better machines, better schools, better churches, better social and industrial methods, better systems of government, better world- relations. To this end the books that they read should be based on truth, and should develop the imagination and direct it along con- structive lines. Literature contains many books of this character. As teachers we shall not have rendered the service we ought to render until we have trained our pupils to appreciate not Tarzan of the Apes, but books of truth and of rich, imaginative power, such as those of Hawthorne, George Eliot, and Shakespeare. When we have helped our pupils to plant their feet firmly, first on the stepping-stone of truth, and then on the stepping-stone of imagi- nation, they will find it easy to reach the stepping-stone of beauty ; for insensibly a passion for truth and quick, constructive imagination lead on to beauty. And the trinity of truth, imagination, and beauty will conduct them to the goal of correct taste, even though they started at Tarzanville. THE PART OF THE PUBLIC LIBRARY IN PUBLIC educA- TION CARL H. MILAM, SECRETARY AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION, CHICAGO, ILL. If we are to maintain our place among the educated nations of the world we must provide for the education of adults as well as children. No man is educated if he stops studying when he leaves school. 502 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library University-extension courses, correspondence schools, and the vari- ous reading-courses offered are reaching thousands, but are leaving millions untouched. Books and libraries are the simplest and best agencies for universal education. When adequately administered, the free public library offers the means of education to every individual, literally from the time that individual first begins to look at pictures until his days are ended. Those who believe in education should work for the establishment and development of libraries which will be available to every one of the 105 million people in the United States, whether they live in towns or in the country. And they should work for the maintenance of those free agencies of universal education on a more adequate basis than has been realized anywhere up to this time. The county library is the best agency yet devised for bringing edu- cational advantages within the reach of 60,000 Americans who are now practically beyond the influence of books. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON NORMAL SCHOOL LIBRARIES WILLIS KERR, LIBRARIAN KELLOGG LIBRARY, KANSAS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, EMPORIA, KANS. A measuring stick is needed for normal school and teachers' college libraries. How large should be the staff of librarians in a normal school of 750 students ? How large the library appropriation ? How many books are needed in the library of a teachers' college of 1,200 students ? How much floor space ? What library instruction should be given? Administrators, boards of regents, faculty committees, and librarians of normal schools and teachers' colleges are asking questions like these. There ought to be an authoritative answer. For until the teacher-train- ing institutions have adequate, satisfying library service, resulting in teachers trained to know the true value and use of libraries in education, not only will all types of education be deficient, but all other types of libraries will fail of their highest usefulness. The National Education Association ( Library Department) com- mittee on normal school libraries has therefore set up the following preliminary statement of standards for libraries in normal schools and teachers' colleges. It invites comments of any sort. It is beginning a survey of normal school and teachers' college libraries, and upon the basis of the facts will prepare and publish a more comprehensive set of standards. Correspondence should be addressed to W. H. Kerr, Librarian, Kellogg Library, Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas. Department] REPORT ON NORMAL SCHOOL LIBRARIES 503 The statement of standards is in two parts : (1) for two-year normal schools ; (2) for four-year teachers' colleges. The figures for each are given on a basis of a minimum average winter enrolment of 300 and 500 students, respectively, with increments for each additional 300 or 500 student enrolment or major fraction thereof, respectively. For example, a normal school of 500 students should have a library appro- priation, other than salaries and building, of $3,500 per year-$2,500 for its first 300 students, and $1,000 increment for the additional 200 students. Proper allowances should be made for enlarged personnel and facilities to serve large summer school enrolments. A. TWO- YEAR NORMAL SCHOOLS INITIAL ENROLMENT INCREMENT FOR EACH 300 STUDENTS ADDITIONAL 300 STUDENTS I. Building and Equipment : 1. Rooms: No. of No. Sq. ft. Readers No. Sq. ft. Readers accom. (a) Reading 1 1875 75 1 1250 50 (b) Reference 1 500 25 500 25 (c) Periodical 1 500 25 400 20 (d) Children's 1 600 25 500 20 (e) Office, cataloguing, and work 3 600 1 200 (f) Library classroom 1 600 50 2. Book Stock : Vols. Vols. (a) General -15,000 5,000 (b) Reference, incl. bound periodicals 3,500 1,500 (c) Children's 1,500 500 Total -20,000 7,000 3. Equipment : (a) Stacks or shelving (b) Illustrative material (c) Furniture (d) Library apparatus II . Library Fund : Amount Amount per year per year Not including salar- ies and building maintenance $2,500 $1,000 III . Librarian and Staff : 1. Qualifications : - (a) Librarian : A. B. or A. M. degree, plus one year training in approved library school, plus three years ' success- ful library or teaching experience, pref- erably both 504 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library (b) Staff members : A. B. degree, plus one year library school training, plus one year teaching experience 2. Academic Status : (a) Librarian: full professor, with vote (b) Staff : rank as instructors 3. Number : (a) Librarian .... 1 (b) Staff 3 4. Salaries : (a) Librarian : same as the professor of English, with increases on same basis. (b) Staff: same as instructors in English, with increases on same basis. IV. Library Instruction : 1. Required : At least 12 lessons, in the fresh- man year, given by member of library staff 2. Elective : At least one other course, such as children's literature or library organization, 3 semester hours B. FOUR- YEAR TEACHERS' COLLEGES INITIAL ENROLMENT INCREMENT FOR EACH 500 STUDENTS ADDITIONAL 500 STUDENTS I. Building and Equipment: 1. Library building with following rooms : No. Sq.ft. Seats No. Sq. ft. Readers (a) Reading 1 2500 100 1 1500 75 (b) Reference 1 1250 50 1 1250 50 (c) Periodical 1 1000 50 400 25 (d) Children's 2 1000 50 500 25 1 (e) Office, cataloguing, and work 4 1000 1 200 (f) Library classroom 1 750 60 2. Book Stock: Vols. Vols . (a) General -20,000 10,000 (b) Reference, incl. bound periodicals 7,500 2,000 (c) Children's 2,500 1,000 Total ................30,000 13,000 3. Equipment : (c) Stacks and shelving (b) Illustrative material (c) Furniture (d) Library apparatus II . Library Fund : Amount Amount per year per year Atdisposal of librarian, not incl . salaries and building maintenance $6,000 $3,000 Department] REPORT ON NORMAL SCHOOL LIBRARIES 505 III . Librarian and Staff : 1. Qualifications : (a) Librarian : A. B. or A. M. degree ; plus one or two years training in ap- proved library school, or five years conspicuously successful library ex- perience; plus five years successful teaching or library experience, pref- erably both successful teaching or library experience, preferably both (b) Staff members : A. B. degree, plus one or two years library school training, plus two years teaching experience 2. Academic Status : (a) Librarian : Full professor, with vote (b) Staff : Rank as instructors 3. Number : (a) Librarian 1 (b) Staff..... 5 4. Salaries: (a) Librarian : Same as the professor of English or other important department heads, with increases on same basis (b) Staff : Same as instructors in English, with increases on same basis IV. Library Instruction : 1. Required : At least 12 lessons, in the fresh- man year, given by a member of library staff 2. Elective : At least two other courses, such as Children's literature, Bibliography and reference work, and Library organization Department of Music Education i SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICER President C. A. FULLERTON, director of music, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa FIRST SESSION TUESDAY MORNING, JULY 5, 1921 The department met at Hotel Savery, Chamber of Commerce Lounge. The meeting was called to order by the president at ten o'clock. The entire session was devoted to discussion of the course of study for music supervisors which was adopted by the National Conference of Music Supervisors at St. Joseph, Mo. , April 8, 1921. Osbourne McConathy of the School of Music at Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, who is a member of the Council of the Supervisors ' Con- ference that prepared the course under consideration, presented the course. The discussion was opened by Ernest Horn of the Department of Education, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. The next speaker was John R. Kirk, president of Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo. So much interest was shown in the subject that an extra session was called in the afternoon. It was voted unanimously that the Department of Music Education of the National Education Association express its approval of the course adopted at St. Joseph, Mo.¹ The following is an excerpt from the course for training supervisors : "As a result of the findings of the committee in connection with the discus- sions of this same topic that took place at the December meeting of the entire Educational Council, and in accordance with the action of the Council at this meeting, we make the following recommendations : 1. The demands made upon the supervisor of music of today are so great and involve so much responsibility that a longer training course for supervisors than has been required in the past is absolutely essential. It may not be possible for all schools with short courses to change these immediately; but it is recom- mended that in general four years be considered the minimum time which the prospective supervisor of music should be expected to spend in preparing him- self for his work. It is understood of course that this is to be a professional course and presupposes as a prerequisite graduation from a standard four-year ivalent; and it is expected that the student's work in high-school course or its equivalent; the high school will include such courses in music as will insure that he shall be able by the end of his high-school course to perform on the piano in at least the difficulty of two grades ( M. T. N. A. grading ) ; to sing, at sight, material at least of the difficulty of ordinary hymn and folk tunes ; and to take down tonal dictation of moderate difficulty. It is understood also that only persons having an agreeable singing voice and a fairly quick sense of tone and rhythm will be admitted to supervisor's training courses. 2. Since the supervisor's major preparation is to be in music, the degree which he receives in recognition of his four years of preparation should be a musical degree, the Mus. B. , or if preferred Mus. B. in Education. 3. The proportion of work in the Supervisor's Training Course should be approximately three- fourths professional and one-fourth academic or cultural. The course adopted at St. Joseph, Mo., and a course in music for the eight grades in the public schools prepared by the same council may be secured from George Oscar Bowen, 2 Geddes Heights, Ann Arbor, Mich., at 10 cents per copy. 507 508 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music Education 4. The ninety hours of professional work (on the basis of one hundred and twenty hours required for graduation ) should include about sixty hours of music study, and approximately thirty hours of pedagogical requirements. 5. The thirty hours of academic work required in the course should include such subjects as English, history, dramatic expression (speech) modern language, and science. 6. The sixty hours of music study should include the following : Piano 8hours (covering at least the third grade-M. T. N. A. grading) Voice 4hours Theory (harmony, form, and analysis) ...... .... 16 hours Ear-training (melodic and harmonic) ... 8hours Sight-singing and chorus practice ..... 4hours History and appreciation. 8hours Orchestration and practical work on orchestral instruments . 8hours Elective 4hours 7. The pedagogical requirements are to include the following : Educational psychology and principles of teaching ....... ....... 10 hours Conducting, methods for grades, high-school, orchestra, etc. , together with practice teaching ..... 20 hours SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921 The department met at Hotel Savery and was called to order by the president at two o'clock. The entire session was devoted to a discussion of standardization tests and measurements in music in one-room rural schools and in consolidated schools, and to a demonstration of the process of testing pupils with pupils from the -rural schools in the vicinity of Des Moines. Mr. Fullerton, who conducted the demonstration with the pupils, in his introductory remarks made the following explanations concerning the origin and purpose of the tests. In attempting to assist in the music work in the rural schools in the vicinity of Cedar Falls, some phonograph records were made of children's songs, and various means were employed to use the phonograph in teaching children to sing and in cultivating a sense of rhythm. From the first the practicability of the plan became more and more apparent. The phonograph not only demon- strated its usefulness to the teachers who cannot sing well but it proved to be of surprising benefit to the more musical teachers. With the co-operation of the rural teachers, participation, of the pupils with the phonograph in performing music developed gradually, and it was in an attempt to compare the results in different schools that the standardization tests were formulated. The tests at present are arranged in eight groups. They are all standardized by the phono- graph. In these eight groups there are twenty distinct tests to be taken in- dividually. The pupil gets 5 per cent if he succeeds with the exercise, nothing if he fails. The eight groups are : 1. With a song record the pupil sings four songs with the instrument. 2. With a march he passes four tests in rhythm. 3. He hums two melodies with violin record. 4. He sings the syllables of two songs with the song record. 5. He does his part accurately in two singing games with the phonograph. 6. He commits to memory two national songs and sings them with a band accompaniment. 7. With a march record he makes notes and sharps at the black board. 8. He sings, hums, or whistles two melodies with an instrumental record. The tests sheets are to be placed in the teacher's hands in September, the grades to be recorded from time to time during the year, and the reports collected the following spring. The tests for consolidated schools are similar in kind to those in the one- room rural schools, but more elaborate. At present the tests are given in but three grades, the third, the sixth, and the eighth. PREPARATION OF MUSIC SUPERVISORS 509 Department] These tests do not constitute a complete course of study. The principal purpose is (1 ) to concentrate upon the phases of school music that are worthy of first consideration from the standpoint of present enjoyment and also for preparation for future musical growth ; (2) to standardize the singing in a school and thus establish good habits; (3) to measure the success of the music teaching by showing definitely what each individual can do. These tests are the initial step in working out a course of study in music for consolidated schools. At the end of each school year when the records are collected, the teacher will be asked to suggest improvements in the tests and a new statement of the tests will be issued for the following year. The following officers for 1922 are : President, Osbourne McConathy, Director of the Department of School Music, Northwestern University, Evans- ton, Ill.; Vice-President, C. A. Fullerton, Director of Music, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa; Secretary, Mary McKay, Supervisor of Music, Elgin, Ill. PREPARATION OF MUSIC SUPERVISORS—SHALL THEY HAVE A BALANCED COLLEGE EDUCATION ? JOHN R. KIRK, PRESIDENT STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KIRKSVILLE, MO . In the near future musical education is to be on a par with each of the twenty or thirty other essential studies in elementary schools, high schools, and colleges. It is to cost the individual child and stu- dent no more and no less than any other basic and substantial part of the curriculum. It is to be taught by persons having extended and thorough scholarship and also adequate professional preparation. In every well-established branch of professional education there are certain essential preliminary studies. Well-regulated colleges do not admit students to the study of medicine, law, engineering, etc., without organized bases in elementary education, high-school education, and sixty or more semester hours in universally recognized college studies. Preliminary preparation does not mean arrested development. It means effective specialization. It means maturity and strength, versatil- ity and resiliency, in those who would teach. It goes deeper than personal privilege. It means recognition of the rights of those that are to be taught. It means regard for the capability, the many-sided- ness, the vastly varied inheritances and instincts in the child, the adoles- cent, and grownup. I come to you with a dream and a vision. I would have you see the far-away sky line in all directions. Predominant talent of each young person undergoing education is to be distinctly recognized. Con- stant regard is to be had for that talent. I go further and plead for practical, and full-rounded development of every child in the Republic. Musical education is to be based on far-reaching physical education, frequent expert inspection of eyes, ears, nose, throat, lungs, teeth, and skeletal conditions, with knowledge of diet, exercise, sleep, bathing, and 510 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music Education ventilation. Essential conventionalities-reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, spelling-all these and others are to have due recognition while we are always to bear in mind that no child can be equally capable in all the avenues of activity. I am anticipating provision for the music student through all the grades and all the years, from kindergarten to graduate college inclusive. Sight reading must become automatic at an early date. Use of the nomenclature of composers, authors, and printers is to become automatic. Musical appreciation is to characterize all school and college life. Music is part of universal education. It is to run parallel with other studies, and at no time to be in abatement. In middle and upper high-school classes, if not earlier, it is to be of many varieties. This means regular- ity and sanity. It means credit for all music studies and all music ex- ercises, along with English and mathematics and other studies for credit. It considers and recognizes major and minor interests of every child even in the elementary school. Music is to be accredited in every phase of school life in precisely the way, quantitatively and qualitatively, that study in other subjects is accredited. Music has educative value equaling, so far as anybody knows, that of any other study. It is capable of being woven into life and mental constitution just the same as any other study is. Music, being part of the world, deserves place in consciousness with other parts of the world. Every educated person is to have glimpses into the musical ideals and musical products of the world, and thereby be better able to interpret the varied parts of the world for personal use. Music is to be taught all the time and everywhere with view to the widening horizon. The music supervisor and the music teacher are not to be discriminated against and handicapped and short circuited as to the material out of which the world is to be built in their conscious- ness. Literature, languages, and sciences are parts of the world. No- body has built the world very well in consciousness without some of each of them. Nobody is a good teacher of any great subject without knowledge of the major parts of the world which may come into view through that subject. In passing we may notice a painful fact : In our country a majority of the people have no musical education. Most of the college graduates are as ignorant of music as are the people at large. A majority of the music teachers have little or no college education. The major part of the world is left out of their consciousness. In fundamental world- knowledge very many of the music teachers are as ignorant as intel- ligent illiterates. The music teacher is to thrill and energize and uplift young life, middle life, and all life. A good music teacher motivates and refines life, but he or she does that no more than a good teacher of literature Department] PREPARATION OF MUSIC SUPERVISORS 511 or science. The music teacher has audiences and therefore is furnished publicity. He deals with crowds more than other specialists, and is tempted to rely upon emotionalism and excitement. He or she is fre- quently trying to generate energy as a dynamo does, getting the energy from nobody knows where. Music is perhaps no more potent in gener- ating insights and interest than any other great subject is. Deep study in music is like deep study in any other great science or art. Music is both science and art. When we recognize this fact we may think and build substantially. But music is more than science and art. It is a storehouse and an outlook of world-thought and world- sentiment. It is like history and literature in these respects, but not greater than either of them, and not greater than any other great human study. One cannot imagine a great mind more self-exalted than Edison or Nicola Tesla or any other great student in laboratory or in library. Music is simply one of the great, permanent, substantial, generative forces in world-consciousness and human growth. It commands our profound consideration. We all know there are some whimsical and superficial scientists. We know equally well there are some pretentious, eccentric, sentimental, narrow-gauge music masters. They sometimes talk about temperamen- talism, as if that were something other than sheer mental distemper. But great leaders, composers, teachers, and creators in music interpret the world and its activities and organize their great ideals and express their great conceptions and hopes in their own great way, just as poets, authors, and scientists do. These great ones in music are as dignified and as versatile and as well under self-control as other great people are. Music is entirely natural. It is not sporadic. It is not merely an emotion. It stands for vast, sane idealism. It generates and develops power and poise and steadiness. It does these things when it is taken into consciousness or produced or directed by well balanced persons having the high points in world-knowledge well worked into their own operative individuality. Music appeals to breadth and depth of judg- ment. It quickens intellect. It stirs emotions. But so do literature and midnight victory in mastery of mathematics or electricity. The high purpose of music is for purity and goodness. It makes children and men and women better, happier, more altruistic. Music is one of the universal languages. All intelligent, sane persons who are free from physical defects and undamaged by arrested development are able to speak it and to hear it and to appreciate it. Certainly some of us lack rods and cones or other queer things in our nervous systems, in our eyes, or our ears, or other parts of our human electrical mechan- ism. Some are color blind ; some are otherwise physically defective. But those who have defects in the item of music appreciation are more com- monly in a state of arrested development through no fault of their own. 512 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music Education The supervisor and director of music may get some aid or refine- ment in some of the conservatories of music, but the conservatories of music contribute comparatively little to music education in the universal scheme. Those who would teach and aid and uplift the crowd and educate all the members of the crowd must learn and know the ways of the crowd. And that can not be done in small inclosures. There was much waste in the days of the dominancy of the private music school and the small private college. We cherish kind memories of the small, private nuclei that started many wholesome and beneficial refine- ments. But the vast machinery of the universal education scheme has to take over the preparation of the teachers and leaders in universal education. Here and there highly endowed private institutions will be- come so many-sided and so useful that we will utilize them in substan- tially the same way as we do the various branches of the tax-supported universal education scheme. We find no fault with talented individuals and groups who make contributions of any kind to the common good but the force of the music director and the music teacher for the masses naturally and necessarily comes through long and fortunate elbow touch with the crowd, the wholesome, hopeful crowd in public education institutions. When music comes into its own, the teachers of music will be as well, as widely, and as systematically prepared to teach music as others are to teach arithmetic, spelling, and reading. But a majority of teach- ers cannot teach arithmetic. A majority of them cannot teach reading and geography. The new order will produce wholesome differentiation of function for all teachers in all schools. The teachers in the elemen- tary school above the second grade will not be teaching more subjects than the teacher in the junior high school or in the senior high school. Then music will come into its own in all schools . So will other studies. Do you see what we are trying to get at? Do you see that we recognize music as fully susceptible of coming into universal utility, universal comprehension, and universal appreciation, along with other studies in all the grades of all the schools and colleges ? When we bring music into full and complete recognition, something like the following will be recognized as minimum essentials in the pre- paration of music teachers, supervisors, and directors : ( 1 ) A thorough elementary-school education in which music will run parallel with other studies . (2) High-school education with opportunity to cover from one to four high-school units in music. (3) College education of four years in which at least sixty semester hours will be elected or selected from such studies as literature, history, science, mathematics, and other fundamental subjects serving as bases for specialization. These elected and selected undergraduate studies will be as well organized as those Department] PREPARATION OF MUSIC SUPERVISORS 513 now required and hereafter to be required in preparation for law, medi- cine, or any other great field of specialized human activity. (4) Special- ization will continue through graduate studies at various times as long as the several individuals retain the elasticity and resiliency that charac- с- terize capable teachers in active service. Finally everywhere and all the time there is going to be full credit for all music studies on a par with all other studies and at no greater cost to the individual child or student than any other study. Music is going to be an integral and permanent part of universal education, from lowest to highest inclusive. It is going to be taught everywhere and all the time by persons having as thorough and extensive academic edu- cation and as well-grounded professional preparation as those who teach other well-differentiated studies. For the defense and promotion of music all the real music leaders and idealists and all the friends of music ought really to get themselves into a somewhat militant attitude. The music leaders ought some day to free themselves from the just charge of seeming to temporize with a great fundamental force in education. They ought to lead the country in a relentless campaign to free music education from the blight of com- mercialism that affects and afflicts music instruction in so many of the colleges, universities, and conservatories. There is also grave need for open warfare on the exploitation of the music field by pseudo-artists but real pirates who manipulate and mis- lead public sentiment and who shrivel and dwarf themselves into species of performing acrobats on the musical stage. Many of these people become unconscionably mercenary. Many of them attain hypnotic plausibility in collecting fees and door receipts from the unsophisticated. Such people should be put out of the game. Professors and teachers of music in the colleges and universities should rise to a higher appreciation of their responsibilities and their duties. They should have the courage to provide curriculums and to organize their great problems and to attack those problems with such effectiveness that the colleges of music everywhere could compel the deans and the professors in all the other colleges to give just as much credit for the courses and degrees in music as they give for the courses and the degrees in any other college or department. Department of Normal Schools SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-W. A. LEWIS, president state normal school........... Hayes, Kans . Secretary-ANNA M. TIBBETS, head department of education, Fargo College.... Fargo, N. D. The Department of Normal Schools met in the Chamber of Commerce Library, Hote! Savery, Des Moines, Iowa, at two o'clock, July 6, 1921. The meeting was called to order by the president, W. A. Lewis, president of the State Normal School, Hayes, Kansas. It was moved and carried that a com- mittee on nominations be appointed. The president appointed as members of that committee : President Sims, of Stevens Point, Wis.; President Mathews, of Tempe, Ariz.; and President Waldo, of Kalamazoo, Mich. The subject for the afternoon's discussion was the question of greater recognition of normal schools and the interrelation of normal schools and junior colleges. The following took part in the discussion : President Brandenberg, Pittsburg, Kans.; President Sims, Stevens Point, Wis.; President Dearmont, Teachers College, Cape Girardeau, Mo.; President McKenna, Teachers College, Ypsilanti, Mich.; President Johnson, Normal College, Rock Hill, S. C.; President Evans, Normal College, San Marcos, Tex.; President Butcher, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans.; President Seerley, Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa; W. H. Gemmell, secretary of State Board of Education, Iowa ; President Maxwell, State Teachers College, Winona, Minn.; Dean Ziegel, State Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo.; Mr. Brenton, of the Iowa State Board of Education ; and President Showalter, State Normal School , Cheney, Wash. The committee on nominations reported the following : For president, W. P. Morgan, president, state normal school, Macomb, Ill.; for vice-president, A. J. Mathews, president, State Normal School, Temple, Ariz.; for secretary, Robert E. Elliot, president, State Normal School, Chadron, Nebr. The report was accepted. It was moved and carried that reports of the speeches be sent to the secretary. ANNA TIBBETS, Secretary . 515 Department of Physical Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-F. L. KLEEBERGER, professor physical education, University of California .. ... Berkeley, Calif. Secretary-MARGARET MCKEE, supervisor of physical education ............ Des Moines, Iowa FIRST SESSION TUESDAY MORNING, JULY 5, 1921. The Department of Physical Education met in Plymouth Congregational Church on July 5. In the absence of the president, the vice-president, Dr. Bur- dick, called the meeting to order. Dr. Richard M. Bolt, of Baltimore, Md., gave a very interesting paper on LOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO HEALTH EDUCATION AND SUPERVISION IN THE SCHOOLS AND THE COMMUNITY. In the absence of the other speakers on the program, Dr. Burdick led an informal discussion on some of the problems of the physical director. The meeting adjourned at 11:45 A. м. SECOND SESSION- WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6. Dr. Burdick, vice-president of the department called the meeting to order at 2:15 P. М. A talk on MORAL ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION was given by Arthur Holmes , President of Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa, and was followed by the discussion : IS IT BETTER FOR A YOUNGSTER TO CRIPPLE HIMSELF PHYSICAL- LY OR BE A QUITTER ? Jay B. Nash, superintendent of recreation, Oakland, California, spoke on THE RELATION OF PLAYGROUND AND RECREATION CENTERS TO OUR NATIONAL IDEALS OF DEMOCRACY, followed by the discussion ARE HABITS AND CHARACTER . MORE FULLY DEVELOPED BEFORE PUBERTY OR AFTER ? Dr. Thomas D. Wood, of Columbia University, talked on PHYSICAL EDU- CATION AS A HEALTH MOVEMENT. E. Dana Caulkins, of Washington, D. C., spoke on THE NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION. An interesting discussion of Mr. Caulkins' paper followed. The vice-president appointed the following nominating committee for 1922: Sarah Given, Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa ; Doris White, Iowa State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa; E. Dana Caulkins , Washington , D. C. The report of the nominating committee was as follows : president, Ethel Perrin, supervisor of physical education, Detroit, Mich.; vice-president, J. B. Nash, director of recreation, Oakland, Calif.; secretary, Dr. William Burdick, director of public school athletic league, Baltimore, Md. It was moved, seconded, and carried unanimously that the report of the nominating committee be accepted and adopted. The meeting adjourned at 4:50 р. м. 517 518 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Physical Education MORAL ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION ARTHUR HOLMES, PRESIDENT OF DRAKE UNIVERSITY, DES MOINES, IOWA Is there anything moral and spiritual in physical education ? Is there anything physical in morality ? Can the gymnasium and the athletic field supplant moral instruction in public Sunday schools ? Does football teach truth? and baseball honesty? and do strong muscles make strong lives ? These are some of the questions which come crowding in upon the announcement of a topic like "Moral Aspects of Physical Education. " Without answering all of them fully we may by a brief examination of modern physical training gain an insight into some of them. Those who know physiological psychology know it joins the soul and body in a parallelism so close that what touches one touches the other. Bloodless children are prone to lie; bad teeth may cause boyish delinquency ; enlarged tonsils call for nicotine to allay the irritation. All of these bodily ailments have their mental and moral sides. A doctor or dentist, or surgeon, or corrective gymnastics may cure both. But physical diseases are not the only causes of immoralities. Physically healthy people may be moral imbeciles. Lombroso, the great Italian criminologist, insisted that there were criminals already marked from childhood with physical signs or stigmata. Upon these unfortunates physical training is having its effects. The extension of exercises and games into our reformatories and prisons and dancing into our asylums for the insane points the same way. But students of athletics insist that with healthy, normal youths, sport makes for morals. The essence of moral training lies in living up to the moral standards of one's own nature. It is hopeless seriously to hold up angels as models for men, or women either. Equally hopeless is it to hold up a young lady Sunday-school teacher as a pattern to a freckle-faced boy of the motor type; or a placid, gray-haired gentleman as the paragon for a red blooded, effervescing adolescent; though it does now appear that sixty-year old ladies are hard to distinguish in dress and action from sixteen-year-olds. In general, however, real moral training comes from the grindings and polishings in the world of one's peers. The playworld is the real world of youth, his very own, self-made world. Games are serious occupations to youth; their rules are sacred, their ideals final. A "crooked, rotten, yellow" player is the limit of human degradation, and his righteous punishment the seventh In- ferno of Dante. On the positive side, as Froebel said, "Play is the purest and most spiritual activity of man." The moral values gained on the field of Eton won a world-war. The athletes of our colleges were wonderfully successful in securing commissions in the late war, for they had gained Department] PLAYGROUNDS AND RECREATION CENTERS 519 the moral qualities of leadership in the discipline of the game. In fact, many football coaches assert that the real value of their sport is not physical but wholly moral. THE RELATION OF PUBLIC PLAYGROUNDS AND RECREATION CENTERS TO OUR NATIONAL IDEALS OF DEMOCRACY JAY B. NASH, SUPERINTENDENT OF RECREATION AND DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA How does physical education relate itself to the general program of education ? In answering this question, I will touch upon at least two of the basic ideals of education which are directly related to the physical educational program: (1 ) physical efficiency, (2) citizenship training. This program would by no means discourage the teaching of health, the correction of growth handicaps, or the use of any method for the correction or prevention of bad posture. A physical education program must be based upon play if it is to contribute to the two national ideals of democracy above mentioned. If the teaching in the school program is to be effective in any line, it must have a strong "carry-over" in the after school life of the child. The Cleveland survey reveals that the average city child spends 1,000 hours per year in school and 1,800 hours per year on the street. ( By street is meant time spent away from the home-in the playground, park, vacant lot, water-front, or the actual street.) Findings of this survey show that in the past what the boy does during these 1,800 hours is practically in no way affected by the teach- ing of the 1,000 hours in school. In other words, the school program is not carrying over. By basing the physical educational program upon play, experience has shown that it is entirely possible to carry over these two ideals in the following manner : The first objective of education which can carry over is physical efficiency. Exercise for the child, as well as the adult, may always be assumed to be the "price of life" in the present day. Few city chil- dren and probably no adults, are taking enough exercise to keep them- selves in proper physical condition. Modern machinery has removed the necessity of exercise; and because of the universal habit of laziness in all of us, we take just as little exercise as possible. Undoubtedly this condition will continue unless we are driven to exercise under the stimulus of the play instinct. In the child, large activity through play may be encouraged in the physical education period and expressed in the play period. By "play period" is meant the time in the morning before school, recesses, noons, 520 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical Education after school, Saturdays, Sundays, holidays, and vacations-in short, the play period for the child may be assumed to be most of the 1,800 hours outlined by the Cleveland survey. It is not, of course, assumed that all of this time will be spent in play; but it is assumed that the opportunity of expression will be present during these hours. Proper exercise during these play periods becomes to a large extent the basis of health in the child; and at the same time it becomes not only the basis of the recreation of the adult but of the work of the adult. The second objective of education which can carry over is citizen- ship training. Through this citizenship training, the playground and the recreation center becomes the great citizenship laboratory. Would you think of teaching chemistry without a laboratory, no chance being given to experiment or correct ? Of course not. But do we not need just as much a citizenship laboratory of the school, or of the community as a whole ? We talk a great deal about training citizens. We debate about citizenship. We write essays on the principles of democracy. We point to heroes of history, who stood for great principles. We hang mottoes on our school walls. But where do we watch the young boy or girl experiment with these principles ? Where do we correct, suggest, or add to, and finally have reason to expect the proper reaction ? The answer is the play yard-the school playground-whether this be in a big city or in an isolated rural district. Do parents and teachers generally recognize the distinction be- tween play on the one hand and idleness or mere amusement on the other ? Idleness is an inactive or unoccupied state of mind and body, a condition which usually leads to mischief and often to maliciousness. Amusement, as usually understood, is entertainment received without effort a satisfaction of some passing fancy which leaves no con- structive results. It is best exemplified by the concessions in the amusement parks and to a certain extent by motion pictures. On the other hand, what is play ? Let your boy in the sixth grade play basket- ball for twenty minutes. At some other time let him chip kindling wood for twenty minutes. At the end of each of these periods take his temperature and pulse rate, and see which one of these activities means exercise to him. Which aroused his interest ? Which did he put himself into ? Why? Play is one of the deep hungers of child life, universal with all peoples and ages. To the child it is life itself. Consider the play yard as a laboratory wherein this hunger is given expression. The restraint of the four walls of the schoolroom is off, the real self is unloosed, and the opportunity for direction is given unlimited scope. Good citizen- ship in children's games of the fourth grade contains the embryo of team work. The high-school games of basketball and football call for Department] UNIVERSAL PHYSICAL EDUCATION 521 exactly the same qualities as good citizenship in the state. One may go even farther than this and say that from the time children begin to play with one another at the age of two or three, the social standards of the group are in the making. The golden opportunity of the elementary-grade teacher, and this applies most forcibly to the rural teacher, lies in the play period. Her interest in the things closest to the children's hearts determines whether she is to occupy the inner or outer circle of the child's life, whether she is to be just the teacher or the leader. Let her enter into the golden heritage by acquainting herself with the technique of play activities. If she can touch these unfathomed reservoirs of interest her problems of discipline will disappear, and the question, "Where does my school stand in training for citizenship ?" will be answered. This whole problem of child engineering becomes, then, a problem of conservation of leisure time for physical efficiency and the training of citizenship. It is a problem, not only of the child but also of the young man and woman in the late adolescent period. With the rapid growth of our cities' floating population, the question of where these young people are to spend their leisure time is a burning question. The crime wave of the past winter may be partly attributed to commercial recrea- tion. The problems of the school playground and recreation center is to conserve this leisure time for citizenship. Constructive use of leisure time must be made as attractive as revenue-producing commercial recreation . We have been talking for years on problems of conservation-con- servation of oil, coal, and timber. One of our Western cities is today spending $180,000,000 for the conservation of water in one of the rivers of the high mountains. This conservation of water and power is for the service of one single city; and it shows the emphasis which we place upon the elements which serve the physical needs of a people. Will the time ever come when the conservation of the leisure time of the child and adult for good citizenship assumes the same proportions that the conservation of water, oil, and coal assumes in the satisfaction of physical needs ? UNIVERSAL PHYSICAL EDUCATION—A NATIONAL NECESSITY E. DANA CAULKINS, MANAGER NATIONAL PHYSICAL EDUCATION SERVICE , WASHINGTON , D. C. The United States as a nation is doing less than Japan, France, England, Denmark, and Holland in the promotion of physical education of the youth. In spite of local and state progress our nation will within a few years lose the present position of leadership in physical education. 522 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Physical Education Japan for thirty years has required two hours a week of physical education for all school children and has required all school teachers to be trained as physical education instructors. Now Japan is sending to this country and to the nations of Europe representatives to study the newest developments in physical education. She will continue the policy of organizing her nation-wide physical education program as a composite of the best to be found in the national systems of Europe and America. France now has an under secretary of state for physical education ; England pays to local communities part of the expense of physical education, thus giving the child born in the poor districts an opportunity for health and normal development equal to that of a child born in a wealthy community. Hoiland has reduced her military training and increased time given to physical education; Germany is continuing her long-established program of physical, education, modified in the light of modern experience. These poverty-stricken countries of Europe are pushing forward the physical education program as a fundamental factor in national preservation. A vital question before our own Republic is whether we shall allow local communities and states to drift along giving physical education to one-tenth of the nation or whether our federal government will be wise enough to provide national stimulation and aid to achieve universal physical education within the next decade. We have no guaranty that the physical superiority of our race will persist. The developments of modern civilization are driving hard to reduce the physical vigor and the vitality of the race. Civilizations have died before, because unable to become adapted to changing en- vironment. Never has an environment changed so rapidly as today. National strength and progress, as well as individual liberty and happi- ness, require that every youngster in the land shall be given fundamental training for health and physical power. The Republican party in its platform promised effective action for the nation-wide extension of physical education. The FESS-CAPPER physical education bill has been before Congress seventeen months . The public is waiting for action. Foreign students are coming to us from every corner of the globe, learning the best we have demonstrated in physical education, in order that their home governments may extend physical education on a national basis. Shall we be satisfied teaching other nations what to do and at the same time allow nine-tenths of our children to be deprived of the privilege of adequate physical education ? Department of Rural Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES ATLANTIC CITY MEETING OFFICERS President-ELI M. RAPP, county superintendent of schools, Berks County, ...... Reading, Pa. Vice-President- I. B. BALL, state supervisor of agricultural education, Salt Lake City, Utah. Secretary-MABEL CARNEY, Teachers College, Columbia University ........ New York, N. Y. FIRST SESSION- SATURDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 26, 1921 The first general session of the Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association was devoted to a discussion of THE AMERICAN VILLAGE AND ITS SCHOOL as presented through the following program : THE DEFINITION OF THE RURAL COMMUNITY AS SHOWN IN THE RELATION OF TOWN AND COUNTRY-C. J. Galpin, specialist in Farm Life Studies, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ORGANIZING ONE - TEACHER AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS FOR COMMUNITY SERVICE -Thomas J. Smart, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. THE IMPROVEMENT OF VILLAGE SCHOOLS-W. S. Deffenbaugh, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. A CONCRETE INSTANCE OF VILLAGE SCHOOL EFFICIENCY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT-Marion Dana, principal of the Junior-Senior High School, Waitsfield, Vt. SECOND SESSION TUESDAY FORENOON, MARCH 1, 1921 The general topic was : THE DEMOCRATIZED RURAL SCHOOL-ITS AIMS, CURRICULUM, AND METHOD. The following program was followed by questions and general discussion : TO WHAT EXTENT SHOULD RURAL TEACHERS PARTICIPATE IN MAKING COURSES OF STUDY ?-W. J. Holloway, state rural supervisor, Baltimore, Md., and Nettie E. Brogden, rural school supervisor, Montgomery County, Rockville, Md. THE OBJECTIVES AND NEEDS OF RURAL Elementary EDUCATION-O . G. Brim, professor of rural education, Cornell College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES OF THE RURAL ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM-Fannie W. Dunn, Teachers College, Columbia University, N. Y. THIRD SESSION TUESDAY AFTERNOON, MARCH 1, 1921 The general topic was : THE DEMOCRATIZED RURAL SCHOOL ITS TEACHER- PREPARATION, SUPERVISION, ADMINISTRATION, AND COMMUNITY SERVICE. The following program was given : THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR THE DEMOCRATIZED RURAL SCHOOL- Rosamond Root, State Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo. SUPERVISION FOR GROWTH-Cassie R. Spencer, Otero County, Alamogordo. Ν. Μ. RURAL SCHOOL DEMOCRACY THROUGH EFFICIENT ADMINISTRATION-Albert S. Cook, state superintendent of education, Baltimore, Md. COMMUNITY SERVICE OF THE DEMOCRATIZED RURAL SCHOOL- W. W. Evans, superintendent of schools, Columbia County, Bloomsburg, Pa. FOURTH SESSION- WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, MARCH 2, 1921 The following was the program of the closing general meeting : THE AMERICAN NEGRO IN Rural Education and COUNTRY LIFE-James H. Dillard, director of the Jeanes and Slater Funds, Charlottesville, Va. PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE FOR RURAL LEADERS-Payson Smith, commissioner of education for Massachusetts, Boston, Mass. 523 524 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education After the program the general business meeting was held. The minutes are printed following the account of the section meetings. SECTION MEETINGS On Monday afternoon four sections of the Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association met simultaneously and presented the following program, which were followed in each case by business meetings : SECTION I.-STATE RURAL SUPERVISORS AND INSPECTORS OF RURAL SCHOOLS. Chairman-C. C. SWAIN, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Vice-Chairman-J. B. Brown, agent for rural education, Nashville, Tenn. Secretary-FLORENCE M. Hale, agent for rural education, Augusta, Maine. THE TRAINING OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS AND SUPERVISORS IN SERVICE- ADELAIDE M. AYER, state rural supervisor, Department of Education, Helena, Mont. THE WORKING PROGRAM OF THE STATE RURAL SUPERVISOR-ITS VALUE, FORMULATION, AND ATTAINMENT-ANNIE REYNOLDS, Department of Education, Madison, Wis. REPORT OF THE SECTION COMMITTEE ON COMPARATIVE INSTRUCTION IN ONE- TEACHER AND CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOLS-JOHN M. FOOTE, chairman, state agent for rural education, Baton Rouge, La. SECTION II . COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS AND RURAL SCHOOL SUPERVISORS Chairman-C. G. COOPER, superintendent of schools, Baltimore County, Tow- son, Md. Vice-Chairman-L. J. BENNETT, superintendent of schools, Miami County, Troy, Ohio. Secretary-MARGARET MCLEAN, helping teacher, Burlington County, Mount Holly, N. J. REPORT OF THE SECTION COMMITTEE ON THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN SUPER- VISION AND ADMINISTRATION-FANNIE W. DUNN, chairman Teachers College, Columbia University, N. Y. SUPERVISION FOR GROWTH-MAUDE NEWBURY, helping teacher, Hunterdon County, Flemington, N. J. FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR RURAL SCHOOLS-N. R. BAKER, superintendent of schools, Jefferson County, Birmingham, Ala. PRINCIPLES OF RURAL COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION-DWIGHT L. SANDERSON, Cornell College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. SECTION III. PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS Chairman-A. V. TEED, Normal School, Wayne, Neb. Vice-Chairman-MRS. MARGARET Curran, Normal School, Dillon, Mont. Secretary- THURBA FIDDLER, Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo. THE CONTINUED EMERGENCY IN RURAL TEACHER SUPPLY AND HOW TO MEET IT-EDITH A. LATHROP, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. INITIAL STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENTS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS-MRS. HETTY S. BROWNE, Normal School, Bloomsburg, Pa. THE AMOUNT AND CHARACTER OF DIFFERENTIATION DESIRABLE IN THE PREP- ARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS . (a) IN CURRICULA-CARTER ALEXANDER, Department of Education, Madi- son, Wis. (b) IN PRACTICE TEACHING C. J. BIERY, Normal School, Bowling Green, Ohio. REPORT OF THE SECTION COMMITTEE ON PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR THE PREP- ARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS IN HIGH SCHOOLS AND IN STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS- MABEL CARNEY, chairman, Teachers College, Columbia University, Ν. Υ. SECTION IV. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATORS AND RURAL EXTENSION WORKERS. Chairman-J. B. LILLARD, state supervisor of agricultural education, Sacra- mento, Calif. Vice-Chairman-NEALE KNOWLES, Department of Home Economics, College of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa. Department] RESOLUTIONS 525 Secretary-THOMAS A. Bock, superintendent of schools, Chester County, West- chester, Pa. STIMULATING INTEREST IN VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE THROUGH JUNIOR CLUB WORK-J . D. BLACKWELL, supervisor of Agricultural education, Austin, Tex. DISCUSSION BY : W. S. TAYLOR, Pa.; FRANCES H. CLARK, Md.; W. H. KENDRICK, W. Va.; E. C. LINDEMAN, N. C.; A. K. GETMAN, New York ; H. М. SKIDMORE, Washington, D. C. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK UNDER THE SMITH - LEVER ACT AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION UNDER THE SMITH- HUGHES ACT-A. R. MANN, chairman, dean of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. GENERAL BUSINESS MEETING OF THE DEPARTMENT At the general business meeting on Wednesday afternoon, March 2, two developments of outstanding significance were realized. The first of these was the complete reorganization of the Department and the adoption of a new constitution. Under this reorganization rural-education interests are now united in one department, which takes full rank with all the other divisions of the Association proper. Adequate provisions are also made in these new by-laws for the planning and development of constructive studies in the various fields of rural education and for a continuing committee on the co-operation of the Department with other organizations and agencies. The second development of particular note was the adoption of the report of the Committee on the Journal of Rural Education as submitted by Ernest Burnham of Kalamazoo, Michigan. By this action the Department voted to undertake this project on a co-operative basis and to issue the first number of the magazine if at all possible by June 1, of the present year. A resolution of appreciation for Dr. Kendall was also passed and a special report received from E. C. Lindeman, of North Carolina, showing ways and means of effecting a still closer co-operation between the Department and other organizations and agencies, particularly the American Country Life Association, the National Society for the Promotion of Vocational Education, and the various committees and departments of the National Education Association proper. Resolutions were then adopted and the following officers elected for the year 1921-22 : President-ERNEST BURNHAM, Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. Vice-President J. C. MUERMAN, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Secretary-MABEL CARNEY, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. RESOLUTIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION ATLANTIC CITY, NEW JERSEY, MARCH 2, 1921 WHEREAS, One of the serious national problems is the acute and difficult educational problem of giving more than half the children of the United States who live in rural communities, educational opportunities commensurate with the needs of individuals and of society, and WHEREAS, The immediate emergency in education which falls most heavily on our rural schools is only slightly abated, be it, therefore, Resolved, That we state the following principles as fundamental in a na- tional program for rural education. 1. The obligation of society-Persons interested in rural education and in the country's welfare are urged to continue the policy of keeping the public in- formed on the increasing seriousness of the rural-school situation, of setting 526 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Rural Education forth the obligation of society for the education of all children, and of standing unqualifiedly for national support of education as embodied in the Smith-Towner bill, the only means yet devised for giving an equality of educational opportunity to all the children of all the people. 2. The function of the rural school-The purpose of rural elementary edu- cation does not differ from that of urban elementary education, namely to pro- mote the growth of children. The difference between rural and non-rural life is recognized, in so far as the education of children is concerned as influencing the problem and procedure but not the end of education. Any attempt to bias the rural elementary school in order to retain rural children in the country, or to promote vocational efficiency either on the part of the rural child or the rural adult or to use the rural-school teacher primarily as a servant of the local community is held to be inconsistent with its legitimate purpose. We stress the importance of a rural-school curriculum, broad in its social content, rich in its cultural resources, adapted to the life of the child, and de- veloped by a teacher whose professional insight and skill shall be the first re- quisites in her preparation. Since there is no place in the education of elementary-school children for vocational education as such we submit that all club activities, junior project work, and other forms of extension effort for young children should have for their primary purpose the educational development of children. , 3. Preparation of teachers -It is essential that rural teachers be as well prepared academically and professionally as are the teachers in urban schools. To accomplish this end we believe (a) That each state should formulate an educational policy which will insure to every rural child a teacher with a full four-year high school education and a minimum of two years of professional training. (b ) That normal schools should more fully recognize their obli- gations to rural communities by developing adequate facilities for the thorough preparation of rural teachers and by adopting progressive entrance requirements based on the educational policies of the state. 4. The preparation of rural leaders-The preparation of rural educational leaders is essential to the realization of better rural schools. In order to secure a high type of well qualified leaders we urge-(a) That the county superin- tendency be placed on a recognized professional plane by its removal from par- tisan politics and by the requirement of high professional qualifications for the office. (b ) That higher institutions fulfill their obligation to rural communities by developing courses for the thorough training of supervisors and administra- tors in rural education. 5. Improvement of all types of rural schools-Though we advocate in- creased efforts toward consolidation and recognize it as the ultimate solution of the rural-school problem, we do not ignore the thousands of one-room schools that cannot yet be consolidated. We therefore urge that in the zeal to give rural children better educational opportunities through consolidation the more difficult problem of improving the one-teacher school shall not be neglected. 6. The rural school not a practice school for city service-We strongly con- demn the practice in city-school systems of requiring a certain amount of ex- perience for urban-school service, thereby making the country school a training school for city systems. We urge that superintendents of urban schools co- operate with rural-school educators in their effort to place country service on a higher plane than it now stands. Department] CONSTITution AnD BY-LAWS 527 7. Rural high schools -In extending high-school training to all country dis- tricts the following principles should be supported : (a) That the needs of the school population be the core around which these high schools are organized and administered. (b) That in the greater number of cases these high schools be located in villages since villages are natural centers for education as well as for trade and community relationships. (c) That the interests of both town and country be considered in the organization and support of these schools. (d) That sufficient school population be included in the organization to warrant a high school; that the valuation be adequate to support a standard high school ; and that every precaution be taken in the processes of organization and adminis- tration to engender and nurture a community spirit favoring the school. (e) That curricula be developed offering vocational courses in home training for girls and in agriculture for boys along with a broad general high-school course. 8. Illiteracy-Illiteracy which is largely a problem of rural districts is a national disgrace and should be eradicated by state and federal aid. In order to prevent further illiteracy we commit ourselves to the policy of cor- recting the conditions that breed illiteracy. We further recommend that a committee of men and women selected from those working among adult illiterates be appointed from this department to study and report upon the best methods of dealing with adult illiteracy in rural districts. 9. Be it further resolved, That this body express our deep appreciation to the officers and speakers of this department for their invaluable service in com- pleting the reorganization and upholding the standards of the Department and that we heartily commend the action of the president of the Department of Superintendence in placing the problems of rural education on the general pro- gram before the entire body of this convention. Committee on Resolutions : Will Lou Gray, Orville G. Brim, Thomas J. Smart, Adelaide M. Ayer, Chairman. constitUTION AND BY-LAWS CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I.-PREAMBLE The Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association is maintained to facilitate discussion, make constructive studies, and disseminate information in the field of rural education ; to further the efforts and increase the efficiency of persons engaged in rural education service; to correlate all rural activities of the National Education Association ; and to promote the general advancement of rural education and rural welfare throughout the United States. In furthering these purposes it shall be the policy of this Department to conduct all its activities in strict accordance with the Act of Incorporation, by- laws, and general spirit of the National Education Association. ARTICLE II.- MEMBERSHIP SECTION 1. Membership in the Department of Rural Education shall be of two types, Active and Associate. SEC. 2. All persons actively engaged in the rural phase of the profession of teaching or other educational work are eligible to active membership in this Department, provided that such persons are also active members of the National Education Association. SEC. 3. Persons who are not actively engaged in rural education but who are interested in its promotion are eligible to associate membership in this De 528 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Rural Education partment, provided that such persons are also active or associate members of the National Education Association. SEC. 4. Active members only shall have the privilege of voting. ARTICLE III.-ORGANIZATION. SECTION 1. This Department shall consist of a general organization of its active and associate members and of several subdivisions or sections organized to meet the needs of each special rural group. SEC. 2. All section activities shall be co-ordinated under the general De- partment and approved in advance by the Executive Committee of the De- partment. ARTICLE IV. OFFICERS SECTION 1. The officers of the Department of Rural Education shall be a President, a Vice-President, and a Secretary. SEC. 2. The President and Vice-President shall be elected annually follow- ing the report of the Committee on Nominations from among the active mem- bership of the Department. SEC. 3. The President and Vice-President together with the chairmen of all sections, shall constitute the Executive Committee of the Department. SEC. 4. The Secretary of the Department shall be appointed annually by the Executive Committee. SEC. 5. The officers of each section shall be a Chairman, a Vice-Chairman, and a Secretary, elected annually by the membership of the section concerned. Provided that, no person shall serve as an officer of a section who is not actively engaged in the work represented by the section, and also that no person shall hold office simultaneously both as an official of the Department and as an officer of a section, nor as an officer of two sections at the same time. ARTICLE V.- MEETINGS SECTION 1. The Department of Rural Education, when so authorized by the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association, shall hold its annual meeting in February of each year or at such other time and place as may be determined by its Executive Committee, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association. SEC. 2. Once each year there shall be held a supplementary meeting of the Department for the further discussion of rural education problems. This meeting shall occur in connection with the annual summer meeting of the Na- tional Education Association or at such other time and place as may be de- termined by the Executive Committee of the Department, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association. SEC. 3. All business of the Department including the election of officers, shall be conducted at its annual meeting. Provided, that tentative action on business matters may be taken at the supplementary meeting of the Department. SEC. 4. Section meetings of the Rural Department shall be held only once a year at the time and place of its regular annual meeting. Provided, that not more than two official sessions of any one section shall be held at a meeting. SEC. 5. The Executive Committee shall hold two regular meetings each year; one for the formulation of future plans immediately after its election at the annual business meeting of the Department, and the other for the com pletion of arrangements shortly before the annual meeting. Provided, that special meetings of the committee may be called on other occasions at the dis- cretion of the President or upon petition of three members of the committee. ARTICLE VI. AMENDMENTS SECTION 1. This constitution and its by-laws may be amended by a majority vote of active members at any annual business meeting, provided all proposed Department] CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 529 changes shall first have been presented to the Executive Committee of the De- partment, read at the first session of the annual meeting, and approved in advance by the representative assembly of the National Education Association. BY- LAWS ARTICLE I.- RECEIPT OF FUNDS SECTION 1. Members of the Department of Rural Education may contribute a special fee of two dollars annually, which shall be received by the Secretary and used for the support of Departmental activities under the direction of the Executive Committee. Provided, however, that the payment of this fee shall not be essential to active membership nor grant any special privilege to members so contributing. ARTICLE II .-DUTIES OF OFFICERS SECTION 1. All officers, both department and section, shall perform the duties usually devolving upon their offices with the following special responsi- ! bilities: SEC. 2. The President shall plan the program for the general sessions of the Department and preside at all general meetings of the organization. He shall also be chairman, ex-officio, of the Executive Committee and shall appoint all standing and special committees of the Department. SEC. 3. The Secretary shall be the executive officer of the Department. He shall conduct the business of the organization as authorized by the Depart- ment or its Executive Committee, arrange for the annual meeting in co-operation with the President, prepare reports, serve as the secretary ex-officio of all de- partmental committees, develop the membership, and otherwise further the in- terests and work of the Department. He shall promote and safeguard the finances of the organization and may be required at the discretion of the Executive Committee to give bond sufficient to cover the deposits of the Department. He shall be responsible to the Executive Committee by whom he is chosen, and may receive such compensation and be provided with such clerical and other assistance as the Executive Committee shall authorize. SEC. 4. The Executive Committee shall have power to act upon matters of general policy, including the expenditure of funds and to co-ordinate and approve the activities of all sections of the Department. SEC. 5. The chairman of each section shall prepare and preside over all programs for his section, appoint all committees and conduct all business of the section, and serve as a member of the Executive Committee of the Depart- ment. SEC. 6. The secretaries of the various sections shall be regarded as assis- tant secretaries of the Department and shall work under the general direction of the Secretary. It shall be a special duty of each section secretary to report the program and business of his section to the Secretary and to secure two copies of all papers read before the section and file one with the Secretary of the National Education Association and the other with the Secretary of the Department. ARTICLE III. VACANCIES SECTION 1. A vacancy in the office of the President of the Department, for which the Vice-President is unable to substitute, shall be filled by an appoint- ment made by the President of the National Education Association. All other vacancies shall be filled by appointment by the President of the Department. 530 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education ARTICLE IV.-SECTIONS SECTION 1. The following sections of the Department of Rural Education are now (1920) in existence : (1) State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools , ( 2) County Superintendents and Rural-School Supervisors, (3) Per- sons Engaged in the Preparation of Rural Teachers, (4) Vocational Instructors and Rural Extension Workers, (5) Village and Consolidated School Principals. SEC. 2. New sections may be added from time to time at any regular business meeting upon the recommendation of the Executive Committee and the majority vote of the members of the Department. Provided that, each additional section shall be petitioned for in writing by twenty-five active members of the Department and approved in advance by the Executive Committee of the National Education Association . ARTICLE V.-COMMITTEES SECTION 1. The constructive work of this organization shall be conducted chiefly through general and section committees. The general committees of the Department shall be appointed annually by the President and shall include the following committees and such others as may be authorized by a majority vote of the Department at a regular business session. (1) Committee on Nomination, (2) Committee on Resolutions, (3) Committee on Co-operation with other Organizations and Agencies, (4) Committee on Publications, (5) Committee on Constructive Studies. SEC. 2. Each section of the Department may also maintain one or more working committees appointed by the chairman to conduct investigations and make constructive studies in its particular field. SEC. 3. The departmental Committee on Constructive Studies named above shall be charged with the general co-ordination and direction of all studies and investigations undertaken by the Department and its various sections. It shall be composed of the chairmen of all section committees on constructive studies and of three other persons appointed by the President from the Department at large one of whom shall be designated as chairman. SEC. 4. Committees of an investigative or constructive nature of both the general Department and the various sections, including the Committee on Resolutions, shall be appointed by the newly-elected President one year before the regular annual meeting at which they are to report. Routine and business committees shall be appointed at least one month before their reports are due. SEC. 5. All committees shall report at the first annual meeting of the Department or section following the date of their appointment, but any com- mittee may be reappointed and continued in service until the project or study for which it was named shall be completed. Vacancies in committee member- ship shall be filled by appointment by the President of the Department or the chairman of the section authorizing the committee. ARTICLE VI.-RELATIONS WITH KINDRED ORGANIZATIONS SECTION 1. It shall be a recognized purpose of the Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association to establish co-operative relations with other kindred bodies. To this end a general Committee on Co- operation with Other Organizations and Agencies shall be continuously main- tained by the Department and shall report annually on its activities, either verbally before the general business meeting or to the Secretary in written form. ARTICLE VII . QUORUM . Thirty voting members shall constitute a quorum at any regularly called business session. Department] IMPROVEMENT OF THE VILLAGE SCHOOL 531 IMPROVEMENT OF THE VILLAGE SCHOOL W. S. DEFFENBAUGH, SPECIALIST, CITY-SCHOOL SYSTEMS, UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION , WASHINGTON, D. C. Centerville grew up out of the soil. It was not set down made to order in the midst of the open country, but grew as the country grew. Its prosperity has always depended upon the prosperity of the farmer, and it would cease to exist if the farmers withdrew their trade. But Centerville has failed to recognize the fact that it is a country town, that its merchants and others are as much country people as the farmers. When Centerville had grown to a town of several hundred popula- tion it began to think itself a little city and to have ambitions of becoming a large one or, at least, as large as the county seat. In order not to be classed with the rural population it became incorporated, thereby shutting itself off politically and to a great extent socially from the farming community. Capitalists were invited to locate indus- trial plants in Centerville. There were lot sales, but capitalists would not invest. The boom sale brought only a few inhabitants. Strive as it may, Centerville will never become a city. It has grown only as large as it is possible for the farmer to support and will become larger only as the farmers become more prosperous and make larger demands upon the stores and deposit more money in the Centerville bank. As the soil becomes more productive from improved methods of farm- ing, Centerville will become richer and more prosperous. It invites the farmer to trade but does not consider him a part of the town. To shut the farmer off from the town that his trade had created was a mistake. This is what incorporation did to the Centerville community, it artificially separated the town from the country. This is especially true in regard to schools. The boundaries of the school district of Centerville were made practically coterminous with those of the town corporation, thus shutting out practically all the country children unless they pay tuition. Even country children of high-school age must pay tuition or have it paid for them by their respective school districts. One country school after another sprang up until there are now about a half-dozen one-room schools within a few miles of Centerville, all within what Professor Galpin terms the village trade area. The Centerville school, being a typical village school, scarcely needs description. It has looked toward the city instead of toward the country. The elementary courses of study are not based upon village life. The same facts and the same illustrations are used as in the city schools. Arithmetic, for instance, is not given a rural application, most of the problems being unrelated in any way to the farm or to 532 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Rural Education the simple trades of the village community. If there are a few minutes left after the teaching of arithmetic and grammar they are given to singing. The same is true of health instruction and physical training. Centerville has not learned what the fundamental subjects are. It is still pounding away on tools, trying to sharpen them but not attempting to use them. Formal as is the work of the elementary schools of Centerville, the high-school work is as formal or even more so and more out of touch with the life of the farming community of which Centerville is a part economically. Thus I might continue to describe the Centerville schools. The question is, how may they be improved ? The schools of Centerville will not be improved as long as the town holds itself aloof from the country that called it into existence. It must face about and become a real vital part of the community. It must be more than a mere trade center. It must develop community schools serving the farm child as well as the town child. It must be the school as well as the trade center. In brief it must become the consolidation point for the weak one-room, one-teacher school of the surrounding country. This will mean a broader vision for the country child and for the town child. It will mean a new type of school for Centerville and a better school for the children in the rural community. But before the schools of the entire community can be consolidated at or near Centerville there must be a change in the method of their administration. Being a school district with its own board of educa- tion, the boundaries of the school district of Centerville must be ex- tended to include the whole community. This cannot be done unless the people in the country vote to be included in the Centerville school district, or unless the state legislature enacts a law making the county the unit of school administration. If the county should be made the unit the county board of education could then district the county on natural community lines. The question is, Will Centerville develop a real village community type of school? It can if it will, even if the surrounding country will not consolidate with it. Centerville must show that it is going to face toward the country and not toward the city. Being situated in the midst of a farming community and having simple industries of its own, its schools schould react to the work of the farmer, the artisan, the craftsman, and the tradesman who together make up the Centerville community. Since the town is supported by agriculture it should seek to develop the agriculture of the region which it can best do by teaching agricul- ture in the schools. The subject can be taught in a practical way, for ground suitable for demonstration purpose may be had just at the edge of the town. Department] IMPROVEMENT OF THE VILLAGE SCHOOL 533 Not only is there opportunity for the teaching of agriculture but also for the teaching of manual training, most of which would grow out of the projects in agriculture, as the construction of poultry-houses, corncribs, or pigsties. The simple industries of Centerville-the black- smith shop, the carpenter shop, the garage, and the other industries- could also contribute to the work in manual training. In fact, no other place offers more diversity and greater opportunity for the teacher of this subject. I am certain that the great industrial centers with their highly specialized shops do not. The manual-training instructor should therefore work out a course of study based upon the farm and simple industrial life of Centerville. Then there is the subject of home economics. It is almost entirely neglected, yet Centerville offers the home-economics teacher a richer field of work than a large city where the people room and board. The people of Centerville still have kitchens and dining-rooms. They still have homes, but few are managed as they should be. There is waste and lack of discrimination in the buying of foods, furniture, and other things. Of course it is unnecessary to say that Centerville should add music, community civics, physical training, and other fundamental subjects. To add these and to eliminate the useless topics that Center- ville now considers fundamental would make its schools over so that they would appeal to the boys and girls of the entire community. The schools of Centerville must, however, go farther. They must do more than teach boys and girls. They must reach the young men and young women, the older men and older women, even the oldest. The Centerville schools should become the meeting place for the far- mers and their wives to discuss farm and household problems, to hear lectures on topics of local, state, national, and international concern, and to take part in entertainments of various kinds, such as community- singing and dramatics. Centerville has no public library. It has, however, a library sup- posedly for school children but they do not use it except when directed by teachers to look up facts in the reference books which constitute the greater portion of the library. There are a few other books, it is true, but they have no appeal to children. If the Centerville school is to serve the community, if it is to enrich the lives of the children, it should set aside a room for a library which could be used not only by the school children but by their parents. It will, however, be no easy matter to provide one-especially one that grown-up people will use for they have not formed the reading habit and they think that the public should not be called upon to provide books for persons who do not read, and those who do read should purchase their own books. 534 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education Centerville does not need cyclopedias and atlases half so much as it needs a library of readable books, fairy stories, books of adventure- just real human books. Centerville already has some cyclopedias and compendiums and should purchase no more of these until it has placed on the library shelves several hundred books to be read and enjoyed. Thus one might continue to enumerate what Centerville should do to improve its schools. It is evident that better teachers are needed and that better salaries should be paid. There is, however, another way to improve the Centerville schools that should be mentioned, and that is to employ a principal who knows village life and who is a leader. The Centerville schools and the whole community have been dead educationally, partly because of the lack of leadership on the part of the school principal. It is true that he is a college graduate but the trouble with him is that he knows nothing of the general educational and social problems of Centerville. He is familiar enough with the subjects taught in the elementary and high schools, familiar with them just as subjects, but he does not know enough of the life of the village community to supervise his schools so that the teacher will connect the school subjects with the wonderful experiences of the village child. The Centerville principal, it is true, studied psychology, sociology, history of education, and school administration in the school of education at his state university, but the sociology was that of the city, the school administration related to city and state. He got nothing regarding a small town school or a small town community. The college failed to point out the wonderful opportunity in the small town. The Centerville schools would be much better if the college would discuss the actual problems that its graduates, upon assuming the principalship of Centerville, must meet . Even if the principal of the Centerville schools has had no train- ing specifically for his position he could and should take more interest in the educational problems of the small town. Whenever he attends a state or national educational meeting he is not found in the section devoted to rural and village schools but in the city-school sections. The Centerville schools are hopeless as long as the principal takes this attitude toward his school problems. He is faced the wrong way. In fact the city schoolmen do not want him. He is a sort of educa- tional climber but does not know how to climb. If he really wants to climb, the thing to do is to develop a village community school of such a type that educators will beat a pathway to Centerville. In conclusion, the schools of Centerville will be improved only when the people of Centerville realize that it is not a city and that it never will be, that its existence and its prosperity depend not upon any city but upon the farming population trading at the village, that Department] THE WAITSFIELD EXPERIMENT 535 it is only an outgrowth of the needs of the rural community and that it must work for and with the community of which it is a part. THE WAITSFIELD EXPERIMENT MARION DANA, PRINCIPAL OF THE JUNIOR- SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL WAITSFIELD, VERMONT You will not find Waitsfield on an ordinary-sized map of Vermont. You will have to look at the big one in the back of the geography. For it is a small town-not even on the line of the railroad. One leaves the Central Vermont rather far up in the state and follows the Mad River westward back a dozen miles or more, through the narrow valley, in and out among the wooded hills, to the foot of Mt. Lincoln. Here lies the little white village, clear against the background of blue spruces : a prosperous little village, well kept and clean; simple colonial houses, closely cropped lawns, Main Street with its overhanging maples, a modern library building, given by a native son that had gone away and grown rich and reminiscent, a schoolhouse, built under the direction of the state by a school board with vision-a building that a New Jersey suburb would not be ashamed of. Beyond the town on both sides of the river are level farms that boast of being unequalled in the state. Pure-bred Jerseys on the hillsides, automobiles everywhere in the streets, immaculate housewives sweeping their doorsteps, girls in smart gingham dresses, copied from city styles. It is a comfortable little village with no poor ; not a story-book small town, but more decent and better behaved. There are few loiterers about the neatly kept stores and the hotel steps. The village post- mistress would scorn to read a postal card. It is considered poor taste to gossip overmuch or to listen on the telephone. A town that boasts of reading many magazines, of sending its boys and girls away to college, a town that is proud of its history of the old families-a big volume in the revolving bookcase just inside the library door. And yet as I went back to it-for it is my native town-after a space of some years, I felt disappointment. There was something hollow to me in its culture ; its progress seemed borrowed, its advance- ment largely external. There seemed to be no warm, living spirit among its people, no real creative impulse. Everywhere was cleanness and thrift and modern improvement, but nowhere was joy and song and play. I understood why the people grew old so early, why at thirty they laid aside their personal ambitions and merely kept house, and made the farms pay, and lived for the future generation. I understood their almost slavish devotion to their children. Most of them felt in their hearts that they themselves were failures. They lived that these younger ones could escape the limitations they had known, 536 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education could achieve a fuller measure of life, could make their dreams come true. They reckoned without deep knowledge of youth. The one idea that they would have concealed was the one they imparted. With swift intuitiveness, the children knew the secret discontent and dramatized it in their own lives; for they had not yet come into that inheritance of puritan pride that hides the emotions that are deepest. They had not learned to stand erect when they felt like stooping. They were self-conscious and abashed. They shuffled and stammered and hung their heads. They spoke poor English, their manners were indifferent, they were not happy. The material excellence of the village meant little to them. They were not interested in that. They were young. They wanted life and adventure and self-expression and joy. They believed that they could find it if they were free. Like the pot of the rainbow, it was out there just beyond the mountain, or the wooded hills in Montpelier, in Burlington perhaps, at least in Boston. Out there in the world was fullness of life and power. But in the little white village was only barrenness. They hated it, they were ashamed of it, ashamed because it was small and remote and cold, most ashamed of all, because it had no railroad. They wanted only to get away. Up there in the school we spoke new words to them. We taught them to revalue themselves and the community. We made them re- verence their own powers. We showed them the true source of their strength. We told them that the Kingdom of Heaven was not beyond the horizon, but in their own hearts ; and with the glorious credulity of youth, they believed us. We released their creative energies, and with the releasing came joy. This is the simple story of our work in Waitsfield. It was wonderful to see how quickly the seeds sprang up. All at once, it seemed, the whole school of a hundred children burst into expression. Some worked with wood, some with cloth, some sang, some made pictures, many wrote poems. They were real poems, too, embodying the life around them, and the beauty of the hills that had invaded their consciousness since babyhood. They wrote of the owl that calls from the swamp lands, of the foxes in the mountain pastures, of the snow that falls like the cherry-blossoms in the spring- time-I am using their own words of the swift flight of the sleds over the hard, shining knolls of the January slopes, of the smoke that circles above the house roofs, and of the arbutus that finds its way through evergreens to cool, narrow streams. They made plays, real native plays, and created their setting and interpretation. They published an unusual school paper. They organized their thoughts and gave little speeches before their companions and the townspeople, Department] THE WAITSFIELD EXPERIMENT 537 talking straight-forwardly, for they had grown modest enough to be unafraid. But there was executive work to be done, as well as creative. Το carry it on, we instituted a little republic, having three branches of government,based upon the state and national forms. The legislative branch makes the laws of the school, subject to the veto of the student body, the faculty, and the school board. There are twelve members, two chosen from each class. A number of special officers, and a student court make up the judicial department. The special officers take charge of the study-hall during their free periods, deal with minor offenses themselves, and report more serious ones to the court. The officers change from week to week, and are appointed by a committee from the legislative department. The court consists of six members, holding their office throughout the year. It is an efficient body. So wisely does it act, administering only such punishments as are purely corrective, that its rulings have so far been accepted without question. The executive department consists of the faculty and a sort of "cabinet," a system of committees, chosen from the older students to carry on the detail of the administrative work of the school . The duties of the officers of the various departments of the execu- tive branch are many and important. The house department attends to matters pertaining to the interior of the school building, to its decora- tion and repairs, and has general supervision of the care of the rooms. The grounds department has similar duties in relation to the outside of the building and the lawns. The clerical department attends to the school records. The supply department looks after the matter of ordering books and other supplies. A department of outside activi- ties regulates the social life of the students. The department of infor- mation attends to the publicity work of the school, to seeing, for example, that our progress is noted in the local papers. The department has an employment bureau for students wishing work outside of school hours, and a board-and-room agency for those who come to us from out-of-town. The library and music departments have the duties that are suggested by their names. Most important of all, there is a department of special instruction. It has charge of all students needing special help in subjects studied, and of those whose education in the fundamentals has been neglected. Under its direction, classes are formed of all who require more assistance than can be given them in the regular classrooms. These classes are taught by the older students, mostly seniors, who volunteer to take up the work, receive additional credits for doing it, who follow a definite course of study and report regularly on progress made. The classes are made up only of students who realize their weakness and volunteer to do the extra work. The pupils are discharged as soon as "cured" and the classes are discon 538 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education tinued. This department also provides assistants for the regular teachers, and works in every way to raise the standard of scholarship of the school. The little republic has been singularly successful. It is rather more than an extension of democracy to school life. It is an experi- ment in educational socialism. The students feel that they are share- holders in a common concern. They work for the good of the whole. The older and the stronger give of their surplus to the younger and weaker and receive in return their loyalty and support. The aim of all is the development of each. Individual freedom is limited only by considerations of common welfare. There are no laws that could be dispensed with. There is a fortunate blending of rivalry and coöpera- tion. There is happiness because there is self-activity. The creative spirit is magnetic. It was not long after our experi- ment was well under way that all Vermont became interested. The newspapers of the state noticed our efforts ; Burlington and Montpelier, of whom we had so long been in awe, turned to look at us, and one day we found that we were known across the boundary line. One great day New York came a group of educators from Columbia, some of them gathered there from foreign lands. They came to inspect our system, to commend our work. I shall not forget the look in the children's eyes that day. It was the look of a new realization. The world that they had worshipped from afar had started a beaten path to their door, to their despised little mountain village, to the town that was not on the railroad. All this time the people of the community watched us. There were those that understood, who had been with us from the beginning. The others wondered and finally believed. They came to us after a little with their good will and support. They formed a parents' association. They joined in our activities. They became proud of us. They talked no longer of the schoolhouse, but of the school. They have not yet learned the full lesson. They do not yet realize that while they should work with us, they should not have their center in us, that they should create independently, and play, and find joy and youth in themselves. Some day they must learn that. Meanwhile we have given them new values. When they speak of the town today, it is not only of the fine farms and the smooth lawns and the blooded stock and the ranks their sons and daughters are achieving in distant activities; it is also of an intangible thing in their midst the spirit of the school. There are a thousand towns like Waitsfield in our America-towns that are clean and ambitious and externally prosperous, but which have not true self-faith. They are towns that live vicariously the lives of the larger places, that do not express themselves, and so are unhappy. Their sins, as Carl Sandburg says of those of Kalamazoo, are not Department] TRAINING SUPERINTENDENTS AND SUPERVISORS 539 scarlet; they are drab, the sins of heaviness of spirit and of unbelief. They must be awakened to despise imitation, to respect themselves, the true source of their power. The task of awakening this respect rests upon the village school. The pioneer communities had a culture that was genuine. Their re- creations and mental and spiritual activities were native and sincere. In old New England, for example, we had the country dance, the singing class, the spelling bee, the debating society-all true expressions of local thought and feeling. They have passed as the old district school, around which they centered, has passed. They have not followed formal instruction into the village. The centralized high school must recognize its social obligation and gather about itself the new creative and recreative life of the community. This is the day of our special opportunity. It is the day of the small town. The prominence given to the rural departments in the program of this convention is very significant. It is in keeping with the times. All America is watching the small town, studying it, inter- preting it, seeking through it to discover the depths and intimacies of our national life. Some years ago, even New York forgot Broad- way to listen to the broken silences of Spoon River, and the novels and dramas engaging the thought of the most serious of our metro- politan critics of today are those dealing with the problems of the Main-street village. The country community is no longer obscure. America looks to us because she knows that it is we alone who can create a national culture. She looks to us to redeem her people from materialism and that country-wide nervousness that seeks inspiration outside the individual. It is a spiritual work, religious even-one intrusted to the teachers rather than to the priests. For the message of the new order must first be given to the young. They are the true believers and can best teach to their communities the lesson of self-faith. TRAINING COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS AND RURAL SUPERVISORS IN SERVICE ADELAIDE M. AYER, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, HELENA, MOΝΤΑΝΑ That there is need in most states, at least, of training county super- intendents and rural supervisors in service there can be little question in spite of the fact that this subject has scarcely been touched on in national educational meetings and in our best educational journals. Surely the training of administrators and supervisors for our urban schools, to which much attention has recently been given, is child's play in comparison with training county superintendents. There is scarcely an administrative duty of the city superintendent which is not also the duty of the county superintendent. Added to these responsibilities is 540 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education the problem of keeping in touch with a large number of schools scat- tered over an area of many hundred and often many thousands of square miles ; of training in service a frequently changing group of immature teachers, a large proportion of whom have not even com- pleted high school ; of adapting for a short school term in a school of many grades a curriculum intended for city schools of nine or ten months ; of constantly fighting rural child labor and non-attendance which statistics show in many states are much more serious in the country than in the city; of dealing with possibly several hundred school-board members ; of settling innumerable legal disputes over dis- trict boundaries, location of school sites, etc.; of apportioning school funds to both urban and rural districts ; and of constantly educating the public to needed legislation in order to equalize educational oppor- tunities. These are the lines of training a county superintendent needs over and above that given other administrators and supervisors. Is it not time that the problem be attacked ? Before we can determine what training is needed we must have some idea of the previous education and experience of those who hold the position of county superintendent. From the latest available data I have found that county superintendents are elected in twenty-nine states and appointed in eleven states . A few months ago I asked through a personal letter to state depart- ments what was being done to train in service county or district super- intendents and rural supervisors either by higher institutions or by state departments. The replies from forty-two states may be classified as follows :, In six states, state departments are giving close supervision of county or union township superintendents and their assistants through frequent confer- ences, visits to counties for the purpose of assisting county superintendents, circular letters, outlines, and stimulation to do extension work in state institu- tions. In two states a large proportion last year attended the summer sessions of some of our best-known higher institutions. In seven states, institutions, usually under the direction of the state de- partment, are giving definite courses for county superintendents lasting usually from two to six weeks . One state has had a special six weeks' summer course for training help- ing teachers. Fourteen states are doing nothing more than hold annual conferences lasting from one to five days. Twelve states are making no attempt whatever to train county super- intendents and rural supervisors. It is evident that so little has been done to counteract this great weakness in American education that almost any constructive program of training will be pioneer work. It seems to me to be peculiarly the duty of state departments as represented by their rural-school super Department] TRAINING SUPERINTENDENTS AND SUPERVISORS 541 visors in states which have such officers to frame and to carry out a definite program of training in service of county superintendents and their assistants. There are at least six fundamental principles involved in such an undertaking : 1. There should be a well-defined program of training. A precedent should be set and either a minimum amount of legislation enacted or state-board requirements made so that this training will be generally accepted as a part of a bigger educational program rather than a spasmodic feature left to the caprice of state departments and higher institutions. 2. The state department of public instruction should be responsible for this training. The courses should be carefully worked out with state institu- tions though certain courses may best be given by representatives of the state department who know the needs of the state and of the county superintendents and supervisors better than university and normal-school faculties. This as- sumption presupposes that as well-trained people are to be found in state departments as in state institutions. 3. Intensive courses for county superintendents and rural supervisors should be planned specifically for them. Teachers and city superintendents and supervisors with different interests should not be allowed in the same courses. 4. There should be some differentiation in training of county superintend- ents and rural supervisors. The former should, for example, have a much more detailed and intensive training in administration than the latter. 5. The aim should be the development of growth rather than the standard- ization of practice. This involves the differentiation of problems for super- intendents and supervisors of different counties. 6. The training of county superintendents and supervisors should be along three lines : (a) Definite courses at state institutions. (b) Frequent con- ferences of the entire group and smaller groups geographically located. One annual general conference should be at least two weeks in length. Attendance at this conference should be compulsory. (c) Field work including office visits, teachers' and trustees' meetings, school visitation, etc. In many states in which county superintendents are elected they take office the first of January following a November election. If it can be arranged to hold a six weeks' course for newly elected county superintendents between those two dates many mistakes so common to new superintendents will be avoided and a unity of interests developed between the various county superintendents and between the county superintendents and the state department. I would suggest that the curriculum for this six weeks' term consist of the following intensive courses: county administration ; supervision of rural and village schools ; curriculum for rural schools, and technique of teaching. The first two courses (county administration and supervision of rural and village schools) and, perhaps, the third (curriculum for rural schools) can, in many states, best be given by members of the state department staff. The county administration course will naturally be based on the duties of the county superintendent and on the school laws of the state. 542 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Rural Education The course in supervision of rural and village schools should make clear the difference between administration and supervision, between supervision and inspection, and should emphasize the greater importance of supervision. A study of the following topics which might properly come in this course are probably needed by most county superintendents entering office : 1. Division of duties between the county superintendent and rural super- visors. 2. Fundamental principles involved in the supervision of village and rural schools. 3. Types of supervision including : (a) improvement of instruction through the use of textbooks, course of study, reference and supplementary material, combining and alternating classes in making daily and weekly program, making assignments, using standard tests and measurements, training children how to study, evaluating, making and using seat work, formulating good questions, using the problem as an element in good teaching, and planning opening exercises and special-day programs ; (b ) school management, including the management of janitor work, routine classroom details, keeping a record of attendance, seat- ing pupils, caring for lighting, heating, and ventilation, making reports, testing sight and hearing and planning and supervising recess and noon hours. 4. Means of supervision, as : (a) through visitation which may include the planning of visits for a school year, month, week, and day, what to look for in visiting schools, record blanks to use, demonstration teaching, technique and good taste in offering criticism, judging the value of work observed, and follow-up work; (b) teachers' meetings or institutes, the study of which should result in building up principles and aims in planning programs so that county superintendents may be brought to see that every meeting must have a specific aim and that that aim cannot be realized by allowing the various agencies that have exploited the schools in the last few years to have a place on the program; (c)office conferences, circular letters, outlines, and reading-circle work. In connection with this course in supervision I would have observa- tion of one of two recitations in a city school followed by detailed analysis of the lesson observed. How constructive criticism may be offered the teacher and what follow-up work would be needed may profitably be given. If it could be arranged to take two or three trips to nearby county schools for the same purpose it would be worth while. The course in rural-school curriculum would depend largely upon the personnel and experience of the county superintendents represented. If the majority in the group are men the emphasis should be largely placed on primary and intermediate curricula and methods. If most of the county superintendents have recently come from the ranks of ele- mentary teachers the work should be distributed throughout the eight grades with possibly more emphasis on beginning reading than on any other phase. Time may profitably be taken to weave in a little psy- chology on the laws of learning, habit formation, and individual differ- ences, and the modifications in the traditional curriculum that are neces- sary to conform to these laws of psychology. If the state does not have Department] TRAINING superinTENDENTS AND SUPERVISORS 543 a separate course of study for rural schools the adaptation of the elementary course to fit a school of many grades should be given. In choosing technique of teaching as a fourth course of this school for county superintendents I have tried to select a subject that would suggest a closer relation to actual practices than is usually found in similar courses in general methods or principles of teaching. A specific course for the training of rural supervisors is needed in most states as much as a course for training county superintendents. This may best be given during the summer term at one of the state institutions by members of the state department staff and other special- ists in elementary supervision and county-life problems. In most states rural supervisors who are appointed will usually be superior elementary teachers. They may need less of the technique of teaching but more of the study of rural-life problems than do county superintendents. They will need less school administration than do county superintendents but they should be given a general survey of the public-school systems of the country. I would recommend the following courses for the first summer term for rural-school supervisors : supervision of rural and village schools; country-life problems ; rural-school curriculum ; and public-school systems. A few states hold annual short courses or general conferences of about two weeks for both county superintendents and rural supervisors. In planning the program for this conference in Montana for the past four years, an effort has been made to make this a school with a sequence of work running throughout the session, to reduce the number of individual lectures and the number of speakers to a minimum, and to exclude from the program all propagandists either of a commercial or public-welfare nature. All of these courses advocated would be of little value if the work were not followed up through frequent circular letters and outlines and especially through group conferences and through visits to county superintendents. Probably the most important part of the work of state rural supervisors or inspectors is field work, and the most im- portant part of field work is the close contact it affords with the actual daily problems which county superintendents and rural supervisors and their assistants have to meet. For a state supervisor to be able to go into the poorest rural schools with the county superintendent and help teachers reorganize their programs, demonstrate how to give a history assignment, or show how beginners may be taught to read real stories is not only an inspiration to teachers but is the most practical assistance in developing supervisors out of county superintendents and their assistants . Next to visiting schools with county superintendents and their assist- ants, probably the greatest constructive aid that a state supervisor can be is in helping to plan institutes and group teachers' meetings. So 544 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education little has been accomplished from institutes that we have, in Montana, practically done away with them. Experience for the last two or three years has shown that group teachers' meetings are much more valuable. The law of individual differences works among county superin- tendents as well as in other groups. Like other groups they will give their best, not by our trying to standardize their practices but by our observing those differences. State supervisors or inspectors may well encourage a differentiation of work in different counties. One county may best be served by the county superintendent's emphasis on Ameri- canization work among the foreign population of rural districts, another by a coöperative effort of county superintendents and teachers in en- riching the course of study or in developing a new curriculum, and another by the education of patrons to the needs and importance of the school. The only things which state supervisors or inspectors have a right to standardize are the principles of supervision and administration. SUPERVISION FOR GROWTH MAUDE NEWBURY, HELPING TEACHER, HUNTERDON CO., FLEMINGTON, N. J. The problem constantly confronting the rural supervisor is, "How can I help this young untrained boy or girl, probably away from home for the first time, to acquire some degree of skill in doing types of work which, in a graded school, six grade teachers, three or four teach- ers of special subjects, a principal and janitor are responsible for per- forming ?" The rural teacher who is not young, untrained, and inex- perienced is usually living at home, perhaps married, with children, and has many home responsibilities added to those already weighty. More than they need anything else, such persons need a friend. If we would help these young girls and boys and these overburdened married women to grow, we must be that friend. Most rural teachers are children of farmers. No people in America are more liberty-loving or more independent in spirit than farmers and the sons and daughters of farmers. The position of teacher tends to develop initiative, leadership, confidence in one's ability, indepen- dence. Anything that smacks of coercion has no place in a rural supervision program. The business of the supervisor is to bring to the teacher a vision of modern methods, leaving her free to select any- thing that she believes will help her. Having determined the spirit in which we shall work, other problems confronting us are, "How can we bring to rural teachers a vision of modern methods of teaching and stimulate them to put forth enough energy to realize this vision ? How can we lead rural communities to want a progressively higher type of school ? How can we guarantee Department] SUPERVISION FOR GROWTH 545 for ourselves that which we are so eager to bring about in others, growth in vision and in power to realize it ?" The answer to the problem concerning methods of teaching is found in the use of discriminating praise, of demonstration teaching by the supervisor followed by discussion of the principles involved, demon- stration teaching by the best teachers in the group followed by dis- cussion, in the organization of Saturday extension courses in methods of teaching, and in encouraging attendance at summer schools. On our visits to individual schools we may raise problems in the teachers' minds, problems relating to the organization of the school, the making of programs and better methods of teaching. Demonstra- tion teaching by the supervisor followed by discussion of the reasons for the methods used is the best way of raising problems in the minds of untrained teachers. The supervisor should work most with the most responsive teachers in her group, leading them to solve problems raised with a fair degree of skill. She is then in a position to call all-day teachers' meetings which will give every teacher an opportunity to see a member of her own group solve the problem of the teaching of reading, oral English, and spelling in a reorganized one-room school. This method by which the supervisor raises problems in the mind of every teacher, coöperates with very responsive teachers in working out solutions, and then calls teachers together for an all-day or after- noon meeting to see and discuss the solution is valuable for introducing and encouraging the use of new and better methods. We have used it in Hunterdon County in reorganizing schools, securing better pro- grams, introducing the organization of Health and Better Language Clubs, physical training programs, the serving of hot lunches, new courses of study, and better methods of teaching. For two years we conducted Saturday extension classes in Hunter- don County for rural teachers and others who wished to join. The classes were held in the high school at the county seat. The county superintendent, the two county helping teachers, the local music super- visor, the high-school head of the home economics departments, and a teacher from the Trenton Normal School taught courses in super- vision, methods of teaching handwork, hygiene, history, geography, English, music, home economics, and nature study. The classes were held on alternate Saturdays. Large groups attended. The supervisor is only one of many important factors in the growth of teachers. In New Jersey where the people annually vote the money for schools, where township boards of education have the power to build schoolhouses, select and purchase supplies, fix salaries, and appoint teachers, the community becomes a most important factor in teacher growth. The generosity shown by a community in paying salaries, 546 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education furnishing supplies, and expressing appreciation of good work is an important factor in securing and holding teachers capable of grow- ing. If we are eager to work with teachers responsive to suggestions we must stimulate parents to grow in interest in and enthusiasm for the education of their children. Parents and all influential members of communities must be led to see that the zealous, well-trained teacher is the most valuable member of any community. The supervisor should leave no stone unturned in an attempt to arouse communities to an intelligent appreciation of good schools and enthusiasm in the support of movements for better schools. The means at her disposal are parent-teacher associations, evening community meetings, town- ship-school festivals, county-school festivals, township and county child- welfare days and county conferences. Recently the county superintendent and helping teachers of Hunter- don County after discussing county problems decided that more en- thusiasm should be awakened for the annual township school elections ; that local parent-teacher associations should be organized into town- ship units and made conscious of their opportunity to wield an import- ant influence in shaping township school policies ; that such township organizations should be led to hold yearly meetings, with the object of formulating and putting into operation programs for progress. We wrote to officers of parent-teacher associations, saw leading officers and members and discussed plans with them and finally called after- noon and evening meetings at central places in various townships. For these meetings we secured such speakers as Miss Carney, Miss Spohr, Doctor Dunn, and Doctor Wilson, of Columbia, and Captain Barr, of the American Red Cross. However, much of the time ot these town- ship meetings was given to the discussion of child-welfare problems by local people. With the idea of stimulating such discussion, the helping teachers outlined under a child-welfare program, mental, phy- sical, and moral, a list of suggestive questions, hektographed them, and distributed them at the meeting. Everyone present was invited to discuss for a few minutes any question raised by speakers, or any question relating to the welfare of local children. Every group was responsive. Several groups asked the head of the local high-school home economics department to come to their school and talk to the mothers on the value and management of the hot lunch in the rural school, a half-dozen communities asked Captain Barr to speak on PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENCE. One question raised related to better educational opportunities for the children of each township. For weeks afterward, until the date of the school election, farmers sought their public forums, the grange halls, and the crossroad stores and discussed questions relating to the consolidation of schools. Where three people or seven people voted at school elections in Hunterdon Department] FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 547 County last year, ninety-eight or three hundred and sixty voted this year. Each township group voted to have a similar meeting in mid- winter next year and, at the suggestion of the helping teachers who had presided at these first meetings, elected a township chairman from their own group to arrange for future gatherings and programs. In all such movements it is desirable that the supervisor encour- age teacher and community leadership. We have done this in Hunter- don County through parent-teacher organizations and by organizing a rural-school council composed of a representative teacher from each township elected by the teachers of the township to serve for one year. This council advises with the county superintendent and helping teach- ers, and so helps to shape policies relating to rural-school progress. It arranges the program for and the management of rural-school festivals, held in May and June for the purpose of providing motivation for school work and for the sake of advertising the schools. It is natural to give much time to considering the need of improving others and little to the need of improving ourselves. New Jersey helping teachers are fortunate in receiving appointment and guidance from a great educational statesman, a man big in human sympathy, great in vision, generous in praise. Assistant commissioners and county superintendents, also appointed by him, reflect his spirit. The helping teachers in Warren and Hunterdon counties are fortunate in being affiliated with Teachers College, Columbia University. This affilia- tion furnishes us contacts with enthusiasts and experts in education, who keep us from slipping into deep ruts. The use of group intelligence and other standardized tests will stimulate rural supervisors to grow in skill in analyzing and solving teaching problems. The use of these tests gives supervisors an oppor- tunity to develop from the bungling into the skilled type of worker. We need to grow in every way that will enable us to make richer the lives of country children, but because of the complexities and dis- couragements of our task there is a fundamental need that we develop a dogged type of perseverance. We must grow in willingness to "keep eternally at it" until we make possible for every rural child a square deal in education. FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR RURAL SCHOOLS N. R. BAKER, COUNTY SuperintendENT, JEFFERSON COUNTY, ALABAMA Jefferson County, Alabama, has a rural territory of eleven hundred square miles. It is divided into sixteen school districts for taxation purposes. The largest of these districts has about one hundred square miles ; the smallest, twenty-five ; and the average, seventy square miles. There is an average of fourteen schools in each district. Some dis- tricts contain as many as twenty schools. The districts are made 548 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education large in order that each district may contain railroads, ore land, manu- facturing plants, or other corporations. The rural population of the county is 105,000; the number of schools, 210 ; the number of teachers, 612; number of transported pupils, 1272 ; number of vehicles used in transporting, 53. The entire amount of tax possible to levy under the law in the district is limited to three mills, the county to four and one-half mills, the state to three mills and a direct appropriation amounting to about half a mill. This is not as it should be. I can see no valid reason why the state constitution should inhibit the people of any community or in any county from taxing themselves, as they may see fit, for the support of the schools. On the other hand, the plan of the state for the distribution of state funds on the per capita basis by means of which about $200,000 is lost yearly by Jefferson County to the poorer counties of the state is as it should be. This county contains much of the mineral wealth of the state. Railroads shops, taxes upon which are paid locally, serve lines that cross the state like the spokes of a wheel and really belong to the entire state and not to any one locality. In a democracy, education must serve all the people and, therefore, the unit should not be made so small that communities of little wealth are limited in school funds while richer communities can build school buildings like palaces and pay handsome salaries with comparatively less taxation . The uneducated child of a poor district is as surely a menace to the state as the improperly educated child of a rich district. The sources of revenue, therefore, in this country when computed upon a percentage basis show as follows : state, 21 per cent; county, 47 per cent ; district, 32 per cent ; federal government, "a trace." Theoretically, I believe that this could be improved only by increas- ing the amount to be provided by the states, making the proportion about as follows : state, 40 per cent ; county, 35 per cent ; district, 25 per cent ; federal government, "2 traces." In the interest of economy, efficiency, and celerity in school adminis- tration there should be no smaller unit than the county. The county board of education should hold the district funds in trust. By making purchases in quantity, equipment and supplies can be furnished the districts at less expense than if done through local initiative. Not only the course of study but the necessary equipment can be standard- ized and installed along hygienic lines. Results may be obtained quickly, jealousy is eliminated, contentions avoided, and standards adopted by the administration of the county system. I desire also to recommend the establishment of a large federal revolving fund for the assistance of the less fortunate states and Department] RURAL COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 549 counties. This I believe to be in accord with the basic ideas of democ- racy as established by the makers of the Constitution. To summarize : a rural-school system should be financed first, equally or nearly so by the state, county, and district ; second, the basis for the distribution of state funds to the counties should be the number of children to be educated with the possible exception of a revolving fund to meet extreme conditions ; third, the unit of adminis- tration of funds should be the county ; fourth, the agent of distribution should be the county board of education ; fifth, the building fund should be obtained from the sale of county or district bonds or warrants ; and sixth, district funds only should be used in the construction of teacherages or the unusual requirements of any purely local situation. SOME FUNDAMENTALS OF RURAL COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 1 ¹ DWIGHT SANDERSON, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. My consideration of this topic will be confined to the rural com- munity. A logical procedure would seem to demand, first, a deter- mination of what the rural community is; second, what is the object or nature of community organization; third, what is the nature of association in a community, which will necessarily condition ; fourth, what methods may be desirable and, fifth, the mechanism of community organization. 1. The rural community. -As I have elsewhere indicated, until we have a clearer and common concept of just what the community is, we are necessarily discussing different things and different problems. If there be such a thing as a community and we are to deal with it as a scientific term, let us have some common understanding of its mean- ing. To this end I would advance the following definition. A rural community consists of the people in a local area tributary to the center of their common interests. The community is the smallest geographical unit of organized association of the chief human activities. The community, however, is not an area, nor an aggregation nor asso- ciation, but rather a corporate state of mind of those living in a local area. With this concept of a community it is obvious that the center of the community is that point in the community where its interests and activities focus. Usually this is in a town or village, but the business center of a trade area may not necessarily be the center of the most important interests of the community, and the church, school, and The complete address, of which this is an abstract, may be found in the Proceedings of the Third National Country Life Conference, American Country Life Association, 1921. Publications of the American Sociological Society, XIV, 84. *See "Locating the Rural Community," Cornell Reading Course for the Farm, No. 158. : 550 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education grange hall of a rural hamlet several miles from its trading point on the railroad, may form the community center. Most communities have within them several neighborhoods, where a number of homes are clustered together, possibly around a school, church, or mill, but with only one-if any-center of interest. The community is an area in which at least several of the more fundamental human interests find organized expression at, or nearby, a common center. There cannot be a church community, a school community, a grange community, or a farm-bureau community. The areas of influence of these institutions may be different, and each of them should adopt whatever local area is best adapted to its purposes, parish, school district, or grange area, but the real community is a composite of the areas tributary to these institutions which have a common center. No one of these institutions determines the community area and usually no one of them can command the support of all members of the com- munity, so that it is undesirable that any one of them should seek to dominate the community organization. 2. Object and nature of community organization. Community organization, as I conceive it, is that integration of the social forces ' of a community which will best advance the socialization of the members of the community by furnishing a means for their unified action in the chief concerns of life, thus making possible a progressive realization and attainment of the highest social values. It is but a means for the fullest socialization of the individual, but not an end initself. 3. Association in the community. Informally members of the community associate as neighbors or playmates, in a "social set,” as kinfolk. With an increasing number of desires resulting from larger communication and better education, voluntary associations become more numerous in the social organization of the modern community. Two essentials of voluntary associations are common interest and effective leadership. People associate chiefly because they want to and not because they ought to. The procedure of community organization is conditioned by the habitual processes of human association, and its art consists in the discovery of means for inciting new desires and developing new social habits which will give rise to a consciousness of the need of a new institution, the community organization. 4. Methods of community organization. Community organization can be affected only as institutions, associations, and individuals have a common desire which cannot be fully satisfied without their united activity. The allaying of antagonisms between special interests is not an objective for any of them until they are unable to achieve their ends without joint action. Therefore, the primary consideration in Department] 1 RURAL COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 551 community organization is to determine what is the most important unmet need of the community and to enlist all elements in the common enterprise. The community activities undertaken first must be those which make the strongest appeal to the largest number and which will involve the least antagonism and friction. The community cannot be a pure democracy for all purposes. It is useless to expect that all sorts and conditions of people will associate as effectively as a community unit as they will when coming together according to their special interests and their personal likes and dislikes . The importance of numerous associations of special interests must be recognized, and desirable forms of association should be promoted to meet the needs of all elements of the the community, but all should be brought to realize their obligation to promote the well-being of the community as a whole, and should be encouraged to unite in com- munity enterprises in which joint action is necessary. The community organization should not attempt administrative functions, but should promote separate organizations for special purposes. The collective mind of the community is more conservative than that of its leaders and hence pure democracy in community control may not of itself result in the greatest community progress. The rate and stability of the progress made will depend chiefly upon the efficiency and wisdom of the leadership, involving the loyalty of the groups to their leaders . On the other hand, the fact that the collective mind of the com- munity moves more slowly than that of its leaders, particularly if it has a group of leaders who have had unusual advantages of education and contacts with the outside world, must be recognized by them, and true leaders will understand the unwisdom of forcing new ideas upon the community before it is converted to them. 5. The mechanism of community organization . Although the object of community organization, i.e. the best socialization, should be constantly kept in mind, and although it should be measured by the degree with which it functions rather than by its structural organiza- tion, yet the very multiplicity of associations, agencies, and interests in the modern community will necessitate some formal machinery for their united action as soon as the community idea is accepted. Numerous forms of community organization have been devised. It is in the composition of the community council, executive committee, or board of directors of the community organization that the under- lying policy of these different types of community organization is most clearly differentiated. It seems evident that no community organization or federation can control the existing organizations in a community; it can only provide the best means for their voluntary coöperation. Obviously it is desir 552 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Rural Education able that they should be represented in the community council if their coöperation is to be secured. Difficulty may arise where there are a large number of organizations, which would make the council too large to be an effective working body, and from the fact that many organizations have certain activities which would entitle them to repre- sentation on the community council, but which otherwise might not be eligible. There can be no one best type of community organization adapted to the widely varying conditions of all sorts and sizes of rural com- munities. Certain principles may be suggested, and these principles should receive careful consideration in the formation of a community organization. But after all, each community must receive an individual diagnosis and the form of its organization must be adapted to it. The important thing is not the creating of another new organization in the community, but to afford the means for the greater efficiency of the existing organizations and agencies through united action and for the creation of any others which may be needed. Community or- ganization consists not in the mechanism but in the process of unifica- tion of interests resulting in community character. The aim of a community organizer should be so to educate a community that its people may achieve social consciousness, self-direc- tion, and permanent growth in community character. The supreme need of modern civilization for meeting its baffling problems is the development of effective local units of democracy ; of a democracy not only political, but concerning itself with all phases of human welfare. Democratic ideals are an illusion and will succumb to the manipulation of the crowd by the power of the few, unless they can be given expression in the local community. THE CONTINUED EMERGENCY IN RURAL TEACHER SUPPLY AND HOW TO MEET IT EDITH A. LATHROP, SPECIALIST IN RURAL EDUCATION, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION , WASHINGTON, D. C. This subject divides itself into two parts and the discussion follows that division-first, a diagnosis of the case and second, remedies for its improvement. We do not concentrate the mind upon a situation until it presents itself as a crisis. This is the essence of a statement made by Dr. Albert Shaw, editor of the American Review of Reviews, before the National Citizens' Conference on Education held in Washington last spring. When thousands of rural schools were either closed or taught by teachers holding emergency certificates, then we thought of the situation as a crisis. However, there has always been an emergency in the rural teacher supply if we consider the minimum preparation Department] RURAL TEACHER SUPPLY に 553 of a rural teacher as six years beyond that of the elementary school. This is the standard set by the cities and there is no reason to assume that the preparation of rural teachers should be less. Four canvasses have been made in order to approximate the number of vacancies and schools taught by teachers holding emergency cer- tificates-two by the Bureau of Education and two by the National Education Association. The Bureau of Education estimate for Jan- uary, 1920, was based upon replies from state superintendent. The remaining three are from returns of county and district superintendents. The results of these studies are given in the tabulation following : Estimated Estimated Vacancies Estimated Emergency and Agency Time Vacancies Teachers Emergencies Ν. Ε. Α . ....... Sept. 1919 39,000 69,000 108,000 Bureau of Education..Jan. 1920 18,279 41,900 60,179 Ν. Ε. Α. ........... Sept. 1920 .... 92,949 Bureau of Education.. Sept. 1920 22,919 27,588 50,507 In both years 1919 and 1920 the National Education Association figures are nearly double those of the Bureau of Education. The difference may be largely accounted for in the fact that the Bureau of Education requests restricted the replies to rural schools, while those for the National Education Association did not. The latter undoubtedly includes replies from towns within the jurisdiction of the county superintendents. Two additional factors enter into the canvasses made last year. First, the National Education Association requests were mailed at the beginning of the school year, while those for the Bureau of Education were mailed at the middle of the year. An accounting made during the middle of the school year is probably nearer the truth for many rural schools do not open until October or November. This is especially true of the colored schools of the South. Second, the Bureau of Education replies were sent to state superintendents. Replies from county superintendents state the situ- ation more exactly than do those from state superintendents. There is three weeks' difference in time in the accounting made by the two agencies of this year, for the National Education Association requests were mailed September 1 while those for the Bureau of Education were mailed the last week in September. This three weeks' difference in time accounts, somewhat, for the wide margin in the two sets of figures. A comparison of the figures shows the situation less acute than last year. Reports from field workers in the Bureau of Educa- tion seem to indicate that, so far as a real shortage is concerned, the situation is much better than the figures for last September indicate. The vital element in the rural-teacher situation, at present, is not so much closed schools as it is low-standard teachers . An analysis of certification requirements in the various states furnishes an index to the educational professional status of the rural 554 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education teacher population, for teachers holding the lowest grades of certifi- cates are almost wholly found in the rural schools. In only eleven states do the laws require graduation from a four-year high-school as a prerequisite to the issuance of the lowest type of certificate. This means that there are thirty-seven states where, at least, the lowest grade of certificates may be issued to candidates with less than the completion of a four-year high-school course. Where this condition exists there will always be a large per cent of mature teachers who are content to teach year after year without further academic or pro- fessional improvement. Practically all of the states issue temporary certificates. Generally, there are regulations limiting the number of such temporary certificates to be issued to any one person, but in practice these regulations are often ignored. In the attempt to fill the schools during the present emergency there has been undue elasticity in the enforcement of the rules and regulations governing the issuance of low-grade and emer- gency certificates . The survey proves to be the most effective method of determining the actual status of the teaching population. There never has been a comprehensive study of the actual academic and professional prep- aration of the rural teaching force for the entire country. The nearest approach to it was a study published by the Bureau of Education in 1915. This study was based on replies from 2,941 teachers represent- ing 55 counties in the United States. These 55 counties were selected because they contained all the marked geographical and topographical peculiarities of the grand divisions into which the United States is divided. The results showed that 45 per cent of the teachers had completed a four-year high-school course, and that practically one-third of all the teachers had no professional training, not even that which can be had in a short-term summer school. Surveys made in a number of states within the past few years show the situation worse, in most instances, than that reported for the nation. In conclusion it may be said that when the vacancies and sub- standard teachers numbered 50,000 last September ; that when 37 states issue certificates to candidates without high-school preparation ; that when the results of surveys, which were made before so many teachers left the profession, show such a lack of preparation it is most urgent that leaders in rural education should center their activities upon such measures as will result in legislative enactments that will make it possible to secure an adequate number of trained teachers for the country schools. It is most fitting that the acute situation just described should be followed by some suggestions as to how the conditions may be remedied. How to secure an adequate supply of trained teachers for the rural Department] RURAL TEACHER SUPPLY 555 schools is the most difficult question in rural education today. It is difficult because there never has been even the semblance of a trained teaching force for the rural schools. It is further difficult because people have grown up with the notion that rural teachers may have lower educational standards than city teachers. It is still further dif- ficult because there are not enough prepared teachers to supply the cities of the country. There are in the United States about 200,000 one-teacher rural schools. Oftentimes these schools have a daily enrolment of only ten or twelve pupils. Many of these schools are only two miles apart. It is estimated that two-thirds of these schools should and could be consolidated. If this were done the number of rural teachers needed would be reduced by several thousand. Consolidated rural schools attract a better class of teachers than do the one-teacher rural schools . Another means of providing for an adequate supply of rural teach- ers is by raising standards. This may seem paradoxical in face of a shortage. But just so long as we employ eighth-grade teachers for sixth-grade children, just so long will there be an emergency in the rural-teacher situation. As soon as possible certification standards should be gradually raised in the 37 states that issue teachers' certifi- cates to candidates with less than a high-school preparation, by in- creasing the requirements a little each year so that at the end of a five- or ten-year period high-school graduation and two years of professional training would be the minimum requirement for the issuance of a teacher's certificate. A raise in certificate requirements should provide for the scaling of teachers' salaries to the grade of certificates held. In this way a premium would be placed on special preparation . The salary question is a factor of the qualification standard. To clamor for higher salaries without higher qualifications is an insult to the profession. The teacher shortage will be practically solved as soon as salaries are at all commensurate with the time and money expended in the preparation for teaching. High qualifications with the assurance of high salaries will do more to attract worthy young men and women into the teaching profession than any other one thing. Teacher-training scholarships are common in European countries. It is not unusual to stipulate that recipients of such scholarships shall agree to remain in the profession for a period of ten years. Should a teacher wish to be released from teaching before the end of the term of years stipulated, arrangement is made whereby the teacher must return to the government the unearned portion of the scholarship. So far the United States government has not contributed funds for teacher-training scholarships. The Smith-Towner Bill, now pend- ing in Congress, provides that a portion of the $15,000,000 for the 556 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASsociatioN [ Rural Education training of rural teachers shall be used as scholarships. A number of the states are attempting to recruit and improve the teaching pro- fession by means of scholarships. At present the high schools of the country are training most of the rural teachers. In 1917 there were 16,626 graduates from the normal- training courses of the 21 states preparing teachers through county normal schools and high-school training departments. These are the latest figures available. It is quite likely that a canvass made at the present time would show considerable increase in the number of grad- uates, for there are now 25 states subsidizing normal training in secondary schools ; and further, the high-school enrolment for the entire country has greatly increased since 1917. Normal training in secondary schools should be considered only a temporary expedient. It is too early to begin professional training with less academic background than a four-year high-school course or its equivalent. Normal training in high schools has greatly increased in favor since its beginning in the academics of New York state in 1834. Its popularity is due in a large measure to the fact that it is provincial. It is cheaper to meet the professional requirements of certification in a local high school than it is to go away to a normal school. Normal training courses increase the high-school enrolment by attracting country girls who are planning to teach. These girls usually teach a few years in the communities from which they came. Be- cause of these reasons it will be difficult to supplant teacher training in high schools. Such a change will, of course, need to be done gradually. As soon as possible the number of high schools giving the work should be limited. The teacher-training course should be added as a fifth year-making it a postgraduate course. There should be a closer affiliation between the rural departments of the state normal school and high schools giving teacher-training courses. There should be special teachers for the normal-training subjects rather than parcel them out among the high-school faculty as is usually done. One teacher with training and experience should handle the method side of the course. Too often this work is done by high-school teachers who have never had a day's experience as an elementary teacher or as a rural teacher. The second teacher in the normal-train- ing course should handle the professional subjects. This teacher should have broad training and experience in the administration of rural schools. The training of rural teachers is the proper function of the normal schools . In 1918 there were 177 state normal schools in the United States. Burnham's study based on data collected in 1917 showed that 140 of these schools were training probably 7,000 rural teachers, either in separate departments or in special courses. There are approxi Department] RURAL- EDUCATION DEPARTMENTS 557 mately 300,000 teachers needed to supply the open country and village schools. Seven thousand is only a little more than 2 per cent of this number. From these figures it is readily seen that the state normal schools are doing but little toward supplying trained teachers . As fast as the qualifications of rural teachers can be raised, the normal schools should relieve the high schools of teacher training. High schools can never do the work as well as normal schools. A portion of the money spent on teacher training in high schools could be better expended as scholarships for rural teachers in normal schools with strong rural-training departments. A rural-training department should admit only such students as have completed a four-year high- school course or its equivalent; it should command the best of faculty support ; it should provide for practice teaching in rural districts ; and it should offer a course of study which emphasizes country life. Two-thirds of the 20,000,000 school children in the United States are in the rural and village communities. The 300,000 teachers in charge of these schools are the most immature and the poorest pre- pared of all the profession. Yet the teacher is the greatest factor of the school. The public-school system in this country is a living monument dedicated to the principle that the stability of a republican form of government depends upon the intelligence of its people. But just so long as the children in the rural districts are taught by teachers with training and experience inferior to those in the city districts we have a long way to go in the realization of equality of opportunity for all the children. INITIAL STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL- EDUCATION DEPARTMENTS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS HETTY S. BROWNE, BLOOMSBURG, PA. This afternoon I am going to tell you of the steps we have taken to establish rural education in the State Normal School at Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania. We do not claim to have made unusual progress in our work; we do feel, however, that we have the proper ideals for the work, a well-defined goal, and that we have set to work the right forces to make the work a success. Our only reason for telling about our initial steps is that the steps we are taking are the ones that will have to be taken by the majority of those who attempt to establish such departments of rural education. It would be difficult to say just when, where, and by whom the first step toward the formation of this department was made. The idea of the need for special training of rural teachers has long been in the minds of the leading educators in Pennyslvania. The course of study now being used by the Pennsylvania normal schools provides that rural education shall be one of the four fields for which students are 558 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Rural Education specially trained. The work of the two years is divided into four semesters. During the first semester through the course in introduc- tion to teaching, the Juniors are given an opportunity to become acquainted with the work being done in all the grades of the training school as well as in the country schools under the care of the normal school. At the end of this semester they are allowed to choose the group with which they wish to continue their work through the remaining three semesters of their course. A certificate is given to all graduates allowing them to teach in the elementary and junior high schools of the state and stating in which field the student has received special training. The teacher for the rural work, known as director of rural educa- tion, was chosen during the summer. She came to Bloomsburg Normal a few days before the opening of school in order to become acquainted with the county superintendent and to get in touch with the situation in the rural schools of the county. When school opened it was found that only four students had chosen the rural course of study when it had been presented to them the spring before. Feeling that there should be more students who wished to take this work, the principal, Mr. C. H. Fisher, and the teacher met the Senior class, presented the subject of rural education and gave them an opportunity to alter their decision. Two more joined the four who had already chosen rural work and later another student entered and chose to work with this group, thus making seven in all. The small number has made it possible for teachers and students to come in close contact with each other, and to accomplish certain things would have been impossible with a larger number. Meanwhile, the work in the county was being organized. The director of rural education met the teachers of the county in their regular monthly meeting on the third Saturday in September and has met with them at their regular meetings ever since. She also took part in the county institute that met in November. The most important work, however, was the choice of certain county schools to be used as a laboratory for the students taking rural education. Superintendent W. W. Evans, of Columbia County, sug- gested that the schools in Montour Township be chosen. There are four of these one-teacher schools with grades from one to eight. Three of them are easily accessible by trolley, but the one that is a mile from the trolley has been of very little service to the rural depart- ment. Having decided on these schools, Principal Fisher and the teacher met the teachers of these schools, together with Superintendent Evans and his assistant, and explained to them just what use would be made of the schools in their charge. As soon as arrangements for using these schools were completed, the students planned a visit to Department] RURAL- EDUCATION DEPARTMENTS 559 them. We timed our first visit so that we spent recess at each of the schools. The students taught the children games and in this way they established a friendly relationship between themselves and the children. Our next step was to assign each of the four schools to certain students. Since there were but seven students to four schools, this allowed two students to each of three schools and only one to the fourth. A notebook was purchased for each school and in it was entered the name and addresses of the teacher, the directors, and the pupils by classes. An account of our first visit to the school was written and later the accounts of other visits were added. The students also have four roll books like the ones used by the teachers in charge of the schools. They keep these roll books just as the regular teachers do, recording absence and tardiness at weekly intervals. At the end of each month they make out the regular reports on report cards and compare them with those made out by the regular teachers. Each student felt the concrete problem before, her that of helping the school to which she had been assigned. This help took the form of pre- paring, with a price and sign-marker, cards and charts for drill work in arithmetic, and phrase slips for help in reading. They also collected pictures from old magazines and helped the younger children to make a scrapbook, writing under each picture a little story for the child to read. Christmas gave much classroom opportunity. Each student chose a story to tell, a song to teach, and some handwork for the pupils. At one of the schools two of the students helped to dramatize the poem "The Night before Christmas" for the Christmas entertainment. I believe the assignment of certain schools to certain students is responsible, to a great extent, for the interest the students take in the work of the country schools. They are always anxious to get reports of what is being done from the director when she returns from her weekly visits to the schools. They ask about the progress of individual perils and are constantly on the alert for some way in which to help them. At present these students are doing group teaching in the regular training school in order to get some ability in the technique of teach- ing before going into the country schools. The rural work, however, is not confined to the seven students who are taking the special course in rural education. Rural sociology is offered as a Senior elective. Sixty-seven took the course during the fall semester and at present there are thirty taking this course. Then, too, a rural club was organized early in the fall and its influence is felt in the life of the school. There are nearly two hundred mem- bers. In addition to regular meetings every third week, the club 560 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education has outings in the forms of picnics, walks in the open country, etc. The Rural Club is interested in our four country schools and has divided itself into four groups, each group selecting one school for its particular charge. Just before the Christmas holidays these groups gave entertainments for the different schools. One group gave a dramatization of Dickens, Christmas Carol, another a pageant, "Christ- mas in Other Lands," another, "Christmas in the United States and its possessions," while the fourth group gave a pageant which they had composed and arranged themselves entitled, "The Christmas Spirit." All of these entertainments were enjoyed in the communities in which they were given and there have been inquiries as to when the Rural Club is coming back to give another entertainment. For this reason, each of the four groups is planning a program to be presented in the spring. Seventeen members of the present Junior class have chosen the rural group as the one in which they wish to do special work. In one year our number has more than doubled. We value most highly the sentiment for rural education that is growing among our students and the wholesome respect that our work is receiving, both from the student body and from the teachers of the surrounding country. In creating the proper attitude toward and appreciation for this work we feel that the most difficult part of our work has been done. STIMULATING INTEREST IN VOCATIONAL AGRICUL- TURE THROUGH JUNIOR PROJECT WORK J. D. BLACKWELL, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, HARRISBURG, PA . By the term "junior project work in agriculture" is meant the prac- tical application of the principles of scientific agriculture, by pupils of elementary-school age. While junior project work may be an end in itself, it is recognized by leaders in agricultural education that the doing of such work is one of the principal means of stimulating interest in vocational agriculture. Some of the ways in which junior project work stimulates an interest in vocational agriculture are: ( 1) it introduces the pupil to the subject; (2) it motivates the course in general agricul- ture; (3) it develops a keener appreciation for agriculture; (4) it creates a desire for a detailed study of agriculture; and (5) it establishes confidence in agricultural instruction. In order to show how junior project work stimulates an interest in vocational agriculture, it will be necessary to discuss briefly junior projects from the standpoint of aims, characteristics, types, organization and supervision, and immediate problems. While the aim of junior project work is both educational and economic, the work should be developed largely from the educational Department] VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE 561 standpoint. Some of the aims from a purely educational standpoint are : (1) to provide work, the doing of which, may enable a pupil to dis- cover his own aptitudes; (2) to develop a wider experience in the life of the pupil; (3) to insure a wholesome outside activity ; (4) to develop a better understanding of and a keener appreciation for agriculture as a profession ; ( 5) to stimulate school and community spirit through ex- hibits and contests ; (6) to correlate the home and school life ; (7) to develop social and recreational activities through county " round-ups" and local school and community meetings ; (8) to vitalize the curri- culum of the school; (9) to give the individual an opportunity for individual achievement . A worth-while junior project must have a definite end in view, and there must be a workable plan whereby the aim may be accomplished. The project must offer an opportunity for the individual development of the pupil, and accordingly include both practical and theoretical work, which should be carried on voluntarily, and be adapted to the age of the pupil. While there is great difference in opinion as to the size and scope of junior projects, the following are fairly typical: the production of an acre crop; the growing of a fourth-acre of vegetables ; the plant- ing and care of the home garden; the raising of a pig or calf ; the keeping of from twenty-five to fifty hens for egg production ; and the rearing of from twenty-five to fifty pure-bred chicks. In the organization and supervision of junior project work the most important considerations are : the grades into which the work should be introduced or the ages best adapted to the work; the agency or agencies responsible for the organization and plan of supervision ; the subject-matter to be offered; method of giving instruction ; and school credit. The junior project work is perhaps best adapted to pupils of from ten to thirteen years of age. In states having compulsory-attendance laws requiring all pupils up to the age of fourteen to attend school, junior project work may be most easily introduced into the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. In states where the compulsory-attendance law does not include the pupil of from twelve to fourteen years of age there are boys and girls who would be interested in work of the junior project type. A democracy should provide educational oppor- tunities for every child between the ages of six and eighteen. In all states, especially those having compulsory attendance laws, requiring school attendance on the part of pupils below fourteen years of age the school authorities are charged with the education of boys and girls. While to many it is apparently evident that the organization of junior projects is the work of the school, there are others who consider it the work of outside agencies. 562 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education The outstanding considerations in the supervision of junior projects are supervisors and their qualifications, the number of pupils to each supervisor, and the frequency of supervision visits. In school districts having teachers of vocational agriculture, junior projects may, of course, be supervised to advantage by such teachers. In districts having no teacher of vocational agriculture, local supervisors may be obtained. Frequently the local teacher is capable of organizing and supervising the work. If so, he should be employed on a twelve-month basis. Local supervisors of junior projects should have an intimate and sympathetic understanding of rural life, ability as leaders of youth, and some special preparation in agriculture. The number of pupils which may be given definite supervision will vary with local conditions, such as roads, means of transportation, and distance. A supervisor should generally be able to give definite supervision to from forty to sixty pu Some states plan to have a local supervisor for each group of fifty pupils, and a county super- visor for each county. Since the success of junior project work will depend largely upon the frequency and type of supervision, all projects should be given definite personal supervision weekly or at least twice each month, especially during the summer months. Only such subject-matter as will aid in the development of the pro- ject should be given. As is evident, the subject-matter should largely supplement the project. For example, if the pupil selects a poultry project, he should be given such instruction as will aid him in carry- ing out such a project. Junior project work in any given group should be limited to three or four phases of agriculture such as poultry, dairying, or vegetable gardening. All subject-matter should be adapted to the pupil. The group should meet for an hour weekly or at least twice each month for instruction. Such instruction may best be given through an abundant use of illustrative material, and through supervised project study. Pro- ject study outlines prepared by supervisors and pupils may be used to advantage. Pupils should be required to report on projects re- gularly and frequently. Where practicable, school credit should be given for junior project work, which when properly done, may supplement general agriculture, or the pupil may be given credit equivalent to one-half (subject ) unit. The plan of adding a certain per cent to a pupil's grades in all other subjects upon the completion of a junior project has been found satisfactory in some states . While there are a number of problems to be solved before junior project work may be said to be on a satisfactory basis, some of the Department] VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE 563 outstanding problems are measuring its success (for the score-card method is not established as yet, and increased production is not a satisfactory basis from an educational standpoint ) ; determining its relation to senior projects ; the organization of pupils in outlying dis- tricts ; the means of adapting work to the individual pupil; financing supervision; the obtaining of trained supervisors; and the placing of responsibility for the organization and supervision of the work in the public schools. ‫ت‬ STIMULATING INTEREST IN VOCATIONAL AGRICUL- TURE THROUGH JUNIOR CLUB ACTIVITIES IN THE SCHOOLS FRANCES H. CLARK , EASTON , MARYLAND A survey of the work of the Extension Service of the United States Department of Agriculture in its division of boys' and girls' club work as related to school acies in Maryland has led to the con- usions here presented. Data upon which these conclusions were based were obtained from nearly all the counties of the state in which an attempt has been made to introduce junior club work into the school curriculum chool activity. The Extension Service through its club work desires earnestly to aid in the development of useful, efficient men and women from our rural boys and girls, and the present apparent lack of coöperation results solely from a difference in the point of view. Existing conditions which inhibit the interest of teachers, children, and school patrons in junior club work as a part of the school curriculum are ( 1) lack of interest manifested by the Extension Service in the intellectual develop- ment of the child, attention being given in the accomplishment of a given project to the perfection of the product rather than to mind growth ; (2) insistence that all club work in agriculture and home economics, when it comes under the direction of the county agents, remain a separate unit of work under the exclusive control and direc- tion of the county agent ; (3) emphasis of county agents in all work accepted by the Extension Service from club members, upon the perfection of the finished product to the exclusion of sufficient con- sideration for the educational value of the activities involved : (4) a set of problems in the main arbitrary ; and (5) county agents unquali- fied for training children, and seeking only perfect results which may be used for exhibition purposes, periodical write-ups for the news- papers, and reports to the Extension Service. These influences render club work, as such, a disturbing and dis- organizing factor in the schools, for the teacher feels it an unnecessary imposition; the pupils are unhappy and rebellious when club activities are suggested; and the parents feel that it is an undesirable addition 564 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Rural Education to the regular school program. In order to stimulate the child's in- terest in junior club work as the teacher views the situation, motives which govern the choice of projects must be worked out by the child. The child's purpose must be a personal desire to accomplish an end which satisfies his individual thoughts and feelings. The teacher's purpose must be to provide a situation consistent with the growth of the communities or child's social needs, which will suggest to him a problem in agriculture or home economics that concerns his daily thoughts and personal desires; to lead the child to consider only those problems that will engage him in the happy and enthusiastic efforts to do his best work in securing the end that seems to him necessary for his satisfaction and pleasure; to place the emphasis of approval upon this quality of effort and wholesome attitude of mind rather than upon the perfection of the product and upon a higher degree of skill in workmanship than an elementary-school child is capable of; to correlate the three r's with agriculture and home economics ; and to secure the support and coöperation of the parents in the correlation of agriculture and home economics with the academic subjects through the child's interest and pleasure in his school work as a whole. This condition can only be brought about through a unity of ideals in the development of the child on the part of the school authorities and of the Extension Service, and necessitates that the Extension Ser- vice send out county agents who are thoroughly trained teachers, and who are in the attitude of mind to direct the technical side of agri- culture and home economics in sympathetic coöperation with the county supervisor of schools and to act with her under the direction of the county superintendent. To secure a unity of ideals in the minds of teachers and of county agents who go into the schools as directors of agriculture and home economics, the county agents should meet the scholastic and professional requirements made of teachers, and they should receive their appointment only upon the recommendation or approval of the County Board of Education. BOYS' AND GIRLS” “FOUR H” CLUBS AND THE SCHOOL WILLIAM H. KENDRICK, DIRECTOR OF EXTENSION, MORGANTOWN, W. VA. Extension workers "stand pat" on the fact that club work is not a prerequisite nor an entrance requirement to vocational high-school work. It might be thought of as a school substitute for the 95 per cent of those who leave school before finishing. Club work is the first aid to the injured. Its fundamental guiding principles are vision, progress, ser- vice, freedom, and leadership. Country youngsters are confronted with stubborn realities. Every problem connected with them demands not only brains but brawn, heart, and skill. Too many farm boys and girls are working the long Department] FOUR " H" CLUBS AND THE SCHOOL 565 rows that make nothing more than a "hoe-man" of them. The school offers little different. When they first enter school the social life presents opportunities, but soon -it settles down to a hard-and-fast schedule. When education becomes a stuffing process the boy or girl gets stuffed and no stuffed fellow can work. Club work offers immediate and satisfying results. A boy or girl wants to join in order to go to camp or to show that he or she measures up to the "Four H" standard and is entitled to wear all four of the H's in a pin or ring. The secret of the club's success is constant challenge and immediate results. KEY TO ACTIVITIES Health Hand Heart MENTAL PHYSICAL SOCIAL RELIGIOUS AY IR PL FA OB HAOF SE FR ABLE RV IN I MUAND T NDF OU COSENFRIIDTY G T E EN POWE ING E IC FEE ANG T Y THANKS KER RS DS IF GIVING- S A R W DO TRAINING ID G STAY SAC H OR RIGHT OF S ER ST DECISION FOR TH AM GE IN TO A UPT GE NU TR S IT U JU IO JES DG N EM FATIGUE EN AG AN S HER E T RO R' PU CL DRU TE SS LOY EP E ITT KE FIN TUOLGLET WA DGE BASE BALL HIKE ALT JOY RY OR Y BE R ST P OU S.S. CLASS EAT YO D SWIM FIGHT WORK The work of extension workers is to demonstrate. To learn by doing is the method. Such leaders must begin with a boy or girl in the home. We have found out that there are several things that function at home that the school seemingly has forgotten how to use. We must teach our student in his natural environment. We must provide for individual instruction in addition to group instruction. The spirit of democracy can be acquired only in such an atmosphere ; schoolroom procedure is autocratic. Club work is the best form of organized work for boys and girls. It has the advantage of all others because by being the last to be thought out it has avoided many of the mistakes of similar organizations. In addition to " Do a good turn daily," it says grow an acre of corn or beans or a calf or pig and do it this way, not because 566 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education the rules say so, but to further your "Four H" development. Merely to say "Do a good turn daily" is to excuse the leadership from the responsibilities of helping choose wisely the turn to do and from giving specific directions for its successful accomplishment. When the school can handle it so as not to spoil real work with its academic garb then extension leaders will gladly turn their work over to the school. More vocational guidance and some vocational agriculture would be of vastly greater benefit to our boys and girls than the present school curriculum. Extension work will move on to undeveloped fields. It offers the opportunities and the charm of pioneering. Since the war, men and women are turning to this field of education, because they like the pion- eering kind of job. Like the life insurance agent, the extension leader sells a policy in face of the repeated "I don't want it" because he knows it is worth the money and will be good for the holder.. TO WHAT EXTENT SHOULD RURAL TEACHERS PARTICIPATE IN MAKING COURSES OF STUDY? W. J. HOLLOWAY, STATE SUPERVISOR OF RURAL SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND True democracy in supervision requires that all the teachers in service be encouraged to participate freely and as fully as their abili- ties permit in all the activities that have to do with the improvement of classroom instruction . A means of supervision upon which too little emphasis has gener- ally been placed is the course of study itself. Administrative coöpera- tion in the making of courses of study for all types of schools is a most effective means of securing professional growth of teachers in service, a broader understanding and a deeper sympathy between supervisors and the teaching force, and an exercise of initiative at present too little in evidence. Every teacher may be expected to make some contribution to the curriculum, if only a unit of subject-matter, a lesson plan, or an intelligent criticism in a group of the offerings of others. The extent and character of her contribution are determined by her natural en- dowments, her professional training, her desire for service, and the encouragement extended by the supervisor. The best curriculum is the one made by the teachers on their own level, with the advice and assistance of the expert. The final meas- ure of the efficiency of any administrative or supervisory instrument is the extent to which it benefits the children. A course of study prepared by so-called experts with only incidental and unorganized assistance of the general staff of teachers, however excellent it may be from a theoretical standpoint, is a failure if it does not stimulate Department] COURSE OF STUDY IN MONTGOMERY COUNTY 567 the intelligent and enthusiastic support of the average classroom teacher. The course of study most likely to be administered successfully is the one made through democratic coöperation between the superintendent and the supervisors and all the teachers working in the field under consideration. A committee will be satisfactory, provided its members are not chosen primarily because of their abilities for this work; it is of major importance that all types of teachers and all districts be represented. A course of study made in accordance with the foregoing principles will stand the test of scientific scrutiny, considering (a) choice of material, ( b ) the best classroom procedure, and (c) the learning process. On the whole, opinion based upon observation but not as yet veri- fied by scientific measurements inclines to the belief that teacher parti- cipation in curricula-making tends to make such teachers more efficient as classroom instructors than if supervised in the "usual way." THE COURSE OF STUDY IN MONTGOMERY COUNTY NETTIE E. BROGDEN , ROCKVILLE, MARYLAND Mr. Holloway has discussed ways of having teachers participate in the making of a course of study. I am to tell you something of the procedure and development of the course of study in Montgomery County. A finished project is not the ultimate goal to be attained in its development, but the part that it plays in the life of a child is the thing that is of vital consequence. So it is with the development of the course of study. The teacher may have in mind the preparation of a piece of work for the course of study, but before her plans can materialize, she will from necessity have to learn the principles of good teaching. She not only grows more professional, but at the same time she is doing better work in the classroom. This, unquestionably, seems true from general observation of her classroom procedure, and, too, a comparison of standard test medians made in schools where the most work has been done on the course of study with the medians in schools where very little work has been done shows a marked difference in favor of those schools where the most work has been done. The course of study which is being worked out in this county will include the things which the school should accomplish; projects which have their origin in life's experiences ; knowledge facts developed by others which will be necessary for the child to know in order to realize life in abundance, and the methods involved. Threaded through the 568 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education course of study which makes up the life of the school, should run those activities which help the pupils to realize, master, and habituate such acts of conduct as will result in the control of activities called for by the needs of life. A teacher who works on this course of study will certainly get a new vision of the business of a school. She will be led to see that the world is full of activities which need only to be organized and systematized in order to make content for a course of study which when put into operation will make school life real and meaningful. The teachers in this county are getting this vision and are growing enthusiastic over it. They are more interested in their own professional growth as is shown by the calls which come to the office for professional helps. Two one-room teachers whose schools are in the same locality are working out plans for a course of study which will meet the life-needs of the pupils in their schools. In order to do this intelligently, they made a survey of the homes and community from an economic, political, social, and moral standpoint. With this information as a basis for the interpretation of the home and community needs they had available first-hand information needed in those activities which are of vital importance in the life of the child. Knowing these needs, a course of study can be planned which when developed properly with the children will enable them to live better and more useful lives, as boys and girls, and will tend to make men and women who will react efficiently to life-situations. The pupils themselves seem to be realizing that it is no criminal offense to come out of their shells which have been closed by a tradi- tional course of study and take a look into the world where real people live a natural life. They are beginning to interpret textbook know- ledge in terms of life-activities and situations. The school nurse and home demonstrator in their departments are helping to carry certain phases of the course of study where healthful living takes the place of formal instruction without life. The schools with the help of the school nurse and home demonstrators are carrying out such projects as the drink-more-milk campaign, which was started last August at the county fair, where the home demonstrator had a milk booth established where milk drinks were sold. This campaign will close next May during the week in which the athletic meet is held. This has drawn into itself many activities which have resulted in the making of posters, the writing of stories and plays which develop the value of milk as food and show harmful effects of tea and coffee. In con- nection with this project, the children were weighed and their weights were compared with the standard weight. Two months later their weights were again compared with the standard weights and with those Department] COURSE OF STUDY IN MONTGOMERY COUNTY 569 first obtained. It is hoped that the knowledge of health, the know- ledge of health habits, and the enjoyment which they afford will be so crystalized that lasting bonds will be formed which will mean much for the future health of the children in Montgomery County. The Montgomery County course of study was begun two years ago and it is hoped that it will continue in the process of making from year to year, each year taking on new projects and discarding those which do not relate to the lives of the pupils. In order for the teacher to do a piece of constructive work for the course of study, it was necessary for her to make a study of project teaching which was directed by means of conferences, principal's meetings, visiting days, individual help, references and special courses which have been taken during the summer, and through extension courses. At the confer- ences the meaning of project teaching, the types, the values, and other topics which naturally grew out of the subject were studied. Before each conference, an assignment was given. When the assignment was not available mimeographed copies were sent to each teacher. After each conference a short report on the topics which were discussed was sent to the office. A principal's meeting is held each month, at which plans for the professional growth of the teachers are made. These aid directly in the making of the course of study. Several visiting days have been held at which time a group of teachers with the super- intendent or the supervisor spends the day with a teacher in her class- room, observing her develop some project with her pupils. During the round-table discussion which is held at the end of the school day much individual help is given through the study of the project under obser- vation. During this study the teachers have kept in mind that the course of study should contain projects which have their origin in life-situa- tions, which must be developed with their pupils before they become a part of the course of study; that the course of study should not be a finished project, but should change as the ways of realizing life change. With this aim of a course of study well established, and the study of project teaching having been made, the teachers have contri- buted several pieces of work which have been mimeographed and a copy given to each which makes the beginning of our course of study. The development of this course of study through the teacher. inita- tive makes it possible for life-activities, growing out of the pupils's own environment, to be brought into the schools at once ; it has served as a dynamo for supervision. By doing this piece of work the teachers have come to know better the function of a school; have learned prin- ciples of good teaching, and have become better classroom teachers ; it has insured professional growth which is an aim of supervision. 570 { NATIONAL education AssocIATION [ Rural Education PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE RURAL ELEMENTARY- SCHOOL curricuLUM FANNIE W. DUNN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The avowed purpose of elementary school education in America should be general, the same for all, of whatever race, male or female, country or city, north or south. Its large ends should be the promotion of mutual understanding and sympathy, and equipment for the per- formance of those life activities in which all participate. Life-activities in which all participate include: the promotion of individual and com- munity health ; selection and consumption of social products, as of food, clothing, shelter ; communication and co-operation by means of the social tools of number and oral, written, and printed language ; miscellaneous civic and social duties ; and various forms of recreation. Hence health, general practical efficiency, citizenship, and wise use of leisure are justifiable aims of any elementary-school curriculum. Vocations are differentiated and specialized, instead of general ; psychological facts make it highly improbable that vocational selection can be wisely made or genuine vocational efficiency developed in the preadolescent or early adolescent period; and time devoted to vocational training is at the expense of the general education which is of great and assured importance. Hence it should be no part of the end or aim of the elementary school to prepare for a special vocation. It is, however, a justifiable function of the elementary school to make a beginning in developing such acquaintance with the range of occupations which lie before the individual as to promote intelligence of choice among them. In fine, the objectives of elementary education are liberal and general, not vocational and specific. The content of the elementary course of study should vary according to variation in pre-school equipment and in the experiences provided by home and community during school years. There is no need to provide artificially, in or through the school, experiences looking toward the ac- complishment of approved educational ends when experiences adequate to attain those ends are already afforded by the natural environment. The task of the school is, first, to see that the contribution of the environ- ment to desired ends is realized, brought into consciousness, assured of functioning ; and secondly, where approved ends require it, to supplement the natural first-hand experience of the local environment with arti- ficially devised first-hand experiences of other environments, or, if this is not possible, with second-hand experience through reading, pic- tures, and the like. The psychological rather than the logical order is generally accepted as desirable in approaching new subject-matter. This necessitates some Department] RURAL ELEMENTARY- SCHOOL CURRICULUM 571 differences in the point of approach of rural and urban schools to the same content, i. e., in the selection of problems or projects whose out- come is designed to contribute to the realization of ends common to all elementary schools. Social ideals must be developed in a social setting and by social acts. Habits and knowledge that will function in life, which is a social phenomenon, must be acquired in relation to social situations. Natural situations usable as a basis for educative social acts will vary in country and city, and varying situations must be arti- ficially provided in city and country schools to supplement the social inadequacies of the local environment. Here, again, certain differences are necessitated in the problems and projects of rural and urban schools. Since most rural schools are of the one- and two-teacher type, and since there seems no possibility of the entire elimination of this type of school, it is highly important that curricula for use in such schools be organized to fit their administrative peculiarity, i. e., the instruction of many grades in all subjects by one or two teachers. This administra- tive peculiarity necessitates organization of these schools by "groups" rather than grades. The curriculum should therefore be organized for these schools by groups rather than grades. Summing up, the ends of elementary education are identical, country and city. The content of elementary education will vary to some ex- tent in country and city, owing to differences in the educational experi- ences afforded by their home and community environment, and to differences in the supplementary experiences which the school must con- sequently provide. This variation, however, represents but a small per cent of the total elementary educational content. Psychological and social factors necessitate numerous differences in the projects and prob- lems about which rural and urban curricula should be organized. While these differences are greater than those in curriculum content, they are still probably less in number and degree than the likenesses. The one- and two-teacher schools, at present the chief educational agency provided for rural children, receive an additional and unwar- ranted handicap from the necessity of using curricula made for the graded-school organization. If and as long as one- and two-teacher schools exist, they should be provided with curricula organized by groups, to fit their practical necessities, and not by grades according to the con- venience of the city graded school. Additional provisions need to be made for differences among in- dividuals within a class, individual classes within a school, or individual schools within a system. Such provisions are an essential part of an adequate curriculum, rural or urban. 572 NATIONAL educatION ASSOCIATION (Rural Education THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR A DEMOCRAT- IZED RURAL SCHOOL. ROSAMOND ROOT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KIRKSVILLE, MO . A democracy must offer equality of opportunity to all its members. If the United States is to be a real democracy, it must offer to the half of its population classified as rural as good educational opportunities as it provides for the urban half. It must furnish its rural population with schools operating on democratic principles, guided by teachers with preparation equal to that required of urban teachers. The attainment of this end presents administrative, instructional, economic, and social problems. Closely allied propositions demanding parallel consideration in order to make possible adequate rural-teacher preparation are : (a) the odium must be removed from this phase of teaching ; (b) rural communities must appreciate prepared teachers ; and (c) salaries must be com- mensurate with the service rendered. The prospective teacher must get an understanding of teaching as a means of socialization through transmission of the race inheritance. He must master subject-matter in terms of individual and social controls selected to equip for teaching. In addition, the student-teacher must develop skill in the fine art of adapting subject-matter to individual capacities and he must acquire a sense of responsibility for aiding in the solution of community problems through the school. Adjustments are necessary within the school. Administrative offi- cers must feel the responsibility of preparing teachers for this largest single division of service. Courses must be offered presenting all divisions of public-school service that students may choose rural teach- ing in the light of information. Specialized curricula must be de- signed to prepare rural teachers. The faculty must be sympathetic with necessary program adjustments. The directors, supervisors, and teach- . ers of the necessarily differentiated courses should be specially equipped for their duties through experiences and study. There must be affili- ation with typical rural and village schools to offer adequate demonstra- tion and practice facilities. Methods of instruction, administration, and supervision should be such as to develop the democratic attitude in teachers. SUPERVISION FOR GROWTH CASSIE R. SPENCER, Rural SUPERVISOR, ALAMOGORDO, N. Μ . The speakers who have preceded me today have presented the democratized rural school from the standpoint of its objectives and needs, its curriculum, and the preparation of its teachers. The dominant theme of these papers has been that education is growth, that growth comes about through children actually living social experiences in the Department] SUPERVISION FOR GROWTH 573 schoolroom. A child develops initiative and self-control by having to meet emergencies and by exercising responsibility. He develops inde- pendence by being allowed to work on a project of his own choosing. He appreciates the beautiful in music and literature only by constant contact with good music and good reading. His aptitudes in various activities will become apparent only as he actually engages in those activities. These democratic standards which measure classroom procedure ought to govern the work of the supervisor. His ultimate goal and the teacher's are the same, the development of children. The super- visor's field is broader and necessarily more scientific; but he must hold himself to the same definite, carefully planned program of work as the teacher is expected to follow. At the beginning of the year he carefully studies the environment of the various communities to learn what may be the needs of the children. He determines the qualifications of the teachers and estimates their abilities as nearly as possible, being careful not to underrate any- one. He notes the various agencies which may affect or be made to affect his work. He makes a list of books and other supplies which will be available. He then outlines plans and policies to guide his work. Though his plans are made and the ends to be achieved are ever in mind, the supervisor does not force them upon the teachers. Instead, he causes the teachers to discover their own needs and to ask for assist- ance in solving their problems. And this is, perhaps, the all-inclusive task of supervision, to cause teachers to realize their own needs-a general need for growth and the more specific needs of improved methods of work, better scholarship, and definite standards of achieve- ment for the pupils. One means for causing this realization is by carefully planned classroom visits. No visit should be made by a rural supervisor solely for the purpose of inspection. Instead, it should be so planned that the teacher is stimulated and given definite assistance. Not only should no visit be made solely for inspection. I believe that, if possible, no visit should be made unannounced . Even teachers have protested to me that this enables a lazy teacher to prepare specially for the one day and then lapse into careless procedure until the next visit is announced. I admit that it gives the supervisor no opportunity to actually see every- day inefficiency. On the other hand, there are always indications of a teacher's regular practices. The attitude of the children toward the teacher and their work, their habits of study and recitation, and their ability as shown in standard tests all indicate the nature of previous classroom methods. However, the supervisor might be justified in making one or two unannounced visits to prove conclusively that a hope- lessly inefficient teacher must not be re-employed. 574 NATIONAL Education ASSOCIATION [Rural Education A third factor in the efficient visit is the written record of the prob- lems discussed. One supervisor I know keeps such a record with the remedies ( suggested either by the teacher or himself) , leaving a carbon copy with the teacher. He explains that "now we'll both remember exactly what we are working for and we will have this record at hand for occasional reference." A second means for causing teachers to realize their needs is stand- ard tests. The first visit of the schools in Otero County this year showed the reading-work below standard. The Thorndike Alpha 2 reading tests were given to all the schools. Later, each school received a copy of the individual scores of its pupils, the standard scores for the county, and also a sheet containing the relative score and the rank of each school. Immediately the teachers began to ask for general help in raising the score of the schools or for a specific analysis of the weak- nesses of individuals. Since the score sheets are posted where the children can see them, pupils as well as teachers are stimulated to help raise the rank of their school. Somewhat related to standard tests for children are score cards for teachers. I believe that score cards should be placed in the hands of the teachers and that each point or standard should be carefully ex- plained. Anyone has a right to know and understand the standards by which he is being rated. A score card is made much less personal and more in accord with present tendencies in class technique if the chil- dren's work instead of the teacher's is emphasized. A few questions might be: (1 ) To what extent do children assume responsibility for care of school property ? (2) Are the children learning to work efficiently with appreciation of results ? (3) Are the children interested in their work? (4) If they are not, can you tell why? (5) Is the subject-matter consistent with the present needs and interests of chil- dren ? When a score card has been in use for a year it should be revised at a meeting of the teachers and the supervisor. By this time much helpful criticism can be made and consequently more interest created in self-scoring. Another quite universal resource of supervision is a supply of pro- fessional books and papers. These are always most valuable when loaned in response to a definite felt need. A judicious use of outlines and descriptions of the work of other schools prepared by pupils or teachers is advisable in most localities. We used another device in Otero County this year which was in- tended to help cause more efficient supervision. After the second round of visits the county superintendent sent to each teacher a request for criticisms and suggestions on the supervision as it had been conducted. The teachers were urged to be quite frank. The helpful replies revealed Department] RURAL SCHOOL DEMOCRACY 575 an understanding of the purposes of supervision and of the deficiencies in our policy. There is one more phase of supervision for growth that I should like to discuss. It is the inculcation of ideals and aims of work. Many teachers either do not have ideals of rural improvement or their ideals are vague and remote. No country teacher can do her work whole- heartedly unless she has a vision of the growth which can be brought about in her pupils through her own efforts. It is the duty of the supervisor to rouse the teachers to a realization of the great achieve- ment which may be theirs. At a general meeting the supervisor should present the ultimate goal of elementary education. When everyone understands clearly why the education received in the elementary school is ultimately the same everywhere, for all children, they will be able to show what the average country environment lacks. They will see that their goal is to bring to rural children those experiences which they need to give them a socialized education. There are, of course, other ways by which teachers may be caused to realize their needs and to develop through the solution of their own problems. We must be alert to the various experiments that are being made in the technique of supervision and incorporate whatever is usable into our own plans. Teaching will be put upon a growing basis when supervisors and administrators are thoroughly converted to the idea that teachers, as a class, are capable of originality; that they have personalities which develop rightly with proper stimulation ; and that they are capable not only of executing plans of work but of making these plans. It is our duty to stimulate, to give praise when it is due, and above all, to preserve an invincible faith in the potentialities of even the weakest teacher. RURAL SCHOOL DEMOCRACY THROUGH Efficient ADMINISTRATION ALBERT S. COOK, STATE SUPERINTENDENT, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND In view of the small percentage of trained teachers in rural schools at present, and of the meager available supply in the near future, im- proving teachers in service is the most pressing administrative problem for state- and county-school systems. Competent supervision is the best known method for improving the quality of teaching, both before and after the teacher enters the service. Supervision is a teacher- training proposition; even normal schools and teacher-training schools base their practice-school work on the foregoing principle. The supervisor's chief function is to improve the quality of teaching. This involves a very broad and thorough knowledge of subject-matter and method. The means of supervision used are the various types of 576 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education teachers' meetings, the course of study, conferences with individual teachers, visiting schools in and out of the system, observation lessons and critiques, etc.; the extent of teacher participation in these activities is the final test of supervisory efficiency. The superintendent's chief duty in relation to the supervisor is to see that the conditions are right for the supervisor to do her best work. This involves first-class administrative and executive ability, as well as a thorough knowledge of educational principles, methods, and aims. The superintendent and supervisor working together should determine methods and aims in the large. The supervisor should then be held responsible and be given a free hand in working out the details of sub- ject-matter and method to accomplish these aims. All administrative matters concerning teachers' meetings and the organization of the various supervisory activities should be referred to the superintendent and have his approval. These matters should be worked out jointly by the supervisor and the superintendent. When a general policy has been decided upon no change in that policy should be made by the supervisor without consultation with the superintendent, but all activities falling under that policy should be left with the super- visor to carry out with only occasional consultation with the superin- tendent. It is the superintendent's function to know the attitude of the prin- cipals and teachers in reference to all of the supervisory activities, and to consult with the supervisor in working out these activities, so that there may be as little friction as possible ; the superintendent, however, must stand firm for supervision as an absolute necessity for improving the quality of teaching and for professional progress in the teaching corps. With this attitude on the part of the superintendent thoroughly established, modification in the supervisory plans can be made from time to time to meet, so far as possible, fair criticisms on the part of a teaching corps. The superintendent, for his own professional growth and for main- taining a proper professional standing with his teachers and with the public, should share in supervision by taking a definite assignment, and should handle this assignment so as to set the pace for supervisory activities in his county ; unless a superintendent has had experience in this sort of educational leadership, he is not in a position to direct the professional activities of his supervisor or supervisors; his job becomes that of a business manager for which a salary considerably less than that required to secure real educational leadership is adequate. This statement applies with equal force to a state superintendent and to his professional assistants. In a school system under professional leadership of the quality and character implied in the foregoing theses, many of the principals and Department] RURAL SCHOOL COMMUNITY SERVICE 577 teachers themselves become leaders. They receive recognition either by promotion to positions of greater responsibility or by the professional satisfaction that coines to them by reason of their position of leadership They take the initiative in developing, expanding and revising courses of study; in developing school practices and classroom procedure to conform with the best in educational experiment and research ; in pro- mulgating throughout the teaching corps ideals of professional growth and progress. In brief, such a school system as a whole-pupils, teachers, supervisors, and administrators becomes a unit not only consciously striving to realize the aims of education in a democracy, but also auto- matically carrying the finest type of genuine democracy in education. COMMUNITY SERVICE OF THE DEMOCRATIZED RURAL SCHOOL WILLIAM W. EVANS, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, COLUMBIA COUNTY, BLOOMSBURG, PA . The rural school is the logical and natural social center for gen- erating and developing the spirit of democracy in the minds and hearts of country people. We need to realize more fully that democracy primarily is not a form of government, but a spiritual quality, and if it is as fundamentally important as recent events have led us to be- lieve, then it behooves us as responsible school supervisors to consider ways and means by which we may convert our people to this gospel of brotherly love in order that we may be saved as individuals, as com- munities, and as a nation. There are many evidences just now that our educational system is faulty, so far as the preparation for citizenship in a democracy is con- cerned. If the country schools of the past are to be measured by the number of adults in the various communities who act in accordance with the spirit of democracy at the present time, they have but little to their credit. The few broad-minded, public-spirited men and women sparsely scattered here and there have probably developed these charac- teristics in spite of the schools. It is my desire in this discussion to suggest a plan for community service through the democratized rural school for the education of adults along those lines which will result in a spirit of coöperation, in projects for the common good, which is the essence of democracy. I think it was Aristotle who said that if he could have his way he would send the children home and have the parents go to school . He lived at a time when democracy was being invented. He must have realized the limitation of the school for children only, and although he lived centuries ago, much that he said and taught is thoroughly up to date. We have had an over-faith in the efficacy of school educa- tion. We are gradually coming to realize that the sphere of education 578 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education embraces the whole of life. We have done fairly well so far as the children are concerned, but we have done practically nothing to provide reliable educational facilities for those beyond the so-called school age. Adults as a rule are as they are, like Topsy, because they "just growed. " In a democracy, the unit in country districts should consist of all the people within sending-distance of their schoolhouse, whether it be a consolidated school, a junior high school or a senior high school. The schoolhouse should provide a meeting place for the adults within this unit to afford them an opportunity to learn those things they desire to know and to discuss together such problems as they desire to discuss. This democratized school must he housed in an ideal building not only for the education and training of the children but because it is the civic meeting place of the adults within the unit as well. Country people learn most readily by example and because of this their school plant must be a model in sanitation, lighting, heating, and ventilation, comfort, and beauty. A majority of the adults in every rural community would gladly embrace the opportunity to attend a school of their own, designed especially to meet their specific needs. Farmers everywhere are anxious to learn more about new methods for keeping up soil fertility and the economical production of farm crops; they are interested in new ideas concerning dairy and animal husbandry, orchard improvement, poultry, hogs, plant diseases, and the like. Their wives desire to know more about home-making subjects. Both men and women want to learn how to protect their health and rear their children better. There is a growing desire to become more familiar with current topics and the political questions of the day. Besides, they want to know more about music, art, literature, recreation, and the pleasant things of life. It has been demonstrated that the school with the children alone cannot be relied upon to change the nature of the com- munity. Our present plan for producing citizens is inadequate. The counterinfluence of the adults in the homes of our boys and girls is generally strong enough to overcome practically all the influence exerted in the schools so far as the spiritual elements underlying a democracy are concerned. The theory so often stated that all the best people in the country have been drawn into the city is not true. The country still has in it great souls who love to see the sun rise, to study the stars, to hear the birds sing, and who delight in the open country. They love the growing things and enjoy the companionship of the cattle and the flowers. They may not make as much money, dress as finely, or act as politely as those who have gone to town, but they possess other essential qualities of true greatness which are more nearly the measure Department] RURAL SCHOOL COMMUNITY SERVICE 579 of real character. The average rural community has within it leaders, who, if discovered and given a natural chance to develop, will be capable of rendering a better service than anyone from outside. The call of the country is for help in the form of such assistance in organization as will best put its people in a position to help them- selves in the quickest possible time. Some plan will have to be worked out to provide the initial leadership. We believe that the adaptation of the modern junior high school idea to the smaller rural communities with senior high schools so located as to best serve those who have grad- uated from several junior high schools offers a very satisfactory solution of the problem of providing democratic educational institutions in country districts. The farm bureaus of our country have already accomplished a wonderful work. They have carried on practical demonstrations along sensible lines in many communities. Local facts and data of great value and interest to all farmers have been secured. The results of these demonstrations should be made the common prop- erty of all as soon as possible. Every community has a man who can teach these facts to his neighbor more effectively than the county agent himself, because he is a local man and because the facts and data were obtained on his farm through his work in their community within the range of their observation. Only through such as institution as is here suggested can the farm bureau ever hope to reach all the people. Then there is the splendid corps of trained women which our state colleges are sending out, helping the ladies in a most practical way to solve the problems of home-making and child-rearing. They too can hope to reach but comparatively few of the people under our present hit-or-miss system. Our state health departments are undertaking wonderful campaigns of disease prevention and health conservation, which to be effective must reach all the people. Only a few can be reached without local organization. The Red Cross is ready to give instruction in first-aid, home hy- giene, and the care of the sick, the babies, and the child-bearing mothers. It is ready to inculcate the spirit of humanity into the Re- public's junior citizens. If these schools for the home folks were organized, the spirit of the Red Cross alone would come very near to bringing about a democratic attitude among country people in a few years. Then there are the Sage Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, the Federal Bureau of Education, and hundreds of other public-wel- fare organizations that stand ready and anxious to help people who are organized to help themselves. A community rural school needs good equipment. Such a school should possess a typewriter and a mimeo- graphing machine; a community letterhead should be provided, and 580 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASsociatioN [Rural Education correspondence concerning what the citizens have to sell and wish to purchase should be just as finely worded and just as businesslike as possible. All data developed in the discussions of the school that the people desire to be preserved should be disseminated by means of mimeographed sheets. One of the best ways for the teachers of the day school to serve the community school would be to assist along these lines. In every organized rural community there should be developed at least one talented person to serve as its dressmaker, another as its milliner, another as the music-teacher, another as community nurse, another to be its scout-master, another to have charge of play festivals and recreation . Through the democratized school we must invent a plan to draw the country people together that they may discover for themselves the utter hopelessness of continuing to live apart from each other as they do now : We must help them to enter into and appreciate the joy of serving each other in a way that they may have as their constant reward a feeling of having served their group unselfishly. We believe that if the plan suggested here were given a fair trial it would eventually transform the non-social or anti-social attitude of parents and generate an attitude of brotherhood ; a group consciousness would be developed through the exchange of ideas with the experience of planning and working together. This would affect the homes of the community to the extent that they would be in sympathy with all that takes place in the school. Parents would then understand the school ; they would know the teachers intimately and become actively interested in all that they attempt to do for the children. Such a school for the home folks would produce in a generation a people thoroughly imbued with the spirit of democracy-a people who know and trust each other, a people who are intelligent and successful in their home enter- prises, a people who regard the welfare of all the institutions of their community as of greater concern to them than their own individual affairs, and a people who would learn by experience that the individual can only come into his own in proportion as he labors for the welfare of his community. THE NEGRO IN RURAL EDUCATION And country Life JAMES H. DILLARD, PRESIDENT OF THE SLATER AND JEANES FUNDS, CHARLOTTESVILLE, VA . I am glad that the Department of Rural Education has given this opportunity of saying even a brief special word about the work among the colored people. Since the census of 1910 showed that more than three-quarters of cur colored population were still living in the open country, questions of rural schools are particularly important for this Department] THE NEGRO IN RURAL EDUCATION 581 large element of our country life in the South. I cannot cover the whole ground, so I shall confine myself to public schools and the agencies coöperating with the public-school authorities. Let me say first, that the conditions among the colored people living in the open country differ greatly in different sections. In neighbor- hoods, for example, where they have been able to buy land, the general conditions of living are of course much better than those of negroes who are on large plantations. Colored people now own two million of acres of land and property values amounting to a billion and a quarter dollars. The least improvement is naturally found in the sections where the large plantations prevail. But in all sections there is the growing work of the public school. This work may be going on in a poor building, with a short term and a poorly prepared teacher on a small salary; but the beginning of the work is there. The country schools are helping to bring incentive and hope as well as knowledge. It is the school that must teach and encour- age the poor folk to cultivate a garden, to cook what they raise, to keep the rooms clean, to trim the kerosene lamps, and to mend windows and clothes. And the country school has the job not only of teaching the children, but of helping the present generation through night schools. mothers' clubs, and various improvement leagues. It is the purpose of the Jeanes Fund to assist the country teachers in work of this kind. The supervising teacher, from Fisk or Hampton or Tuskegee or some other good school, makes the round of the one- room schools of the county to encourage and help the local teacher. It was the express desire of Miss Jeanes when she made her gift twelve years ago to help the small rural school. The results have been remark- able, and no less so the financial changes. Eight years ago only $6255 was spent for this work out of the public tax funds. In the present session the counties are paying $ 120,897, which is more by $25,000 than is coming from the outside The workers whose salaries were paid in part through the Jeanes Fund raised last year among the colored people for various kinds of school improvement $355,462. There are now a number of counties carrying on the work without any contributions through the Jeanes Fund, which is the best evidence of the value and growth of the work and is the consummation to be desired. Eight years ago county superintendents began to see the need of having in their counties at least one good graded school that would go beyond the work of the one-room schools. The John F. Slater Fund, which until this time had not helped in the rural work, agreed to con- tribute $500 a year for the establishment of such schools in counties on condition that they be public schools, belonging to the county or district, that the term be eight months, that there be at least eight grades, and that the county or district board give $750 a year. Four schools were 582 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education started the first year, 1912. There were twenty teachers in the four schools and for their salaries the public tax funds gave $3344 and the Slater Fund $2000. In 1913 there were again only four. Then the number began to increase steadily until this year there are 142 with 833 teachers, and the counties are appropriating for establishment and sup- port over half a million dollars. A total of $533,701 is paid for salaries, of which the counties pay $347,898, and the General Education Board is contributing $74,800 for making certain increases. In 1912 the average salary was only $267, this year it is $642. I have not yet the accurate number for the present session, but last year the number of pupils in the high-school grades was 1649. Those who go out from these beginnings of high schools are helping to supply the superin- tendent with teachers for his smaller schools a makeshift perhaps, but still a great improvement. Along with these two lines of work is another important agency of improvement through the splendid liberality of Mr. Julius Rosenwald. From September 1, 1920 to January 31, 1921 it is expected that 226 schoolhouses will be built at a total cost of $1,071,036. Of this amount the colored people will contribute $311,432; white people, $121,830; public funds, $426,974 ; and the Rosenwald Fund, $210,800. But more important than all these outside donations is the amount that is being spent out of public tax funds for smaller public schools and for the various state normal and industrial institutes and colleges. I cannot give the total amounts spent in the southern states for public education in the negro schools. But the amount appropriated to the higher state institutions for the present year is $1,267,170. The total amount for public education for colored children in seven of the southern states for 1919-20 was $9,171,000, almost double the amount of eight years ago . These figures are enough to show that the work of education among the colored people is going forward at least fairly well. We do not hear as much about all this activity as we hear about lynching, yet it is there. In spite of prophets of evil, the educational condition of the colored people as a whole is steadily improving year by year. All that I have said so far indicates and betokens good. I could tell plenty of facts that are bad. In many, many sections the salaries of the rural colored teachers are still very low, the terms short, the school- houses mere shacks. But all along the line there is notable improve- ment. The readiness and self-sacrifice of the colored people themselves to contribute to their schools will some day be recognized as one of the remarkable features of this period of educational development, and, all things considered, the steady growth of white public sentiment in favor of a square deal for the colored people is little less remarkable. In spite of the drawbacks and the setbacks, the prejudices and the com Department] COMPARATIVE INSTRUCTION 583 plainings, amazing progress has been made. And I look for continued advance in all our school work, which will mean the slow but sure spread of intelligence and better ways of living, not only among the people in the cities but among the rural residents as well. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON COMPARATIVE IN- STRUCTION IN ONE- TEACHER AND CON- SOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOLS JOHN M. FOOTE, STATE AGENT FOR RURAL EDUCATION, BATON ROUGE, LA . The committee appointed by the Department of Rural Education to study the results of instruction in one-teacher and consolidated schools wishes to report that progress has been made on the question assigned to us as herewith indicated. It is well understood that it has been necessary to plan carefully the details of the program of securing field data over so large an area and from so many individual schools . The accomplishments since the preceding meeting relate almost ex- clusively to this task. Directions and report forms. The committee has prepared and published in quantity detailed directions for the guidance and informa- tion of all who are coöperating in gathering the field data. These directions state the question at issue, its origin, the scope of the study, tests to be used, defines the two types of schools and the conditions under which they may be included, and give such other information as may be necessary for doing the field work under carefully controlled conditions. Report forms include blanks for the essential administra- tive facts relative to each school participating and age-grade achieve- ment distributions for the several tests that are given. The several tests were selected primarily upon the judgments of some twenty or more educators who are skilled and experienced in the field of edu- cational tests. Up to this time well over fifteen hundred copies of the report forms have been printed and distributed to the various state directors. State directors and local co-operators. The committee has enlisted the active coöperation of twenty-five directors in as many states. Others were chosen but for one reason or another found it impossible to do the work required. In selecting state directors great care has been exercised so as to secure the participation of those who are not only deeply concerned with the problems of rural and elementary education and who have first-hand knowledge of educational tests but who occupy administrative or supervisory positions which place them in direct con- tact with large numbers who are working in the field of rural education. After carefully reviewing the situation each director has chosen a group of local co-operators. They have also been chosen because of their positions in or connection with rural schools. They, together with 584 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education teachers and principals associated with them, are to do the detailed work of administering the tests, scoring the papers, and making out report forms. The committee is confident that the state directors and local co- öperators who have enlisted for this study make up a competent, well- prepared, and deeply interested group of rural-school workers who can be depended upon to do their part in securing the field data for the investigation that is now under way. Other states. The question of extending this study to eight or ten other states is now receiving attention. Doing so depends primarily upon securing additional funds to meet the cost of printing, distributing, etc. The committee has taken the initial steps to determine whether or not funds for this purpose can be obtained. Conclusion. The task of securing the field data has been carefully planned and is now in the hands of competent associates and co- workers. We do not know definitely what results to expect. There is reason to believe, however, that much of the work will be done in a very satisfactory manner. The committee is ready to say that if the task is properly executed we can do the statistical and clerical work and, after a reasonable length of time, submit a report to the Department of Rural Education. Committee : H. A. Allan, C. G. Cooper, L. J. Hanifan, Norman Frost, M. R. Staker, John M. Foote, Chairman. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE DISTINCTION BE- TWEEN THE ADMINISTRATION AND SUPER- VISION OF RURAL SCHOOLS FANNIE W. DUNN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, NEW YORK, N. Y. A. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1. The administrator is the general head of the educational system. He is responsible for the plan of the whole, for the coördination of its parts, and for assurance of the efficiency of each part. He must determine, with the approval of his board of trustees, all general policies. 2. Efficient instruction is the purpose of the whole school system. The superintendent, as the head of the school system, must promote or insure efficient instruction by four general means : a. Determination of the large aims of instruction in his system. b. Determination of the general means and methods to be em- ployed in his system in attaining these aims. c. Establishment of the conditions of effective instruction. d. Organization of the system to further the efficiency of instruc- tion, Department] COMPARATIVE INSTRUCTION 585 3. The administrator, like any other general, requires lieutenants, to each of whom is intrusted responsibility and authority for effecting a certain part of the whole plan. 4. The supervisor or helping teacher is the lieutenant whose specific function it is to lead, instruct, and inspire the teachers of the school sys- tem so that they may be kept alive and growing, and that the quality of instruction may constantly improve. 5. The duty and responsibility of the superintendent which he cannot delegate to any lieutenant is that of executive officer and expert adviser of the board of trustees. Although he may call in supervisors, teachers, or other agents to aid him in informing the board as to school conditions and needs, it is he alone who must take the responsibility of recom- mending to them new policies or advising as to old ones. 6. In fine, whereas a large part of the administrator's time must be given to working with and through the school board and the community toward the establishment of progressive policies and adequate provision for education, the supervisor's effort should be concentrated on work- ing with and through teachers for realization of policies and effective use of all provisions that are made. 7. The supervisor may and should suggest to the superintendent any changes which seem to him necessary, in aim, in organization, or in conditions of instruction. 8. The superintendent and supervisor in conference should consider all changes in policy affecting the supervisor's sphere of responsibility, whether such changes are suggested by the one or the other. When any general policy is adopted which has to do with the development of teachers and the improvement of instruction, the supervisor should be held responsible and be given free rein in working it out. 9. The supervisor has no responsibility for providing the conditions for effective teaching, and this responsibility should in no wise be laid upon him. 10. The supervisor is not a clerical assistant to the superintendent. He should be asked to assume no clerical duties not incident to the performance of his own specific function in the system. Moreover, ' true economy of administration demands that both superintendent and supervisor be provided with clerical and secretarial assistance for all matters of purely clerical and secretarial nature, and thus freed for concentration on constructive educational work. B. SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS DISTINGUISHED 1. Teachers' meetings. 2. Observation and criticism of instruction. 3. Typed and duplicated plans, suggestions, or instructions. a. As agencies of supervision. In general, the relation of super- visor to teacher supervised is that of a college instructor to the members 586 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education of his class. The supervisor is essentially a teacher of teachers. As instruction may be given face-to- face or by correspondence, individually or collectively, so it is with supervision. Means of face-to-face super- vision are teacher's meetings for the group, or visits with observation, criticism, and conference for the individual. Assistance and guidance may be given from the office by means of letters and duplicated material, plans, instructions, or suggestions. In so far as these are means of direct and specific supervision of instruction, they should be absolutely in the supervisor's hands to conduct. He should have entire authority in their management and should be held responsible for their results. Ordinarily the superintendent would be a welcome guest at any teacher's meeting or on any supervisory visit. The supervisor should feel free, however, to request his non-attendance if conditions seem to make it desirable. b. As features of administration. A knowledge of the teaching personnel is as necessary to the superintendent's determination of poli- cies as is a knowledge of the community. Democratic organization, moreover, demands that the teachers be taken into his confidence and participate in the setting up of policies, for the system as a whole as well as for their individual schools. It is therefore highly important that provision be made for direct contact between administrator and teaching force. This provision may be afforded by the annual teachers' institute or county teachers' meeting, by visits of the superintendent to schools, and by the appointment of committees of teachers for confer- ence with the superintendent. All of these will deal with general policies and programs, rather than with details of their working out. The teachers' institute should be used to get before the teacher the large plans for the year. Section meetings may be provided for the super- visors with their respective groups, but the institute in general should be the superintendent's to plan and to conduct. The superintendent should visit each school at least once annually, and should make such observations as will guide him in formulating his plans for the future and in evaluating both his own leadership and that of his supervisory staff . On these visits he should confine his comments to the teacher to general suggestions, or to emphasis of ideas he knows the supervisor is attempting to communicate. Committees of teachers may properly be invited by the superintendent to advise with him on any matters of school policy. Ordinarily the supervisor would be invited to sit with such committees. Allowance of time for all teachers' meetings, the question of payment of teachers for attendance, and the requirement of such attendance are all matters of the general organization of the educational program, and hence must be determined by the superin- tendent desirably in conference with the supervisor. Department] COMPARATIVE INSTRUCTION 587 4. Course of study. The course of study is both an important means of improving in- struction and an important condition of efficient instruction. It is there- fore a coördinate responsibility of the superintendent and the supervisor. This responsibility they should discharge coöperatively, the superin- tendent's responsibility being primarily in the matter of determining the large plan and general organization, the supervisor's primarily in the development with the teaching force of detailed units of subject- matter. The superintendent, however, may well take a definite assign- ment in the detailed working out of the course, and supervisors and superintendent should confer freely on the matter of the general plan. 5. Standard tests . Standard tests are both a teaching instrument and a means of in- formation as to the effectiveness of the school system. They are there- fore a tool both for the superintendent and for the supervisor. Either may make use of this tool for the purpose of his own office alone, or both may coöperate in a mutually helpful use of it. Responsibility for giving and scoring the tests belong to the agent for whose purposes they are given. Both should share in their interpretation. Moreover, be- cause of the twofold utility and bearing of standard tests, conference between supervisor and superintendent should always precede use of them by either. 6. Community relationships. a. Supervisory phase. -Efficient in-school education must concern itself with and be largely based upon out-of-school experiences. Close coördination of school and home is therefore essential. The prepar- ation of programs to be presented to the parent-teacher association may be a most valuable educational enterprise for children but only if prop- erly handled. For these reasons, the development and conduct of a parent-teacher association or similar organization is an aspect of the teacher's work which it is important that the supervisor stimulate, guide, and assist. It should be noted, however, that here, as in teaching, the supervisor's function is not direct performance, but is rather effecting the desired result through the agency of the teacher. b. Administrative phase. A large part of the administrator's work consists in influencing the community to recognition of educational needs, approval of good educational programs and provision of means for their accomplishment. Publicity work is thus an important phase of the superintendent's function. The public press and private and public conferences are means to this end. The parent-teacher associa- tion may well be utilized for this purpose. Wherever this is the purpose, the superintendent should assume responsibility for effecting it. Obvi 588 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education ously, the close relation of these administrative and supervisory aspects of community work necessitate thorough understanding and coöperation between superintendent and supervisor. A further administrative phase of community relationships arises from the present tendency to multiply public and private semi-educa- tional agencies, as, for example, the Red Cross, agricultural extension work, and women's clubs of various types. It is the superintendent's province to determine the relationship of each of these to the public- school system, and to organize their contribution to his general program. Wherever he admits them to active work in the school, however, it should be with the supervisor's approval and under the supervisor's direction and authority. 7. Miscellaneous responsibilities, not covered above. a. Belonging to the superintendent. School finances-general budget-making, accounting for expenditure, purchase and accounting for expenditure, purchase and accounting for supplies, etc.; buildings and equipment-building programs, inspection as to care and adequacy of buildings and supplies, provision for necessary repairs, purchase of supplies, and delivery to schools; teachers-qualifications, salary, recom- mendations for election, promotion, transfer, or dismissal ; reports and records ; legislation-enforcing existing legislation and moving for ad- vance legislation, where conditions require it : b. Belonging to the supervisor. -Report to the superintendent : On teacher efficiency; on pupil progress ; on defective conditions of instruc- tion ; on supervisory activities ; recommendations as to transfer or pro- motion of teachers or pupils. c. Requiring co-operative action.-Selection of textbooks and equip- ment. Supervisor's approval and recommendation should be essential to adoption. The whole matter of selection may well be delegated to the supervisor. Report approved by the following members of the committee: J. H. Shriber, Department of Rural and Vocational Education, State Agri- cultural College, Fort Collins, Colo .; Dorothy Connelly, district su- perintendent, Stow, N. Y.; Mrs. Maude L. Blaney, county superin- tendent, Carrizozo, N. Mex.; H. E. McConnell, county superin- tendent, Mercer, Pa.; J. F. Dyer, county superintendent, Camden, Maine ; W. J. Avery, parish superintendent, Alexandria, La.; N. R. Baker, county superintendent, Birmingham, Ala.; B. A. Fowler, county superintendent, Ogden, Utah ; C. R. Maxwell, dean, College of Education, University of Wyoming ; Fannie W. Dunn, Department of Rural Education, Teachers College, Chairman. Department] THE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS 589 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS MABEL CARNEY, TEACHERS COLLEGE, NEW YORK, N. Y. PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR THE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS Ultimately every rural teacher in every state should have two years of professional preparation beyond a four-year high-school course. (In the millenium four years. ) The realization of this ideal will mean the ultimate abandonment of high-school training. It will also demand on the one hand, additional normal schools with efficient rural departments, and on the other, many changes in rural-school and country-life stand- ards including consolidation, better salaries, better living conditions, a richer social life, and a more plentiful and inspiring leadership for rural education. With these conclusions in mind the Committee believes that practical standards for the preparation of rural teachers in state normal schools should include the following as minimum essentials : 1. Students and department.-A separate, differentiated group of students intending to teach in rural schools, organized into an adequately differentiated, yet properly correlated, rural-school department. 2. Teaching staff.-A special teaching staff, specifically prepared, and devoting full time and effort to rural work. At least two persons should be employed on this staff, a director of the department and a supervisor of rural-school practice. An assistant for rural-school ex- tension is also desirable. Extreme care should be exercised in the choice of these instructors as their efficiency is the chief determining factor in the success of the work. Minimum requirements recommended : A stimulating personality and normal-school graduation, plus one or two years of university study in education (including some rural courses) with five years of teaching experience, at least two of which have been in one-teacher rural schools. 3. Curriculum. -A one-year, differentiated curriculum entirely pro- fessionalized, heading directly toward country-school teaching and open only to students possessing three or four years of high-school back- ground. The functional point of view should dominate throughout this curriculum and in each of its individual courses. Also a two-year cur- riculum for high-school graduates which may well be a modification of the two-year rural-school curriculum recommended by the Carnegie Foundation. ( See bulletin, Curricula Designed for the Professional Preparation of Teachers, p. 34 Carnegie Foundation, 576 Fifth Ave., New York) . 4. Practice teaching. A minimum of 120 clock hours of practice teaching should be provided for each student. This practice should be 590 NATIONAL education AssociATION [Rural Education graded and partially specialized. Six stages are recommended : ( 1 ) observation, (2) group teaching, (3 ) room teaching in a single grade, (4) rural-school practice under superior conditions, (5) rural-school practice under general or typical conditions, and (6) à spring primary class. To provide this practice in sufficient amount for the average rural department will require the maintenance of five or six rural-demon- stration schools and an affiliation with one graded school of six grades averaging forty children per grade. 5. Extension activities. These should be specialized for the rural field and of two types : (a) investigative-including rural-school visit- ing, rural-school surveys, and the follow-up of graduates ; ( b ) service -including publications, extension courses, county-institute instruction, lectures for rural community meetings, summer-school courses, an annual rural-school conference, and the careful placing of graduates. A country life club maintained among normal-school students is also help- ful. 6. Quarters and equipment. -A good classroom and office, and additional rooms or hall space for practice teaching, together with the following teaching equipment, is needed in both high schools and normal schools : a special library, a hectograph, rubber printing type, sufficient industrial material; and portable blackboards, tables, and chairs for practice teaching; a letter file, card index, mimeograph, and other essential office equipment ; and a portable stereopticon for rural com- munity work. 7. Credits and certificates.-For four-year high-school seniors the completion of this one-year rural curriculum should give full credit on the Sophomore year of the normal-school course. For four-year high- school graduates it should give credit for the Junior year of the normal course. First-grade certificates should be granted without examination to all who complete the one-year curriculum recommended above. These certificates should be good only in rural schools for a period of two years, and renewable only through summer-school attendance or fur- ther preparation in normal schools. Students completing the advanced two-year rural curriculum should receive life-certificates without exam- ination good only in rural schools for two years and then renewable upon successful experience and made valid in any elementary school. 8. State aid and supervision.-The preparation of teachers is a state function which cannot safely be intrusted to any other agency. All normal schools should therefore be generously supported by the state, governed under recognized state supervision, and required to fit their individual programs into a general state policy for teacher training. Department] THE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS 591 RECOMMENDED STANDARDS FOR TEACHER- TRAINING DEPARTMENTS IN HIGH SCHOOLS The following practical standards for a state system of teacher- training in high schools are submitted : 1. State aid.-The State aid should be high enough to meet prac- tically the whole expense of maintenance and thus give the State almost full control of the system. A minimum of $1500 a year for each department is recommended. 2. Supervision. The employment of a well-prepared full-time supervisor, is fundamentally essential to the best development of any State system of teacher training in high schools. Under no other plan can the State exercise the close inspection and constructive supervision necessary. 3. Quarters and equipment. -Quarters for training departments may be provided by the local school but teaching equipment to be satis- factory and plentiful must be furnished by the state. 4. Students and entrance requirements.-Students should be care- fully selected for training classes on the basis of their potential teaching qualities. High-school seniors or graduates only should be admitted. All students should be required to pass a medical examination before admission. 5. Curriculum and courses. The curriculum for training depart- ments should be restricted in amount to one year of work. Two- year curricula should be discouraged as they tend to fix the secondary policy of teacher training too firmly on a local basis and to make its future abandonment difficult. Three types of courses should be in- cluded in the curriculum : namely, professionalized subject-matter courses in the common branches, purely professional courses in educa- tion, and industrial courses . To reduce the number of recitations in the daily program this curriculum may be best organized on a three- term plan. 6. Teachers.-Teachers for normal-training departments in high schools should be indorsed by the state and selected with the greatest care. All else depends on this. Normal-school graduation plus one year of university study in education and five years of teaching experi- ence, at least two of which have been done in one-teacher rural schools is recommended as a minimum standard for this indorsement. 7. Practice teaching. -Practice teaching should be regarded by all, including students, teachers, and state officials as the most important activity of the department. At least one hundred and twenty clock hours should be required with a minimum of two weeks in country schools under typical conditions. Transportation for rural practice should be paid by the state and rural-demonstration schools should be encouraged through a small state bonus. The whole practice-teaching experience 592 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education of each student should also be graded as far as possible from relatively easy to increasingly difficult stages. 8. Extension activities. Enough extension work should be under- taken to keep the department in close contact with field needs and enough follow-up of former students to serve as a check upon current teaching. As a mimimum standard such efforts should include at least one department alumni meeting a year, one annual visit by the training teacher to each member of her former class, and attendance by the teacher and class-in-training at about six rural community meetings or teachers' conferences, including the annual county institute for teach- ers and the county farmers' institute. 9. Certificates.--First-grade certificates should be granted without examination to all who complete the course satisfactorily. These certi- ficates should be good only in rural schools for a period of two years and renewable only through summer school attendance or further preparation in State normal schools. Otherwise the graduates will be largely absorbed by graded schools as is now the case in several states. 10. Credit. When the high-school training course is offered in the senior year full high-school credit for the work should be given. When it is made a graduate year and thoroughly standardized through skillful state supervision, one full year of credit should be granted for the work in both the normal schools and the state college of education. In this way the entire system can be properly adjusted to a progressive state program for teacher training which looks ultimately to the preparation of rural teachers on a collegiate level and to giving every country child in the commonwealth a share of the educational democracy to which he is justly entitled. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON A WORKING PROGRAM FOR SMITH-LEVER EXTENSION AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FORCES IN THE VARIOUS STATES¹ A. R. MANN, NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. Your committee has been requested to consider and report on the relationships in agriculture and home economics that should be observed between the agencies in the several states charged with carrying out the provisions of the Smith-Lever Act and the agencies charged with carrying out the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act. While in their major aspects the objects and methods provided for in these acts are clearly distinct and separate, there are other aspects in which the func- tions are less clearly distinguished, making possible parallelism and overlapping unless the respective spheres of activity are determined 1This report deals only with vocational education, leaving for consideration the problems involved in the relations between prevocational education and club work. Department] PROGRAM FOR SMITH- LEVER EXTENSION 593 by agreement between the officers responsible for the administration of the two acts within the several states, and such agreement is faith- fully observed in a spirit of mutual respect and helpfulness. The problem is further complicated by the great diversity in state laws respecting functions assigned to the land-grant colleges, on the one hand, and to the state boards or departments of education on the other hand, and to the variations in terminology applied to educational officers and courses of instruction in the states. These latter complications make it impossible to draw a general memorandum of understanding which shall apply fully in all the states. In the majority of states there will need to be special agreements based on existing legislation in the states. On February 21, 1918, there was sent to the Directors of Extension and to the State Boards for Vocational Education a " Memorandum on Instruction in Vocational Schools and Extension Work in Agri- culture," being a copy of an agreement "approved February 15, 1918, by a joint Committee of the Department of Agriculture and the Fed- eral Board for Vocational Education." Your committee accepts this agreement as a working basis. It is as follows : February 21 , 1918 MEMORANDUM ON INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE IN VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS AND EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURE In order that those who are concerned with the administration of agricul- tural extension work and those who are concerned with the administration of vocational agricultural instruction may co-operate for the purpose of assisting in securing for this country an effective system of agriculture, the following statements are made : EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURE The United States Department of Agriculture, in co-operation with the land-grant colleges, has organized an agricultural extension system which ex- tends throughout the United States. This has been done in accordance with a series of acts of Congress authorizing the establishment of such work and making appropriations therefor. This extension work consists of practical demonstrations, and the dissemination of information among men, women, and children through the personal work of county agents, home demonstration agents, boys' and girls' club workers, and others. This work covers the various branches of agriculture and home economics, including marketing and rural organization. It is supplemented by the widespread distribution of publications of the United States Department of Agriculture, the experiment stations , the agricultural colleges, and state departments of agriculture. The instruction and information used in this system of popular education is based chiefly on the work of the United States Department of Agriculture, the state agricul- tural colleges, and the experiment stations. This extension work is not a systematic course of instruction but deals with problems of practice and business on the farm, in the home, or in the rural community. This is expressed in the following quotation from the Smith-Lever Act: "to aid in diffusing among the people of the United States useful and practical information on subjects relating to agriculture and home economics and to encourage the application of the same." 594 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education As the extension system becomes general and settles down in any com- munity, it deals more and more with special problems of the farm and rural community rather than with the details of practice with which the farming people are generally familiar. Backed by the research system of agricultural colleges and the United States Department of Agriculture, it brings to the people the new things which have been found worthy of broad trial in actual practice. VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION The creation of the Federal Board for Vocational Education and a State Board for Vocational Education in each state, under the provisions of an act of the Sixty- fourth Congress approved February 23, 1917, makes possible a nation-wide organization for the administration of vocational education. The act carries an appropriation for salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects. The money so appropriated is to reimburse schools for expenditures for salaries of teachers to carry on instruction in vocational agriculture or for the salaries of supervisors of such instruction. Certain standards must be set up by the state board and approved by the federal board for schools in which these federal funds are to be used. These standards include qualifications of teachers, minimum amount for maintenance, the minimum plant and equipment, and courses of study. In case any of the fund is to be used for salaries of supervisors or directors, a plan of supervision for the state must be set up by the state board with the approval of the federal board. This act makes provision then for a course of systematic instruction in agriculture carried on in schools and classes under a definite plan of co-opera- tion between a state board and the federal board. This systematic instruction in agriculture, however, under the terms of the act must in every case include at least six months of supervised practical work. RELATIONSHIPS In many counties of the various states there will be the co-operative agricul- tural extension system conducted by the state agricultural college in co-operation with the United States Department of Agriculture and the county under the provisions of the Smith-Lever Extension Act and under other federal and state legislation. There will also be vocational agricultural instruction carried on by the State Board for Vocational Education in co-operation with the Federal Board for Vocational Education and the county or the local school district under the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act: Both the extension service and the vocational instruction will deal with both adults and children. In each state there is a state director of agricultural extension service and an executive officer of the state Board for Vocational Education. It is sug- gested that these two officials determine upon a plan of co-operation for the state based upon the following general policies or principles : 1. It is to be understood that all agricultural extension work should be administered by those in charge of extension activities in the state and that all vocational education in agriculture should be administered by those in charge of the vocational schools of the state. 2. That all extension work with adults done by teachers in vocational schools be in accordance with the plans of the extension system for the state, and in co-operation with the agent who is in charge of the administration of the extension work in the county. 3. That in counties having vocational schools of agriculture the extension service will conduct its extension work in agriculture with children chiefly Department] PROGRAM FOR SMITH -LEVER EXTENSION 595 through the organization of clubs for the carrying on of definite pieces of work for the improvement of agricultural practice. The practical agricultural work of the schools will chiefly consist of home project work by the students as a part of the systematic practical instruction provided for in the Smith-Hughes Act. It is advised that in such counties a co-operative agreement be made between the extension authorities and the school authorities whereby it will be arranged for the teachers of agriculture to take part in the extension activities with the children within the territory of the school and that such territory be set forth in the agreement. 4. That in every case care be taken to see that work which is supported by federal funds under any of the aforementioned acts will not in any way duplicate or overlap work being carried on in that same community when that work is supported in any part from another federal fund. Approved February 15, 1918 by joint Committee of Department of Agricul- ture and Federal Board for Vocational Education. Your committee is of the opinion that the faithful observance of the principles and the spirit set forth in this agreement will make possible the development of harmonious state programs in the respec- tive fields. Certain of these principles may be elaborated for the sake of clearness and understanding : I. Extension work. The term extension work shall be understood to include, aside from special duties assigned by state laws in the several states, coöperative agricultural extension as defined and provided for in the Smith-Lever Act of May 8, 1914, accepted by the legislatures in the several states. The law provides that such extension work. "shall consist of the giving of instruction and practical demonstrations in agriculture and home economics to persons not attending or resident at said colleges in the several communities and imparting to such per- sons useful and practical information on said subjects through field demonstrations, publications, and otherwise," and "to encourage the application of the same." a. Methods or types of extension teaching. The extension teach- ing is, as a rule, conducted by means of coöperative projects with the county farm bureaus and other local agencies. These projects are agreed upon between local members of the farmers' organizations and the specialists in the extension service of the college of agriculture. They are chen carried into effect, usually by the following and other methods : 1. Coöperative demonstrations given in fields and barns and other appropriate places. 2. Lectures and addresses before public meetings, including com- munity meetings, meetings of general groups, and meetings of special groups. 3. Extension schools, in which instruction in subject-matter of immediate practical interest is given over a period usually from three to five days in length, and seldom exceeding two weeks, in the locali- ties where the students reside. Short courses or schools held at the 596 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Rural Education agricultural colleges may be of any length required by the work to be done. 4. Exhibits at fairs, expositions, and other local and state-wide meetings, at which subject-matter is graphically presented. 5. Junior extension, or boys' and girls' club work, which is the giving of instruction in and the dissemination of useful and practical information concerning special problems of immediate economic im- portance to the agriculture and home-making of the several communi- ties, to boys and girls who are not enrolled in vocational courses in agriculture and home-making, unless specifically requested or authorized by the responsible school authorities to include pupils so enrolled. This work is done by means of definite projects, conducted so far as is possible at the workers' homes and under the supervision and direc- tion of a competent leader, and by lectures, demonstrations, bulletins, circulars, correspondence, and personal visits. It involves the actual selection of a definite project by the worker. It presupposes that the planning, the keeping of an accurate cash and labor record, and, so far as is possible, the manual labor shall be done by the project worker and that he shall pursue a definite line of reading and study in relation to the project. 6. Aid in meeting special problems of individual farmers. 7. Conferences with county officers and representatives to arrange, organize, and supervise demonstration and other work. b. The representatives of the extension service of the college of agriculture engaged in conducting the work defined and outlined above may include the following : 1. The state Director of Extension, who, as the joint representa- tive of the college, and the United States Department of Agriculture, has administrative charge of all extension work. 2. County agricultural agents, who are the coöperative representa- tives of the college of agriculture, the (State and) Federal Depart- ment ( s) of Agriculture, and the county farm bureaus, under the above agreements, together with the state county agent leaders. 3. County home-demonstration agents, who are the coöperative representatives of the college of agriculture, the (State and) Federal Department ( s) of Agriculture, and the county farm bureaus, under the above agreements, together with the state home-demonstration agent leaders. 4. County junior extension leaders and assistants, or boys' and girls' club leaders, who are the coöperative representatives of the college of agriculture and the Federal Department of Agriculture, together with the state leaders of junior extension employed by the college. Department] PROGRAM FOR SMITH -LEVER EXTENSION 597 5. Specialists and other representatives of the subject-matter de- partments of the college, including administrative officers who have supervision of and who teach any phases of agriculture and home economics. The State Extension Service at the college of agriculture is responsi- ble for the organization and administration of all forms of effort de- fined herein under extension work. II. Vocational Education .-(a) Vocational agricultural education shall mean that education of less than college grade designed to meet the needs of pupils fourteen years of age or over who are regularly enrolled for systematic instruction under the supervision of the schools and who intend to follow agricultural pursuits, and which gives the know- ledge and skill necessary to the control of plant and animal production to the end of economic profit, and which is to articulate with other education so as to promote a desirable type of farm and community living. The organization for this work may include such provisions as the following, given in high schools or special schools or classes. 1. Four years' course. This course is designed for pupils re- gularly enrolled in the school who desire to pursue a four-year high- school course in agriculture. 2. One-, two-, or three-year courses. Such courses are designed for boys and young men who wish to enter school to study agriculture for a shorter period than the full high-school course. 3. Short-unit courses. Such courses are designed to meet the - needs of young men who have left school and who desire to enroll for instruction in special phases of agricultural production during the season when farm work is slack. These courses will normally extend over a period varying from two weeks to three months, and will be offered either at the school or in a community center tributary to the school. 4. Evening classes. Such classes may be organized to meet the needs of persons engaged in farming who desire systematic instruction in special phases of their work. Instruction will be conducted by means of discussions, lectures, and demonstrations, and will usually be given one or more evenings a week for a period of several weeks. b. Vocational home-economics education is that education of less than college grade conducted as a part of the public-school system of the state and under the direction of the school authorities, which is designed to meet the needs of persons fourteen years of age or over who are regularly enrolled for systematic training in the science of and practice in the activities connected with the vocation of home- making. 598 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education The organization for this work may include such provisions as the following : 1. Four years' high-school course. This course is planned for persons who desire a thorough training in the science and practice of home-making. Girls enrolled in the courses are required to conduct supervised work, which is closely correlated with the class and labora- tory instruction. 2. One-, two-, and three-year home-making courses. Such courses are planned for girls who desire instruction in the science and practice of home-making of less than full high-school length. 3. Part-time home-making courses. Such courses are designed primarily for girls fourteen years of age or older who are not enrolled in the above courses, but who desire definite, systematic instruction. 4. Evening home-making courses. Such courses are intended for women who are engaged in home-making activities or who are em- ployed in any capacity during the day. They are planned to train women in the essential occupations connected with home-making. They involve systematic instruction in regular organized classes. c. The representatives of the State Board for Vocational Educa- tion engaged in conducting the work defined and outlined above may include the following : 1. The state Supervisor of Vocational Education, who is the administrative officer in charge of all vocational educational activities. 2. High-school and special-school directors and teachers of agricul- ture. These persons shall be responsible for the work done by the pupils enrolled in the four years' and briefer courses, part-time, short- unit, and evening courses, and for the direction of pupils regularly enrolled for junior project work as a part of the school curriculum. 3. Teachers of home-making. The work of the teachers of home- making shall include the organization and administration of day, part- time, and evening courses in home-making. 4. Superintendents and teachers. Superintendents and teachers working under the direction of local boards of education or trustees in conducting vocational work in agriculture or home economics, as a phase of the systematic school program, shall be considered representa- tives of the State Board for Vocational Education . The State Board for Vocational Education is finally responsible, subject to approval by the Federal Board for Vocational Education, for the organization and administration of all forms of effort defined herein under Vocational Education . III. Provision for agreements in common fields of work. It is recognized that the functions, obligations, and responsibilities of the parties to the agreement as defined by law may be similar, with the possibility of overlapping, as in the fields of (1) the junior project Department] PROGRAM FOR SMITH- LEVER EXTENSION 599 work of the schools and the junior extension (boys' and girls' club) work of the college both in agriculture and home economics, and (2) the home economics extension work of the college and the part-time and evening home-making courses of the State Board for Vocational Education. In a spirit of fairness to both groups of interests, this report seeks to present a basis for clear differentiation of the functions of the respective agencies in these closely related tasks. It is proposed that the work in these common fields shall be made a matter of co- öperative agreement. Such coöperative agreement should recognize the following facts and principles : 1. It is the function, duty, and responsibility of the public school to provide education for all children, and to provide such adult educa- tion as is authorized by law. 2. Under the law, it is the function and duty of the land grant college of agriculture to maintain extension service. The theory under- lying extension service is that it is, first, to provide supplemental edu- cation for persons of whatever age engaged in agriculture and home- making ; and, second, to enable the college and the Federal Department of Agriculture to bring their advances in knowledge to farmers and their families who can make the applications. Furthermore, by virtue of its staff of technical specialists and its responsibility for training vocational teachers, the college is in a position to furnish technical in- formation and advice in the fields of agriculture and home economics to vocational workers on request. The extension work of the colleges has helped to create a demand for more definitely organized vocational work in the schools . 3. Only a small part of the needs of the nation in vocational educa- tion is now met by the combined work of the public schools and the extension departments of the land grant colleges. 4. There are three types of situation to be considered: (a) where vocational work is fully developed in the local school ; ( b ) where no vocational work has yet been undertaken by the local school ; ( c) where vocational work is in process of development in the local school. a. Where the school provides a comprehensive, vocational program to meet the needs of all children and of adults, the extension service of the land grant college shall coöperate with the school by providing on request subject-matter, special lectures, conferences, and other simi- lar services. This shall not be interpreted to limit the freedom of the extension forces to prosecute their farm-bureau programs with adults and local organizations of farmers. Hearty coöperation between the representatives of the two agencies is, of course, fundamental. b. Where the school does not provide such a vocational program, the Extension Service of the college should organize extension work. 600 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Rural Education In such localities, the school should give its fullest support and coöper- ation to the extension workers. c. It is recognized that in some places schools will be in the process of providing such vocational programs. In these cases the following principles should apply : Extension workers should confine their work to persons whom the school will not enrol in systematic vocational project work in any given year, it being recognized, however, that children who are not enrolled in Smith-Hughes vocational classes may properly be regarded as available for Smith-Lever junior extension work. The school should offer its facilities to the extension worker wherever the school is not in a position to provide vocational project work. Members of the committee : Thomas E. Finegan, G. I. Christie, Francis W. Kirkham, Anna Kloss, A. R. Mann, Chairman. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION . SECRETARY'S MINUTES DES MOINES MEETING OFFICERS President-ELI M. RAPP, Superintendent of Schools, Berks County ............. Reading, Pa. Vice-President-I. B. BALL, State Supervisor of Agricultural Education .. Salt Lake City, Utah. Secretary- MABEL CARNEY, Teachers College, Columbia University .......... New York, N. Y. Presiding Officer-MACY CAMPBELL, Director of Rural Education, State Teachers College, ...... Cedar Falls, Iowa. FIRST SESSION TUESDAY MORNING, JULY 5, 1921 The Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association opened its session on Tuesday morning, July 5, at ten o'clock, in the Hotel Savery. The meeting was called together by the presiding officer, Mr. Macy Campbell who officiated over all sessions of the department in the absence of the president. For this session the special topic was A National Program for Rural Education and the following program was rendered : PLATFORM OF THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION OF THE N. E. A. Lee Driver, Department of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. THE COUNTY UNIT AND HOW TO SECURE IT IN THE MIDDLE- WEST-Harold W. Foght, Normal School, Aberdeen, S. D. THE VILLAGE IN RELATION TO RURAL- SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND THE COUNTY UNIT-George A. Selke, Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn. BUSINESS MEETING . SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921 The second session of the department was called to order on Wednesday afternoon, July 6, and covered the following discussions : THE PROGRESS OF CONSOLIDATION IN THE MIDDLE- WEST-George S. Dick, Department of Education, Madison, Wis . DISTRICTING A COUNTY FOR CONSOLIDATION-B. C. Bittikofer, Superintendent of Crawford County Schools, Bucyrus, Ohio . 1 Department] PLATFORM RURAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 1 601 THE STANDARDIZATION OF CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS-C. C. Swain, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR CONSOLIDATION-Macy Cambell, State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Discussed by U. J. Hoffman, Department of Edu- cation, Springfield, Ill. QUESTIONS AND GENERAL DISCUSSION. THIRD SESSION-FRIDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 8, 1921 At the third and closing session special attention was given to the Prepar- ation and Supervision of Rural Teachers as indicated by the following program : PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES IN THE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS-L. B. Sipple, Normal School, Aberdeen, S. D. Discussion by G. E. Maxwell, State Teachers College, Winona, Minn. THE SUPERVISION OF RURAL SCHOOLS-C. P. Cary, State Superintendent of Public Schools, Madison Wis. Discussion by Minnie J. Neilsen, State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Bismarck, N. D., and Amalia Bengston, Superin- tendent of Renville County Schools, Olivia, Minn. BUSINESS MEETING At the business meeting on Tuesday morning, July 5, the following business was transacted: 1. A platform of Rural Education was officially adopted. 2. The publication and editorship of a Journal of Rural Education, to serve as an official organ for the Department, was approved and subscriptions were taken. 3. A resolution indorsing the work of the Bureau of Education was unanimously adopted, and, 4. Two special committees, one on consolidation and the other on super- vision of rural schools, were appointed by the presiding officer with instructions to report at the Chicago meeting in February, 1922. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year-President, Ernest Burnham, Director of Rural Education, Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich.; Vice-President, J. C. Muerman, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.; Secretary, Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, N. Y. MABEL CARNEY, Secretary. PLATFORM OF THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCA- TION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION LEE L. DRIVER, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, HARRISBURG, PA . 1. Function of the school defined. The primary function of the rural school system is explicitly recognized to be the provision of a standard education for rural childhood and youth, to which all its other efforts are to be subordinated. Provision of adequate educational opportunities for adults as well as children is an ultimate goal, to be set up when the proximate one is in process of being realized. 2. Standard of educational product the same, country and city. The general ends of public-school education are the same everywhere, without regard to population density. A double standard of quality for rural and urban educational products is undemocratic and un- American. 3. Accessible high school as well as elementary-school facilities of standard quality for all rural children. 602 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Rural Education 4. A curriculum whose aim is determined by the accepted functions. of American elementary and secondary education, and whose content and organization are adjusted to the environment and administrative conditions of rural schools . The school is an educational institution, supplementing the natural education provided by home experiences. Rural and urban schools, based on different home experiences, will require some differentiation in con- tent to meet their common ends. Schools of one or two teachers also need a curriculum organized by groups rather than by grades, to assist the teacher in economizing time and effort and achieving standard re- sults. The rural high school, besides liberal courses, should offer at least two vocational courses, home management and vocational agriculture, and such other vocational courses as the demand justifies and the community resources permit. 5. A school year of at least 180 days. 6. Compulsory education laws which do not recognize child labor as an excuse for non-attendance, whether in form of paid employment or of farm and home demands, and which are thoroughly enforced. 7. A school plant meeting modern demands for sanitation, health, and community interests, and equipped for education of modern type. 8. Qualifications of teachers as high as those required for city schools of like grade. 9. Remuneration of rural teachers at least as high as that of city teachers of like qualifications and grade. Any salary scale which fixes the minimum remuneration for rural teachers lower than for urban teachers of the same preparation and grade of school work, penalizes teachers for serving in rural schools and is subversive to the interests of rural education. Since the rural school situation is an unusually dif- ficult one, and since it is frequently deficient in other than money re- wards, true equality of salary scale probably necessitates a larger money remuneration for teaching in rural schools. 10. Continued and determined effort to develop the idea that a rural-school teacher is not necessarily promoted when she transfers to city schools ; that rural schools are a distinct division in the educa- tional field, like the kindergarten, the trade school, or the high school, and that as a teacher changing from one of these to another merely changes the nature of her work, without necessarily making any pro- fessional advancement, so does a rural teacher when she goes into urban work. 11. Provision through teacherages or otherwise of homes for teachers with conditions of privacy, light, heat, food, material equip- ment, and general hygiene such as are essential to study or professional work. Department] PLATFORM RURAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 603 12. Consolidation of rural schools wherever feasible. Consolida- tion is urged as the best type of school organization for providing ade- quate educational opportunities for rural children in general. 13. Increased expenditure sufficient to make efficient such one- and two-teacher schools as are retained. To render efficient service, one- or two-teacher schools must be provided with superior teachers and teaching equipment. As is true of small-scale production in general, they are probably a most expensive means of attaining the end desired, but if another means is not practicable, no expense must be spared to furnish through them elementary education of standard quality. 14. Adequate provision for rural teacher preparation, involving not only the maintenance of departments of rural education in normal schools where there is a student demand for rural courses, but generous state support of these departments over a period of years, during which their chief work will be the development of such a demand. Heads or directors of these departments left free to develop them, and not loaded down with miscellaneous classes to fill up a standard teaching schedule. 15. County unit of local school administration wherever the county is the civil unit (unless geographical factors make some other unit more effective) with county boards of education and a professionalized county superintendency. 16. State unit of education, with state boards of education and a single executive head, a professional state commissioner of educa- tion. 17. Supervision of adequate professional type for all rural schools. New Jersey plan endorsed. County unit employed, but supervisors also under the direction of the State office and appointed thereby. Geo- graphical rather than grade or subject matter division of work recom- mended. 18. Recognition of the principle that property, wherever it may be, should be taxed for the education of children, wherever they may be, to the end that the financial burden may be more nearly equalized. This principle carried beyond the boundaries of county and state to the nation as a whole. 19. A continued and thorough investigation of the problems of rural education as a basis for revised standards and methods. Ex- tensive surveys are necessary to obtain as soon as possible the actual facts as to present rural educational conditions and products. Such facts are essential to any constructive program of development. 20. A nation-wide campaign of publicity of rural-school condi- tions and needs. Thoroughgoing improvement of rural education can come only through popular support. That the people of city and 604 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Rural Education country be informed and stirred is essential as a basis for any whole- hearted public program for rural education. THE RELATION OF THE VILLAGE TO THE RURAL- SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND THe countY UNIT GEORGE A. SELKE, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ST. PAUL, MINN. * * * * * Now let us take up the relation of the village to the rural schools. If the county fails to administrate to the needs of the rural schools, we shall find that other methods will be attempted to solve the rural educational problem. During the past twenty years in Minnesota three different plans, each independent of the county organization, have been and are being tried to bring better school facilities to the country children. The first of the plans we shall discuss has been legally termed "association." This was an attempt to extend the influence of the village or central school to the contiguous territory. The boards of the rural-school districts retained their organization and duties, but affiliated with the village school for purposes of supervision. The central school was required to have special departments in agriculture, manual, and home training. The teachers of these subjects spent half a day every month in each rural school to instruct in industrial work. The superin- tendent also was required to visit each associated school monthly to supervise the work of the rural teacher. Where more than eight rural schools were associated, the central district was required to employ a rural supervisor. In this way the country children attended supervised one-room schools where the curriculum was enriched with industrial work. All required of the rural district was that a qualified teacher be employed and that equipment be furnished for the elementary industrial work. The state provided a liberal aid, $50 to each rural district and $200 to the central school for each associated rural school. With this financial inducement as a stimulus one might well have expected a rapid growth of the movement. In a number of places the plan worked well and unquestionably improved the work of the country schools, especially where rural supervisors were employed. In some places it brought about an educational renaissance. But after a few years associations decreased Many village boards felt that it disrupted the work of the central school, but the real difficulty was that the supervisors had no authority. The superintendent could only offer suggestions. The rural board did not always co-operate. As a state-wide policy it failed because of lack of centralization. The administration and teaching must not be independent of the supervision, or the supervision is ineffective. The last legislature realizing this prohibited the formation of new associations. Department] VILLAGE AND SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 605 Another attempt to solve the rural-school problem is through con- solidation of large units. Although county superintendents are strongly in favor of consolidation and work for it, in Minnesota at least, con- solidation usually brings about a type of school that is beyond the direction of the county superintendent. In association we tried to carry the salient features of the better type of school to the children in the rural schools, but in consolidation we bring the rural child to the larger type of school. The advantage need not be discussed here. It is long past the experimental stage. In Minnesota by far the greater number of such schools are located in villages. It has meant an im- provement and an extension of the village school through unified co- operation with the rural people to the advantage of both village and country children. The tendency of consolidated districts in Minnesota, let me repeat, is to form independent local units. It will continue to be so as long as the better type of school employs administrators with training superior to that required of county superintendents. Although it will be some years, if ever, before we shall have consolidated schools everywhere--for topographical barriers are not easily overcome-it may be that eventually the village and the open-country consolidated school will eliminate the need of county administration and supervision. The third plan being tried out is the extension of the village district far beyond the limits of transportation. We have such a district with an area of over 2,000 square miles. The central school is maintained in the village, pupils within reasonable distance are transported, one-room or larger schools are erected where needed, isolated children are boarded. The rural work as well as that of the village is supervised. The entire district is a unit for purposes of taxation, organization, administration, and supervision. There is a line of established authority from the people through the board to the superintendent and from him to supervisors, principals, and teachers. Responsibility can be definitely fixed. Small wonder that we have rural people petitioning to be set into systems of that kind. In one county such a district now includes all but three of the rural schools . In another two such districts include all but twelve of over a hundred rural schools . The local superintendents have taken over the work that we expect the county superintendent to perform under the county-unit plan. I do not believe that we shall eliminate the county superintendent ; but movements of the kind I have described show that if we can't give better educational opportunities to the rural children through the county superintendent's office, the administration will come from some other source. And we shall see that when the rural people recover from the present economic depression the demand for better schools for their children will be irresistible. It is impossible to believe that half of the children of the nation, those of the cities and villages, will permanently 606 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education have educational opportunities superior to those of their country cousins. The tendency will be to raise the rural schools to the standards of efficiency of the village and city schools. Greater equality of educational opportunity is bound to come. It will come through the office of the county superintendent, if that office is given a force adequate to do the work. The county superintendent of the future must be selected by a county board from the nation as the field. He will have qualifications the same as those of city superintendents and will have equal authority. He will be able to formulate educational policies and to direct a staff consisting of supervisors, nurses, librarians, club-leaders, teachers, and clerks. Then the village schools as well as the rural will become, and willingly so, a part of the county unit. But if the office does not develop in the future more than in the past, then the smaller unit will solve the rural problem perhaps less effectively and less efficiently. But let me emphasize that improved conditions in rural education are destined to come, if not in one way then in another, because present conditions are neither just to the country boys and girls nor safe for the future stability and welfare of our nation. CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS IN MIDDLE WESTERN STATES GEORGE S. DICK, STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS. 1. In recent years the Middle West has been alive to better things for rural life. It has taken a prominent stand for the advancement of the education of the rural child and his people through the better ser- vice of many well-organized, consolidated schools. Perhaps it would be only fair to say that the states leading are Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, and the Dakotas. In these states it has been shown that where the real service of such school organization has been well rendered, other gearby places ask for similar service, and thus consolidated schools have increased most rapidly in numbers and influence where best known. In these states the consolidated school is recognized as probably the best means of solving the great problein of poor service commonly found in the weak one-room rural school. In this section the aim of a consolidated school is to be a centralized organization where not only the children but the people come together in a building that is not only a schoolhouse but also acommunity house, and the service is rendered in keeping with the Leaning of these two terms, school and community. In this building is found the latest and best of school architecture with complete equipment as to heat, light, ventila- tion, halls, rooms, libraries, laboratories, auditorium, gymnasium, rest- rooms, and toilets. The ground gives space for schoolhouse, teacherage, barn for vehicles of transportation, and a classified and equipped play- ground for children large and small. If the ground is sufficient, a Department] MIDDLE-WEST CONSOLIDATED SCHOOLS 607 park of ornamental and fruit trees and small shrubbery may be made useful for picnics and other gatherings and also as an object of study for the school classes . This school gives, or aims to give, full twelve years of school work covering elementary and high-school grades of the highest standard for the best interests of the rural child. It also aims to give the social- center service to the people of the entire community. This latter is given in form of courses of lectures, programs of entertainment and amusement, health study, libraries, and short courses suited to the needs and wishes of the people. 2. The following principles are recognized when a consolidated school is to be organized. (a) In the proposed district there must be taxable property suffi- cient to support well this kind of school without overburdening the people with taxation. (b) There must be population and school children enough to clas- sify and grade into this kind of school. (c) The territory and the center must be wisely and justly selected. The rights, advantages, and disadvantages, present and future, of all concerned, those who are excluded as well as those included, must be carefully considered. Nebraska two years ago enacted a wise law that districted the entire state for consolidation. In this way serious mis- takes are avoided. 3. Consolidation is favored for the following reasons : (a) The children of elementary grades receive better care and better instruction due to better material, equipment, and much better teaching. (b) It is the aim of strong consolidated schools to furnish a full, standardized, and well-equipped high-school course to every rural child while he lives at home, eats two meals each day at the family tabl sleeps at night under the best of all protection-the home roof-whi he continues under the advice, guidance, and inspiration of his safest, truest, and best friends he will ever meet--the members of his own family. Home ties should not be so early broken as must be done when children must leave home to attend high school. This should be America's slogan enlarged from the one "A high-school education for every American child." The lack of this opportunity deprives a large percentage of rural children from this American privilege. Even those who can afford to pay for it make a questionable sacrifice, not knowing the real result of four years away from home during these tender years, and when it so frequently occurs that after the child leaves home to go to high school he is never again in the home excepting as a visitor. It is necessary that these years be spent in the home if the child is to learn to serve 608 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Rural Education the home by good, hard work through which he will develop a love and devotion to the home which constitutes the first step in true pa- triotism. How can a young man serve and love this great country about which he knows so little when he has failed to serve and to be devoted to the home which he knows has done so much for him? Through the consolidated school the home continues its control of the young people and thus can more successfully guide to right citizenship by showing that work wins, that idleness results in failure, that honest toil is an honor, that to eat the bread of idleness is a positive disgrace. By aiding the home to retain this control and influence, the home, the unit of our democratic form of government, is strengthened in influence, and thus our government is exalted in power and efficiency. Twelve years of free public-school training being the recognized minimum right of education for every American child, it becomes the duty of nation, state, and county to see to it that this privilege be taken to every child, or that every child be brought to these school privileges, no matter where or under what conditions the child may be born. (c) The most effective service is rendered the community by build- ing up in every possible way the individual home in the many ways well known to social-service workers-lectures, programs of amusement and entertainment, short courses thus opening the doors and equipments of these expensive school buildings just as many days and evenings of the 365 as will best serve the people who by right of paying taxes as American citizens own the school plant. The legal school age should be so changed as to read from five years to one hundred years, thus making the school a real continuous service to all the people. (d) In this section in a few places there is being done some real work in teacher preparation by offering well-planned courses for the training of superintendents, principals, and special teachers for con- solidated schools. The most important step in this line of teacher- training is the proper selection of persons to be so trained. The quality of flour received from the mill is largely determined by the kind of wheat sent to the mill. So with the process of teacher preparation Teachers for these schools must have the right attitude toward country interests and a clear, definite knowledge of rural life and its content. To this must be added ability in leadership, not only of children in school, but of the people. The consolidated school soon changes a neighborhood into a community which is not only a territory of square miles, but a united people drawn together at a community center by common interests found in local market or trade interests, vocational, recreational, social, religious, educational, and by equality of school privileges. In the environment of this community in this kind of school will be found young people who will go on to higher institutions for educa Department) NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR CONSOLIDATION 609 tion and training, and then return again to take up the work as the strongest teachers and leaders for the future, much more successful consolidated school, because their hearts will be full of sympathy, not for, but with, the rural child, his parents, and the home and farm life. Under the influence of such leadership many more people will choose to continue a happy, successful life on a well-managed farm, the place of their most effective life- service. * * * * * A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR CONSOLIDATION MACY CAMPBELL, STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA Consolidation defined.-Consolidation means co-operation. It means reorganization on a scale large enough to secure the benfits of the principle that in union there is strength. It has as its goal the bring- ing together of the necessary factors to permit the organization of a full twelve-year school along the most modern lines, backed by taxable values enough to give adequate financial support and centering the educational interests of people enough to make possible real rural com- munity leadership and development. Advancement through replacement.-Consolidation is the suc- cessful means of replacing with a more potent educational organiza- tion the pioneer one-teacher rural schools which each year show more unmistakably their fundamental inability to meet, in the new era, the advancing needs of a population engaged in the science of production from the land and in the business of marketing their product by modern methods. Consolidation is a frank and successful attempt to bring to the children of the farms and farm centers full equality of educa- tional opportunity through organizations which develop the maximum of economic strength and conserve to the greatest possible extent that most important natural resource, the supply of really superior teachers. Equality of opportunity. - Lincoln described our American ex- periment as a nation dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Equality of opportunity is a basic American principle. The most important opportunity to keep open to the rising generation on an equal basis is the opportunity to get an education. Education opens the doors to all other opportunities. Equality of educational opportunity for the children who live on the farms and in the farm trading-centers means full twelve years of school privileges provided in the home school district plus the encouragement, enthusiasm, and socializing influences which come from numbers. The small one-teacher rural school does not contain within itself the possibilities of meeting this situation. The consolidated school of the proper size does contain the possibilities of meeting the situation squarely. By way of illustration, two adjoining townships in Black 610 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education Hawk County, Iowa, are equal in area and in agricultural conditions. One township maintains one-teacher rural schools, the other maintains a consolidated school. The lack of encouragement and enthusiasm and the inferior teaching in the township maintaining one-teacher rural schools permitted a large number of the young people of the township to drop out of school without completing the eighth grade. At the close of a recent school year, four girls had remained faithful and had completed the course offered by the eight-year schools of the township. During the same year, the encouragement and enthusiasm and the good teaching in the consolidated school in the adjoining township held prac- tically all of the young people of the township in school to complete the eighth grade. Thirty-four pupils, about equally divided between boys and girls, received their diplomas to enter the high school. The difference in the number of pupils continuing through high school was even more markedly in favor of the consolidated school. Surely there was not equality of educational opportunity in these adjoining town- ships. Maximum economic strength. While the world convalesces from the Great War, we are passing through a period of economic weakness . This is particularly true of communities engaged in the great basic industry of agriculture. In endeavoring to set up and maintain the proper standard of educational opportunity for their children, agricul- tural communities are in sore need of the increased strength which re- sults from a union of their forces. Lacking the increased economic strength which comes from a union of forces, many communities feel unable to provide more than eight years of educational opportunity for their children. A reorganization of the educational forces of rural communities into consolidated schools of the proper size offers the most direct and practicable means of developing their maximum econom- ic strength for the purpose of providing full twelve years of educa- tional opportunity. In addition to securing the maximum economic strength, consolidation distributes the load equally over all taxable values in the reorganized district rather than permitting it to remain high on the backs of the people in the country towns and villages who have been straining every nerve to provide a twelve-year school for the children of the community. Conserving teachers. Many educators will agree with H. G. Wells that the number of persons having the necessary talents and dis- position to make it possible to develop them into superior teachers is limited. This number will be too few to supply the demand when twelve years of educational opportunity shall have been provided for all chil- dren in the nation unless care be taken to conserve this important natural resource by assigning to each teacher the maximum number of pupils compatible with good teaching. The one-teacher school with Department] NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR CONSOLIDATION 611 small attendance is very wasteful of teacher resources. For example, before consolidation at Tipton, Cedar County, Iowa, forty teachers were required in the schools of the town and in the eighteen country districts concerned. These country districts provided but eight years of school privileges. After consolidation, thirty-two teachers were able to provide full twelve years of educational privilege for all of the children from the country and town alike. The consolidation effected a saving of eight teachers, provided twelve years of school privileges for the country children instead of eight years, and provided better teach- ing conditions for all those employed in the school. Purpose of national program. To secure equality of educational opportunity, to place the educational machinery of country communities on the strongest economic foundation, to conserve the supply of capable teachers, and to provide all the other advantages that flow from the well developed country community school, a national program should be inaugurated looking to the consolidation as rapidly as feasible of all one-teacher rural schools so situated as to make consolidation prac- ticable. Consolidation may reach 90 per cent farm population. Your speaker estimates that with the gradual improvement in roads and vehicles now under way, and with the gradual improvement in the economic strength of the farm population growing out of more scientific production and more thoroughly organized marketing, the time is not far distant when it will be possible and desirable to include 90 per cent of the people actively engaged in farming within consolidated school dis- tricts. In states fortunately situated, like Iowa, practically 100 per cent of the farm population may be successfully included within con- solidated districts. In those states where population is sparse and pro- duction low because of semiarid, marshy, or mountainous conditions, some one-teacher schools are so situated as not to permit of con- solidation. These schools, which serve but a small fraction of the farm population of the United States, should be made as good as possible by the use of funds secured through state or national taxation. Where there is a will there is a way.- When confronted with a nation-wide program for consolidating rural schools, some will say, "It can't be done." Others will say, "Where there is a will there is a way." All who have had an opportunity to observe good, standard consolidated schools in operation alongside of one-teacher rural schools for the past few years have been convinced that the old rural school does not contain within itself the possibilities of meeting the needs of the new day, and that the standard consolidated school does contain within itself all these possibilities. Hence, the consolidation of schools in the United States is bound to continue on a national scale. Where- ever the will exists a way will be found. 612 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Rural Education Chief obstacles. The chief obstacles to be overcome are poor roads, financial difficulties, and a state of mind on the part of many farmers and some educators and lawmakers. Roads and motor vehicles are being improved a little every year. Some motor trucks used to trans- port children to school nowadays are so sturdy and dependable that they make their way successfully through roads which a few years ago were considered impassible for motor vehicles. There are now 385,089 miles of country road in the United States surfaced with pavement, gravel, or shale. From 21,000 to 25,000 additional miles of road are being surfaced yearly. In addition, hundreds of thousands of miles of country roads are now brought to permanent grade and properly drained each year. In all agricultural communities which are reason- ably populous and productive the consolidated district can be made large enough to meet its financial problems successfully. Patience and good leadership will work out the problems of transportation and finan- cial support. The chief obstacle remaining is a state of mind. Removing the obstacle. A nation-wide effort should be made to remove the state of mind that withholds from farm children in Ameri- ca their birthright-equality of educational opportunity. This effort should be directed primarily to leading the farm people to understand the advantages of consolidation. The farm people to a very large ex- tent hold the purse strings and determine the course of action in their educational affairs. They often influence to a very large degree the at- titude of legislators, county superintendents, members of state depart- ments of public instruction, and school officers on the question of con- solidation. These farm people are on the whole intelligent and dis- criminating. They want information. It should be carried to them by the following program : 1. Encouraging rural people to visit some good consolidated schools in operation whenever possible, to see for themselves the educa- tional advantages offered and to talk with patrons concerning cost and transportation. 2. Addresses, illustrated with lantern slides or motion pictures whenever possible, showing what other communities are doing to im- prove school facilities for rural children through consolidation. These addresses to be given by members of state departments of public in- struction, county superintendents, members of college faculties who are interested in better rural schools, county farm agents, rural pastors, Y.M.C.A. workers, and others interested in the improvement of rural education. 3. A continuous series of articles in all farm papers and school journals of the nation. These articles should be descriptive of the best things being done in consolidated schools in other communities, they should be illustrated with photographs whenever possible, and should Department) NATIONal progRAM FOR consoliDATION 613 appear at such intervals as not to grow tiresome, but rather to produce a cumulative effect. 4. Good bulletins on the consolidated school, such as those recently published by the Department of Public Instruction of the state of Il- linois, by the Iowa State Teachers Association, by the Firestone Ship, by Truck Bureau, by Iowa State Teachers College, should be given the widest possible circulation among farm people. 5. Inspirational educational conferences for rural people, such as have been conducted by J. L. McBrien of the United States Bureau of Education so successfully in the past, should be continued and in- creased in numbers. 6. Co-operative contact should be established and maintained with the American Farm Bureau Federation so that facts concerning con- solidated schools gathered through educational channels may be dis- tributed directly to farmers through farm-bureau channels . 7. All institutions preparing persons to teach in rural schools should give such full information concerning consolidation that the rural teach- er may be able and disposed to carry the facts to the people of the rural district served. 8. Capable, well-prepared persons should be encouraged to go into the service of rural children as superintendents and teachers of consolidated schools. Nothing will build up the prestige of the consol- idated schools more quickly than first-class teaching. 9. The new National Journal of Rural Education should provide a department for gathering, in co-operation with the United States Bureau of Education, the facts about progress in consolidated schools through the United States, and for distributing these facts to the workers in the cause of consolidation everywhere. 10. This campaign should be conducted on a national scale with the same courage, enthusiasm, and persistency with which Horace Mann •conducted his famous campaign for improved educational facilities for the children of the state of Massachusetts. As concrete examples of educational campaigns to reach the farmer directly with information about consolidation may be mentioned the excellent series of articles in the Nebraska Farmer during the past two years written by R. P. Crawford after a careful personal investigation of consolidated schools in a large number of states. A. B. Macdonald of the Country Gentleman investigated a considerable number of consol- idated schools and presented them to the readers of that farm journal. During the past two years your speaker has prepared fifteen articles on consolidation, most of them illustrated, for Wallace's Farmer, Success- ful Farming, The Iowa Homestead, The Iowa Farmer, and the Country Gentleman. No doubt many others have prepared informational articles 614 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Education on consolidation for farm papers which have not come under your speaker's notice. Among helpful bulletins issued recently on the consolidated school may be mentioned one by the State Department of Public Instruction of Illinois which sets out very effectively consolidated school condi- tions in Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, and Illinois. A bulletin by County Super- intendent E. B. Hodges, of Butler County, Iowa, giving the personal opinions of 1,400 farmers who had tried out consolidation, did excel- lent service. This may now be secured from the Iowa State Teachers Association, Des Moines. The demand for information along this line may be illustrated by the fact that an issue of 30,000 bulletins on consolidation by the Iowa State Teachers College was exhausted in one year's time. Lee L. Driver, formerly a county superintendent in Indiana, now director of the Bureau of Rural Education, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania ; C. G. Sargeant, of Colorado Agricultural College; E. A. Duke, of the State Department of Oklahoma, and many others have assisted greatly 1 in spreading information about what others are doing in the matter of consolidation through illustrated lectures to farmers, school officers, and teachers. Your speaker has, during the past six years, delivered 245 illustrated talks on the development of consolidated schools in Iowa, reaching directly the farmers, school officers, or teachers in some ninety of the ninety-nine counties of the state and in some adjoining states. In addition, five other members of the department of rural education of the State Teachers College have given numerous addresses on this topic. For high-pressure work and continuous performance in spreading information about consolidation probably few have sur- passed the record made by J. A. Woodruff, George S. Dick, and George A. Brown, during the periods they served as state inspectors of con- solidated schools in Iowa. Rural- school teachers who understand the advantages of consolida- tion can help greatly in a nation-wide campaign to spread information through rural communities of the United States. The Iowa State Teachers College takes pains to see that the one thousand persons, ap- proximately, who go out from the college each year for service in rural and consolidated schools have been given full and accurate information on the development of consolidation in the state. Doubtless teacher training institutions in other states are doing the same thing with very helpful results. National program centered in " Journal of Rural Education ."-A national program for consolidation should gather together into a united front all the various and widely scattered efforts to spread information about the advantages of school consolidation. New standards in con- solidated schools are constantly being developed and new success achiev Department] NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR consolidATION i 615 ed along the far-flung battle line. Why should not the Journal of Rural Education sponsored by this department carry a section devoted to a na- tional program for organizing and developing consolidated schools ? Here such helpful information as might be gleaned from the National Bureau of Education, state departments of public instruction, successful county superintendents, departments of rural education in colleges and normal schools, the American Farm Bureau and other farm organiza- tions, and writers on consolidation, might be gathered together and dis- tributed to workers in the cause of consolidation everywhere. Plans should be laid to carry this information as directly as possible to the farm population. The farmers hold the key to the situation. We are all much influenced by the actions of others. When it becomes evident that every- body is doing it, even those large landowners who have no children of school age and who usually oppose school improvement will join in the movement to consolidate the schools. When the farmers come to accept consolidation as the solution of their school problems, school officers and members of the legislature will get in line. Proper standards determined by experience. When the people have been led to form a consolidated school district, the accumulated ex- perience of the most successful consolidated schools should be set be- fore them as a guide in developing their school along the most modern lines and in such a manner that it will fit into a country-life setting. Such states as Indiana, with 1,000 consolidated schools, Ohio with 950, Iowa with 430, Minnesota with 255, Oklahoma with 184, South Dakota with 150, Colorado with 79, Kansas, Utah, Washington, Nebraska, Illinois, Massachusetts, Louisiana, and others where good consolidated schools are developed should contribute out of their experience many valuable suggestions. As the new consolidations being formed fix the school organization of the community for fifty years or more, great care should be exercised to avoid the small, weak consolidations and to organ- ize wherever possible on a basis strong enough to meet efficiently the demands of the future. Better make some sacrifice in the beginning on the transportation routes that seem too long, than to fasten a small, weak school on the community for fifty years. The district. The consolidated school placed before the people in a national program should require a school district sufficiently large to provide: 1. Children enough to fill twelve grades ; to permit a well-organ- ized teaching force; to make possible special student organizations ; to encourage good supervision and leadership. 2. Taxable values enough to provide the proper teaching force, buildings, equipment, grounds, and transportation without an exces- sively high tax rate. 616 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Rural Education 3. People enough to give the power and enthusiasm of numbers to community undertakings. The teachers. Good leadership and good teaching are necessary to the proper development of consolidated schools after they have been organized. The teacher is the most important factor. The superin- tendent and high-school teachers employed should have four years of preparation beyond the high school. Teachers in the elementary grades should have at least two years of preparation beyond the high school. The superintendent and the teachers should be so schooled in rural-life leadership that they will have an intelligent and sympathetic under- standing of the relation of their work to its country-life setting. De- partments of rural education in college and normal schools throughout the nation should turn their attention to the preparation of superin- tendents and teachers for consolidated schools. The Iowa State Teach- ers College has now developed special courses for the preparation of teachers for consolidated schools. A well-patronized two-year course provides teachers for the elementary grades, and a four-year course granting the B.A. degree provides superintendents and high-school teachers for these rural-community schools. The rural-life setting of these courses is worked out in four large consolidated schools associated with the college . - Horace Mann developed a state- Horace Mann in Massachusetts. wide program of school improvement for the state of Massachus- etts. Fearlessly and untiringly he drove it home to the people. By all the means he could devise he led them to accept it by first leading them to understand the need for it. Cubberley says of him : Public men of all classes-lawyers, clergymen, college professors, literary men, teachers were laid under tribute and sent forth over the State explaining to the people the need for a reawakening of educational interest in Massachu- setts. Every year Mr. Mann organized a "campaign." It resembled somewhat the recent national campaign to explain to our people the meaning and moral significance of our participation in the world-war in Europe. So successful was he, and so ripe was the time for such a movement, that he not only started a great common-school revival in Massachusetts which led to the regeneration of the schools there, but one which was felt and which influenced development in every Northern State. A national campaign in America.-America is now ready for a campaign on a national scale, conducted on lines similiar to those used by Horace Mann in Massachusetts, and having as its goal the bring- ing of the home of every farm child within the confines of a consol- idated-school district which provides a well-organized, well-administer- ed, and well-taught modern twelve-vear school adapted to its country- life setting. Let us be about it. Department of School Administration SECRETARY'S MINUTES ATLANTIC CITY MEETING OFFICERS President-GEORGE W. GERWIG, secretary board of education ..... Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-President-H. A. SMITH, president board of education, Salt Lake City, Utah. Secretary-WILLIAM C. BRUCE, editor, Bruce Publishing Co.......Milwaukee, Wis. The Department of School Administration met on Thursday morning, March 3, in the Rose Room of the Hotel Traymore. President George W. Gerwig presided. A paper on GOVERNMENT SUPPORT FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS was read by William C. Bagley, of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. A paper on EQUAL PARTNERS AND EQUAL CONTRIBUTIONS was read by Marcus Aaron, member of the board of education of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The meeting then adjourned. The second session of the Department took the form of a round table, in charge of the Committee on Standardization of Schoolhouse Planning and Construction. The meeting was held at 2:30 o'clock in the afternoon, in the Rose Room of the Traymore Hotel. The following speakers addressed the meeting : T. Alfred Fleming, director of conservation, National Board of Fire Underwriters, New York City; J. Albert Robinson, chairman of the committee on Fire Prevention, American Society of Safety Engineers, Providence, R. I.; S. A. Challman, state inspector of school buildings and santitation of the Depart- ment of Education, St. Paul, Minn.; Frank Irving Cooper, architect, Boston, Mass.; and John R. Healy, American Fire Prevention Bureau, New York, N. Y. The chief topic discussed was safety to life in schoolhouse planning. The second part of the meeting was devoted to a discussion of a compre- hensive school building and was based on the plans for a new schoolhouse under erection at Winchester, Va. The subject was introduced by Superin- tendent F. E. Clerk, of Winchester, Va. The discussion was continued by James O. Betelle, architect, Newark, N. J.; Dwight H. Perkins, Chicago, Ill.; C. B. J. Snyder, architect, Board of Education, New York, N. Y. The sub- ject was also discussed briefly by Stanley Macomber, of the National Steel Fabricator's Association, and Allen P. Keith, superintendent of schools, New Bedford, Mass. A paper on SCHOOL BUILDING COSTS was then read by William B. Ittner, architect, St. Louis, Mo. The meeting was closed with a paper on ECONOMY IN LAYING OUT AND PLANNING ELEMENTARY AND INTERMEDIATE- SCHOOL BUILD- INGS, by Superintendent S. O. Hartwell, St. Paul, Minn. WILLIAM C. BRUCE, Secretary 617 618 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ School Administration PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS FEDERAL AID FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Federal aid for public schools is needed for several reasons. In the first place, local revenues are almost everywhere inadequate and in many places the limits of local taxation have already been reached. State levies draw in general upon the same resources as do local levies in that they are based upon real estate and personal-property values. The demands upon local and state taxes for worthy purposes other than education are also heavy, and equitable economies are difficult to effect. The federal government, on the other hand, through the income and excess-profits taxes, has access to sources of revenue that few of the states have tapped. In the federal government, too, certain economies are possible and some are clearly predictable. An agree- ment among the great nations to reduce naval expenditures would at once set free in our country more than enough money to place our public schools upon a sound economic basis. Such an agreement may be made. Even if it should fail, there are economies that could be effected without taking money from existing federal enterprises that are positive and constructive in character. In the second place, the federal government has a stake and an interest in the public school that not only justifies but demands national coöperation in the support of state and local education. It cannot and should not control education within the states, but it can and should promote education in the only thoroughly effective way that the Con- stitution permits namely through leadership and financial aid. It should do this, not out of charity to the states, but primarily for its own collective welfare, safety, and progress. It has learned through a costly lesson that illiteracy is not simply an individual handicap, or a local handicap, or a state handicap. It is a national menace. Ithas learned through a costly lesson that un-American ideals and standards among any portion of our people threaten the integrity of the nation as a whole. It has learned that poor health and physical deficiencies clearly and indisputably reduce the nation's strength. All of these deficiencies in our national life can be corrected on a nation-wide scale in one way and one way only-and that is through a nation-wide improvement and enlargement of public education. More than two years have passed since the public became aroused by the findings of the military draft to the shortcomings of our educa- tional system. Sporadic efforts have been made by the states and the Department] FEDERAL AID FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS 619 local communities to correct the shortcomings, but these efforts have not affected the country as a whole. Where the situation was worse four years ago, it is still most deplorable. I have within five months visited American public schools taught by teachers who were last year themselves only sixth-grade pupils. I have visited public schools in which the English language is heard only as a foreign tongue-schools in which all of the instruction is in a foreign language -and in which there are pupils whose parents and grandparents and great-grandparents were born within the territorial limits of the United States and yet who will go from those schools unable to read, write, or even speak the language of our country. The obligation of the nation is clear in this case. It is no less clear in the Americanization of immigrants who enter the country under federal law and whom the states cannot exclude even if they would. It is no less clear in the education of adult illiterates who may move freely from one state to another and from the handicap of whom no state under the Constitution can now protect itself. Alienism and illiteracy are national problems just as fundamentally as they are state and local problems. And if this is true, the promotion of public education throughout the states is a national duty, for only through adequate public schools can alienism and illiteracy be per- manently eradicated. Alienism beyond the first generation of immigrants is primarily an elementary-school problem. The cities in which the immigrants con- gregate have been bearing the burden in the past and many of their public-school systems have accomplished a veritable miracle of trans- formation. And yet they are handicapped by foreign-language elemen- tary schools over which neither the community nor the state has any control. Many states have laws requiring the English language to be the basic language of instruction in the elementary schools, whether public or private. In no state, in so far as I can learn, can these laws be effectively enforced for private schools. This again is a national menace. To my certain knowledge some of these private foreign- language schools have deliberately inculcated a divided loyalty. I have seen a foreign-language textbook extensively used in these schools, in which this doctrine was proclaimed to fourth-grade pupils : "Your first loyalty is to the country of your fathers ; your second loyalty is to the United States." Can the nation as a nation protect itself against so insidious an attack upon its integrity ? It cannot as a nation require that the English language be the basic language of instruction in the elementary schools. But it can offer subventions to the states for public education on con- dition that the states themselves make this requirement. 620 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration If alienism is a problem chiefly of the urban schools, illiteracy is a problem primarily of the rural schools. Five-sixths of all of the native-born adult illiteracy is in the rural districts. It exists primarily because the rural school is grossly inadequate to its task. It will always be inadequate to its task until the rural-teaching service has been placed upon a stable, recognized, and permanent basis. It will always be inadequate to its task until the ideal that the National Education Association has set before the people-a competent teacher for every classroom in the land-has been measurably realized. What are the objections to federal aid for public education ? Taking the Smith-Towner Bill as a text, it is well to review briefly the objec- tions that have been urged against this measure. First, it is said that a law based on the provisions of this bill would be unconstitutional. This objection can be disposed of very quickly. Federal aid for public education in the states is a policy that antedates the Constitution. It was embodied in the Land Ordinance of the Continental Congress of 1785. It has been embodied in a series of laws extending in an unbroken series through the period of our national life. Against these laws there has not been a single adverse court decision. If the Smith-Towner Bill is unconstitutional, the Smith-Hughes Act is unconstitutional ; the Smith-Lever Act is uncon- stitutional ; the Adams and Nelson Amendments to the Morrill Acts and the Morrill Acts themselves are unconstitutional ; the acts donating swamp lands and salt lands to the states for educational purposes are unconstitutional ; and the enabling acts of two-thirds of the states are unconstitutional . In the second place, it is urged that there is an injustice in levying taxes in proportion to the wealth of the country and distributing the proceeds in proportion to educational needs. Federal funds for public schools would mean, of course, that the richer communities would pay into the federal treasury more money than they would receive back through the subventions for the support of their own schools. It would mean, also, that the poorer communities would receive more money than they paid. This objection can be answered in two ways. In the first place, the justice of equalizing educational opportunities can be demonstrated. In the second place, it can be shown that it is to the distinct advantage of the richer districts to contribute to educational development in the poorer districts. The justice of equalization need not long detain us. We may say to the rich centers : "You draw your wealth from the rest of the country. Without the people to buy your manufactured goods and supply your raw materials, you would not prosper-you could not even Department] FEDERAL AID FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS 621 exist. In justice you should send some of your profits back to the people who constitute your markets and your sources of supply." This appeal is based on justice; but when a man is legally in posses- sion of wealth he is not likely to feel very severe qualms of conscience as to the source of that wealth. " True,” he will say, "we need the food and the raw materials from the outlying districts, but we do not admit an obligation to help these districts to educate their children. We are spending a goodly sum on our own school system. We are not neglecting our own children, and charity, you know, begins at home. We are willing to pay taxes where we can expect to receive a benefit. We do not agree that taxation should be merely a means of redistribut- ing wealth." The argument from justice, then, while morally sound and quite in harmony with accepted principles of taxation, is not likely to make a strong appeal to the people who bear the heaviest burden of taxation. It is important, I believe, to show that, while the richer districts will pay more than they receive back in actual money, they do not pay more than they will receive back in clear benefits . In what way will the rich commercial and industrial centers of the northeastern states, which pay so large a proportion of the income and excess-profits taxes, benefit by improved schools in the poorer sec- tions of the country ? In the first place, the prosperity of these favored centers is directly dependent upon the prosperity of their tributary areas their "hinter- land." It has been clearly demonstrated that the most important factor in production is trained intelligence. The higher the level of trained intelligence among the people of the "hinterland," the greater will be their prosperity and the greater the prosperity of the centers which constitute their outlet markets and their sources of manufactured goods. For New York to contribute to the educational development of the South and the Middle West is just as sound a business proposi- tion as for New York to contribute as it does now to the support of the Department of Agriculture; it is just as sound a business proposition as for the International Harvester Company to spend part of its profits in supporting an educational department to instruct the farmers who buy its implements. All this is neither charity nor confiscation ; it is good business. In the second place, the nation's laws are made by a Congress that represents the various sections not in proportion to their wealth, but in proportion chiefly to their population. Good laws depend upon good legislators and good legislators depend upon intelligent electorates. The representatives from the "hinterland" outnumber the representa- tives from the centers. It is a wise policy of self-protection on the 622 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration part of the centers to stimulate the development of good schools throughout the country as a whole. In precise proportion as the nation becomes a unit politically, economically, industrially, it becomes a unit educationally ; and the failure to recognize the educational interdepend- ence of the several states has operated and still operates to hinder the full development of their political and industrial unity. In the third place, the population is extremely mobile. Many of the children of the "hinterland" who are now limited in their school facilities will in another decade be residents of the centers. In Chicago in 1910, 40 per cent of the adult population represented persons born and reared in the rural districts. Again, it is a sound policy of self- protection for these centers to contribute to the improvement of the outlying schools. These three arguments for "equalizing educational opportunities" leave out of account the essential justice of giving to every American child a fair chance by providing for him a good school and a good teacher. They are an appeal to the rich communities solely and simply from the standpoint of their own welfare. Add to these the basic argument of fair play to all of the nation's children, and the case for equalization is overwhelming. A third objection to federal aid for public schools is the fear that such aid may ultimately lead to the centralization of the support and control of education in the federal government. The control of local and state education by the federal government would, of course, be unconstitutional. The Smith-Towner Bill goes even farther and explicitly inhibits any indirect control by a provision which states that the Secretary of Education shall not have the power to impose regulations of any kind upon the schools. There will even be no inspection such as that provided by the Smith-Hughes Act. The Smith-Towner Bill returns to the principle of good faith between the states and the nation. It requires only for certain of its subventions the provision of a minimum school year of twenty-four weeks and the enactment of a law requiring the English language to be the basic language of instruction in the elementary schools. There are those who admit the virtue of the bill in thus guarding against centralization, but who still fear that federal aid will eventually lead to a centralized control. There is, of course, no way to predict the future except through a study of the past. The federal govern- ment has with great success promoted many enterprises that lie outside of its sphere of direct control. In no one of these cases, whether it be agriculture or commerce or public health or child welfare, has it tended toward direct control. The historic precedent is clear. There is a sharp division between the executive functions and the non-executive Department] SAFETY TO LIFE IN SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING 623 functions of the federal government. There is no evidence that func- tions of the latter type tend to merge into the former type. Every evidence indeed is quite to the contrary. Through money appro- priations, through leadership, and through service of scientists and other specialized workers, the federal government has promoted agriculture and commerce and industry in the several states. It has not con- trolled agriculture. There has been a great deal of protest against the Smith-Hughes Act and its administration. Practically all of those in our profession who object to the Smith-Towner Bill do so because of their irritation over the Smith-Hughes methods. It is recognized that these methods are not satisfactory to school people. They have been rigorously guarded against in the Smith-Towner Bill . In our criticism of Smith-Hughes methods, however, we are likely to overlook the great good that has come from the other national acts in aid of education-from the Smith-Lever Act the wise provisions of which, through the county agents and other features of the States' Relations Service, are working a veritable transformation in our rural life; from the Morrill Acts which gave us our magnificent system of land-grant colleges ; from the early public land appropriation which laid the firm foundations of our public-school systems in the middle western and far western states. It is in the spirit and purpose of those beneficent laws that the Smith-Towner Bill has been drawn . SAFETY TO LIFE IN SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING T. ALFRED FLEMING, DIRECTOR OF CONSERVATION OF THE NATIONAL BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRITERS, NEW YORK, N. Y. Only those who have been called upon to pass through the harrowing experiences of a school fire, with its attendant loss of life and personal and physical injury, have ever awakened to the real responsibility rest- ing upon every leader in our school life. I recall the dreadful scenes of the burning of the Collinwood school as a fearful nightmare. I can see those bodies piled up like cordwood just as they had fallen at the rear entry ... .Will America really learn this lesson ? One hundred seventy-three helpless and dependent children and three faithful teachers sacrificed on the altar of carelessness. Just a faulty installation of the heating system, not any worse than in many of our buildings today. Just a little polish (highly combustible) kept on the floor to make the custodian's duties easier. This spread the fire and cut off the front exit . The rear doors, which were hinged to swing inward, by forgetfulness were left locked. What a price they paid for a lesson on proper con- struction and maintenance of educational property ! 624 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Administration How soon we forget lessons like this. Today, by results recently tabulated, it is found that 90 per cent of our school buildings are in more hazardous condition than the Collinwood School when it burned. Reports from the Actuarial Bureau of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, show that we are burning an average of over five schools * * * * for every day of the year. The proper place to eliminate this dreadful waste of life and prop- erty value is in the education of our children of the next generation, and by surrounding them, during such training period, with the best example of proper building construction and maintenance. Board of education. We should begin by selecting men for every board of education who will assume the physical as well as the financial responsibility. Too many such members have no children in the schools, therefore no thought of their responsibility for public safety. The man who allows his election to occur, who fails to use the opportunity afforded for improving physical conditions in supplying protection, ought to be called upon to resign. He has gone so low in public service that he has to reach up to touch bottom. Therefore, first secure a real board who will standardize along safety lines. Structure. In new buildings there is no excuse for the absence of correct fireproof construction. The United States can boast of very few architects who are really specialists in school construction from the standpoint of safety and economic efficiency. Don't waste the people's money on the ordinary so-called home-builder, when it is possible to have the experience of men who have spent their lives in the study of school economy. The two most important items in planning a new building are the exits and the heating plant. The installation of the fire and smoke-proof stairways eliminates the need of outside escapes. These are located with proper relation to the rooms they serve, and are used daily as regular exits and also supply a maximum of safety in emergency. The heating plant should be placed outside the building, if necessary attached, but separated by satisfactory fireproof construc- tion. Remove the heating plant, and you eliminate 80 per cent of the hazard in proper new construction. Maintenance. Our greatest problem comes with the antiquated structures built years ago. Every possible hazard has apparently been installed and each grows worse by unsatisfactory maintenance. Cus- todians of school property should be required to take a rigid examin- ation in "safety work" before being placed in charge of the property which endangers thousands of children's lives. The first hazard of old building construction is in the location of the heating units and coal bins underneath the hallways or classrooms. The heating room should Department] SAFETY TO LIFE IN SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING 625 at once be made fireproof, with a ceiling of at least fire resistive material sufficient to retard fire for one hour. This room should be cut off from the rest of the building by standard fire doors. The next hazard is generally found in the custodian's room where you almost always find the elements of spontaneous ignition in every oily rag or dustless mop used for cleaning purposes. Oils, varnishes, and gasoline frequently abound here. The electric current is found to be a much-misunderstood cause of disaster. Unauthorized extensions are made to the original wiring, overloading the circuits so that they heat and short circuit. In a new up-to-date structure was found, a few days ago, seven pieces of large wire in place of a like number of fuses which had been blown out by overloaded currents. Never allow an extension unless it is installed by an expert electrician. Escapes. Only escapes easily accessible to all rooms should be al- lowed. These should be built so far away from the building that fire bursting from the windows will not endanger the descent of children. I once saw eleven persons picked up dead on a fire escape which was built to cross two windows from which the fire protruded. Wire glass and metal sash on these would have held back the fire until all persons had escaped to safety. I do not look with favor on the ordinary so- called escape built like an upturned boiler with a spiral slide inside. With a twenty-eight room school in session, I found three of these locked, with padlocks on the outside of the exit doors at the bottom and the keys lost for over four months. Can you imagine the horror of a fire in that structure only to roast the bodies in the escapes ? Yet this is a frequent occurence, with this type of escape. Sprinkler protection. It is my firm belief that the automatic sprink- ler equipment supplies the best protection for the basement of all school property. Over 75 per cent of school fires originate in the basement. These could be controlled and extinguished by a sprinkler system, with- out the loss of either property or life . Fire protection education .--The great need of today is for a definite course of training in all public and high schools on fire prevention and protection, construction, and conservation. The manual entitled Safe- guarding the Home Against Fire; prepared by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, for the Department of Education, is now being used in many states as a special aid to the general study. The results there- from have been exceptionally good. Why not join in the great coöpera- tive movement, involving all business and educational interests, which is now on in almost every state, so that the present and future gener- ations may save the myriads of lives and millions of property which bring sorrow, heartaches, distress, loss, high living costs and which continually undermine our civilization. 626 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( School Administration J. ALBERT ROBINSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE INSPECTION AND SERVICE DEPARTMENT OF THE GRINNELL COMPANY, PROVIDENCE, R. I. The value of good construction is universally recognized. We are all familiar with the more common types of construction and building materials in use. The several types of construction which are being developed by the steel industry are not yet so well known. It is of very great interest, in view of the high cost of building, to learn that, at only a slightly increased cost over that of ordinary construction, the most hazardous portions of the school building may be segregated or cut off by the use of a steel lumber fire-safe first floor. In floors of this type, light steel lumber joists are supported on roll steel beams, bridged laterally with steel bands, the metal lath supporting the plaster of the ceiling and the concrete fill of the floor above. Various methods are used for supporting steel lumber joists on structural beams. Steel lum- ber joists may support a wooden floor laid on nailing strips securely fastened to the joist with concrete fill, or concrete slab may constitute the floor. ¹ Automatic fire detection . With the time at our disposal it will be possible to discuss only the modern method of automatic fire detection, touching a moment upon the subject of exits and devoting the remain- der of the time to the predominating method of fire extinguishment, automatic sprinkler protection. Proper fire drills in schools have been the means of preventing many catastrophies. An approved alarm system, intelligently operated and fully understood, is an essential part of any arrangement of fire drills. Upon the prompt notification of fire depends the efficiency of the fire drills. An automatic means of giving such notification may be had by the use of a thermostat, or sentinel. 2 Automatic fire alarms and fire drills may have their value more or less nullified by poorly designed buildings as regards exits. Every schoolroom should have at least two independent means of exit, of ample size to permit the entire school being emptied in two or three minutes at the most. The horizontal exit is the best arrangement and can easily be provided in new buildings without great additional expense, and in many instances it may be readily built into old buildings. 1Mr. Robinson illustrated this type of construction by showing slides giving details of pressed steel joists, and stated that eleven-inch and twelve-inch joists of this type can be used for spans as great as twenty-six feet under ordinary schoolhouse loading, of forty to sixty pounds per square foot. A modern type of sensitive thermostat was illustrated by several views and discussed in detail by Mr. Robinson. He stated that an interesting feature of the sentinel shown was that it gives visual indication when it has operated in the form of a small bulb of solder which appears in the center of the thermostat. He also cautioned his audience that only a system of thermostats wired on a closed circuit system should be considered in order that any derangement of the circuit may give a local or central station trouble alarm. Department] SAFETY TO LIFE IN SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING 627 All doors provided should be adequate for the number of occupants and, with the possible exception of individual classroom doors and doors on fire walls, should swing with the travel. Doors should never be bolted during school hours except by means of approved panic bolts. Automatic sprinklers. There is now a pretty generally understood method of protecting buildings of even wooden construction and render- ing life reasonably safe. This is the automatic sprinkler. 3 It is espe- cially suited to buildings already constructed and which could not be made safe in any other way without costly changes. Also, contrary to the notions of some people, automatic sprinklers can be installed in a school without unfavorably affecting the appearance of the rooms. A sprinkler equipment should not provide the excuse for frail or combustible construction. Every schoolhouse should, first, be properly built, as nearly fireproof as possible, taking into consideration its size and the funds available for building purposes. An efficient automatic alarm device should be provided. And, finally, a complete automatic sprinkler system should be required by law, at least in all basements, workshops, and other hazardous places. S. A. CHALLMAN, STATE INSPECTOR OF BUILDINGS AND SANITATION, ST . PAUL, MINN . We have two things to consider when we speak of safety to life in our school buildings ; first, how to obtain means for safety in old build- ings, and second, how to plan buildings we are now constructing or about to construct so as to make them safe. In the case of old build- ings, we first of all need to consider how well the building is adapted to the purposes it serves or might serve. It is a question whether a build- ing already constructed is of such a character as to make it worth while to spend any great amount of money upon it, in order to protect it from destruction by fire. I realize, that when I am saying this some of you are naturally thinking that life in a building poorly adapted to its pur- poses is just as valuable as life in a building well adapted to its purposes. I grant that this is true, but I contend that it is not advisable to take the same precautions in all types of old buildings. If we are looking mainly to safety to life and not to destruction of property, we can overcome the danger to life largely by putting in proper stairways. The Mr. Robinson showed a number of colored diagrams and photographs which illustrated in a way readily grasped by the layman the manner in which automatic sprinklers operate. One view was of a schoolhouse with a side removed, showing sprinkler heads installed in every nook and cranny in what would otherwise be a veritable fire trap. He described in a simple way the system of piping, and made clear to the school men the difference between wet-pipe and dry-pipe systems and the operation of automatic sprinkler alarm devices. The most impressive views were those showing an actual fire test made in a Cleveland school which was equipped with automatic sprinklers. Kindling for a fire was prepared and a match applied. The first view showed a vigorous fire under way. The second view showed the automatic sprinkler in operation and illustrated how the spray from each overlapped and drenched the ceiling above and the floor below. 628 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration fireproof stairway, or fireproof tower, as it was termed by one of the preceding speakers, located so that it can be readily reached, and dupli- cated as often as the enrolment demands, gives a reasonably certain guaranty of protection to life. The old buildings that were constructed before our present standards were adopted fail in so many particulars to meet the requirements of our educational program today that it is a serious question whether we ought to try to continue their use much longer. Anywhere you go in the United States you will find buildings that have served as school- houses for fifty years or more. Even in our western states this is true. It is quite evident that we are still using buildings that have long since rendered service commensurate with the investment and ought not to be continued in use much longer. We need to agitate the construction of new buildings, buildings adapted to our modern needs and buildings so erected that human life within them is safe. One important consideration is the height of buildings. The one-story building was planned in the first place, I think, to insure safety of life. The one-story building, I anticipate has been built in almost every state of the Union just on this account. We have a number of them in Minnesota. This type of building can be constructed as cheaply today, and in some instances even more cheaply, than a higher building. Just recently a contract for a one-story school was let in a village just outside of Minneapolis where the cost per cubic foot on the contracts let was twenty-five cents. The building is well planned and is of fireproof construction throughout except that the roof is wood joist construction. I believe we ought to bring to the attention of the public the ad- vantages of fireproof buildings. So often people have the idea that fireproof buildings are too expensive and cost much more than other construction. This is in reality an open question, when it is considered that a schoolhouse must be a safe place in which to train our children. I doubt whether we have any data at the present time which show that fireproof construction is any higher than any other first-class construc- tion. We hear people advocate slow-burning construction, or semi- fireproof construction. Personally I am unable to define either of them, but I feel certain that with fireproof construction we have done all that can be reasonably expected to safeguard both life and property. The tendency of late years to construct school buildings of not more than two stories has much to commend it from the point of view of safety to life. With the second floor not over fifteen feet from the ground, these buildings with ample stairways and exits ought to be perfectly safe. A fireproof building of this type has been designed lately for a school district in our state and bids received show that it Department) SAFETY TO LIFE IN SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING 629 can be built for about thirty cents a cubic foot. With such prices for fireproof construction, there seems to be little reason for talking about exorbitant costs. I feel that we have arrived far enough in our school standards so that we may safely say to people to whom we recommend these buildings, that they will be satisfactory for at least the next twenty-five or thirty years, considering that buildings we erected thirty to forty years ago are still being used today. FRANK IRVING COOPER, ARCHITECT, BOSTON, MASS. This meeting is one of tremendous importance. The Department of Administration of the National Educational Association, for the first time officially calls the attention of the Association to the ever- increasing danger from fire and panic threatening the school children of America. Ten years ago the Russell Sage Foundation authorized the first in- vestigation of state school-building regulations. That investigation found Ohio and Connecticut the only states having regulations to safe- guard school children against fires in schoolhouses. Ten years ago the national insurance files recorded but one fire a day in school buildings. Today, after ten years of erecting more school buildings, these same files record five fires a day in the school buildings of this country, and there is no telling how many more fires go un- recorded. The loss of a school child's life has become so common that no record is kept. Only when the children are burned by the score, do the newspapers outside of the immediate locality note the fact. This destruction of life and treasure is preventable, yet the parents, public, and school officials do nothing. The New York Journal of Commerce states that an advance in the fire insurance rates on schoolhouses is one of the early probabilities as that class of insurance for the past five years has resulted in a steady loss. Changes are also taking place in the schoolhouse risk. From being a building of classrooms which was used five hours a day for five days a week the modern schoolhouse has become a combination structure ; used in many cases ninety hours a week. There are not only academic classrooms, but machine shops, wood-working shops, kitchen, and moving-picture houses, these uses have brought an increased hazard. No longer is there an excuse for putting this business off. In- formation on these matters is available, it is free. Anyone, official or private citizen, for the asking may have the results of the experi- ence of competent experts on every phase of the problem of fire prevention. The expenditure of but moderate sums would make these 630 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration daily fires practically impossible. Do not blame school officials, or legislators. The blame rests on each one of us. We do not work to our utmost for safety regulations for schools. Let the points of these remarks stay with you. Other important subjects, other interesting matters will claim your attention, but there is no topic more vital than the saving of a school child's life. Go home determined to start the work in your own town. Legislation is needed. The public must be taught the need of safety legislation. State school building regulations must come. The task of bearing this message belongs to each of us. Go home and act before it is too late. JOHN R. HEALY, AMERICAN FIRE PREVENTION BUREAU, NEW YORK, N. Y. Where the question of cost precludes the use of automatic sprinkler systems there is no reason why school authorities should not consider the installation of automatic fire alarms, which may be installed at from one-third to one-quarter of the expense of automatic sprinklers. In most communities the ordinances require that you have some sort of fire alarm in your buildings. In order to hold fire drills, which is the universal practice, you have to have a fire-alarm system. Almost universally the fire-alarm system that is installed to comply with this requirement is the so-called manual system, which requires some human being to discover the fire and then find a fire-alarm box and pull the alarm. A fire may be going for a considerable time and attain con- siderable headway, such a headway as will endanger the inmates of the building. The development in fire prevention has brought to a commercial stage the automatic fire alarm. With an automatic fire alarm you have in all parts of the building, constantly on guard, fire sentinels who do not require that a human being discover the fire. They detect the fire and transmit the alarm, in many cases long before the people in the building know that there is a fire, and they summon the fire brigade or the persons in authority in sufficient time to extinguish the fire with one or two pails or fire extinguishers. There are one or two precautions necessary to be taken in securing automatic fire alarms. They should be fire alarms that are under con- stant electrical supervision so that the authorities may be immediately warned in the event of the system getting out of order. The system should also be such as is not subject to false alarm, which results in undue excitement and the clearing of the buildings when not desired. THE COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL BuildING F. E. CLERK, SUPERINTENDENT SCHOOLS, WINCHESTER , VA. To serve the purposes of education most adequately our schools must be planned to meet the demands of teaching, learning, and living. Department] THE COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL BUILDING 631 In the past the procedure seems to have been one of compromising educational necessity to meet the arbitrary building and construction standards of the time. Our position now must be that of adapting the building to its purposes-not the purposes to the building. The comprehensive school is an attempt to adapt the building to its purposes accommodating all the grades from kindergarten through the high school in one building, using the principles of segregation accord- ing to age as far as it has any educational value or social justification. The older and younger children in the homes are not segregated arbi- trarily to the point of absolutely no contact; why, then, should it be so in the school ? The social and moral value of some contacts are indis- putable and should be safeguarded as essential to an all-round develop- ment. The plan of segregating pupils in primary, elementary, and secondary schools without any contact with one another inhibits the development of some important elements of character and gains nothing that is not possible in the comprehensive school . The comprehensive school is planned to meet the demands of the teaching of, the learning of, and the exercise of, citizenship for all the children and adults in the community ; in other words, an educa- tion in anything, for anybody, at any time. Provision then must be made for many activities. A dynamic or- ganization sufficiently elastic to meet the changing needs and growth of the community must be provided. In planning such a comprehensive school for the city of Winchester, Virginia, the following principles and provisions have controlled the planning of the building: first ; inclosing the school in a building, the architecture of which is consistent with good taste, and in harmony with the best traditions of the community ; second , using the same space for as many different activities as possible without sacrificing educa- tional value ; third, planning elementary classrooms no larger than twenty-four feet by twenty-eight feet to make it quite impossible to have more pupils in a room than a teacher can effectively teach ; fourth , using all space possible for some educational purpose ; fifth , by using the one-story plan making proper lighting of classrooms possible by use of overhead light; sixth , by converting corridor and stairway space into a covered playcourt to provide recreation facilities during incle- ment weather; seventh , providing for the demands of elasticity in the junior and senior high-school departments by providing classrooms convertible into larger or smaller rooms by the use of folding parti- tions ; eighth , meeting the needs of community activities indoors by planning an auditorium with full stage equipment, and outdoors by providing an athletic stadium, park, and childrens' playground. 632 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration DWIGHT H. PERKINS, ARCHITECT, CHICAGO, ILL. It is obvious that I am expected to add to this discussion of the "Comprehensive School" from the standpoint of the architect. Discus- sion from the teachers' and pupils' points of view will be from educators. It is the educators who must determine the requirements, who must fix the maximum and minimum limits and the number and kind of activities that a given school is to comprehend. These fixed, it is the architect's function to plan a building or group of buildings to house these activities in a manner combining the greatest educational effi- ciency and completeness of supervision consistent with a due economy of construction and operation. To the architect, the difference between a "comprehensive" school and one that is not "comprehensive" is a difference of program and of use and not of dimensions or of equipment, because no modern ele- mentary or high school complete for five hundred or more pupils is properly designed and furnished unless it has rooms of sufficient variety, size, character, and facilities to meet each and every one of the needs shown to be required by the "comprehensive" idea. Such a build- ing includes classrooms of various sizes, study rooms, laboratories, club rooms and libraries, and the usual rooms for physical culture and vocational or industrial training as well as an auditorium. Therefore, the manner in which these things are arranged and the way in which our plans may be tested while they are still in sketch form interests us as architects and if we have any contribution to offer it is an exposition of such a test or series of comparative tests made in our office. At their conclusion there was no room for doubt as to the condi- tions and facilities which would result from construction according to any one of the sketches considered. Each would develop a possible comprehensive school, and this method-the tabulating of statistical in- formation-we submit as our part of this discussion. Our statistical tables-made for one school project-show large and small developments of three separate and distinct plans, or six possible solutions of the problem. The first three slides show group or key plans of the three schemes, the shaded portions indicating the minimum structures capable of use for a very much restricted but temporary program. Tables I, II, and III (the following three slides) show cubic con- tents-in grand and subtotals, educational facilities, by rooms and stations, and educational efficiency, by actual areas and by relative percentages. These six diagrams enable us to compare the elements of each phase of each plan but they still leave the question of cost unanswered. The Department] THE COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL BUILDING 633 sketches have been influenced to such an extent in each case by the superintendents that we feel confident in presenting them as diagrams made from plans any one of which would, if built, produce a modern high school. We assume that these sketches are graphic definitions of such a structure. Our seventh slide is our answer to the question of cost-based on three assumed costs per cubic foot. The results are shown per pupil, per station, and for the whole building in each instance. WILLIAM B. ITTNER, ARCHITECT, ST. LOUIS, MO. There is a school-building shortage in the country. In some states the shortage is more acute than in others. Of course, there has always been a lack of school accommodations in our larger cities but now there is an accumulated shortage of buildings and seats. It is estimated that there is a shortage of three and one-half to five million seatings. Consequently, undesirable quarters are used for the housing of school children in many places. Large numbers of children have also become victims of part-time devices. The causes of the unusual building and seating shortage are not difficult to find: ( 1) there was the temporary cessation of school building during the war; (2) the continuation of excessive building costs and the low market for school bonds; (3) increased enrollments during recent years have added new problems in housing ; and (4) changes in educational thought and practice have created new demands in school building. The two causes with which we are chiefly con- cerned are the continuation of excessive costs and the demand for new facilities such as complete physical educational quarters, additional workshops, libraries, and auditoriums. An acceleration of school-building operations was naturally expected after the war and after the removal of the building restriction. But such a situation did not develop. Building operations have not been up to normal. The reason, of course, has been the excessive costs of ma- terial and labor. It was possible during the pre-war period to erect school buildings from fifteen to twenty cents a cubic foot in the central section and from eighteen to twenty-five cents a cubic foot in the eastern section of the country. These costs have risen steadily to the point where thirty-five to forty cents per cubic foot has been the average in the central section, while fifty to sixty cents has not been uncommon in the eastern section of the country. This meant that appropriations had to be considerably increased to erect school buildings of a given capacity over the pre-war prices. Therefore, until the last few months, the tendency on the part of boards of education has been to postpone and delay school building. 634 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Administration A careful study of the building situation throughout the country in- dicates that the crest of high prices has been reached and that by the mid- dle of 1921 buildings costs will have reached the level which may be taken as the normal cost of buildings for some time to come. There is no as- surance, however, that this new cost will reach a level approximating that which prevailed under pre-war conditions. While there is unmis- takable evidence that the present high cost cannot and will not be main- tained, there is no reliable data upon which to base an estimate as to how far prices will recede in establishing new levels of cost for the year 1921 . The shifting of population from rural communities to urban centers during recent years has added tremendously to the housing and seat- ing problems of the city schools. Less than a half-century ago the ratio of population between city and country was approximately forty to sixty. Now the urban population exceeds the rural. Curricular activities both in elementary and secondary schools are expanding and becoming more diversified. Educational thought and practice are changing, owing to the realization of the inadequacy of the traditional school to meet the demands of present-day society. For instance, there is a greater demand for adequate physical education quarters than ever before. These quarters include gymnasiums, baths, clinics, and open-air play quarters. All of these naturally add to the cubical content and cost of school buildings. Demands for vocational and prevocational quarters are increasing. Shops are becoming more numerous. The recognition of the intimate connection between the brain and the hand and the need for training in some form of manual skill have provided the necessary stimuli . Undoubtedly, workshops, auditoriums, and gymnasiums are neces- sary in schools that aim to give their students a balanced school life. But unless these quarters can be used as continuously as classrooms, they become very costly additions to school buildings. Auditoriums are desired for practically all schools. Visual instruction and com- munity uses of schools have probably been strong factors in stimu- lating a demand for auditoriums. At any rate, auditoriums are wanted and these range in size from one-sixth to one-third of the cubical contents of the entire building. The chief factor in a solution to the present school-building shortage as well as all other building shortage is a reduction of costs. Another factor for increasing school accommodations is the elimination of waste space in buildings, and another, the maximum and multiple use of all instructional facilities. The report of the investigations by the Com- mittee on Standardization reveal the tremendous waste in space, but standardization of plans is not the only method of reducing waste. A school building may measure up to standard requirements in instruc Department] THE COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL BuildING 635 tional floor space. Such a building, however, may be educationally inefficient on account of the lack of the proper balance between its vari- ous instructional quarters, making it impossible to organize the school's activities to bring about maximum use of all space. A balanced rela- tionship of the various diversified quarters within the building is fully as important as the measurement of floor space. For instance, a definite relationship should exist between traditional classrooms, recreational and physical-education quarters, auditoriums, shops, and laboratories. But this relationship will naturally vary in different communities on account of local school needs and desires. In industrial centers there is usually a greater emphasis on prevocational and vocational activi- ties than in aristocratic suburban cities, pleasure and health resorts, and other types of cities. In fact, vocational demands as well as other types of educational demands, will vary even within a single large city. This is a matter which cannot be standardized. The relationship between academic rooms and special quarters is not a fixed quantity. It will constitute an individual problem with every school. The efficient planning of buildings so that maximum and multiple use is made possible and non-instructional space reduced to a mini- mum is a matter for which the school planner is responsible. But the administrative devices by means of which all space is utilized to the utmost is a matter for which the school administrator is responsible. Therefore, in the planning of schools there is urgent need for the architect and the school administrator to work together. The architect is not responsible for all waste in school-building space. I have seen buildings efficiently planned and constructed in which there has been just as much waste as in poorer planned buildings. Surely the school architect could not be blamed for waste due to inefficient organization and operation of the school. The inability of the superintendent to see the possibilities of this school plant is a common cause for waste in school-building space. It is my opinion that skillful administration which will eliminate all instructional waste space in school plants by skillful operation is as essential a factor in the school-housing solu- tion as the reduction of non-instructional space by the architect. Finally, the matter of centralization affects building economies, a school building in everybody's yard is scarcely possible now. Although distances must be considered and reasonable ones established, this matter should not carry the weight it usually does. If children, by a longer walk, can work and study amid wholesome and pleasing en- vironments and rich educational opportunities, then surely a small sacrifice is worth while. By far the most successful schools, as far as buildings are concerned, are the larger units. It is reasonable to believe that if a large number of small schools are to be provided with 636 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration the rich facilities desired for present-day education, desirable building economies cannot be effected. In large centralized schools, facilities can be planned and equipped for their particular uses. For example, an auditorium should be an auditorium and serve the purposes for which it is built. It can then be constructed with a sloping floor, balcony or amphitheater arrangement of seats, and equipped with stationary and permanent opera chairs. It can have a proper stage with full stage equipment. The interior finish, the lighting, the ventilation may all be adjusted to suit auditorium purposes. Permanent visual instruction with all the approved methods for safety can be properly installed. It is far simpler for an architect to plan a real auditorium than one which is to serve also as a make- shift gymnasium. And in the end it is more economical. It is far better to plan gymnasiums for both boys and girls, than to try to make one gymnasium do for both sexes, or to try to make an auditorium serve gymnasium purposes. Efficiency in school buildings, then, means the reduction of all non-instructional space to a minimum. It also means the use of all work, study, and recreational quarters all of the time. Architects can plan buildings so that maximum use is made possible and multiple use suggested. After that, however, school administrators must see to it that the building service approximates 100 per cent . Since the matter of cost reduction concerning both labor and con- struction material cannot be counted on with any degree of certainty the immediate solution of the present school building situation must be found in more efficiently planned buildings and in more skilful or- ganization and administration of our schools . S. O. HARTWELL, SUPERINTENDENT CITY SCHOOLS, ST. PAUL, MINN. The main factors of school architecture must remain virtually the same from one period to another. Their interrelations in any indivi- dual structure are much better understood than formerly and for the notable progress in the last few years the committee in charge of this program has been in no small degree responsible. At this stage in the discussion I shall assume agreement on certain fixed items such as : ( 1 ) an expense limitation reasonably within community possi- bilities; (2) location of buildings with due regard to a proper radius of pupil supply ; (3 ) unit construction and a standardized ratio of equip- ment for required lines of work; (4) adjustment of buildings to curri- culum and to essential needs of adult education. On the basis of these factors we may agree on the so-called com- prehensive building as the desirable, in fact, the scientific application of these principles to present needs. Department] THE COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL BUILDING 637 My single contention is that certain variables must be carefully considered. Failure to adjust them, with such anticipation of future needs as we can make, will mean that the comprehensive building of today may within three decades be just as cramping for school growth, almost as inconvenient in use as the box-like eight-room structures of forty and even twenty-five years ago. We can criticize the older fashion of construction as poor in plan, relatively inefficient for modern work, and hence wasteful. If we are to avoid just the same criticism a few years hence on present types, a criticism of increased weight because of the heavy additional cost involved in present buildings, we must emphasize and work out the variables involved. The factors just mentioned as fixed essentials do themselves contain variables of wide range. Most important and uncertain of these is the course of study. It has been in flux for the past decade, and the out- look promises important readjustments in the near future. Flexibility of floor plan within construction units seems to me the most important factor as yet unmet except in occasional instances. The plan used in the new Milwaukee Trade School illustrates what I mean. There are practically no transverse-bearing walls. On the corridor side of the rooms ranged along the front of the building, for instance, heating and ventilating openings were arranged on a half-unit basis, i.e. , every fifteen or sixteen feet. In the same way, openings were left for carrying pipes and wires from basement to top story. Then light division walls were placed to make the present room arrangement. At little expense, these may be taken out and rearranged for future needs. It is factory construction applied to schools. I know that progressive architects have applied the method to some extent. I believe its wide adoption will greatly increase flexibility and hence economy. Location with regard to proper pupil radius involves a variable in the community and another within the school. Proper radius for primary pupils is of course different from the supply radius practicable for intermediate schools. Probably, also, there is no city of any size that has not had a school practically abandoned by its constituents while some new addition to the city was housing its school children in portables. From this is resulting a general arrangement of buildings of three types, the elementary comprehensive for present needs with a short radius ; the intermediate strategically placed, and the senior high schools in whose location transportation has been an acknowledged factor. The Detroit, Michigan, building plan is a noteworthy example. I think we shall come in the cities to the acceptance of this third variable--transportation as a factor in the arrangement of facilities for the intermediate grades. Certainly in construction of any interme 638 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Administration diate building we should allow for its growth into a comprehensive building as we at present use that word. But acceptance of an inter- mediate or Junior high-school program involves final accommodation of 25 per cent of the enrolment above the kindergarten. To give the facilities for all courses in every intermediate building involves a cost that almost no cities have faced and that few can compass within a reasonable term of years. I think we are likely to develop what we may call departmental intermediate buildings within short transporta- tion range of a comprehensive junior high school, and then equalize educational opportunity by transporation of various groups for special work. At present building rates communities could pay that trans- portation more cheaply than to install all needed facilities at all needed centers . I have emphasized three variables that seem to me present in every building problem. Each location will have one or two more vital in its immediate situation. I revert to my single contention that for economy and permanent efficiency in building we must watch these variables. STANLEY MACOMBER, NATIONAL STEEL FABRICATORS' ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK, N. Y. As a representative of the steel-fabricating industry I have been much interested in the discussions on schoolhouse planning. It occurs to me, however, that one very important factor has been overlooked, that is, the question of costs. You can plan on what you would like to have, but in the final analysis the question of cost must be given every consideration. The cost of the building must come within reach of funds available. As a general rule when the contract is finally awarded a number of changes have been made in the plans and specifications in order to meet the cost requirement. Something is left out here and changes are made elsewhere. This is all done within a short time after the bids have been submitted. You spend weeks and months in de- veloping the plans. They are then sent out for bids and the contractors are given hours or days to develop ideas tending to reduce the cost of the building sufficiently to permit the structure being built at all. Is it out of line to suggest that this question of comparative costs be given your serious consideration in the earlier stages of the develop- ment of your plans. There are many factors affecting costs which can be considered and decided upon when initially developing your building layout. To illustrate, take the two questions which are often completely overlooked, that is, live loads and net spans. Analyzing the live loads which actually are applied to schoolhouse floors you will find that 10 pounds to the square foot is a high estimate. Department] THE COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL BUILDING 639 Further consider that all structural designs are figured on ample safety factors . Realize that in commercial work such as warehouse construc- tion the loads designed for are those actually applied and in many instances greatly exceeded. In other words, in that type of building the design is made for the actual loading condition using the same safety factor in design that we use in developing the structural portions of school buildings. Working on the same basis, you would give us the actual load you wish to apply on a floor-in schoolhouses approximately 10 pounds to the square foot-and we will design a floor for that con- dition and take care of overloads. Can you blame us for wondering at the chaotic condition, when in the course of thirty days' time we ex- amine the schoolhouse plans where the live load specifications run from a minimum of 40 pounds per square foot to a maximum of 180 pounds per square foot ? The cost of floor construction is very rapidly increased as the live loads specified are increased. A difference of 125 pounds in the live load means a difference in cost exceeding 50 cents per square foot of floor area. The item of abnormally high live-load specifications on schoolhouse floors runs into thousands of dollars of useless expense each year. Certainly this committee could well adopt a standard live- load specification and endeavor to establish uniformity along this line. Then again consider the question of spans. The longer the net span of the floor the greater the cost per square foot of that floor. It is more or less common in floor construction to specify long-span designs in order to secure a flat ceiling, it being claimed that flat ceilings give a more uniform diffusion of light and better ventilation. I am treading on dangerous ground, particularly before this group of men, in questioning the established practice of flat-ceiling design. Permit me, however, to question : Why does a flat ceiling give better ventilation than a beam ceiling and in what way does it provide a better and more uniform diffusion of light ? If there is a difference what does the difference amount to ? Is it worth the extra cost ? Has the idea of flat ceilings been sold to you or will it stand the acid test of critical examination ? Remember, it costs you money. A flat ceiling decorated in a light color certainly does reflect light in every direction. The direct light rays from the windows come in from the pupils' left. The in- direct light rays from the ceilings are reflected from every other direc- tion. It is a question in my mind as to whether this very diffusion of light is a desirable thing or not. In building a hotel you would not question the expenditure of money on the lobby ceiling. Look at the ceiling about you, do you see anything but beauty in that beam effect ? Are there any shadows to bother you or cross currents of light to strain your eyes ? In this room is a definite example of the commercial struc- ture, where money is spent to produce as restful a light condition as 640 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration possible. They desire to provide those conditions which will result in your comfort. I do not claim to be versed on this subject but surely you will realize that it is hard to reconcile these two conditions, you often spending money to secure a result which in the case of commer- cial buildings they spend money to eliminate. Possibly the idea of estab- lishing standard recommendations would be worthy of your serious con- sideration . There are many other factors affecting cost. The steel fabricator believes that most of these subjects could be taken up and threshed out at the beginning and then properly incorporated in the plans, this method resulting in a much better and more satisfactory arrangement than to try under pressure to force the letting of a building after the bids have been received on a certain definite specification. The industry stands ready to co-operate to the limit of its ability at any time. Department of School Administration SECRETARY'S MINUTES DES MOINES MEETING OFFICERS President-GEORGE W. GERWIG, Secretary Board of Education ..... ..Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-President-H. A. SMITH, President Board of Education ... Salt Lake City, Utah Secretary-WILLIAM C. BRUCE, Editor American School Board Journal .... Milwaukee, Wis. FIRST SESSSION TUESDAY MORNING, JULY 5, 1921 In the absence of President George W. Gerwig of Pittsburgh the meeting was called to order by William George Bruce, of Milwaukee. The first speaker was E. A. Winship, who dealt with the subject of ADEQUATE STATE AND NATIONAL SUPPORT FOR THE SCHOOLS. He held that the problem of the hour consisted of devising methods for securing better financial support for the schools. He pointed out that many districts and states labored under the disadvantage of inadequate support for the schools. The scattered or sparsely settled districts where the tax yield is meagre and where the people are unable to meet their own school needs adequately constitu- ted the more immediate problem. It was his recommendation that these districts be dealt with as separate units, and that outside aid be brought to them. The state of South Carolina, he pointed to as an illustration, was ambitious and well intentioned along educational lines but unable to provide the necessary means for an efficient system of education. Dr. Winship believed that special methods of taxation should be introduced. Manufacturers and wholesalers, for instance, doing business in these districts should be subjected to a special tax. All interests drawing patronage from children-the movies, candy makers, and dispensers of soft drinks-should be taxed. He also believed that all families having six children or more should be exempt from taxation and that childless families should be doubly taxed. In the discussion that followed, Mr. Bruce stated that taxation was the great unsolved problem in political economy and that all tax theorizing must be re- duced to practical application. The rule of uniformity must be observed. Taxes cannot be exacted in one district without exacting a similar tax in all districts in the same state. To place a sales tax on the manufacturer and wholesaler, is to place another tax on the consumer. No tax device is worth anything unless it can be administered successfully, and no school tax will stand unless it is in proportion to other governmental needs and reasonably within the tax ability of the community. The rule to exact a school tax on ability-to-pay principle and redistribute on pupil per capita is sound. This will carry aid from the revenue from the wealthy districts with a small school population to the poorer districts with a large school population. NEW SOURCES OF SCHOOL. REVENUE was the subject of an address by Hugh S. Magill, field secretary of the National Education Association. The burden of Mr. Magill's argument was that since the education of the child was a duty of the state, it logically followed that it was also the duty of the nation. Just as 641 642 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration every state is responsible for the education of the children within its borders so the states collectively are responsible for the training of the rising generation. State boundaries do not limit the responsibilities of American citizenship. Hence national support is as logical as state support. The vote of the American citizen must be as intelligent in dealing with national issues as it is in dealing with local questions. On motion the chair appointed a nominating committee consisting of George B. Thomas, Portland, Ore., Frank Irving Cooper, Boston, and William B. Ittner, St. Louis. Adjournment followed. SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AETERNOON, 2 O'CLOCK, JULY 6, 1921. The session was opened by a report from the Committee on Standardiza- tion of Schoolhouse Planning submitted by the chairman, Frank Irving Cooper, of Boston. The report dealt with three phases of the subject as follows : First, how to determine the number of rooms required in a departmental school ; second, what orientation or layout must be observed in order to achieve the highest measure of efficiency and economy; third, some approved methods in arriving at the per cubic foot cost of a proposed school building. BEST CURRENT PRACTICES IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE was a paper submitted by John J. Donovan, of Oakland, California. Owing to Mr. Donovan's inability to be present, the paper was read by William B. Ittner, of St. Louis, Mo. The paper was illustrated with lantern slides showing the modern types of school buildings on the Pacific Coast. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND THE SCHOOL BUILDING was the subject of a paper by Marie Anderson, specialist in school organization, of Evanston, Ill. Miss Anderson demonstrated the maximum use of a school plant through the employment of proper time schedules and a judicious apportionment of modern schoolroom activities. She illustrated her points by a series of charts. Charles A. Rice, school board member of Portland, Ore., then submitted the following : Resolved, that the Committee on Standardization of Schoolhouse Planning, headed by Frank Irving Cooper, architect of Boston, Mass., be continued an- other year, and that its studies and findings be reported to the Department of School Administration next year. On motion the resolution was adopted unanimously. EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION was the subject of an address by George B. Thomas, Chairman, School Board, Portland, Ore. The Committee on Nominations then reported the following names for officers for the ensuing year : President, George B. Thomas, Chairman, School Board, Portland, Ore.; vice-president, Ira B. Bush, Superintendent of Schools, Erie, Pa.; secretary, William C. Bruce, Editor, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis. On motion the officers were elected unanimously. Adjournment followed. BEST CURRENT PRACTICES IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE JOHN J. DONOVAN, ARCHITECT, A. I. A., OAKLAND, CALIF . No other period has presented so many opportunities for a logically effective development in its architecture as the present. Statistics are not at hand to state the vast sums of money which have been provided recently for new school buildings, nor have we any idea of the amounts Department] CURRENT PRACTICE IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 643 which will shortly and continuously follow during the next two de- cades; but their sums may be approximated into the billions of dol- lars. In addition to the assurance that these vast sums are to be spent wisely and profitably a natural question arises : Will the expenditure and effort be productive of an architecture appropriately in keeping with the response and spirit of the people, with the expanding cur- riculum of the school, with the new traditions of the school resulting from the causes and effects of the war, and last but not least, with a firmly fixed and long-felt desire to emerge from the thick-shelled chrysalis of hackneyed imitative work ? That the American people are responsive to the needs of educa- tion, and that they will provide means to facilitate its progress, is un- necessary to discuss. However, it is also true that they must be fully and repeatedly informed as to the needs of education and of those who serve education. The interest in education today is more keenly felt than ever before. The recognition of the value of science, educational research, mechanics, language, and the parts they played in the great struggle for supremacy in the world are a stimulus to education the equal of which it has never previously experienced. Surely the architect should sense this in his work, and if he does not he has missed a most inspiring motive. Now as to the expanding curriculum and its influence, let me quote from Edwin R. Snyder, commissioner of industrial and vocational education of California, who so well states : Just as a great University must study the professional needs of the state if it is to become proficient in meeting them, so must the secondary school study the needs of the local community in orden that it may establish and main- tain courses of instruction that will meet the various needs of the youths of the community. It should also be remembered that the demands of society upon each of its units of membership vary greatly. The same course of instruction for all per- sons can be justified only on the ground that all persons have the same obli- gations and will be called upon to perform the same duties in society. Insofar as society demands different service from different groups of persons the school must provide for different courses of instruction preparing for these different social demands . Hordes of youths that were not found there a few years ago are today entering our high schools. Additional hordes representing groups will be enter- ing in the near future. Most of these will probably be neither fitted for nor desirous of securing a higher education. It is the problem of the high school of today and of tomorrow so to organize itself internally as to enable it to care for all of the interests of all of these children. Thus, and thus only, can we provide a fair chance for all. What does that mean to the architect? If it means anything it must indicate a far different plant from the old boxlike structure. It means groups of buildings attached or detached as the problem may best be solved. It means, too, that we must think of the school in 644 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration broader terms and along broader lines. What great possibilities are before the architect in his solutions and studies, and what will it mean to the communities and to the nation to have school plants which will function not alone for the child and pupil, but for the adult, in ex- tending his scope of knowledge and proving to be a place of attrac- tion which he may always regard as his laboratory for experimenting in the theories and problems of industry, commerce, and citizenship ! Is that not an impelling motive for a wonderful development in school architecture and its practice ? Words are not adequate to describe the spiritual heights to be at- tained or the possibilities of their manifestations when one stops to think of what may be accomplished in expressing in architecture, sculp- ture, painting, or landscape achievements, an expression of the war, its causes and effects. And nowhere is there a greater opportunity for such expression than in American school architecture. The an- cients never failed to record great martial achievements in the build- ing of temples, triumphal arches, and monuments, which typified power, grandeur, and accomplishment. With us, today, there is no such desire to gloat over the vanquished by erecting vain-glorious mon- uments, regardless of their historic or architectural value ; but there is a desire to perpetuate the heroism and patriotism of the men and women of this epoch by dedicating useful memorials which shall be symbolic of the dignity of man and expressive of his right to peace- ful pursuit of happiness. And where can this be memorialized more effectively than in the school and in its architecture ? Now as to the transition from imitative to real creative archi- tecture which should embody the scope of the school's activities and express the spirituality and the traditions of the people of this gener- ation. That is the crux of this paper, and its purpose is to endeavor to point the way. To begin with, let me say that before any man can logically develop or create he must first of all learn much of what has preceded, and he should be thoroughly familiar with the organs and functions of that which he is to form anew. And this applies to school architecture just as it is applicable to other sciences. By this I mean that the architect should become thoroughly familiar with the pedagogi- cal organization of the school before or during the development of any particular problem in school architecture. Without this funda- mental understanding, the inevitable result is less than mediocrity. For it is by this knowledge that the well-trained architect is going to see the way and light the path for others. I hesitate to bring or send messages to my fellow-professionals, nor do I presume to guide or teach my confrères, but from experience I can safely state that there is no better way to acquire information of the school and its operation than by placing one's self unreservedly in the hands of the experienced Department] CURRENT PRACTICE IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 645 and progressive men and women of the teaching profession. And con- versely, may I say that the schoolman should follow and not lead the architect in architectural work . But there are other elements entering into the successful practice of school architecture besides those of collaboration. Initiative should not be overlooked or conditioned. For it is by initiative that we leave the rut of decay. The sooner we throw off the restraints of building measurements before the problem is solved pedagogically and architec- turally, the sooner we shall emerge from the state of dry rot. Let me repeat, so that there may be no misunderstanding. I am pleading for a true pedagogical and architectural solution of the problem before the economic, structural, or financial one. While progress has been made during the last ten years, yet the progress in school architecture is not abreast of the progress in the curriculum. The old mossbacks and the croakers who are forever complaining about the new fandangles now attached to the public- school system seldom, if ever, make inquiry as to what the school teach- es or does, and their knowledge is limited to their recollection of what was taught them forty years ago. Yet they complain without the aid of an analysis, or a diagnosis if you will, by those capable of making a studious survey. This attitude seems to find expression in much of our school architecture. Many schools are being built today which might have fitted the school plant of ten or fifteen years ago. A few fixed rules about lighting, orientation, sanitation, economical planning, and many others worn threadbare by much usage and overadherence seem to have obsessed the minds of those responsible for our school architecture. To a great extent they have overlooked the opportunities of fine developments and of fine creations possible if they would only forget the rules and think in terms of school departments, functions, the wider use of the school plant, and most of all the occupants. The rules should be ingrained and at the finger tips to apply unconsciously, so that the finer play may not be fumbled by the player continually re- lying on the rules of the game to make the play. And may I say in passing that if ever there was a time for real constructive economies in school-building programs and school build- ings, now is the acceptable time. For with the enrolments piling up, the school ages being advanced, the demand for space and seating ac- commodations outstripping the supply, and the activities of the school being constantly extended, it is mandatory that every precaution be taken to conserve space and materials and to avoid wastes. All this and more too is a part of this program, and a very important part. And let it be said, further, that inexpensive but permanent types of construction are and should be the order of the day. This comes under the head of good architectural engineering and building 646 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration management and really has little to do with the point of the case at hand. It follows or accomplishes the early composition. And just to show that this is not a defense of aimless planning of school work, it is of primary importance that the school authorities closely examine the curriculum and the program of building requirements and see that duplication of subjects taught in the Junior and Senior high schools are avoided, and unpopular elective courses quickly dropped, so that rooms and areas are not idle or sparsely occupied. There are many avenues leading to real constructive economies that have hardly been touched. Before looking for the answer in the many prescriptions of build- ing economies, let us think of the school problem as we would of any other problem in science or art. Let us think in terms of teaching, learning, social development, and good architecture before we think of terms of building measurements. Kindly keep in mind a funda- mental already established, namely, that the architect is obligated to a serious study of the school organization. And may I establish another fundamental by stating that the well-trained architect is prideful of his capacity to plan and build economically. No other fundamentals for argument are necessary, but it is necessary that a greater effort be put forth to rise above the mediocrity of the pre-war period, with all that there is to draw from in this later period. I am not decrying methods and efforts toward economy in school-planning and construction. As a matter of fact, men who have contributed to such practices deserve a most important rank in the annals of progress. But if the work of the next decade or two is to have economy as its main motive, and if that shall express the architecture of this period, then the sooner these years pass and the less done in these years, the better it will be for posterity. It is most fortunate that attention has been vigorously focused on wasteful planning and poor engineering in schoolhouse construction. But have we not swung the pendulum too far, to the extent of losing sight of the great possibilities of producing refined and inspiring school architecture, which after all lives longer and has a wider influence than any clever ruse in economy which may produce poor architecture? And to drive a peg home, may I say that good architecture embraces the logically sound plan as well as the delightful exterior ? In fact it em- braces everything connected with the building and its grounds. What a peculiar people we are. With one breath we blow in mil- lions in luxuries and do-dads, and with the next we preach drastic econo- mies. For example, look down automobile or gasoline row, or observe milady's bill for cosmetics, perfumery, chewing gum, or think, if pos- sible, in terms of money spent for tobacco, cigars, sports, recreation, or the high cost of loving ! And then listen to the disheartening pleas for greater economies in education and buildings for education ! And Department] CURRENT PRACTICE IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 647 note, too, how effective the damper has been in this direction ! And I don't know of anybody more to blame for this condition than the school man himself. In the first place, he has been the poorest-paid element of high so- ciety. It is only recently that he has had the courage to strike out for a respectable living wage, and I don't believe he would have made that effort if it hadn't been for the fact that the shipworker, the plumber, and the other mechanics, shamed him into it. Now that he has made a fair start, personally, I hope he will stay at it until he has placed the teaching profession on a respectable basis of salary and tenure of office, and has made it once again an incentive for the young man seeking a profession. From this indigent state, what could be expected in the way of a building to satisfy a man so poorly paid ? Naturally a building in keeping with his salary. And I may say, further, that a man's vision is very often gauged by his indigence or affluence ! But this arraign- ment is not intended to reflect upon the teaching profession, but rather upon the conditions surrounding it, and as an observation on one of the depressing influences in the development of American school archi- tecture. The average schoolman is afraid to ask for what he wants and needs in plant and equipment, fearful that he may be adjudged ex- travagant. And the architect, supposing he knows, is greatly influenced by such fears and timidity in the solving of the larger problem and its many contributary problems. Consequently I commend to you the spirit of freedom in the effort to first solve the plan of the new building by throwing off the restraints of technical rules as to efficiency, building laws, and traditions of a past with congested notions, and approach the new work with a desire to solve the problem so that the plans and building will first of all func- tion to the fullest extent as a school and square with its needs ; compose its exterior not so much that it shall look like a school as we have known it in the past, but rather that the composition shall express the logic of the plan in form, material, and design. It may be that the final composition will not resemble what we have recognized as school archi- tecture, in which case that might prove to be a godsend rather than a calamity, judging from some examples which have been handed down for posterity to endure apologetically. I can picture and almost hear the traditionalist and some of my fel- low-specialists denounce this paper as iconoclastic. I'll grant it is, but soundly so, because I have long felt the need of a full shot to help loosen the cordon of rules which have mistaken economy for efficiency and effectiveness. Now to return for a moment to the subject of collaboration. With such spirit and motive in the effort to create good school architecture 648 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Administration and team-working with the members of the teaching profession, and with an understanding of the pedagogical organization of the school, there is much hope that the new decade will bring forth better schools than we have ever had before. Furthermore, the well-trained architect will always measure up his work or his solution of his problem with the requirements of efficient and economical planning and building, avoiding wastes and extravagances as he goes along in the development of his drawings. He will also see that his work will match up with all building ordinances, because the good architect is proud of all phases of his solution and not of one alone. But what I do hope I have em- phasized is that the better practice in school architecture is first of all to solve it as a school and an architectural problem, and not as a mere task in economical building. The latter should follow, and not pre- cede. And I fear that unless we keep this thought fixedly before us we shall fail in the great opportunities of today and tomorrow. curriculuM ORGANIZATION AND THE SCHOOL PLANT MARIE ANDERSON, SPECIALIST SCHOOL ORGANIZATION, EVANSTON, ILL. The school plant today both in its exterior and interior expression, in its entirety and its detail, should constitute a stimulus to the many- sidedness of youthful interests as well as to the variableness of adult interests. It should represent a combination of health facilities, social and recreational facilities, together with the traditional school. Old-time school presented no problem. -The purely traditional school of the past presented no problem in schoolhouse-planning nor in curriculum organization. Its curriculum consisted of the three R's alone. Matters of health, thrift, manual skill, and individual talents were all cared for by the home. Times have changed. There have been changes in society, in in- dustry, and in the home. The home is unable to offer the educational opportunities of former years, industry has become centralized, and life in general more complex. The educational demands, therefore, in- stead of diminishing, have become greater and more varied. Changes in the public school. The natural agency in meeting all the demands is the public school ; and yet, perhaps no factor in de- velopment has so thoroughly resisted change as this natural agency, the public school. In spite of this resistance, however, some new offer- ings, such as certain forms of motor activities, physical education, and recreation, did force their way into the old three-R curriculum. But not even yet have these activities, or others added more recently, been accorded the recognition due them. Curriculum enrichment and the school building. -Th enrichment of the curriculum did create more interesting problems in schoolhouse Department] EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 649 planning. Immediately school architects found themselves confronted with demands for gymnasiums, auditoriums, and the like in addition to classrooms. But no material change developed in the organization of curricular activities. The method pursued was that of merely grafting the new on the old. No effort was made in balancing facilities in the school because there was no "balanced load" in the curriculum organiza- tion. Naturally, such inefficiency caused marked increases in the costs of our school plants, without increasing their housing accommodations. As long as the extra-curricular demands were not too numerous, how- ever, as long as building costs were normal, and there was a normal amount of building, year by year, the public accepted this waste as in- evitable. But when the curricular demands expanded, when costs were increased and building operations reduced, the problem became almost insurmountable, and for the first time perhaps school administrators were forced to consider the principle of the utilization of all space in school buildings, and school architects, the application of science to schoolhouse-planning. Factors in the solution of the present-day problem.-Today, so- ciety demands a new education, a new school organization, and a new school plant. With a few exceptions, our schools are meeting the de- mands of a changed society theoretically only. A few cities, however, have demonstrated the feasibility of making our schools what they in theory have become. This realization of ideals has been accomplished principally by a change in the organization of school activities. The fact that several cities stand as living demonstrations as to what may be accomplished by the application of educational engineering to educa- tion ought to prove that it is possible for all schools to do the same. All schools can meet the present-day demands in education, if the fac- tors of centralization, efficient curricular organization, and scientific schoolhouse-planning are put in practice. EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION GEORGE B. THOMAS, MEMBER PORTLAND SCHOOL BOARD, PORTLAND, ORE. The School Board of Portland, Oregon, of which I am the unwil- ling representative, greatly appreciates the honor and privilege of ad- dressing you today concerning our Benson Polytechnic School, of which we are justly proud. I had planned to have C. E. Cleveland, principal of the Benson, take my place on this program, but on account of illness he was unable to do so . I realize the handicap of not having had higher educational advan- tages in my earlier days. After I had entered industry, I found that it was very difficult indeed to make the educational preparation that I could have had before entering the shops, because the employer is not interested in the general education of a boy. His business is to get 650 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Administration financial results, to turn out products. He is interested in the business from a commercial standpoint only. It is impossible to be a leader in a vocation without the proper preparation. I will confine my remarks largely to the Benson School because the success or failure of a school of this type depends largely upon the equipment, which, if well selected, will turn out workmen skilled in the trades taught and who will be in great demand in the industries of the world. Our school first began in the old Atkinson building in the heart of the city in 1908 under the name "The School of Trades." Then, owing to the generosity of Mr. Simon Benson, we were able to move into our new building at East Twelfth and Hoyt streets in September, 1917, adopting the name Benson Polytechnic School. "Benson Tech" offers three-year courses in printing, pattern-mak- ing, cabinet-making, carpentry, machine shop, sheet metal operating, steam engineering, architectural drawing, machine blacksmithing, tool- making, electrical construction, plumbing, gas-fitting, molding and foundry practice, gas engine and automobiles, and mechanical drawing. To train workers for the trades that predominate in the locality assures mutual benefits to the boys and to the industries of the community. The course of study for the four-year course includes English, mathe- matics, general science, mechanical drawing, foundry, pattern-making, physics, blacksmithing, machine shop, industrial history, civics, and chemistry. The students devote half their time to shop work and half to draw- ing and academic subjects. We started the school with an enrolment of 127 students in the year 1908 and we were practically at a standstill as far as enrolments were concerned until 1917 when our enrolment reached 460. Then we began to equip from a productive standpoint. The result was that we produced workmen who were in demand, and the enrolment today on account of such equipment is 1,462. This en- couraged our school board to procure more equipment, on which mission I am now on my way east. Our shops are equipped with up-to-date machines, large enough to enable the boys to turn out real work, such machines as they find in actual industry and very much in advance of the average shops, for we have nothing but the most modern and highly developed machinery, which is the important factor that makes skilled workmen of our stu- dents, who are more and more in demand by employers. These condi- tions stimulate the interest of the boy in his work as he realizes that he is working in a situation that approaches that of an actual shop, with real machines to work with, and that the training which he is re- ceiving will make him an efficient mechanic when he graduates. The effi- cient mechanic is not the man who makes the expensive mistakes by Department] EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 651 using the cut-and-try method. He gets it right the first time because he has been scientifically trained. It is this kind of mechanic that we are attempting to turn out from the Benson School . Too often the mistake is made of equipping trade schools with small tools not much larger than toys. It is just as essential to teach produc- tion as it is to teach theory. Because of this mistake, the manufacturer is loath to give school graduates work until they have served an appren- ticeship in real production plants. One can readily understand this because the enormous investments in plants require them to produce, as the essential object is profit. Another object we should keep in mind is to fit students to make a success of their trade from a financial standpoint, and to do so they must be provided with the machinery and equipment of modern shops to learn to -operate and to have thorough knowledge of their construc- tion. It is the practice of the Benson School to have the boys thorough- ly familiar with each machine, the work it is designed for, and how much it should produce. We teach this by first having the boys dis- semble the machines and reassemble them again, and sometimes even re- build them. Before starting a job, they make a careful estimate of the time that will be required to finish it. They are trained to calculate the cost of the job in material and labor, plus a certain percentage for over- head expenses and profit. At every stage in the process a check is taken to compare with the original estimate. This gives them a thor- ough knowledge as to the construction and capacity of each machine, enabling them to figure the actual cost of production. General shop practice should be thoroughly taught. Arrangement of equipment is another essential point, often enabling plants to outbid competing firms. All index tables, calculated by machine-builders, that are placed on machinery pertaining to speed, feeds, and other mathematical calcula- tions are removed and the boys taught to make their own calculations. For example : On a lathe with an eight-thread-per-inch lead screw, to produce a four-thread-per-inch screw, the cutting tool must travel twice as far at each revolution as the lead screw. To produce a sixteen-thread to the inch, the tool must travel half as far at each revolution as the lead screw. If you are chasing a thread the same pitch as the lead screw, the work and the lead screw make the same number of revolu- tions. If you are chasing a thread any other pitch, you must gear ac- cordingly. The students are taught to make many other calculations along these lines for milling machines, grinding machines, and ma- chinery that produces finer grades of work. To have a course in foundry practice in cast iron only is a mistake because cast steel is being specified more and more and fast taking the place of drop forgings and cast iron. Our foundry is up-to-date and 652 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Administration the boys are taught metallurgy from the standpoint of foundry prac- tice. They are shown that smelting is a chemical action of heat and fluxes that refine the iron, and they are taught to produce the different grades of gray iron, cast steel, brass, bronze, and many of the alloys that are used in the industries in a practical way. In every lesson students start and finish each job, from the design- ing and drawing to the completed job, and pass thorough examinations. They are fast finding openings at top wages in the best shops of Ameri- ca. Two of our boys made the jigs and templates for the twelve-cylin- der Liberty aeroplane motor, the latest production of gas motors. We have one of these machines in our equipment and have turned out a number of boys who can operate them and who understand thoroughly every detail. We believe that we should make a specialty of gas-motor construction and have a thoroughly equipped shop with real motors to experiment with and full-sized machinery for building same. We have seen to it that our equipment includes all the standard makes and several of each kind of slotters, milling machines, drill presses, screw-cutting machines, planers, boring machines, grinding machinery, lathes, machinery for producing electrical apparatus, all up to date, especially those of the automatic type. Our school is not a revenue producer. We must sooner or later find a way to overcome this handicap. * * * * * Department of School Patrons SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICER President-MRS. GEORGE W. MCGATH .... Portland, Ore. The Department of School Patrons held meetings Tuesday, July 5, at ten and two o'clock ; Wednesday, July 6, at ten and two o'clock. At these meet- ings Josephine Corliss Preston, Cecelia Razovsky, Mary E. Murphy, Mrs. Isaac Lea Hillis, and Mrs. Phebe Mathews spoke. The following officers were elected for 1921-22 : president, Mrs. George W. McMath, Portland, Ore.; vice-president, Mrs. Isaac Lea Hillis, Des Moines , lowa. EDUCATIONAL SIDELIGHTS JOSEPHINE C. PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUC- TION, OLYMPIA, WASH . I bring you greetings from the State Department of Education of Washington and the National Education Association. I am pleased to bring you not only greetings but appreciation for the great service which your department is rendering to the schools and to the homes of the nation. Your organization is the one that can reach all patrons and parents from coast to coast through democratic service. In order that a school patron's department may function effectively, a concern in the substantial, vital interests of the community must be felt. There is no limit beyond which these may not extend when you as leaders clear the way for a normal development from the simpler state of things as they are to broader communistic and humanistic interests. Your aim is to carry the parent-love and parent-thought into all that concerns or touches childhood in home, school, church, or state ; to raise the standards of home life ; to develop wiser, better parenthood ; to bring into closer relation the home and the school, that parent and teacher may co-operate intelligently in the education of the child. Your work dovetails into the national movement of community service now reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, which seeks to utilize the intelligence that exists in every community; to direct the atten- tion of the men and women in the community to their civic, social, recreational, educational, industrial, and filial needs and by interchange of ideas to discover the means of meeting those needs. 653 654 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Patrons' We have four units in the civic life of America; local community, county, state, and national. The problems after all that most vitally concern us are to be found within the local unit as they bear directly upon the home and the school of our immediate neighborhood. The patrons and parents of the local school neighborhoods whether they be parents with no outside interest, or parents who participate in outside club and civic life are directly interested in the local school of their community, because their children and their neighbors' children attend this school. The neighborhood life of this local community needs a common center and the school house is naturally the open forum. Here the children meet for their games and play in the gym- nasium or the local community play field. Here the parents and pat- rons come for their neighborhood exchange of ideas. When children pass on to high school we find the high-school building the common center. As school patrons you will study the plan of collection and distri- bution of taxes for the support of the schools for it is our greatest problem in education. Compare the expenditure for schools with that for roads, and for local, county and state government administration. Compulsory attendance laws and their enforcement give a live question for public discussions.. Do you know what your community is doing socially for your teacher ? Next to the parents, our teachers wield the greatest influence over the youth of our land. Shall we cultivate them and draw them into our homes, or shall we leave them outside, aliens to the home and to the social atmosphere of our respective communities ? What are the provisions for vocational education in your state ? Do adults as well as boys and girls between the ages of fourteen to eighteen have the opportunity to continue their neglected or interrupted elementary education, and to prepare for entrance into better oс- cupations, or to supplement their knowledge and skill in their present occupations in part-time classes ? Is your community reaching its foreign-born ? Each community must touch the soul of the foreign-born with the spirit and ideals of America if we are to solve our Americanization problem. Has your community a part in the movement that is beginning to sweep our country-the emancipation of adult illiterates ? There are more people enslaved in the bondage of illiteracy than were owned by the slave-owners of the South before the emancipation proclamation of Lincoln. The slavery of the negro was physical bondage; the slavery of the adult illiterate is mental bondage. Is it not worthy that we pledge ourselves to promote in every way this movement to educate those who were denied opportunities in their youth ? Department] APPROVED METHODS IN AMERICANIZATION 655 And so we might name other movements which we look to you as school patrons to encourage and promote in your respective communi- ties . A democratic community cannot endure without adequate pro- vision for the training of all its citizenship in intelligence, in econ- omics, in character, and in leadership. APPROVED METHODS IN AMERICANIZATION WORK CECILA RAZOVSKI, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, NATIONAL DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT AID, COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN, NEW YORK, N. Y. It is a well recognized fact that the Great War has aroused in us a conscious nationalism which has made us peculiarly aware of our responsibility to those great masses of foreigners who though living with us have never been a part of us. Hitherto we have permitted these aliens in our midst to work out their own salvation ; if they succeeded, as did Mary Antin or Anzia Izierska, as did Carl Schurz and Jacob Riis, we applauded; if they failed, we spoke feelingly of the fact that the opportunities offered in this land of ours were scorned or abused. It is true that here and there a voice was raised in defense of the im- migrant an educator would proclaim the teacher's joy in finding responsive students in night-school classes, a settlement worker would attempt to play the part of interpreter between native and foreign- born, but for the most part the laissez-faire policy prevailed. And now the war which has clarified our vision with respect to many matters has crystallized our thoughts regarding American stand- ards and ideals, and we have evolved a doctrine of Americanization which in its largest aspect has come to mean, as Professor Draschler, of Smith College, so aptly expresses it, "the incorporation of the alien into the spiritual as well as the material life of the nation." Once formulated, this theory of Americanization has developed until it now presents itself to the American public as a very vital post- war problem of reconstruction. Just as the American people grew into the realization that a true democracy must include self-determination for women since they too are human beings, so are we now awake to the necessity of linking up the alien to community life as a whole, using as a means to this end the school plant, industry, health centers, settlements, and best of all, the alien's own community groups, his church, his union, his lodge, his recreational activities, and his home. Alive at last to the need of relating the immigrant to his American neighbor with a view to making American life and customs most at- tractive to the immigrant, we have reached the stage at this juncture of preparing ourselves for the task by studying the best methods of 656 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Patrons' approach to this great problem. Because of the inferred superiority as well as the obvious superficiality which has characterized the litera- ture on this subject in the past, the term Americanization, and, to a great extent, its connotations, have fallen into disrepute, more especially with the foreign-born. For to the latter who have seen their children and their friend's children grow apart and away from them through what to them seemed Americanizing influences, the term has become synonymous with estrangement and misunderstanding. What then are the approved methods of Americanization work? As an educational body primarily interested in the educational and cultural aspects of this subject, we will limit our discussion to this particular phase of Americanization, but there are a few general prin- ciples which cover every angle of the problem, and which must be utilized if we are to be at all successful in our work. Our first step, therefore, in preparing a definite program of work for the foreign-born is to learn to know the foreign group in whom we are interested. Who are they? Where do they come from ? What was their life in their former home? Their interests, their occupa- tion, their background ? Their language, their history, their culture, their art, their music? Why did they come here? And the next step follows very logically. We must study our- selves, in relation to them. Who are we ? What have we to offer them in art and culture? And having analyzed them and ourselves, how can we best effect an exchange, so that the old heritages which the immigrants have brought here are not wasted and disregarded ? While we have been willing to admit that America has prospered materially through the labor of the immigrant which has built up our economic civilization, too long have we assumed that culturally we have given all and secured nothing in return. Recognizing this fact our educators are now turning to the fundamental issues involved in this matter and we have scientists engaging in biological and anthropological studies with a view to as- certaining the best physical and mental characteristics of the primary and sub-races that have settled in this country. Almost every university and teachers college throughout the land is offering courses in some phase of Americanization work. The University of Minnesota an- nounces a four-year course in Americanization. The Carnegie Foun- dation is publishing a series of studies touching upon such potent fac- tors as the schooling of the immigrant, his Old World traits and at- titudes, and his relation to the political and social life of the community as well as to the health of the neighborhood. But it is not enough that educators and social workers should under- stand the immigrant and his psychology. We must mold public opinion and translate in terms of the average person of the little child as well Department] APPROVED METHODS IN AMERICANIZATION 657 the interpretation which we have made of the cultural backgrounds of the aliens. In a paper presented before the National Social Workers' Conference held recently, Professor Draschler made the statement that he would like to see incorporated in the curriculum of every high school and college in this country, a course of comparative study of the races comprising the new immigration to America. Better still would it be in our opinion if we began with the child in the primary grades, and in a simple manner gave him an insight into the lives of these strange creatures from another world. A few months ago at the immigration station at Boston, a number of newly arrived immigrants were being placed in a large truck to be taken to a railroad station to go on to their final destination. As the men and women and children in their queer costumes and their doubly queer beddings and baggage seated themselves in the truck, they were surrounded by a group of some twenty boys and girls of the neighborhood who jeered and laugh- ed at the strange spectacle. A little Czecho-Slovak girl-looking like a little old lady in her native dress-began to weep as she saw fingers of scorn pointed at her. All the immigrants were deeply humiliated. It was a simple matter to obtain the services of a policeman to put to rout the American children-who were for the most part second and third generation themselves but we feel that a much better method of handling this difficulty was devised when, upon consulting with the immigration and education officials of that city, it was decided that a course of talks to the children on the subject of immigration be given in all the schools, for children like adults are kind when they under- stand. In one public school in Milwaukee, the children in the primary grades are encouraged to bring interesting pictures or pieces of em- broidery or quaint costumes from their homes, and lessons are given in the history and art of the country from which the articles have been brought, so that the foreign-born child attains a self-respect which is very necessary, and the American child in turn acquires respect for the stranger and his former country. As a third step in our educational program, we must devise a sys- tem of adult immigrant education which will bring us the best results. But right here we strike a serious snag, for before we can carry out such a system we must assure the immigrant worker sufficient leis- ure to enable him to avail himself of the opportunities we offer. And so long as the hours of labor, each day, are many, so long as the wage of the laborer is such that his mind is occupied with cares and worries to the exclusion of aught else, so long as we permit him to live in dis- ease-breeding tenements, so long will our evening classes, organized at great expense and effort, gradually dwindle in attendance, even though they may have started out with great promise and enthusiasm. 658 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons' In spite of this lack of leisure which is so fatal to the rapid as- similation of the immigrant into the life of the community, our im- migrant classes have been very successful in those cities and towns where properly trained teachers are engaged to do the work. No mat- ter how tired the worker may be, no matter how busy the housewife may be, both will attend the classes if they feel they are not wasting time. This audience does not have to be told that the men and women are eager to learn, the teacher in their eyes is a superhuman being, but in order to overcome the handicaps of weariness and of worry, we must provide our best equipment and our most adequately prepared teachers. Courses of study must be planned to meet the occupational and com- munity needs of the adults. Most successful results have been achieved with women through domestic science and first-aid classes. The pride which the foreign mother takes when she is called upon to teach the class--including teacher--how to cook one of her native dishes, is only equalled by the pride she takes in placing before her more American- ized children, the American dish which she has learned to prepare. And in this connection, it might be well to say a few words about the splendid service which private social agencies, especially women's or- ganizations, are rendering in co-operation with the work of the public schools as regards adult immigrant education. The New York State Board of Education has published a list of the methods by which pri- vate agencies may assist in public efforts to organize and carry on adult immigrant classes. I quote this list because in the program of work which the organization I represent the Council of Jewish Women- is promulgating through its one hundred seventy-five branches, through- out the country, everyone of the suggestions mentioned has been utilized to a greater or less degree : Here then is the list : 1. Financial support. 2. Information centers . 3. Legal aid bureaus. 4. Arts and craft exhibits. 5. Community sings, plays, pageants, searching out foreign- folk music, etc. 6. Recognition meetings. 7. Assisting the school superintendent in following up the census list. 8. Helping to create intelligent public opinion. 9. Furnishing material-books, notebooks, pencils, blackboards, etc., for home classes . 10. Following up absences. Caring for children while mothers are in class. In several of the large cities, paid organizers have made surveys of the Jewish population and have taken the names of all the men and women who desire to join classes of any kind. In co-operation with the boards of education, classrooms, teachers, and equipment have been procured, circulars distributed and the Yiddish and English press called into service. As soon as the public-school rooms are exhausted in the neighborhoods where the work is going on, neighborhood centers, Department] APPROVED METHODS IN AMERICANIZATION 659 union halls, lodge rooms, etc., have been utilized, and that great bug- bear of all evening schools, the attendance, is taken care of by the or- ganizers who visit in the homes and establish friendly contacts which are so invaluable. What is true of the work of the organization mentioned is equally true of other women's organizations, as is evidenced by the following quotation from the July Atlantic Monthly. NASHVILLE, TENN. DEAR Atlantic : You may be interested in an account of the welcome given sixteen new citi- zens last week in Nashville, Tennessee. The social took place in the assembly hall of Watkin's Free Night School, where there was an audience of over 500, mostly foreign-born. Addresses were made by the judge, who had granted citizenship papers, the mayor of the city, an immigrant of many years standing, and one of the new Americans . After the four addresses the band played the national airs of all the coun- tries represented, while the audience visited the booths along the side of the wall, where French, Austrians, Roumanians, Italians , Russians, Swiss, Syrians, and Hungarians, all dressed in the national costumes, served their native dishes and grected us in their mother-tongue. This unique gathering was the work of the local chapter of Colonial Dames, the Council of Jewish Women, and the Bertha Fensterwald Settlement. The work with immigrant mothers-so very important and so sadly neglected-is beginning to receive the attention it deserves, and here again private women's organizations are initiating it in many cities where the public facilities are not yet available. In New York City in the Council House-a community center on the East Side-mother's classes are held four days a week, three classes a day, with paid teachers provided by the Board of Education, and as a very necessary adjunct to the classes, with large nurseries and kindergartens supervised by trained workers to look after the children while the mothers are studying, many of them to catch up with their children so that, as one mother expressed it, "I don't have to be ashamed when my little girl asks me to read to her from her story book." A most successful approach toward the immigrant mother has been discovered in the home-teacher plan. Begun as an experiment it is now a definite part of every immigrant education program. The neighborly contact, and the feeling of ease in her own home which the woman experiences when the teacher and a few neighbors call for an afternoon lesson, the self-respect which a visit from a real American engenders in the heart of the foreign-born woman when the teacher is a sympathetic and understanding friend-all these tend to make the home-teacher plan one of the most important methods of Americaniza- tion embodied in our educational programs. That employers are also assuming their share of responsibility in the making of better citizens is evidenced by the establishment of many 660 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons' factory and corporation schools and classes. These day classes, according to the survey made by Mr. Thompson in his study The Schooling of the Immigrant are unusually satisfactory inasmuch as the workers are not too tired during the day to make the most of the opportunity afforded them. The zeal with which some of the employers have pursued this plan, however, has caused them to use coercive measures to force at- tendance and this is likely to react in a most detrimental fashion if the employers do not relax their methods. For coercion of any kind to- ward the alien who has behind him a background of compulsion and verboten , and who has come to this country serenely confident that he will share in the joys of American freedom, is dangerous and may frus- trate the very purpose it sets out to accomplish. The United States Labor Bulletin for July contains a very interesting account of the newly organized adult educational program for women instituted by a number of labor unions in this country. Significant too, is the fact that Bryn Mawr is the scene of an experiment in the education of factory workers, which will bear watching. In this famous college for women, a summer course is being given for a select group of young women from trade unions throughout the country. These stu- dents, many of whom are foreign born, do not intend changing their vocation, but hope to widen their influence in the industrial world, in which field many of them are leaders . And the immigrant child-what are we doing for him ? Stand- ing as he does, between the old and the new, his position is a difficult one and our juvenile court records testify full well to the fact that the first generation finds it very trying to adjust itself at times. Unfortun- ately the outside environment with its wicked housing, its improper companionship, outweighs the influence of the home, and it takes the combined pressure of school, plus playground, plus family care, plus all the social agencies established for the purpose, to set the child into the proper path toward future citizenship. The establishment of special ungraded classes for those children who, because they are recent arriv- als, are too old for the regular classes, has done much to make the children happy in their new environment, and after a few months of preparation in the English language they are able to take their places with children of their own ages in the regular grades . Traveling recently on a train from New York to Chicago, there sat in the same Pullman coach with me an old Russian Jew, patri- archal in appearance, who, with his prayer shawl over his shoulders, his little skull cap on his head, and his prayer book before him, was reciting his prayer before breaking bread. Opposite him at the table sat a boy of fifteen, who with his father, had just made the journey from Europe to this country. He too sat before a book, but his book was a Yiddish and English vocabulary, and he was diligently studying Department] PARENT- TEACHER ASSOCIATIONS 661 the language of his new country. Every once in a while he would glance up from his book to smile proudly at his father who looked like an old savant out of a painting. As I watched the two so intent on their work, I wondered how soon it would be before the boy would be asham- ed of the father whom he now regarded with respect and affection for his learning and wisdom. And the thought came to me that the boy was influenced by the opinion of those around him everyone in the coach appreciated the value of the old scholar and it was apparent in their attitude-but when the environment was different, what then ? Would American life destroy this trait in the boy or strengthen it ? And now in conclusion, a word about leadership. When the for- eigners arrive in America, they turn to their fellow-countryman who has lived here for some time and is to some degree Americanized. He is their adviser-their mentor. We too should turn to this man-as- suming of course that he is a good citizen, for it is through him and his group that we can reach the newer arrivals. He understands them and we understand him. We desire for the foreigners in this country participation in the common life of the community. We are very proud of our traditions. We have certain American standards of living. Until we share our traditions with these people, until we make certain that there be only one standard of living in America, and that the highest, shared by all alike, our efforts to reach the soul of the immi- grant will be in vain. But if we understand, if we give as well as take, if we learn as well as teach, then will America be truly America, the Beautiful, and our good will be "crowned with brotherhood from sea to shining sea." HOW MAY PARENT-TEACHER ASSOCIATIONS BEST CO- OPERATE WITH THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS? MRS . ISAAC LEA HILLIS, VICE- PRESIDENT, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF MOTHERS AND PARENT- TEACHERS ASSOCIATIONS, DES MOINES, IOWA Since leadership in the salvaging of civilization must be assumed by America, the country least hurt by war, and since the manifold, com- plex problem of National Development and International Relationship must be met and solved in the next thirty years by the boys and girls now in the public schools, a new concept of responsibility must per- meate the masses of our people. What better avenue for constructive propaganda than the public school, and what more far-reaching agency to reach into the homes of all the people than the Parent-Teacher Association ! The measure of a nation's greatness is not its material resources, commercial supremacy, nor geographical advantage-but the quality 662 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Patrons' of its citizens. Children are the only source of supply of citizens. Children, for the most part, are born normal, good, full of potential ability. They are so plastic to the molding of environment that at six years of age they are already highly differentiated individuals. Their physical characteristics, health, and dominant tendencies of character and temperament are established. Parents do not know this. Parents generally lack training for child-rearing. And this parental inefficiency sends each year into the schools millions of children handicapped by preventable physical or mental defects. In an analytic study of a primary class of fifty-two children made by the Iowa Child Welfare Research Station, it was startling to find that every one showed need of some physical help; and that intensive study of many thousands of pre-school-age children showed that the basis of physical defect and character defect that may result in school failure and in life failure are already fixed when the child first enters school. It is obvious, then, that on the American home rests the re- sponsibility for the quality of the American citizen of the future who must stabilize our democracy, maintain our high ideals, our proud tra- ditions, and our enduring worth. The supreme need is for a dependable science of child-rearing and the widely disseminated knowledge of such facts in applied science in child conservation as are available. Careful studies of young children in many communities showed that a majority of children have preventable defects upon entering school. Also, that the child has more defects (though not always the same) when he leaves the school. If educators succeed in developing the potential abilities of the next generation, they must work in closer relationship to the home. The Parent-Teacher Associations must supplement their work in the schools by a broader service to young parents of the pre-school-age child, who must be made to realize that unless their children eat, rest, play, and sleep rightly ; unless they see and hear clearly; breathe through their noses ; have good teeth and good digestion ; sound nerves and a cheerful disposition-all secured through desirable habits-they need not expect them to succeed in school, in later life, or to maintain health and energy. Applied science has marvelously developed the products of the farm. Applied science in child-training in home and school can and will de- velop a finer citizenship . To this service is the Parent-Teacher Asso- ciation dedicated ! Department of Science Instruction SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-JOHN C. JOHNSON, Dean Coloralo State Normal School . Gunnison, Colo . Secretary- LOUISE H. SEELEY, Dickinson High School............. Jersey City, N. J. The Department of Science Instruction held two sessions in the Court House at Des Moines, Iowa, July 6 and 8 at two o'clock. The following pro- gram was given : WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921. SOCIAL HYGIENE AND SEX EDUCATION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS-Benjamin C. Gruenberg, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. DISCUSSION- W. S. Small, U. S. Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, Washington, D. C. FRIDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 8, 1921. SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL-Eliot R. Downing, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. THE CONTENT OF SCIENCE COURSES FOR THE ELEMENTARY GRADES-Gilbert H. Trafton, State Normal School, Mankato, Minn. At the business meeting, Friday, July 8, the following statement was sub- mitted and unanimously adopted : " The chief purpose of the Department of Science Instruction of the National Education Association shall be to encourage and develop wider and better scientific instruction and investigation in all the public schools of America to the end that more intelligent and more useful citizens may be produced in this ever increasing scientific age." A Committee on Science for the Elementary Grades was appointed. Officers for 1921-22 were elected as follows : Gilbert H. Trafton, State Teachers College, Mankato, Minn., for president ; Zelma Goldsworthy, West High School, Minneapolis, Minn., for secretary. SOCIAL HYGIENE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR EDUCATIONAL WORK, U. S. PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE, WASHINGTON 1. As teachers of science we should be interested in a scientific ap- proach to the problem of method and content in the teaching of chil- dren. There are two criteria of content-What children want to know, and What children need to know. As to the former we have a con- siderable body of definite information ; as to the latter we have a wide range of opinion, and never can have more than opinion, since in the nature of the case "needs" show themselves only after a lack has re- sulted in some injury, and the nature of the lack is a matter of infer- ence or interpretation. 663 664 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Science Instruction Through the questionnaire method it has been possible to determine that the children's interests in the surrounding world are graded, or change with age. Dividing them into four groups of interests, we may say that the earliest information wanted by children is in answer to the question "What ?" Names of things, living and non-living, names of the parts, and then a functional designation, as "What does it do ?" will for the most part satisfy the curiosity. At about nine or ten years of age there begins to emerge the question "Why ?" which appears to be related to a second phase of self-consciousness (the first having come just before the kindergarten age) . Why seems to mean something bearing on purpose, or utility, or ultimate cause, with man and his affairs as the center of the universe. Many children apparently never get be- yond this stage, if we may judge by the questions asked by adults and by the kinds of answers that satisfy them. Later, at least with a large proportion of high-school boys and girls, the big questions are in terms of " How ?" although in formulating their problems they may in fact use the word "Why ?" The interests here seem to center around the processes, the relationships, the cause-and-effect connections. Whereas "Why ?" at first may mean "What's the use ?" the same question later means "What's the connection between what I do, or what happens, and the desired or actual result ?" Finally, a diminishing proportion will be asking a question that means "What of it?" or in other words, "What difference should the facts make in our practice?" " What is the application to be made ?" A word as to method in general. If science-teaching is to have a permanent value in the life of the individual and of the community, it must come in the spirit of science. The facts or the explanations or the applications which we teach must come always as the tentative rather than the final, as the hypothetical rather than the absolute. The first lesson of science is to be able to say " I don't know." We must there- fore avoid dogmatism and every attempt at indoctrination. However sure we may feel that certain diseases are infectious and specific, we must be equally sure that our generalizations rest on limited data, and that they are always subject to revision as new facts are revealed. The attitude of exhortation or preaching has no place in the teaching of science, any more than has the appeal to fear or selfish advantage. 2. The approach to social hygiene, in a specific sense, is not pos- sible in the lower grades. In the history of the race and in the develop- ment of the individual the concept of health or well-being or happiness seems to come only after more or less experience with the painful and negative aspects of existence. There is no appreciation of, nor desire for, health or safety or full crops until there has been suffering from disease or the collapse of a bridge or a destructive fire or an insect pest. But by the age of thirteen years most normal boys and girls have already Department] SOCIAL HYGIENE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 665 had enough direct and vicarious experience with the forces that obstruct human well-being and happiness to be able to think seriously and effec- tively of the mcehanism involved. Those who have the intelligence re- quired for eighth or ninth-grade work are able to pass beyond the fatal- ism that accepts catastrophe and suffering as ultimate and inescapable ; they want to know, not "Why do these disasters come upon us ?" but "What brings about these conditions ? "-and this you will recognize as distinctly a scientific attitude that should be cultivated. It is no longer satisfying to tell these children that a theater collapsed because the owner was a wicked man-it is necessary to connect the collapse with strength of materials and principles of sound construction. It is no longer satisfying to tell them that a baby is blind because the father played cards it is necessary to connect the blindness with one or another of the processes that cause blindness . It would seem therefore that the teaching of hygiene involves some- thing of teaching pathology; yet that is true only in a slight degree, and one that has been very much exceeded in the past. It is necessary to present the factors that are basic in the normal, healthy organism, and the conditions that interfere with health, in just the same way as we teach fire prevention-not by scaring the children of possible destruc- tion of life and property, but by assuming the desire to prevent and considering only the mechanism of fire causation and its control. Or as we may teach of insect and fungous pests affecting our orchard or farm crops-without fear, without passion, without disgust. If science- teaching means anything at all, we must be confident that the facts will speak for themselves. 3. Nevertheless we must not make the mistake of assuming that knowledge of itself insures right conduct. It does not. It has no dynamic force of its own. Given a purpose, knowledge will influence the procedure in carrying it out ; but knowledge does not supply purpose. That must come from emotions. But we reach the emotions through channels that are so much like those through which we approach the intellect that we are apt to be confused. The spoken word, for example, or the picture may "teach a lesson" in the sense of imparting knowledge, or in the sense of stirring up desire or aversion; but the teacher at least should be clear as to what he is seeking and as to what he is ac- complishing. Now in the health of the community at the present time a great deal depends upon a widespread consciousness of the elemental rela- tions, not because knowledge supplies motive, but because knowledge is essental to technique, to the way. We may assume the desire for health ; we must make clear that continuing in the traditional and con- ventional way of life, that letting "nature take her course," spells not health but suffering and disaster. To be able to discuss the sources 666 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Science Instruction and effects of the so-called social diseases, it is necessary, first, that the children have sound information concerning reproduction and sex, and concerning the principles of communicable disease. They need such knowledge, living in a complex community, just as they need knowledge of turning on the light or dodging motor cars. This does not mean very profound insight into molecular physics or kinematics or organic chemistry ; it means only a comparatively superficial rationalization of standardized modes of action. It means, further, making clear to every child that we depend upon accurate knowledge to guide us in standardiz- ing action, even in such matters as have been vital to the race through the ages, as in the matter of eating. 4. The knowledge related to social health should include the out- standing facts of the venereal diseases, studied in connection with other communicable diseases, and called by name. What are the effects of syphilis, especially upon the nervous system and upon the offspring ? What are the effects of gonorrhea, especially upon babies' eyes and in causing sterility? The "innocent" modes of transmission may be taught at first; the more common modes after the facts of sexual repro- duction are known. For pupils in the ninth and tenth grades it is possible to add the elements of heredity, and something of the principles of modification of instincts, or the training of emotions or habit for- mation, as most teachers have learned to think of it. All these groups of facts are essential to an understanding of the connection between individual conduct and community or racial health. The boys and girls who are studying "science" today will be the men and women shortly whose conduct will not only be the determinant of society's well-being, but whose "understanding" of the basic facts of life will be the determinant of society's policies with respect to health and well-being. We cannot, as the custodians of the guiding light of science, neglect our responsibility where this knowledge is of such importance to the race. Department of Secondary Education SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-CLARENCE T. RICE, Principal, Kansas City, Kansas, High School ... Kansas City, Kans . Vice-President Guy C. WILSON, Principal, Latter Day Saints High School ..... Salt Lake City, Utah. Secretary-MINNIE J. OLIverson, Assistant Principal for Girls, Kansas City, Kansas, High School .Kansas City, Kans. FIRST SESSION TUESDAY FORENOON, JULY 5, 1921 The Department of Secondary Education of the National Education Asso- ciation convened in regular session Tuesday forenoon, July 5, 1921, at 10:10 o'clock in the Central Church of Christ, Des Moines, Iowa. The meeting was called to order by the president. The following program was presented: SOCIALIZATION OF THE SIX- YEAR HIGH SCHOOL THROUGH THE ORGANIZA- TION OF STUDENT ACTIVITIES- Burton P. Fowler, first assistant principal Central High School, Cleveland, Ohio. THE PHYSICAL EFFICIENCY OF THE TEACHER-Dr. Charles E. Barker, repre- sentative of International Rotary, Chicago, Ill. The system of exercises recommended by Dr. Barker was demonstrated by the speaker. SECOND SESSION- WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921 The meeting was called to order at 2 o'clock. The minutes of the first session were read and approved. At call from the chair the secretary presented a tentative report from C. C. Certain, Northwestern High School, Detroit, Mich., chairman of the Committee on the Secondary School Problems. A motion was made and passed that the committee be continued to enable it to present at the next annual meeting two complete reports dealing respectively with the (1 ) Problems of the Secondary School Library as a Problem in Architectural Design and (2) Instruction in the Use of Books and Libraries . The following program was presented : SEGREGATION IN ABILITY GROUPS AS A MEANS OF TAKING INTO ACCOUNT INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES-Ray H. Bracewell , principal, high school, Burlington, Iowa. A SQUARE DEAL FOR THE BRILLIANT STUDENT-M. R. McDaniel, principal, Oak Park and River Forest Township High School , Chicago, Il1. A PROGRAM OF SEX EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS-Benjamin C. Gruenberg, director of educational work, U. S. Public Health Service, Wash- ington, D. C. DISCUSSION-C. H. Nowlin, Northeast High School, Kansas City, Mo. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year : PRESIDENT-H. T. Steeper, principal, West High School, Des Moines, Iowa. VICE-PRESIDENT-S. O. Rorem, principal, East Junior High School, Sioux City, Iowa. SECRETARY--Olivia Pound, assistant principal, Lincoln High School, Lin- coln, Nebr. TENTATIVE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SECONDARY SCHOOL LIBRARY PROBLEMS C. C. CERTAIN, NORTHWESTERN HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH ., CHAIRMAN At the time of the adoption by this department in 1918 of the report on library standardization for secondary schools of different sizes, a 667 668 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Education committee on Secondary School Library Problems was appointed with the purpose of developing more in detail certain features relating to secondary school library organization and administration. Two outstanding problems have been systematically studied by the committee in this connection, namely ( 1 ) the problem of architectural design, and (2) that of instruction in the use of books in libraries. Architects agree that the school library, although one of the most valuable and important departments in the school, is one of the most difficult to provide for properly in an architectural way. It is a matter of history that during the past decade or two the attention of school administrators has been given very largely to the problem of developing and equipping in public secondary schools adequate lab- oratory facilities needed in the teaching of the sciences and the manual and domestic arts. The effort directed toward the solution of building problems in this connection has been so intense as to lead to the tempor- ary neglect of many other important problems in building construction. It has so happened that on the structural side library rooms have been neglected with the result that they are being designed now in a way that makes it extremely difficult to house in them libraries adapted to modern educational requirements. The committee has practically com- pleted a report on "The Secondary School Library as a Problem in Architectural Design." This report will be ready to submit to this department at the next annual meeting of the National Education Asso- ciation. In the meantime the report will be placed before experts for criticism and will be thoroughly revised. In the report on library standardization of secondary schools of different sizes, adopted in 1918, the section dealing with instruction in the use of books and libraries presents only general aspects of this problem. Considerable discussion is needed relating to matters of method and to the materials of instruction. It is not deemed advisable, however, at this time to offer a final report in this connection. A more satisfactory procedure seems to be to offer the accompanying tentative outline course of study on instruction in the use of books and libraries for junior and senior high schools for publication in the proceedings of the N. E. A. with a view to securing, during the year, constructive criticisms on this outline which will influence the committee in its final revision of the report. This tentative outline was developed in the city of Detroit ; and inasmuch as the same person is serving as chairman for the Detroit committee and as the chairman of your committee the fore- going plan seems to be practicable. It is expected to enlarge upon the Detroit report especially from the standpoint of instruction of a charac- ter that will be stimulating along the lines of general recreational reading. Department] SECONDARY SCHOOL LIBRARY PROBLEMS 669 The chairman desires to move that the Committee on Secondary School Library Problems be continued with a view to presenting at the next annual meeting two complete reports dealing respectively with the (1) problems of the secondary school library as a problem in archi- tectural design. and (2) instruction in the use of books and libraries. COURSE OF STUDY ON INSTRUCTION IN THE USE OF BOOKS AND LIBRARIES FOR JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS GENERAL AIMS 1. To introduce pupils to many kinds of books on many subjects in order to foster and stimulate a love of reading. 2. To develop an appreciative use of libraries through voluntary reading for (A) information, ( B) recreation, or ( C) inspiration ; to to give skill in the use of reference materials and library tools in achieving these ends. 3. To give every pupil in the public schools such direct contacts with the public-library service of the city that as a citizen he will both continue to make use of that service and contribute gladly to its support and extension. GENERAL METHOD 1. The pupils should acquire familiarity with library resources, arrange- ments, and customs, through the use of an organized library collection of attrac- tive, interesting literature of the best types in each subject of the curriculum in a special library room suited to school purposes, under the direction of a school librarian. 2. Th pupils should acquire an understanding of the organization, equip- ment, and reference material of the library through explanations by the school librarians as need arises, and skill in using the library through practice in free periods in (A) finding materials needed in projects in other classes and sub- jects; (B) in voluntary reading for knowledge, pleasure, or inspiration ; and (C) in borrowing similar material for home reading. 3. Each class in any subject utilizing library materials largely, should hold "library hours " at suitable intervals during each term in a library classroom adjacent to the library, when the librarian should introduce to the class the library resources and attractive specimen readings for each of these curriculum subjects. 4. The pupils are to be introduced to many types of literature and their reading stimulated by informal talks on books and their writers, or by reading aloud by the school librarians, school assistants of the public library, or by English teachers either in assembly periods or library hours with English classes. 5. The pupils should receive training in judgment in evaluating material for any particular given need through comparison of similar topics in various reference books of the same type. 6. The school librarian shall work in close co-operation with the teachers of the school. She shall aim to assist in vitalizing the curriculum through making available in the library current material related to the topics being studied in the various classroom, and by aiding teachers in securing material needed for classroom work. 670 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary Education MINIMUM ESSENTIALS OF LIBRARY WORK BY GRADES JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Time Grade Allotment Outline of Course 12Hours 1hr. Card Catalogue Complete use: Use of analytical entries Help in making reading lists References 1hr. Reference books:- Atlases World Almanac Who's Who Michigan Manual VII. 2 hrs. Reader's Guide 1hr. Note-taking: method and value; research: method (how to look up a subject 1hr. Review in use of books and library tools here given on occasions of visits to public library and discussion on public library as voca- tional aid. 6hrs. *Reading: stories of scientists, artists, musicians stories of exploration, of pictures, of operas Discussion of public library facilities and needs-visits to branch and central libraries 3 hrs Reference books:- Periodical and newspaper indexes Kinds available: e.g. agricultural, industrial, etc. New York Times index Reader's Guide-practice in use 1hr. Atlas, Lippincott's Gazateer Note-taking continued Research continued (how to look up a subject) Making of simple bibliographies VIII 8 hrs. *Reading:-Stories of different sections and races of our country, e. g, Ramona, Uncle Remus , Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come, Under- stood Betsy, Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm. Discussion of public library facilities and needs-visits to branch and central libraries. Review of Grade VIII. Method of instruction to include continuation of : Note -taking, Research (how to look up a subject) Simple bibliographies and how to use them 1 hr . Comparison of dictionaries: Webster's New International Murray (briefly) 1hr. Standard Century IX-B 1hr. Briefdiscussion of dictionaries on special subjects, e. g., phrase and fable, classical dictionary musical dictionary, to show dictionary form of reference books . 2 hrs. * Reading 1hr. Comparison of encyclopedias: Britannica 1hr. New International Nelson's 1hr. Americana IX-A 1hr. Brief discussion of cyclopedias on special subjects, e. g., literature, horticulture, American government, to show encyclopedia form of reference books 2 hrs. * Reading 1hr. Discussion of public library facilities, with visits of inspection. Special attention to reference collection of special dictionaries and ency- clopedias on special subjects *See footnote on Page 672. Department] SECONDARY SCHOOL LIBRARY PROBLEMS 671 MINIMUM ESSENTIALS OF LIBRARY WORK BY GRADES SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS Grade Time Outline of Course Allotment 3 hrs . Comparison of magazines Special feature of World's Work 1 Review of Reviews Current Opinion Literary Digest Discussion of value, use and selection of magazines and magazine X indexes 1hr. Preparation of material for debates: Clippings, value, use, care, and arrangement 2 hrs. * Reading Discussion of public library facilities, with visits of inspection X-A 1hr. Organization of library material in Dewey classification system . Ten main classes . Subdivisions where commonly used, e. g.,973;973-2;973-3 1hr. Card catalogue: value of information on given card, e. g. date, edition, illustrator, contents, etc. 1 hr. Use of reference books (review) : Atlas World-almanacs Gazetteers Yearbook's Michigan Manual 1 hr. New reference books- Statesman's Year Book U. S. Census Abstracts 2 hrs. *Reading Discussion of public library facilities, with visits of inspection. Special attention to class arrangement of books, clippings, etc. 2 hrs. History reference books: Biographical dictionaries Yearbooks Who's Who Larned's Ready Reference History Hayden's Book of Dates XI-B 2 hrs. Special reference material : Concordances Music reference books Art reference books 2 hrs. *Reading Discussion of public library facilities, with visits of inspection. 1hr. Literature and civics referencebooks Collections of literature, e. g. Warner library Cyclopedia of Quotations 2 hrs. Cyclopedia of Social Reform Cyclopedia of American Government XI-A 2 hrs. Reading Discussion of museum, with visits of inspection, arranged for out of school time with special attention to exhibits of painting, sculpture, musical instru- ments , etc. 1hr. Government publications: City State 1hr. Federal, with special application to civics 3 hrs. Review of library instruction of grades IX and X XII-B 童 Problems on books included Problems on use of library Project: Selection of a library of reference books for home use 2 hrs. *Reading Discussion of public library facilities, with visits of inspection. See footnote on Page 672. 672 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Education MINIMUM ESSENTIALS OF LIBRARY WORK BY GRADES SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS-Continued 1hr. Special features of reference material needed by particular school, e. g., commercial indexes and trade catalogues at Cass Technical School. 2 hrs. Review of library instruction of grades XI and XII Problems on books included Problems on use of library XII -A 2 hrs. Project Bibliography of reading to be done after graduation Value of having a hobby *Reading Discussion of public library facilities, with visits of inspection *The sections of the report on general reading are in the process of development. The committee will be glad to receive suggestions from persons interested in this problem. Concrete lists would be valuable, including fiction, biography, travel, general literature, etc., grouped about centers of interest strongly appealing to the pupils of each year. These lists should be sent to C. C. Certain, Chairman ofthe Committee on Library Instruction, Northwestern High School, Detroit, Michigan. SOCIALIZATION OF THE SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL THROUGH THE ORGANIZATION OF STUDENT ACTIVITIES BURTON P. FOWLER, FIRST ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL OF CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, OHIO Educators everywhere and the general public are alike dissatisfied with the traditional objectives of secondary education. Since the war, especially, there has been an insistent demand for reorganization. The principle of Darwinism has dominated our courses of study and methods of instruction. Training for work, play, health, character, and home membership must be provided for all in the wide-awake high school. The school group with its diverse activities of school citizenship serves as an excellent training field for this process of socialization. There are five factors in the effective organization of student activi- ties: First, teachers must be open-minded and sympathetic toward these collateral activities. A place must be found in the teaching program of every teacher to provide time for the right kind of leadership. Second, similarly, the social agencies themselves should form a part of the pupil's regular program, so that the pupil who has to work outside of school shall not be debarred from full participation in the debate, the orchestra, or his favorite club. Third, vastly greater opportunities than now exist for the expression of the social instincts of children should be provided. Every pupil should have at least one or two major social interests. In a school of two thousand pupils there is room for one hundred clubs where ten now exist. School parties should be under the control of a social director who by means of games and dances will afford participation by all in school social hours. The "formal" high-school dances are too often a cheap Department] HOW TO LIVE A HUNDRED YEARS 673 imitation of the disportings of adults. Clique, décolleté, jazz, and toddle are doubtful educational objectives. School society, however, should not be a leveling agency, but a democratic means of promoting good will and mutual trust among the members of its cosmopolitan group. Fourth, pupils should have every chance to participate in the man- agement and control of the school community. A student-body organi- zation headed by a student council should have a large share in the super- vision of the building and grounds, clubs, dramatics, athletics, school` campaigns, etc. Fifth, a written social record like that kept of scholarship should be made for every pupil throughout his school career. I venture the asser- tion that such a record kept for four years would furnish more reliable information about the efficiency of Mary's school life, her chances of success in college, in business, or as a housewife, than would the 93.6 per cent that places her on the honor roll of the commencement program. HOW TO LIVE A HUNDRED YEARS—AN OUTLINE CHARLES E. BARKER, M. D., GRAND RAPIDS, MICH . BREATHING EXERCISES 1. Bend body at hips, fists at knees, throw out backward as far as possible while inhaling and exhale while returning to original position. 2. Rotate shoulders and arms, inhale, raising arms and vice-versa. 3. Clasp hands behind back-throw chest out and upward, shoulders back and inhale, and vice-versa. 4. Breathing run . FOR KIDNEYS 1. Keeping knees stiff-lower hands to floor and return to chest. FOR SPINE 1. Swing the arms in a circle in front of the body, keeping the knees stiff and stretching upwards as far as possible while raising arms. FOR LIVER 1. Feet apart as far as possible-keeping knees stiff, bend body from side to side, raising arms alternately over the head. 2. Gladstonian exercise. LYING- DOWN EXERCISES 1. Arms at side-raise chin to chest and push hands along the limbs; vice-versa. 2. Throw body to sitting position, keeping hips, knees and feet on floor; vice-versa. 3. Draw both knees back to chest and return to floor. 4. Raise both legs from the floor at the same time, keeping knees stiff; vice-versa. 674 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Education IMPORTANT SUGGESTIONS 1. Drink plenty of water with and between meals. Eight to ten glasses per day. 2. Get into the habit of following the exercise with cool or cold bath. If one has plenty of blood a cold bath is best, otherwise only take a cool bath after exercises. 3. The best time to take these exercises is upon arising in the morning. However, they can be taken the last thing before going to bed at night or during the day, but not immediately following any meal. 4. If you have any suspicion that your heart is not in good con- dition, before taking these exercises you should be examined by your family physician and follow his advice as to the way in which these exercises should be taken. 5. Remember that the only way to test the value of these exercises is to follow them regularly every day for about two months. By that time you will see the great value in performing them daily. SEGREGATION IN ABILITY GROUPS AS A MEANS OF TAK- ING INTO ACCOUNT INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES RAY H. BRACEWELL, PRINCIPAL BURLINGTON HIGH SCHOOL, BURLINGTON, IOWA We assume that students vary largely in three respects: their ability to learn, their will to learn, and their manner of learning. Although individual instruction is the easiest way to take into account individual differences, it fails for two reasons. It is too expensive. It is unsocial . Group recitation is essential. However, the unselected group as- sumes that there is a common standard of attainment and one accepted method of instruction. This assumption is contrary to our major thesis that students differ widely. Segregating students into ability groups lessens the range of variability and makes it possible for the teacher to adjust himself more nearly to the individual needs of his students. The treatment of segregated groups varies in three major respects : the quantity of work required, the standards of excellence demanded, and the methods of instruction used. Segregation will cost more than it is worth unless two administrative difficulties are met. Students must be transferred from section to section as the changing character of their work demands. Students must be assigned at registration so that the need for subsequent changes will be minimized. This suggests the use of intelligence tests and office records showing the character of previous work done. Segregating classes into ability groups enables us to carry through our democratic school program. The small enrolment of our high school of twenty-five years ago was due to two causes : a limited course of study that appealed to few students; a single standard of attainment Department] SEX EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 675 that retarded the strong and eliminated the weak student. Our modern high school with its broadened course of study has removed the first cause. Segregating students into ability groups will remove the second. I cannot think of a more democratic school administration than one under which a student may attend school for four years, follow his own best method to attain his own highest standards of excellence and to accomplish his maximum progress. SEX EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF EDUCATIONAL WORK, U. S. PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Experiments in sex education tried in the high schools of this country are either of the emergency type or of an integrated type. Emergency education takes the form of a lecture, an exhibit, a pamphlet, or some other isolated presentation of information, and per- haps exhortation, intruded from without and unrelated to the other activities of the school . The second type assumes that education is much more than instruc- tion, and deals with problems of sex as incidental to other functions of the school. Four main aspects of educational activities can be made to bear upon sex : 1. Instruction with regard to reproduction and sex comes normally as part of instruction in the various biological sciences, in nursing, or in domestic science. Venereal diseases are treated in the same way as other communicable diseases usually taught in the high schools. 2. The young people need an understanding of the place of sex in life, or what we may call the interpretation of life on the sex side. The social studies (history, civics, economics, social problems) and literature offer the best opportunities in this connection. If every teacher of English literature or of history or of home- making could take it for granted that the pupils were already acquainted with the basic facts of sex and could feel free to discuss human passions, human relations, human ideals, without prejudice and without embar- rassment, as occasions arise, there would be a tremendous gain for the pupils and the teacher as well . 3. While inspiration even more than the interpretation of life is largely indirect in its effects and only slightly explicit in its form, there is nevertheless an opportunity for the school to be of real service by having the teachers themselves face more frankly social and individual problems related to sex. 4. For taking more direct hold of the emerging impulses of youth, not only for preventing their destructive outbursts, but for turning them into productive channels, there is first of all the provision of an abun 676 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Education dance of physical exercise as a direct release of the internal strains. Boys and girls need satisfying outlets for the emotions and for the creative interests and capacities. This means a wide range of activities all the way from gymnastics and athletics and excursion, through shop work, art, and music to oratory, dramatics, and community service. The diversion both of the interest or attention, and of the surging energies not yet under control constitutes the immediate aim of many activities of the school, some of them only recently introduced into the curriculum, most of them still considered as fads or extras . Whether they take the form of supervised clubs, or systematic pro- grams of recreation ; whether they are thought of primarily as contribut- ing to "health" in the physical sense or as accessory to vocational guid- ance ; whether they are conceived as supplementary to classroom in- struction in the sense in which a laboratory is thus supplementary or as training for leisure, all of these activities are potent instruments in developing the ideals, the attitudes, and the conduct of boys and girls in respect to sex, so that the social health of the community in their mature years may be conditioned by what we do in the high school today. A SQUARE DEAL FOR THE BRILLIANT PUPIL M. R. MCDANIEL, PRINCIPAL, OAK PARK AND RIVER FOREST TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. Civilization and progress depend upon two things, a high average of intelligence of all the people, and upon the leaders. Nations that have made the most rapid development have had both. Spain and Russia have had neither. The average intelligence of the people is low and they have had no Washington or Franklin to guide them. On the other hand, South America with her Bolivar, and Italy with her Garibaldi made wonderful progress even though the average intelligence of the people was low. America stands high in general intellectual attainment and we should stand equally high in leadership. It is true we have our Edison, our Rockefeller, and, in the opinion of some, our political genius, but even he could not lead the people to see his vision of a League of Nations. We have no great poet, no Martin Luther, no Lincoln. We have been busy educating the mass, making men of average intelligence. We of course should continue to educate the mass, but no average man ever discovered Pasteurization, painted a Sistine Madonna, or wrote the Declaration of Independence or the Gettysburg Address. The success of any business, or of any school, as well as of a nation depends on leaders, yet we make no special effort to train them. If we look back over the programs of various educational meetings for a period of years, we shall find that most of the topics for discussion have been, "The Retarded Pupil," the "Backward Child," the "Submerged Department] A SQUARE DEAL FOR THE BRILLIANT PUPIL 677 Tenth. " It is time we should do more for the bright pupil, time that we should invest more of our energies where there will be a larger return on our investment. Not that we should do less for the backward pupil to be sure, but that we should do more for the brilliant one. One of the basic principles of our educational system is that it is the right of every pupil to have the highest development of which he is capable, and not the development of which his less brainy or more often less energetic fellow is capable. In training lower animals, more attention is paid to the most promising than to the slow, unspirited, and unpromising. In business and in most walks of life the most promising boy or girl, man or woman, receives most careful training, but in the schools it is too often different. In the school, to receive the maximum of attention the boy must be dull or lazy or be habitually tardy, or be especially clever in misunderstanding assignments or in arranging his headache or stomachache days to come when Babe Ruth is to play the home team. While the brilliant boy too often gets only the thought, "O, he will get along all right, I need not worry about him." Sometimes we not only neglect the pupil who has promise of becom- ing a great leader but we even stifle his ambition and his initiative. In- stead of holding up ideals of leadership before him we smile if he ex- presses any ambition to be different from the common run. Ifhis parents want something better than the average we say "fond parent, angel child." We, of course, as teachers do not commit such overt acts, but we allow the spirit of our schools to be such that it is unpopular to be a grind, to have ambition, to be different. In some schools the pupils have the idea that it is much more honorable to get C than A. America today is calling for leaders. It is a great challenge to our schools, and our schools must not fail. In many schools the promising pupil is receiving attention, and leadership is being developed. Segre- gation into ability groups is just as important for the brilliant as for the dull pupil. One dull boy sets the intellectual pace for the whole class . As another has expressed it, one dull boy can reduce the intellectual temperature of a class so far below zero that a red-blooded gray-con- voluted boy cries out with Hamlet " Oh God ! Oh God ! How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable seem to me all the uses of this world." In order to receive wireless messages the receiving sets of apparatus must be tuned up to the same number of vibrations as the sending apparatus. It is the same in sending thought messages. The pupils , in order to receive messages from and to send messages to the teacher and the other members of the class, must be tuned up to about the same number of vibrations. For the sake of the pupils as well as the teacher let us put the brighter ones together and then let the teacher turn on the gas, put her in high, and with the pupils experience the joy of intellec- tual speeding. 678 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Secondary Education But in some schools it is hard to classify into groups of equal ability. Even here the teacher, if she will give a fair proportion of her thought in planning her work to the needs of the bright pupil, can keep the lines all taut-can keep the brightest in the class pulling on the bit. If studying Macbeth, the bright ones in the class might debate the ques- tion, Resolved that Lady Macbeth was as guilty as Macbeth. It might add interest to let the girls defend Lady Macbeth and the boys Macbeth. If studying geometry, encourage the leaders to bring in a new demon- stration or to work a few more originals. In science the field is so large that it is not difficult to assign an extra experiment or to assign a piece of apparatus to be made by the pupil. Whatever the extra assignment, let it be work that will require originality on the part of the pupil. This extra work must be something worth while and not just something to occupy the pupil's time. It is even better if it is something not directly connected with the textbook, but connected more immediately with present-day affairs. Urge pupils to read the newspapers and to have and be able to express an intelligent opinion on life as it is. Remember that our pupils are living now and not merely preparing for life. Pupils should not ordinarily be promoted to a more advanced class in order to keep them busy. No, they should be kept with pupils of about the same physical age as well as with pupils of about the same mental ability. A bright boy who is promoted to a group of older boys has very little chance to become a leader. The older boys will ignore him in all their activities and simply will not allow him to be a leader in their group. As one of them expresses it in the June American Maga- zine, " I was too young to be accepted by those in my own grade, even if they had not felt a sort of antagonism toward me for being there at all. Naturally the children resented me. Anyway I wasn't big enough to compete with them on the playground, so that settled my hash with them- as for being one of the gang I was neither fish, flesh, nor fowl." He goes on to tell how it was the same through college. He was not elected to any office, was appointed on no committees, in short was a misfit and had no opportunity to exercise leadership. Some of the essential elements of leadership are initiative, original- ity, responsibility, poise, and especially ability to get along with others. One of the best means of developing these qualities is through student activities . I know that in many schools student activities are the source of much trouble. This is usually because there is either too much faculty domination or no faculty supervision at all. Activities allowed to run themselves usually run amuck, but if each activity has as adviser some member of the faculty who is sympathetic and who has kept the spirit of youth, who is willing to allow the pupils to do all of the work and most of the planning, and confine her own activities to those of adviser and guide, it will help to create a fine spirit in the school. Department of Superintendence ATLANTIC CITY MEETING, FEBRUARY 24 -MARCH 3, 1921 SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-CALVIN N. KENDALL, commissioner of education .. Trenton, N. J. First Vice-President-E. A. SMITH, superintendent city schools . .Evanston, I11. Second Vice-President J. M. GWINN, superintendent city schools ....... New Orleans, La. Secretary-BELLE M. RYAN, assistant superintendent city schools . .... Omaha, Nebr. Music was conducted throughout the meetings by Albert E. Brown, of Boston, Mass ., with Mrs. Brown as accompanist. The meetings of the general program were held on the Million Dollar Pier. Dr. Henry van Dyke, president Princeton University, Princeton, N. J., gave an address Sunday morning, February 27, on ART AND MORALS. FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FORENOON SESSION- MONDAY, FEBRUARY 28, 1921 E. U. Graff , superintendent city schools, Indianapolis, Ind., president of the Department of Superintendence for the year 1920, called the meeting to order and paid a tribute to Calvin E. Kendall, president of the Department of Superin- tendence, who was too ill to be present. He then introduced E. A. Smith, first vice-president of the Department of Superintendence, who presided at the meeting. Superintendent Boyer, of the Atlantic City schools, presented the presiding officer with a gavel which was made by the children of Atlantic City, to be presented to the Department of Superintendence. The following resolution was introduced by H. B. Wilson, superintendent city schools, Berkeley, Calif., and was unanimously adopted by the convention. Be it resolved, That in this our opening session we send greetings and good cheer to the president of this department, the Honorable Calvin N. Kendall, commissioner of education for New Jersey, and sincere expressions of regret over his absence from our sessions together with genuine hope that his full strength and vigor of health may speedily return in order that his great ability and high professional ideals may again assert themselves in the advancement of the cause of public education, for which cause no public-school administrator in America has done more than he. Be it further resolved, That our chairman be hereby directed to appoint a committee of three members of this department to bear daily to Commissioner Kendall appropriate tangible evidence of our thoughtfulness of him and that all expenses incident thereto, be defrayed from the funds appropriated for meet- ing the expenses of this convention. In compliance with this resolution, Vice-President Smith named a committee, consisting of H. B. Wilson, Belle M. Ryan, and E. U. Graff, to send flowers 679 680 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence to Dr. Kendall and to forward to him a copy of the resolutions adopted. The following letter was sent by the committee to Dr. Kendall : Honorable Calvin N. Kendall, Commissioner of Education, : Trenton, N. J. DEAR DR. KENDALL : At the opening hour of the convention this morning many thoughtful and inspiring sentiments were uttered in connection with the universal regret which we all felt at your enforced absence from the sessions of the Department of Superintendence. All of these expressions finally culminated in the unanim- ous adoption by rising vote of the following resolutions : (See resolutions as given above) Sincerely yours, H. B. WILSON, Chairman BELLE M. RYAN ELLIS U. GRAFF, Committee The following letter from Dr. Kendall was then read by the presiding officer : TO THE MEMBERS OF THE DEPARTMENT February 26, 1921 OF SUPERINTENDENCE : It is a matter of very great regret to me that on account of my health I am obliged to absent myself, under my physician's order, from the Atlantic City meeting of the Department of Superintendence. I very greatly appreciated at the Cleveland meeting last year the courtesy of the members of the Department in electing me to the presidency. This honor was a source of pleasure to me at the time, and it has been so ever since. I have greatly enjoyed preparing the program, and, of course, I hope that the meeting may be a great success and worthy of the best traditions of the Department of Superintendence. It has been my earnest endeavor to secure a high order of merit in this program. I wish to express my appreciation of the willingness of the men and women of the Department to co-operate in making the meeting a success. A surprisingly small number of refusals to serve on the program has been re- ceived. The president wishes to express his appreciation of the splendid services and fine co-operation of the secretary of the Association, Mr. J. W. Crabtree. Without his assistance, it would have been impossible for the president, under the circumstances, to carry out the program to a successful issue. The president wishes to call the attention of the Department to the very great embarrassment which the officials are experiencing each year in arrang- ing for the meetings. The Department, with its allied organizations, has now become so large that it is well-nigh impossible to find a place which can take care of the meetings. The officers last spring spent considerable time in investi- gating the merits of various cities for the meeting of 1921. Some seven or eight cities were visited, and in only one or two were adequate hotel accommoda- tions and meeting places found. The time has come, in the judgment of your president, when some reor- ganization of the winter meeting is absolutely necessary in order that the numbers attending the convention may be reduced. The readjustment of this matter is of very serious import and will require earnest study on the part of the persons most deeply interested. The meeting has, in a sense, become so great a success and so many people want to attend it that there are very few cities in the country that can take care of it; and the difficulty is bound to grow greater rather than less. The president therefore recommends either (1) that a committee be appointed to study the whole question and report at the next meeting of the Department of Superintendence; or ( 2) that the Department take action at this meeting on the specific question as to whether or not other organizations and allied associations shall be encouraged in the future to hold meetings at the time and place of the annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence. The president also recommends that since the National Education Associa- tion grants to each of the departments the privilege of electing its own officers and transacting its own business, the Department of Superintendence take action Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 681 to determine and define who shall be considered members of the Department in the election of officers and in the transaction of business. I am Very truly yours, C. N. Kendall, President The following program was then given : THE GREAT PROBLEM IN AMERICAN EDUCATION-THE RURAL SCHOOL. WHAT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED ? WHAT IS THE SOLUTION ? Will C. Wood, state superintendent of public instruction, Sacramento, Calif. Ralph Decker, superintendent Sussex County schools, N. J. W. L. Harding, ex-governor Iowa, Des Moines, Iowa. W. C. Bagley, professor of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. GENERAL DISCUSSION LED BY H. Ernest Burnham, Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. Elizabeth Kelly, State Department of Education, Raleigh, N. C. AFTERNOON SESSION-MONDAY, FEBRUARY 28, 1921 Vice-President E. A. Smith presiding. SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM I REPRESENT H. S. Weet, superintendent city schools, Rochester, N. Y. David B. Corson, superintendent city schools, Newark, N. J. Frank B. Cooper, superintendent city schools, Seattle, Wash. Randall J. Condon, superintendent city schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. In the absence of Frank B. Cooper, superintendent city schools , Seattle, Wash., his paper was read by Frank E. Willard, assistant superintendent city schools , Seattle, Wash. EVENING SESSION-MONDAY, FEBRUARY 28, 1921 THEODORE ROOSEVELT, LOVER OF BOOKS-Mrs. Corinne Roosevelt Robinson, New York, Ν. Υ. IDEALS OF THE TEACHER-Livingston Lord, principal state normal school, Charleston, I11. SUMMER MEETING OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION . Fred M. Hunter, president National Education Association, Oakland, Calif. J. W. Studebaker, superintendent city schools, Des Moines, Iowa 1 SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS MORNING SESSION TUESDAY, MARCH 1, 1921 Vice-President E. A. Smith presiding. BEST USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME. James H. Van Sickle, superintendent city schools, Springfield, Mass . Charles S. Meek, superintendent city schools, Madison, Wis., and professor of education, University of Wisconsin. H. B. Wilson, superintendent city schools, Berkeley, Calif. Charl O. Williams, superintendent Shelby County schools, Memphis Tenn. GENERAL DISCUSSION LED BY Bennett B. Jackson, superintendent city schools, Minneapolis, Minn. James O. Engleman, superintendent city schools, Decatur, Ill. REORGANIZATION COMMITTEE REPORT At the business meeting at 11:30 the following report was presented by Superintendent R. G. Jones, of Cleveland, for the committee appointed February, 1920, to report on the best method of putting into effect the reorganization plan adopted at the 1920 meeting : Your committee, appointed one year ago to determine upon and recommend aplan for the annual election of officers of the Department of Superintendence of *Superintendent L. H. Minkel, of Fort Dodge, N.E.A. state director for Iowa, took the place of Superintendent J. W. Studebaker, who was unavoidably detained in Des Moines. 682 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence the National Education Association, has assumed that the Association commis- sioned its committee to consult, so far as possible, members of the Association ; make a careful analysis of the present status, in the light of which it might possibly discern whether the Association is accomplishing the definite purpose for which it was organized; and to recommend that such immediate steps be taken as will most effectively assure the future permanence, usefulness, professional ideals, effective direction, and operation of this organization. With these ends in view, your committee respectfully submits the following report for your consideration : Organization and control-Membership in the Department of Superinten- dence shall be defined to include state, county, and city superintendents (1000 population and above) , assistant superintendents and all state and national officers of school administration who are members of the National Education Association. The Department of Superintendence shall provide its own system of financial support and shall be financially independent of the National Educa- tion Association. Officers-their duties-The officers of the Department of Superintendence shall be a president, a first and a second vice-president, secretary, treasurer, and an executive committee consisting of four members. The president, vice- presidents, and treasurer shall hold office for a period of one year from the date of election, including one full year's service in the promotion and operation of one meeting of the Department. The secretary shall be elected by the presi- dent and executive committee for an indefinite period subject to termination at the close of the February meeting of each year. Members of the executive com- mittee shall hold office for four years, one member retiring each year. At the first election the member receiving the largest number of votes in the initial election shall serve for four years, and the others for three, two, and one years, respectively, according to the number of votes received. The president shall be an ex officio member and chairman of the executive committee. The execu- tive committee shall be regarded as the administrative body of the department subject to the call of the president, to supplement and assist him in the conduct of his office. Election of officers-The procedure for the election of officers shall be as follows : Nominations shall be made from the floor on the morning of the first day's session at a time previously agreed upon by the executive committee and announced in the printed program of the meeting. 1. Method of balloting : The tickets issued by the secretary of the Depart- ment to members of the Association shall be provided with a detachable stub to be used as a ballot.. Two places for balloting shall be provided, one at the secretary's headquarters, the other at the entrance to the auditorium in which the general sessions are held. The ballot boxes shall be open for voting from 11:00 A. M. until 6:00 P. M. on the third day of the meeting. Those candidates receiving the highest number of votes for the respective offices shall be con- sidered the choice of the Association and declared elected. The entire procedure of balloting shall be in charge of the executive committee and the secretary. 2. Announcement of result of ballot : On Friday, at the regular busi- ness meeting, the president shall call for the report of the secretary, announcing the result of the ballots cast for the several officers of the Association. It is the recommendation of this committee that since its function is understood to be to examine and determine the availability of the Springer plan, proposed last year, or to propose an alternate plan, that the plan for reorganization herewith proposed be substituted for the tentative Springer plan and be set in operation at this session. It is further recommended that in this emergency the clause providing for the nomination on the first day of the meeting be read the second day of the meeting of February, 1921. Committee : A. E. Winship, editor Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.; E. C. Hartwell, superintendent city schools, Buffalo, N. Y.; H. S. Weet, superin- tendent city schools, Rochester N. Y.; J. W. Sexton, superintendent city schools, Lansing Mich.; R. G. Jones, superintendent city schools, Cleveland, Ohio. The report of the committee was unanimously adopted, nominations were made, and the secretary was instructed to print the official ballot, which was to be voted on from 11:00 A. M. to 6:00 P. M. on Wednesday, March 2. Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 683 AFTERNOON SESSION-TUESDAY, MARCH 1, 1921 Second Vice-President J. M. Gwinn presiding. THE PROBABLE FUTURE OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES ITS POLICIES AND PROGRAMS : Henry Snyder, superintendent city schools Jersey City, N. J. Lotus D. Coffman, president University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. M. L. Burton, president University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. GENERAL DISCUSSION LED BY -John W. Withers , dean school of pedagogy, New York University; formerly superintendent city schools, St. Louis, Mo. The program was given as originally planned with the exception of the paper by Robert J. Aley, who was not able to be present at the meeting. Just following the music at the beginning of the program President Calvin N. Kendall talked over the phone to the members in convention assembled and gave them the following message : If anything could relieve my regrets at not being able to be present at the meeting it would be this opportunity to say a word of greeting to the convention to welcome its delegates to New Jersey. I greet you all with sincerity and with good wishes. I hope you will not fail at your business meeting to make provision for future meetings of the Department so that your officers will not be embarrassed as to where future meetings are to be held. We can provide acceptable speakers, who have talent enough, in the Department itself to provide programs that shall be worth while, but our embarrassment lies in finding, under the present circum- stances , acceptable and commodious meeting places, because of the largeness of our numbers ; to solve this problem is the duty, as I see it, of our immediate future. The flowers which you were kind enough to send have just come. I thank you from the bottom of my heart. EVENING SESSION-TUESDAY, MARCH 1, 1921 Second Vice-President J. M. Gwinn presiding. SCHOOLING OF THE IMMIGRANT-Frank V. Thompson, superintendent city schools, Boston, Mass. WHAT ONE REPRESENTATIVE AMERICAN CITY IS DOING IN TEACHING AMERICANIZATION- Frank Cody, superintendent city schools, Detroit, Mich. PROGRESS IN THE CIVIC TRAINING OF YOUNG AMERICA-Arthur W. Dunn, specialist in civic education, U. S. Bureau of Education and associate national director, Junior Red Cross. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS MORNING SESSION-WEDNESDAY, MARCH 2, 1921 First Vice- President E. A. Smith presiding. THE GREAT NEED OF THE SCHOOLS-BETTER TEACHING. HOW SHALL WE GET Іт? Susan M. Dorsey, superintendent city schools, Los Angeles, Calif. Z. E. Scott, superintendent city schools, Louisville, Ky. Walter A. Jessup, president University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 1 Charles H. Judd, director School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. AFTERNOON SESSION-WEDNESDAY, MARCH 2, 1921 This session was given over to departmental meetings, the minutes of which appear elsewhere. EVENING SESSION-WEDNESDAY, MARCH 2, 1921 Vice-President E. A. Smith presiding. NATIONAL AID FOR EDUCATION-Congressman H. M. Towner, Corning, Iowa. ADDRESS-P. P. Claxton, U. S. Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Dr. Jessup was in Atlantic City, but on account of serious illness was not permitted by his physician to leave his room. 684 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence FOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS MORNING SESSION-THURSDAY, MARCH 3, 1921 Vice-President E. A. Smith presiding. COMPARATIVE FAILURE IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAWS-H. R. Bonner, specialist in educational statistics, U. S. Bureau of Educa- tion, Washington, D. C. HOW MAY THE PUBLIC UNDERSTAND WHAT SERVICE THE SCHOOL IS REN- DERING THE COMMUNITY-Thomas E. Finegan, commissioner of education, Harris- burg, Pa. LOCAL INFLUENCE OF THE RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION RANKING OF MON- TANA'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM--Edward C. Elliott, Chancellor of the University of Montana, Helena, Mont. 1 The report of the Canvassing Committee on the ballot under the reorganiza- tion plan adopted Wednesday, March 2, 1921, was read by Superintendent C. E. Rose, of Tucson, Arizona, chairman of the Committee. In accordance with the report of this Committee, Chairman Smith formally announced the election of the following officers : president, R. G. Jones, super- intendent city schools, Cleveland, Ohio ; first vice-president, Will C. Wood, state commissioner of education, Sacramento, Calif.; second vice-president, E. C. Broome, superintendent city schools, Philadelphia, Pa.; treasurer, I. B. Bush, superintendent city schools, Erie, Pa.; secretary to be elected by the executive committee; executive committee : Randall J. Condon, superintendent city schools, Cincinnati, Ohio, director for four years ; Frank Cody, superintendent city schools , Detroit, Mich., director for three years ; Jesse H. Newlon, superintendent city schools, Denver, Colo ., director for two years ; J. H. Beveridge, superin- tendent city schools, Omaha, Nebr., director for one year. Invitations from various places which wished to entertain the Department of Superintendence in 1922 were next received. The following cities were con- sidered : Nashville, Tenn.; Detroit, Mich.; Cleveland, Ohio ; Columbus, Ohio ; New Orleans, La.; Chicago, Ill .; San Francisco, Calif. After some discussion as to whether the president and the Executive Com- mittee or the Department should choose the meeting place, it was voted that the Department express its preference, but leave the president and Executive Com- mittee free to make the final decision. In the preferential vote, New Orleans led with 220 votes, followed by Chicago, with 120 votes. Superintendent H. S. Gruver, of Worcester, Mass., then moved that the Executive Committee be instructed to take whatever steps are necessary to amend the by-laws of this Department to make it possible for the executive officers to determine each year the place of meeting, but before the decision of the Exeси- tive Committee is rendered each year, the expression of the opinion of the Department is to be obtained as at this session. Chairman Smith then introduced President-Elect R. G. Jones, of Cleveland, Ohio, who thanked the Department for the honor conferred upon him. REPORT OF RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE The report of the Resolution Committee was then presented by its chair- man and unanimously adopted as follows : President Kendall. To Commissioner Calvin N. Kendall, president of the Department, we extend our hearty congratulations on the complete success of this convention. The notable professional and inspirational character of the whole program bespeaks the high ideals and the superb professional leadership of Dr. Kendall. His enforced absence from these meetings has occasioned extreme regret, but we most sincerely wish for him an early return to active duty. Supply of trained teachers. Recognizing the fact that half the children in the public schools are now being taught by teachers of limited education, 1The program was given as scheduled with the exception of the paper by Edward C. Elliott, who was absent from the meeting on account of important business in connection with the legislature which prevented his coming. Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 685 with little or no professional training, and without adequate educational vision and ideals, and recognizing the further fact that the value of the instruction and training of the children depends upon classroom teaching, we believe that it is of supreme importance to secure as speedily as possible for every schoolroom in the United States a competent, well-trained teacher in hearty sympathy with American ideals. To this end we urge the following measures : First, that all possible means be provided and every legitimate encourage- ment be given to have teachers already in the service extend and improve their educational equipment and professional training. Second, that colleges and universities be urged to devote particular attention toward encouraging many of their abler students to enter professional courses in educationboth for the inherent value of these courses as preparatory for life and also for the possibilities of such students being developed into teachers. Third, that in public high schools and in all other directions, teaching be presented as an opportunity for patriotic service in a time of crisis and that the many desirable and laudable features of teaching as a vocation be clearly shown and properly emphasized in order that ambitious and gifted young men and women may elect teaching as a life career. We hold that in this movement for the more adequate preparation both of students in training and of teachers already in service the minimum standard of preparation for the elementary-school teacher shall be two years beyond grad- uation from a standard secondary school and that the minimum standard of prep- aration for high-school teachers shall be four years of such preparation. We further believe, in order to encourage and stimulate higher prepara- tion and to give dignity and desirability to such advanced professional attain- ment, that preparation beyond the minimum requirement when coupled with superior teaching ability should be recognized with added increments of salary increase. Lengthened school year. We commend the growing tendency to lengthen the school year by adding to the traditional nine to ten-months' term an extra session or summer quarter of additional educational opportunities so as to pro- duce in the aggregate an offering of forty-eight weeks of schooling. This plan facilitates the maintenance of a nation-wide school year of at least 180 school days with encouragement everywhere to lengthen the year to 240 school days for those pupils who will find attendance through the extra quarter ad- vantageous. Control of school funds. We insist that it is of paramount importance for the successful administration of public education that all boards of educa- tion shall have independent and complete control of all their school finances. Increased financial support for enlarged school programs. We observe with satisfaction the increased financial support for public education in the past year, especially in the form of additional state aid toward the state-wide equalization of educational opportunity so that rural communities may have educational advantages fairly comparable with those offered in the cities. Nevertheless if the present program of public education is to be successfully developed and if in addition a more nearly adequate program is to be provided, then fully commensurate financial provisions for public education must be made in all local and state budgets for the public schools. Federal education bill. We reindorse the principles of the Smith-Towner education bill which has been reported favorably by both the House of Representatives and the Senate. We believe administrative procedure requires that many of the educational agencies now unco-ordinated in the national government be organized in a single executive department and we maintain that the dignity of the profession be recognized by placing the head of that department in the Cabinet of the President. We hold that long-established practice of the federal government in pro- viding aid to education within the states should be continued, and that the au- thorization of an appropriation by the Smith-Towner bill for the removal of illiteracy, for the Americanization of the foreign-born, and for the equalization of educational opportunities are not only necessary in the present crisis but are also completely in accord with our most securely established American practice. We call especial attention to the fact that the bill expressly provides that the organization, administration, and supervision of the schools, aided by the pro- vision of the act, shall be exercised exclusively by the legally constituted state and local educational authorities. 686 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence Committee on resolutions. The following are the members of the com- mittee : Henry S. West, superintendent city schools, Baltimore, Md., chairman ; Frank W. Ballou, superintendent city schools, Washington, D. C.; Ira I. Cam- mack, superintendent city schools, Kansas City, Mo.; Carleton B. Gibson, super- intendent city schools, Savannah, Ga.; Milton C. Potter, superintendent city schools , Milwaukee, Wis.; George D. Strayer, professor of educational adminis- tration, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. A resolution was offered from the floor and unanimously adopted commend- ing the Boy Scouts of Atlantic City for their courteous and continuous service to the Department of Superintendence. On behalf of the Executive Committee, President Hunter of the National Education Association made the following statement : The Executive Committee of the National Education Association notes with approval the statement of R. G. Jones speaking for the reorganization com- mittee of the Department of Superintendence on March 1 to the effect that the Department of Superintendence has had and should have no thought of sep- aration from the parent organization, and that the action taken in the adop- tion of the report presented by him at that time contemplated the full continuance of the Department of Superintendence as an integral part of the National Education Association as heretofore. This is of especial importance at this time because a united teaching profession is rallying rapidly and enthusiastically to the support of a great constructive national program in public education. Furthermore, any other action would have been entirely illegal and null and void under the Charter of the Association. The Executive Committee recognizes the right of a department of the Association to define its own membership. The Executive Committee announces that at the Des Moines meeting ample provision will be made to take care of all departments and sections. The needs of all classes of membership in the National Association will be fully met. To the end that we very fully know the needs and desires of all groups of our membership, a conference of representatives of all departments and sec- tions is hereby called to meet at Des Moines the first week of July, 1921. Dr. Charles E. Chadsey, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill., then presented the report of the Committee on the Status of the Superintendent, which he said was still in tentative form and on which the Committee would like to receive criticisms and suggestions. After the report was read, Superintendent Hartwell, of Buffalo, moved that the National Education Association be requested to print the report, including the final results from questionnaires, and that the members of the Committee not actually members of the Department of Superintendence be requested to continue on the Committee and to report to the Department of Superintendence at its 1922 meeting. The motion was carried. Superintendent Randall Condon, of Cincinnati, moved the following resolu- tion, which was adopted: Resolved, That, the Department of Superintendence reaffirms its full alle- giance to the National Education Association and records its intention of remaining an essential and integral part of the National Association. The 1921 meeting of the Department of Superintendence was then adjourned. SECRETARY'S MINUTES A. SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES LESS THAN 50,000. WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, MARCH 2. Chairman-H. M. Maxson, superintendent of city schools, Plainfield, N. J. Secretary-H. C. Krebs, superintendent of city schools, Somerville, N. J. The Department of Superintendents of Cities less than 50,000 of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Wednesday afternoon, March 2, at 2:30 o'clock, in the auditorium on the Million Dollar Pier, Atlantic City, N. J. Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 687 The following program was presented: FOUNDATION PRINCIPLES FOR GRADING SALARIES-E. S. Evenden, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. A Michigan Plan-T. J. Knapp, superintendent of schools, Highland Park, Mich.. A Massachusetts Plan-U. G. Wheeler, superintendent of schools, Newton, Mass. A Pennsylvania Plan-F. E. Downes, superintendent of schools, Harrisburg, Pa. This was followed by a general discussion, led by H. D. Hervey, superin- tendent schools, Auburn, N. Y. The meeting had a large attendance, and the program met with great approval and interest. B. SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES OF 50,000-250,000 WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, MARCH 2. Chairman-Louis P. Benezet, superintendent of schools, Evansville, Ind. The Department of Superintendents of Cities over 50,000 of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Wednesday afternoon, March 2, at 2:30 o'clock, in St. Paul's Methodist Episcopal church, Atlantic City, N. J. The following program was presented : A PLAN FOR REPORTING TO PARENTS THE RESULTS OF EDUCATIONAL MEASURE- MENTS-I . M. Allen, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Ill. Debate : IS THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL DELIVERING THE GOODS ?-Affirmative, Ballard D. Remy, principal of Forest Park Junior High School, Springfield, Mass.; negative, L. C. Ward, superintendent of schools, Fort Wayne, Ind. An open discussion followed, the leaders being limited to five minutes. The following superintendents spoke : M. G. Clark, of Sioux City, Iowa ; A. W. Beasley, of Peoria, Ill., and Lawton B. Evans , of Augusta, Ga. , Assistant Su- perintendent J. A. Starkweather, of Duluth, Minn., and Principal Pearson, of the Junior High School, Kansas City, Kans., took part in the discussion. C. SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES 250,000-450,000. WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, MARCH 2. Chairman-J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools, New Orleans, La. The Department of Cities over 250,000 of the National Education Associ- ation convened in regular session on Wednesday afternoon, March 2, at 2:30 o'clock, at Morris Guards Armory, Atlantic City, N. J. The following program was presented : GENERAL THEMES : How MAY TEACHERS BE PAID ACCORDING TO WORTH OR MERIT RATHER THAN BY SOME SCHEDULE PAYING ALL ALIKE, GOOD, POOR, AND INDIFFERENT ? THE MEANING OF MERIT ; THE QUALITIES AND ACHIEVEMENTS THAT SHOULD BE REWARDED BY MORE PAY-R. J. Condon, superintendent city schools, Cincin- nati, Ohio. BY WHOM SHOULD THE MERIT OF A TEACHER BE MEASURED ?-D. A. Grout, superintendent of city schools, Portland, Ore. HOW SHOULD MERIT BE MEASURED ?-B. B. Jackson, superintendent of city schools, Minneapolis, Minn.; E. U. Graff, superintendent of city schools, Indian- apolis, Ind. 688 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence RELATION OF SCHOLARSHIP AND GROWTH IN SCHOLARSHIP TO MERIT AND PAY-David B. Corson, superintendent of city schools, Newark, N. J. RELATION OF YEARS' EXPERIENCE TO MERIT AND PAY-Frank B. Cooper, superintendent of city schools, Seattle, Wash. SALARY DIFFERENCES, IF ANY, Based on RANK OR CLASS OF THE TEACHER- F. W. Ballou, superintendent of city schools, Washington, D. C.; Jesse Newlon, superintendent of city schools, Denver, Colo. RELATION OF DIFFICULTY OF POSITION AND QUANTITY OF WORK TO PAY- H. S. Weet, superintendent of city schools, Rochester, N. Y. RELATION OF NEEDS OF THE CHILD AND THE SUPPLY OF TEACHERS TO PAY- Henry Snyder, superintendent of city schools, Jersey City, N. J. How SHALL MERIT BE EXPRESSED IN THE SALARY SCHEDULE?-Ira I Cam- mack, superintendent of city schools, Kansas City, Mo. D. SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES OVER 450,000. WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, MARCH 2. Chairman-William M. Davidson, superintendent of city schools, Pitts- burgh, Pa. The Department of Superintendents of Cities over 450,000 of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Wednesday afternoon, March 2, at 2:30 o'clock, in the Hotel Traymore Library, Atlantic City, N. J. The following program was presented: THE PLACE OF THE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM IN THE NEW AMERICANIZATION MOVEMENT Frank V. Thompson, superintendent of city schools, Boston, Mass.; Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, superintendent of city schools, Los Angeles, Calif.; and Henry S. West, superintendent of city schools, Baltimore, Md. THE PROPER RELATION OF MUNICIPAL CONTROL TO EDUCATIONAL CONTROL- W. L. Ettinger, superintendent of city schools, New York, N. Y.; Ernest C. Hartwell, superintendent of city schools, Buffalo, N. Y.; and George Wheeler, assistant superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa. THE PARTICIPATION OF STATE AND NATION IN THE SUPPORT OF LOCAL SCHOOL : Frank Cody, superintendent of city schools, Detroit, Mich.; Milton C. Potter, superintendent of city schools, Milwaukee, Wis.; and John W. Withers, superintendent of city schools, St. Louis, Mo. REFINING SCHOOL STATISTICS-R. G. Jones, superintendent of city schools, Cleveland, Ohio ; P. A. Mortenson, superintendent of city schools, Chicago, Ill.; and Alfred Roncovieri, superintendent of city schools, San Francisco, Calif. THE HELPING TEACHER IN NEW JERSEY RALPH DECKER, SUPERINTENDENT, SUSSEX COUNTY SCHOOLS, NEWTON, N. J. In 1916 the legislature of New Jersey placed upon its statutes a law which reads like this : Whenever the commissioner of education shall in his opinion deem it advis- able he may appoint a helping teacher to aid and direct the work of the teachers in the schools of two or more districts, and shall fix the salary of such helping teacher at a sum not exceeding $1500 a year, which shall include all traveling expenses ; provided that no such appointment shall be effective until it is approved by the State board of education. The county superintendent shall apportion annually out of the state school money apportioned to his county the sum of $1500, to remain in the hands Department] THE HELPING TEACHER IN NEW JERSEY 689 of the county collector for each helping teacher so appointed, subject to the order of the county superintendent of schools as hereinafter provided. The salary of each helping teacher shall be paid in ten equal monthly in- stallments by order issued by the county superintendent drawn on the county collector, and paid out of money apportioned to him for that purpose. When the legislature passed that law, the most advanced step ever made for rural schools in New Jersey was taken. This statement is made advisedly and in making it the sentiments of our co-workers in rural schools, as well as our own, are included. The legislature of 1920 by a unanimous vote of both houses amended the act of 1916 by placing the fixing of salaries entirely in the hands of the Commissioner of Education subject to the approval of the State Board of Education . This concerted action on the part of the legislature is proof that the people of New Jersey have indorsed the helping-teacher movement, because as a rule legislators know the wishes of their constituents . The helping teachers in New Jersey are a carefully selected group of generous-hearted, rural-minded, well-prepared, carefully trained, tact- ful women, with broad vision and considerable practical experience in teaching and in supervising, especially in rural schools-teachers who can read human nature quickly, who know good work and good methods at sight, who know how to secure that kind of work from their teach- ers, and who are not afraid of long hours of tiresome work. They are selected by the commissioner of education and not by boards of education and are responsible to and under the direction of the county superintendent with whom they work. They are relieved of all administrative work and responsibility and their whole business is to help teachers, as their title suggests. The number of helping teachers in a county varies from one to four and the number of teachers they have under their supervision varies from twenty to fifty. With but very few and rare exceptions these helping teachers are welcomed by all our teachers. Naturally we expected some opposition from our older teachers at the beginning. In my own county, for illus- tration, all the teachers responded heartily but two. One of these we have passed on to another county, and the other still remains. We yet have a ray of hope in her case, and if she lives long enough, and we live long enough, she may be rescued from the rutted slough of con- tentment and self-satisfaction in which she is floundering at present. Today our oldest teachers are the loudest in their praises for the help- ing teacher and her work. The children's reception of her is most gratifying. They look on her as a companion and friend, and hail her visits with delight. A few 690 NATIONAL educatION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence of our communities were slow to adopt her, but after seeing the results of her work, they, too, are enthusiastic in her support. The helping teacher has brought inspiration to our teachers, our schools, and our communities. She has led them in one way or another to see the better things within their reach, and now all three are striv- ing in hearty coöperation to accomplish those things. We have been connecting the work of the helping teacher with three factors or agencies. So close is their relation that her work with any one is reflected in the others . The first factor is the teacher. The object of her work with the teacher is to improve her. This improvement must have three direct objectives : ( 1 ) to improve the teacher herself; (2) to improve her work ; ( 3 ) to improve her school. In order to improve herself the teacher must be led to see the size of her job and the opportunities and possibilities it offers. She must be led to realize that she is teaching children with the object of hav- ing them develop into the highest type of men and women, and that the books and subjects which she teaches are only the tools with which she works. She must be led to inventory her mental equipment and training to see if it fully measures up to the things required of her. She must have a desire to improve herself and the helping teacher must lead the way to summer schools, extension courses, correspondence courses, home study, reading, lectures, institutes, and other places where opportunities for improvement may be found. Improvement of her work will include daily plans and daily prep- aration. It will mean changes or improvement in methods. This may be brought about by changing the viewpoint, by demonstration lessons given by the helping teacher, by demonstration lessons in group meet- ings or by the visitation of a classroom of some particularly strong teacher. Some of our best work along this line has been to gather up the teachers of a community and take them for an afternoon in our cars to see the work of a strong teacher, and to follow their observation work with an hour's round-table discussion. Better drills, better devices, and worth-while busy work also have been fertile fields for helping teacher helpfulness. Work with the teacher that will improve her school includes assis- tance in making her program for the day so that it is psychologically arranged to get the best work from both teacher and pupil. It includes organization of the class so as to get the proper consolidation, thus saving as much time and energy as possible. It means assistance in better housekeeping, in preservation of the health of the pupils, by more attention to heating and ventilation and in placing the responsi- bility for this and many other things upon the pupils, all of which have been sadly neglected in the rural schools in the past. Department] THE HELPING TEACHER IN NEW JERSEY 691 The second factor is the schools. The results of the helping teach- er's work in and for the school are manifold. She has brought to the schools as well as to the teacher a vision of the possibilities within their reach and as a result of the combined work of the helping teacher, the teacher, and the pupils, schools have been transformed from dead, inanimate places where work is a compulsion, to live, animated, throb- bing workshops where work is a pleasure. Her work has brought better equipment, which includes more and better textbooks and supplies, seatwork material, magazines, papers, and musical instruments. She has brought renewed interest in contests, both academic and athletic. She has stimulated clubwork of all kinds, including civics, agricultural, bird, poultry, sewing, and others either carried on under the direct auspices of the school or in connection with some extension Y.M.C.A. or Y.W.C.A. leader. She has helped in the teaching of the great lesson of thrift so greatly needed by our American people, through assistance in thrift instruc- tion, thrift clubs, and school savings banks. She has vitalized the health work by the formation of health clubs, health inspection, health chores, weight charts, hot lunches, and talks on nutrition. She has helped the attendance by making the school worth while-a school that will appeal to the children. In connection with teachers and pupils school censuses have been taken. She has visited homes relative to poor attendance, and banners and pennants have been given for attend- ance and punctuality. Standard tests and, in a few instances, intelligence tests have been given, thus lielping teachers and pupils to know how their work ranked with other schools and with recognized standards. Had we time, mention might be made of project teaching, socialized recitations, motivation, and initiative which she has brought to our schools for the lasting benefit of our pupils. The third factor is the community. It was here that the helping teacher was most needed. She has touched the people from two angles : indirectly through the children and directly by coming in close contact with them. She has brought the people of the different communities together and organized them into parent-teacher associations, home- and-school associations, or community groups. These groups study the needs of the school and the community and learn the great lesson of coöperation. A whole volume would be necessary to tell of the many ways in which they have made themselves useful and of the many fine things they have done. The helping teacher has coöperated with churches, granges, farm bureaus, lodges, and other organizations wherever or whenever she could get any interest or support for her work and the result is that 692 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence rural communities are shaking off their conservatism and are respond- ing in a most gratifying way. We must not fail to speak of the play festivals, field days, get- together days, and pageants that have been given by local schools, by all the schools of a district, or by counties, bringing together crowds of people to enjoy a day of sports and other worth-while things. And now, in conclusion, the helping teacher movement has brought to the schools of New Jersey a democratic type of supervision ; a simplified type of organization and management ; an opportunity to teachers for professional growth ; it has aroused communities to their duty and their opportunities ; it has brought better equipment into our schools ; it has changed the status of the teacher, making her a true leader in the community ; it has made her more useful to the school and to the community ; it offers a good connecting link between the commissioner of education, the county superintendent, and the teacher and community; it has shown what coöperation of all the school forces of the state, county, and locality will do. We do not offer the helping teacher as the whole solution of the rural- school problem, but her regenerating and revitalizing influence on teachers, schools, and communities has made her a powerful factor, to which let us add all the consolidation and centralization we can, and then to these add a more generous financial support on the part of states for rural schools and our problem will be solved. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE RURAL SCHOOL W. L. HARDING, EX- GOVERNOR OF IOWA, SIOUX CITY, IOWA The largest, the most important, the most potential public institution in the country is that of education. The attitude which the men and women of the state, ten and fifteen years from this date, are going to assume toward life is being shaped very largely today by the teachers in the public schools. We can no longer boast that our education is just free. The new slogan is, "Education is necessary and compulsory." Recently there has been throughout the entire nation a great awak- ening on the subject of education for the masses. This awakening is largely due to men and women in the teaching profession, who, although underpaid, have dedicated their lives to the cause of better citizenship. The best conception of an educated person today is an individual whose mind is trained to enjoy and appreciate the noble things of life, whose hands are trained to do some useful labor well, whose body is symmetrically developed, whose heart is attuned to the highest impulses, and whose patriotism is grounded in the fundamentals of our form of government. The national education program should strive to bring this standard to every citizen of the country. Department] THE HELPING TEACHER IN NEW JERSEY 693 Generally speaking, the schools in the rural districts have not kept pace with the schools in the cities and towns. Country boys and girls are entitled to as good educational advantages as the boys and girls in any other locality. It is the duty of the public to furnish the best in education to all boys and girls regardless of where they are located. My interest in the rural school was first aroused when the state superintendent of public instruction came to me as governor of Iowa with certain educational problems. I had taught a few terms of coun- try school in the early nineties, when I was a young man. I had done this, as has many another, as a stepping stone to another occupation. As governor of Iowa I spent a week visiting one-room country schools. And what a revelation this visit was to me ! I found wonderful im- provement in the methods of farming and the methods of doing almost everything except education. There was the same old schoolhouse, the same old broken-down steps, the same old dirty out-buildings, the same old rickety fence that I had seen twenty-five years before. I then made a solemn vow that for the rest of my life I would devote some of my time to bettering the educational facilities of my community. In my own state during the past year, two types of schools have had special development. The consolidated school and the standard one-room school. The consolidated school is not new, but it has had unusual development and growth during the past year. On July 1, 1919, we had in Iowa 230 of these schools. From July 1, 1919, to July 1, 1920, we have voted at the rate of one for every school day. These consolidations closed 2800 one-room rural schools and are trans- porting more than 50,000 children. More than 10,000 of these pupils are enrolled in high schools. Formerly these 50,000 pupils were with- out the privilege of the high school at home. Last year these consoli- dated schools graduated more than 1800 four-year high-school students. The students in these consolidated schools take part in all the activities that are found in any other school in the country. They have their field meets, athletic contests, classes in corn-testing, stock-judging, and gardening. The standard one-room school is new in most states. It, of course, does not take the place of the consolidated school, but it does an immense amount of good for it develops better libraries, basement furnaces for heating, community dining-rooms, adequate modern cloak- room facilities, and playground equipment, and it secures better teach- ers and better methods of teaching; makes better community spirit ; and stimulates coöperation of parents, teachers, and pupils in community improvement. The solution of the rural-school problem is adequate compensation for the teacher and the county superintendent, making teaching a pro 694 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence fession, encouraging and authorizing the district wherever possible to provide housing for the teacher; hiring teachers for twelve months and paying them accordingly; promoting and encouraging the hiring of teachers for a period longer than one year; making the rural school a center where all community activities may be carried on. The American public-school system is the corner stone upon which rests the success of our form of government. It must be built on a sound economic basis. THE AIMS OF RURAL EDUCATION WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. It is a mistake to set rural education over against urban education as if the two had quite separate and distinct aims. It is an even greater mistake to assume that the country child should have a narrow type of education pointed exclusively toward the occupation that he is ex- pected to enter. The chief differences in the aims of rural and urban education grow out of the fact that the educational influences of the two environments are so different ; the aims, so far as elementary education is concerned, are not different because the objectives are dif- ferent. No less than urban education, rural education must strive to develop the good citizen who can participate intelligently with his fellow- citizens both of the country and of the city in the solution of the problems that the people as a whole must solve. This is only another way of saying that a prime function of the public school is to integrate the diverse elements that make up the nation. It must integrate and not differentiate ; it must bring people together, not separate them; it must strive to remove barriers and promote sym- pathy, not to create new barriers and multiply misunderstandings. The rural elementary school has been criticized because it does not keep children contented with farm life. A criticism put in this way carries with it its own condemnation. It implies that the rural school should strive to keep country children on the farm by a narrow curriculum based on the principles of keeping country people in happy ignorance of everything except the details of their daily work. To employ education of any type for the mere purpose of keeping people contented with their lot is to make the mistake that Germany made. It can, of course, be done ; Germany did it passing well with results that we need not refer to here . The chief business of the rural school then, is not to keep the children on the farm. The rural school should make a distinct effort to acquaint its pupils with occupations other than agriculture ; with their advantages and their disadvantages ; and with the kind of life that Department] THE AIMS OF RURAL EDUCATION 695 urban people live. It should do this in justice to the child himself. No honest discussion of the relative advantages and disadvantages of urban and rural life would tend to depopulate the rural districts. But even if some children should decide after such instruction to cast their lot in the city, I should not think it a catastrophe at all comparable to the onus that would rest upon us if we deliberately shut our eyes to the facts. The city-folk may need food, but this need justifies no one in being a party to a deliberate exploitation of country-folk-and to limit the country child to a narrow curriculum on the ground that he must be kept on the farm is about the last word in the deliberate exploitation of one class for the sake of another. On the other hand, for the rural school to be blind to the rich educative materials that lie about it is equally inexcusable. While it should not aim to keep children on the farm by providing a deliber- ately narrowed curriculum, it certainly should not go to the other extreme and imitate blindly the procedure of urban education. And certainly no one could quarrel with a policy of rural education that aimed to reveal and interpret to the country child the wealth of inter- esting things that surround him. There are infinite possibilities that devoted rural-school teachers are beginning systematically to explore and to turn to educational advantage. There is a vast difference between deliberately narrowing the country child's horizon in the hope of keeping him contented with country life and broadening his know- ledge of country life for the purpose of revealing its intrinsic wealth of interest and meaning. One is tempted to follow a little farther the underlying principle that this position involves. It is a principle that applies to urban educa- tion as well as to rural education. It involves the real meaning of the word " culture." This term has come to have a somewhat unsavory implication. We associate the "cultured" individual with the person who has been freed from the necessity of routine work and who has been able to use his time in the acquisition of merely ornamental tastes and skills and knowledges-a person, too, who is likely to feel that he is superior to the common run of workaday men and women. This conception of the cultured person is repugnant to Americans. It harks back to the social organization of the Old World, where the culture of the Sons of Mary has in the past been based upon the labor of the Sons of Martha. Imperfect as our democracy may be, it at least has supplanted this injustice by a new and far better attitude toward work. And so far as I know, the ideal that lies back of this attitude is a quite new thing in life. It has come primarily, our historians tell us, through the pro- gressive conquest of the wilderness. It was kept fresh and vigorous 696 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence throughout the land by the backwash from the frontier as the tide of population swept westward. Today the frontier has all but disappeared. American society is rapidly becoming an industrial society. Unless we take steps to prevent the catastrophe it will become a stratified society. The Old World cleavages between the Sons of Martha and the Sons of Mary already threaten us. The factory system in our towns and cities and the tenant system on our farms already menace this most signifi- cant of our national ideals . It is an important duty of the school to keep this ideal alive. This, indeed, is the great function always of institutionalized education-to preserve the worthy gains that the race has made when, under changed conditions, the influences that brought about these gains no longer operate to sustain them. And with respect to this particular gain, there is needed a new conception of culture-a conception that will apply with equal force to the Sons of Martha and the Sons of Mary. Toward the development of such a conception the efforts of the men and women who are working and thinking about rural education are clearly tend- ing. It is not in literature and art alone that the hopes, aspirations, and achievements of mankind have been caught and crystallized. A new machine, a device for reducing human drudgery, an improved tool or utensil that makes the day's work less wearisome and more productive, a new strain of live stock or an improved variety of fruit or grain perfected by long-continued selection and breeding each of these is as truly a part of the human heritage as are the great poems and the great pictures. I should say that a truly cultured person is one who sees through to the deeper meaning of the common things of life, and who because of this appreciates keenly the value of his heritage. He knows what the comforts and amenities of life have cost in terms of human effort and human struggle. If he works chiefly with his head, he has a deeper respect for those who work with their hands and the stimulus to do his share of the routine drudgery; if he works with his hands, he has a keener respect for his materials, a finer appreciation of the worth of his labor, and the stimulus perhaps to put into his work the creative element that may even make what would otherwise be drudgery a real art. Of all types of education rural education offers the greatest abund- ance of opportunities for dealing in this broad and liberalizing way with the common things of life. One has learned a basic moral lesson when one finds that weeds will grow and insects devastate quite irre- spective of human wishes, and that work must be done on time and occasionally over time if crops are to escape ruin an intense desire to go a-fishing to the contrary notwithstanding. Nor are the materials of gardening themselves nearly so commonplace as they may seem at first Department] THE AIMS OF RURAL EDUCATION 697 glance. The simplest implements-the spade, the hoe, and the trowel- have a long and honorable history. What iron has meant to the race can be as clearly illustrated here as it can in the study of modern trans- portation-perhaps even more clearly, because of the very simplicity of the tools and the ease with which their advantage over wooden implements can be shown. Practically every cultivated plant owes to human ingenuity its adaption to human needs. One may, of course, do garden work in as listless and perfunctory a fashion as one may study a lesson out of a printed book; in either case, from the educa- tional point of view, listless and perfunctory work is valueless. It is the subtle touch of the imagination that makes a book lesson tingle with life; and there is a place for this wizard to work his magic even in so apparently prosaic a task as garden-making. Because rural education should utilize the rich, educational mate- rial that its environment affords, it should not be inferred that what we ordinarily term book learning is not also a part of its program. It is safe to say indeed that the rural child needs certain school subjects even more than does the city child. His contacts with people are likely to be relatively few; hence there is a distinct need to introduce him to a group of people with whom he may continue a growing friendship throughout his life; a group of people who never grow old ; and who, if they do become tiresome, can be placed on the shelf without hurting anyone's feelings. These really great people of literature and history may indeed compensate in a very large measure for the social isolation of the open country. And if country life is peculiarly conducive to provincialism as it doubtless is, there is an antidote in geography-not, perhaps, in geog- raphy as it is too often taught but in real human geography in the study of which a competent teacher may take a group of boys and girls to every part of the globe, giving them in almost every lesson the feel- ing that they have actually "been there" ; that they know how the country looks, and how the people live, and that what they do we might do ; introducing them, too, to that wealth of fascinating literature of travel and exploration and government through the independent study of which even the isolated farmer may become in a very real sense a citizen of the world. The possibility of realizing the broad purposes of rural education depends first of all upon getting into the rural schools a group of devoted, mature, and well-prepared teachers. The public-school service in the cities has become a relatively stable occupation. The average city teacher now serves about nine years. The standards of preparation, while still too low, have made gratifying advances within the past few decades, and the clear tendency now is to advance the training of city 698 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence elementary-school teachers to a three-year and ultimately to a four- year basis. But the rural and village teachers are still a transient group ; their average term of service, taking the country as a whole, is not more than three years . This is the type of teacher that personifies the educational opportun- ities to which the country child is commonly limited :-a girl seventeen, eighteen, nineteen years old, with two, three, or four years of education in a small high school, in some cases with a little professional training necessarily superficial but even then better than none at all; unfamiliar- sometimes unsympathetic--with country life; often going home every Friday night, and sometimes by trolley or automobile every night ; with no professional interests or enthusiasms ; and often quite without a serious purpose. Into the hands of some hundreds of thousands of such teachers is given the most serious of all our collective duties-the preparation of a clear majority of the voters of the oncoming genera- tion for the responsible duties of American citizenship. Against this background of the existing type of rural teacher it is well to project the type that the service needs ; a mature man or woman ; well-grounded in the fundamentals of elementary and secondary educa- tion, and with the additional equipment provided by two, three, or, better, four years of a broadly conceived, specialized education pointed directly toward this important job ; fired with a love of country life, familiar with its problems, competent to the difficult task of making the rich environment that lies all about the school yield up its valuable lessons ; competent as well to open to the country child the world that lies beyond his horizon; living in the community as a part of it, perhaps as its very soul and center; proud of his profession but humble with a sense of its responsibilities; ambitious not to attain "promotion" in the current meaning of that term, but finely ambitious to grow in a work in which the possibilities of growth have no limit. It goes without saying that the rural-school service must be made attractive ; to scold teachers for avoiding it under present conditions does not help in the least to solve the problem. We scold teachers too much as it is even we in the profession scold each other too much. What is needed is effort of another sort ; constructive effort to improve conditions, to convince the people as a whole that the rural school, of all our educational institutions is closest to what is formative and abid- ing in our national life, and that the improvement of the rural school is a responsibility which the city folk must share with the country people ; to convince the people of the small towns and cities that the outlying rural schools do not exist primarily for the purpose of supplying tem- porary jobs for the girls graduating from the local high schools, and that to use them as unsupervised training stations from which to recruit Department] THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM 699 teachers for the town and city schools is a crime against the country children; to convince everyone everywhere that those who condone the use of teaching positions in the weaker schools as stepping-stones to other occupations or even to teaching positions in the stronger schools imply thereby, as Mark Keppel has so clearly pointed out, a willingness to let little children be stepped on and trodden over. We are here face to face with one of the most serious of the obstacles that stand in the way of social and civic progress in this great country of ours-namely the attitude of the people toward the rank- and-file workers in the public service. Only the other day, a good friend of mine expressed himself vigorously regarding the inefficiency of the public schools and in the next breath he said that he could not understand how any ambitious and red-blooded individual could ever wish to be a teacher. I have heard many high-minded citizens of our large cities complain of the inefficiency and corruption of the police service ; I have yet to find one who has suggested to his high-minded son that he enter this service in order to make it better. This is not in the least to justify either poor teaching or inadequate police protec- tion. It is simply to recognize that the public stands in its own light when it permits its own service to be belittled. In time of war the attitude is different. One who would then imply that only failures entered the army would be very properly branded as a traitor. Is the attitude of disrespect any less culpable in respect to those branches of the public service that are just as important in times of peace as is the service of public defense in time of war ? Appreciation is not an expensive luxury for those who indulge in it. All that it costs is a little thoughtfulness and a little consideration. But, slight though its cost, it may make all the difference between a drab, soul-killing existence and a vigorous, buoyant, joyous life, replete with satisfying experience and worth-while achievements. THE RURAL SCHOOL—THE GREAT PROBLEM IN AMERICAN EDUCATION ERNEST BURNHAM , DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION , WESTERN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KALAMAZOO, MICH . Long-continued decreases in population in wide agricultural areas, new processes of production, the discovery of new sources of raw power, together with the invention of mechanisms for the application of this new power to the labor of home and farm, and the constant percolation of applied intelligence from the state colleges and experi- ment stations for more than half a century, with the quick acceleration in this process begotten by the world-war-these and many other causes have made a new rural life. The time element in this transformation 700 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence has been too long to allow any one generation adequately to appreciate the change. This fact and the prodigality with which the country has bestowed its wealth and its leadership upon the city may well be kept in mind in any attempt to appraise rural education. The political task of rural education is the age-old national problem of maintaining a contented and efficient rural population. The solu- tion sought is one that can be squared with every consideration of actual transparent democracy. Education is America's answer-not a passive conclusion-but attack by the total impact of resources and leadership which a great national need challenges. The purpose of this program is the uncovering of additional resources not already in use; the definite, permanent enlistment of a due proportion of America's educational leadership; and the identification of immediate, presently obtainable objectives, as well as the more general aims to be ultimately achieved in rural education. Rural life does not lack an illustration of the significance of greatly increased resources when applied to one of its problems. The great national economic and social problem of the common roads has had assembled for its solution the financial means resulting from the coöperation of the nation, the states, and the local communities. En- gineers for this task are volunteering, and when public consciousness of this far-flung work has fully come, it will be known that here again the United States keeps and quickens the pace set in national achieve- ment by the transcontinental railroads and the Panama Canal. Intelligence which has become provincialized by location, vocation, profession, and deep-set ossified habits of interest, is the chief obstacle to the successful handling of the great national problem of rural educa- tion. The farmer, who said that the chief benefit of good roads to him was that he might get away from home, revealed by his remark a philosophy of life which may well be seriously considered. The middle-aged mother, who having reared her family came to summer school and on being asked if she would return home for the fourth of July holiday replied "I have been 'holed-up' there too long already," had the same idea. A quick glance at actual results in rural education achieved by one state in the past thirty years shows : ( 1 ) The school year has been lengthened from six and seven-tenths to eight and three-tenths months; an actual gain of 25 per cent. (2) The enrolment advanced from 71 per cent to 80 per cent of the school census, and the attendance of enrolled pupils rose from 68 per cent to 86 per cent. (3) At the beginning of the period 17 per cent of rural schools had an organized course of study; at the end of the period all had such a course. ( 4) In the last third of the thirty years the number of rural pupils going Department] THE SCHOOL DERELICT 701 to high school trebled. (5) In 1889, 3 per cent of the rural teachers had normal-school certificates and in 1919, 46 per cent had such certifi- cates. (6) Within the last seven years 10 per cent of the rural schools of the state have modified school plants to meet a state standard. (7) For the past five years building and heating equipments added have fulfilled a state requirement. (8) Consolidation is new in the state but is gaining momentum. Best of all the state leadership realizes that the pace set by this splendid past must now be quickened. Rural education was first capitalized intellectually by the report of the Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools in 1897. Occasional flash-lights like that turned on the subject by the N. E. A. committee of 1905 on "The Industrial Education of People Living in Village and Rural Communities" have shown one outstanding idea, that the introduction of industrial subjects. in rural schools must not outrun the preparation of the teachers of such subjects. Education is an introduction to life. Life is too rich and full to permit of total mastery, and the individual must, for the time being, make himself master of differentiated segments of knowledge. The safety of democratic government rests in the public aim to acquire in each individual citizen the largest possible total number of such segments before the preoccupations of adult life slow up further growth. This public purpose should be pushed to the limit in rural life. THE SCHOOL DERELICT ELIZABETH KELLY, DIRECTOR OF COMMUNITY SCHOOLS FOR ADULTS STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, RALEIGH, N. C. In the short time assigned for this discussion, I shall try to call attention to some outstanding conditions in the one- two- and three- teacher rural school which is still a part of the public-school system. I hold no brief for this derelict of the public-school system, and were it not for the fact that such a large percentage of today's school enrol- ment is on the registers of these schools, I should not dare offend by dragging in a subject that among educators is universally unpopular, admittedly not dead, but professedly forgotten and supposedly not to be discussed as a part of "The Great Problem of American Educa- tion." The general attitude has been to ignore any possibility of worth- while work being done in this type of school, and a constantly grow- 6 ing tendency toward a policy of absolute neglect has been pursued with reference to buildings, equipment, teachers, and, I wish I might add "course of study"-here is where the powers that be have been extremely attentive to the point of overwhelming teacher and pupil with fatal solicitude. 702 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence The general rule of procedure is to supply this type of school with teachers who are mental or physical culls from the professional scrap- heap, or, at best, with teachers untrained or untried, or both. Have you ever known one of these teachers assigned to a school while the assignor as a sort of self-justification remarked : "They will not know the difference over there, and, maybe if they do, it will make them consolidate ?" But what of the boys and girls who must depend en- tirely upon this school for all they may ever have in the way of school- ing ? And would it not be more reasonable to lead a community to believe in consolidation and an approved type of school if a good teacher were blazing the way, than if a poor teacher were marking time ? I have often wondered what might be the result in the way of possible consolidation if the best teachers should be put in the neglected and almost-forgotten school sections for one year. Isit possible that the cart has been sometimes put before the horse in the consolidation scheme ? Of course, this plan would call for big salaries for rural teachers, and that has never as yet been considered wise or necessary in the present scheme of things. I would pay any capable teacher at least one-third more for her services in a rural school than in an urban system. This policy, and this alone, will result in attract- ing a sufficient number of qualified teachers to rural schools, and at the same time will deprive the piratical urban superintendent of his most powerful ally when he undertakes to recruit his crew from occasional "bright" teachers who are developing out in some country school in spite of the system. And what of the course of study for these one- two- and three- teacher schools ? The course of study planned for a long-term, well- equipped school with all needed trained grade teachers and supervisors would seem to be unsuited to a school and teachers such as are found in the "derelict" class. Yet that is precisely what has happened and is happening today. I purposely use "happened" because no well- thought-out plan could have resulted in permitting this thing, much less in intending it to be done. In making a study of native adult illiteracy I have found as one of its big contributing causes the smatter- ing way in which inefficient teachers must teach such a quantity of matter as outlined for the grades in the approved course of study. Would it be wise to decide upon a few essential things that Mr. Every Man's child must know in order to acquire knowledge for himself, and let these things be taught well ? I do not believe that the one- two- and three-teacher school is so much a predestined sinner as it is a prescribed sinner and an outlaw perforce. Of course, I would not have it understood that I am an advocate of any type of rural school other than the consolidated or other higher Department] SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS 703 type school where physical conditions will permit consolidation and transportation. However, I have continually in mind the hundreds of boys and girls who are now depending upon the derelict school for their schooling. I am also remembering the several school generations that must depend upon these same schools before possible consolidation may be realized. The further fact is to be considered that there must remain some schools not able to be consolidated. I believe the tragedy of the rural situation today is that such a great percentage of our future citizenship is being sinned against by the educational system that denies the possibility of any good resulting from the one- two- and three-teacher school. Would it be wise to discontinue the use of the ox and the horse as a means of conveyance because the automobile and the airplane are more modern and more effective generally ? May I remind you that there is still a great need for the ox and the horse and until that need is met, it will be foolish to talk only in terms of automobiles and airplanes ? SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE ROCHESTER SCHOOL SYSTEM HERBERT S. WEET, SUPERINTENDENT CITY SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N. Y. The complexity of any modern city-school system is such that its activities seem almost innumerable, and yet, for each activity there is, or should be, a well-defined aim or ideal. Furthermore, each of these manifold undertakings is designed to play an indispensable part in that all-comprehensive task of making intelligent, law-abiding, and responsi- bility-sensing citizens of the Republic. To discuss isolated activities without relating them to this ultimate aim of all public-school work is to endanger perspective; and to dwell on ultimate aims, however worthy, is to lose ourselves in generalities. We shall, accordingly, attempt to avoid these extremes by sketching, first, the larger units of school organization and the characteristic work which each has to perform ; and secondly, by discussing certain factors which are for the most part common to these units and essential to their success . Of these larger units of school organization there are six : the ele- mentary, consisting of the kindergarten and grades one to six inclusive ; the intermediate or junior high, Grades VII, VIII, and IX ; the second- ary or senior high, Grades X, XI, and XII; the city normal of two years; the continuation or part-time unit; and finally, the unit for adult education. We believe in the kindergarten because of its possibilities for be- ginning and effectively continuing the development of character qualities through social coöperation. To the kindergarten is intrusted the great responsibility and the delicate work of so balancing self-expression and 704 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence self- repression as to develop a human personality that is at the same time self-sufficient, yet coöperative. All attempts to test the full value of the kindergarten in the later school work of the child have failed so far as anything like scientific conclusions are concerned, and they will continue to fail in so far as the kindergarten realizes this ideal because the kindergarten is essentially a thing of the spirit and not of the letter. We are vastly more concerned with having the primary grades catch the spirit of the kindergarten and lead it on to its fulfilment than we are in having the kindergarten prepare for the first grade in the sense ordinarily understood. In Rochester there are forty-three elementary schools and with but one exception kindergartens are provided in all. The one exception is in a school but recently annexed. The widespread establishment of this unit is due to foresight that was manifested more than thirty years ago, for it was in 1888 that kindergartens were permanently established in the public-school system of Rochester. The dominant aim of education during the remainder of this ele- mentary-school period should be to lay the foundation in those common elements which are essential alike to the later progress of the individual and to the welfare of the country. A proper respect for the rights of the child and the needs of the community dictates an education during this period that will advance the child in his ability first, to read, write, and speak correctly the English language, and to know and use in- telligently the elementary processes of arithmetic; second, to know and to observe the laws of health and well-being; third, to know and to appreciate the geography and history of his own community, state, and nation and of the world at large; to realize his share in the social, civic, and industrial order of a democracy, and to meet the obligations which such knowledge and appreciation should engender so that justice, sym- pathy, and loyalty may characterize his personal and community life ; fourth, to share intelligently and appreciatively the fine and useful arts through the pursuit of drawing, music, and literature and of manual training and the household arts as they are related to the three universal needs-food, clothing, and shelter. So far as our own community is concerned, we believe that the elementary-school period should cover the first six grades only, and that then the junior high school unit should be introduced for the next three grades. The junior high school conceived of as anything short of varied facilities and groupings primarily for purposes of general education is not to be defended. The vocational elements loom larger in some cases than in others, according as necessity requires an early departure from school and consequently dictates an early though premature choice. For Department] SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS 705 the public schools to ignore the needs of this large and important group, by failing to provide facilities adapted to their needs, or to gage their needs from the needs of what might be called the academic type to whom the college is accessible and from whom the professions are to be recruited, is the undemocratic course. And what shall be said concern- ing those who may or may not remain in school beyond the time when the law releases them ? Whether they remain or withdraw depends almost wholly upon the ability of the public school to hold them . But if the approach be from the angle of recognizing the changed and changing factors in education during these characterististic years from twelve to fifteen, then the same conclusion is reached ; namely, that a wider range of facilities is required than can consistently be provided for each elementary school. During these years of pre- adolescence and early adolescence the normal boy and girl are con- sciously trying to find themselves in terms of life's work. The great vocational highways through which youth hopes to reach its promised land are now natural and fitting subjects for serious consideration. The one leading to college and professional life has ever been kept open and lighted by the secondary school, and it is vital to the welfare of all that it should be, but it is not the only highway. All the experiences of life beyond the school and of failures and withdrawals within should have taught us that lesson. Has the school no responsibility for lighting up these other great highways of commercial and of industrial and of home life, when we know that these are the highways which through choice or necessity the great body of our boys and girls will take ? A third approach to this problem concerns the larger development of this responsibility-sensing process as related to civic duties. We may teach civics and preach civics, but we shall not even approximate our possibilities for arriving at right civic conduct until definitely or- ganized attempts are made to enable our boys and girls to live out in the school community the true principles of civic conduct. Our work in health education and physical training today is actually influencing the physical conduct of pupils. No one now questions it. But this did not become true until we clearly saw that not an examination in physiology but right physical conduct was the only effective test of health education. The same principles hold with reference to civics. The textbook study of civics plays no larger part in the civic conduct of boys and girls than the study of the science of language, as we know it through formal grammar, plays in the art of using correctly the English language. And this is no sarcastic reference to the textbook study of these subjects. They have their place, but at best they are only a means of reaching one side of the kind of education they are designed to advance. We believe that the junior high school, as a separate unit, offers peculiar advantages for the development of this art of living out the true princi 706 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence ples of civic life. It affords that kind of essential homogeneity which is so difficult, if not impossible, to secure under other conditions. We are now completing the sixth year of the first such school to be estab- lished and the second year of the second school. A third and fourth are now in process of construction and their completion will fulfil the original plan of the board of education to provide one such central school for each quarter of the city. Thus far our development of the secondary unit has been toward the cosmopolitan high school rather than toward the special school. Due largely to a local condition, these senior high schools have their lines of work restricted almost entirely to the general college prepar- atory and to the commercial courses. This local condition is the pres- ence of Mechanics Institute, an excellent institution for practical arts, which has stimulated an appreciation of the importance of these arts, and has quite naturally been regarded by many people in the city as providing adequately such educational facilities of this type as the city requires for the secondary school. Whether the development of these technical, industrial, and household arts courses in our junior high schools will ultimately point the way to special high schools of the technical order, or to provisions for doing these lines of work in the present high schools, time alone can tell. In the light of the larger aims of public education the contacts of the cosmopolitan high school are to be preferred to the comparative isolation of the specialized school. The continuation or part-time unit was established last September and has thus far included boys and girls only who, born since Septem- ber 1, 1905, have withdrawn from the regular day school and are now employed. It is on the minimum basis of four hours each week. Four years have been allowed by the state for bringing into this part-time school all the boys and girls for whom it is designed. The unit for adult education is essentially the same as that estab- lished in every city-school system of the land. It embraces the evening schools and the work among the adult non-English-speaking people. Very likely the only respect in which it might differ favorably from corresponding units elsewhere is in its provision for health courses for adult women. For seven years now these courses have been given. Trained nurses and physicians have been provided as instructors by the Board of Education. The attendance, on the other hand, has been guaranteed by the Chamber of Commerce with the result that during these years more than two thousand adult women have been instructed in the fundamentals of health education from the prenatal period to adult life. No discussion of the forces which affect child life, and through child life community welfare, in Rochester would be complete without Department] SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS 707 some word of recognition of the public service of Mr. George Eastman . About three years ago the Rochester Dental Dispensary, primarily for the benefit of the boys and girls of school age, was established and endowed by Mr. Eastman. With characteristic vision and sanity Mr. Eastman conditioned this contribution in part, upon the willingness of the city to contribute annually twenty thousand dollars for prophylactic treatment for school children as well as for charting all oral conditions that required attention. The Dispensary has done such corrective work as the willingness and the financial ability of parents warranted. Last summer 1470 children had diseased tonsils and adenoids removed. This action intensified Mr. Eastman's interest and consequently the hearty coöperation of every hospital in the city was secured and a public clinic was established in which the best professional service of the city has been available. In harmony with Mr. Eastman's interest in advancing a knowledge of and a respect for the laws of health is his recent contribution of five million dollars for establishing a school of medicine at the University of Rochester, thereby duplicating a gift of five million dollars from the General Education Board to that institution. He has not confined his philanthropy to the field of health but has donated more than twenty thousand dollars for the purchase of instruments for the development of instrumental music in our public schools. He has, furthermore, established the School of Music in connection with the University of Rochester, at a cost of more than four and one-half million dollars. The recent announcement that the great Finnish com- poser, Sibelius, and the world-famed organist, Joseph Bonnet, will be among the teaching staff of this school for the coming year, is an ample guaranty of the quality of service which this institution will render. Accomplishments in terms of ideals are but relative and approximate at best. There is no greater challenge to idealism in our national life than that made by our public schools. That person whose eyes are turned toward them to search out their faults and imperfections will be rewarded for his search quite as surely as he would be if he were like- wise to search the home, the church, and individual character itself . But no right-minded person can reflect upon the value of the public schools to this Republic during the crises of the past half-dozen years, or upon their share in the part America must play in the years ahead with anything less than a renewed faith in their idealism and a renewed determination to enlarge their accomplishments. SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE NEWARK SCHOOL SYSTEM DAVID B. CORSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWARK, N. J. The belief which animates Newark is that its children constitute its chief asset and that there is a great civic obligation to provide in a liberal 708 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence manner the inestimable privileges of education. The facilities of the school system are available for community service and there is active effort to instruct not only the foreign adult but all who seek self- improvement and advancement. The conviction which animates the management and leadership of the schools is that education consists not only in the attainment of knowledge but in the formation of right habits, the acquisition of requisite manual and intellectual skill, and the development of personal power and worthy character. One of the great ideals of the Newark school system is the conserva- tion of health. The aim is not only that individual personal improve- ment shall be made but that a nation of hardier men and women shall be developed. The accomplishments include existing health clubs and health associations organized to form health habits based upon the instruction given in hygiene. Most of the schools have well-equipped gymnasiums, and there is a large athletic field where competitive games and athletic contests are held. Much attention is given to mass athletics, the theory being that the 'varsity teams have their place in fixing stand- ards of athletic prowess and in creating loyalty to the several schools but that all students must be trained for physical endurance and achieve- ment. Play is recognized as of great educational value. All but one of the regular schools have well-equipped kindergartens. Games are played in the elementary grades, and organized play is substituted for the old-time disorderly recess. The playground system comprises after- school, summer, and all-year playgrounds. The Board of Education now controls all municipal organized play activities. The program includes social and recreational centers open at night, where clubs meet and games and dancing are encouraged under supervision. The city is divided into medical inspection districts with a physician in charge of each, and with trained nurses assigned to the several schools. The medical department has its own building and its own clinics for dental, optical, and orthopedic cases. At first, specialists in the city gave their services gratuitously, but there are now paid clini- cians. There is an Advisory Board of three distinguished physicians who serve without remuneration to aid the medical and physical-educa- tion departments in the corrective work in orthopedic, goiter, and cardiac cases. The psychological clinic has a specialist of broad training and extensive experience with two trained assistants, and a third spe- cialist who assists in the mental examination of children. Still another ideal is preparation for a vocation, evidenced first in the prevocational work done in the special activities in the alternating schools. These activities are gardening, cobbling, printing, typewriting, wood-working, electrical wiring, mechanical drawing, sewing, cooking, Department] SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS 709 and costume and other designing. In these schools daily recitations in double periods in some one of these activities is provided for both boys and girls. The evening schools provide not only work of similar nature and about the same scope for youth and adults, but some work more clearly vocational which appeals to those employed in the trades who desire to improve themselves. We have a School of Industrial Arts with a large evening enrolment. The purpose of the school is to prepare students to unite the skill of the trained artisan with the knowledge and taste of the artist so that utility and beauty may be combined in manufactured products. The vocational work consists of continuation classes in factories, continuation schools of the prevocational type, and of vocational schools. The continuation schools were opened in September last and are for children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen to whom "age and schooling certificates" have been issued. There is a vocational school for boys and one for girls. The range of their work is that usually found in schools of their type. The Board of Education is now constructing a new building to accommodate eight hundred boys, at a cost of more than a million dollars. There are other types of school work not generally called vocational -the art, the commercial, and the academic. We have in Newark high schools a curriculum which provides for music or art as majors, thus permitting gifted students in either of these fields to obtain a good, general high-school education while studying the special vocational sub- ject. The commercial curriculum provides, in addition to the special technical subjects of the bookkeeper, clerk, or stenographer, that cul- tural subjects shall also be studied. The dominant educational ideal of the Newark school system is the development of sterling character. To achieve it the authorities seek to realize three subsidiary ideals ; namely, to make the instruction in the schools vital and not formal, to make the school organization flexible and comprehensive, and to make capable and successful teachers as happy as possible. The chief subsidiary ideal is that instruction shall be vital and pur- poseful, not merely formal. To accomplish this, courses of study have been simplified and modernized. The results of the instruction have been tested in a number of surveys of the essential subjects conducted by our own Department of Reference and Research. Two series of educational meetings are held each year by members of the superintend- ent's staff for guidance and inspiration of teachers . The children of fortunate parents are well equipped to profit by instruction when they enter school because of favorable environment 710 NATIONAL education AssocIATION [ Superintendence and association. There are many under-privileged children in the schools who lack this preparation. We have in the school system a secondary means for providing this enriching experience in a depart- ment of visual education, well organized and well equipped with a central film library and with apparatus in many schools for showing the pictures. This department provides the opportunity for privileged, as well as under-priviledged children, to broaden their knowledge by ob- servation in widely extended fields. Programs are arranged in the superintendent's office and are planned for instruction and not entertain- ment. To make instruction function as vitally as possible an important experiment in the classification of the children in the Newark schools is now well inaugurated. The standard size of classes is thirty pupils in grades above the seventh, and forty pupils in grades below the eighth, but smaller classes are authorized in shops and special departments and in cases where the right grading requires it. The plan is to have classes of reasonable size and to make them as homogeneous as possible and to adjust the subject-matter of instruction in both quantity and quality to the ability of the children. The scheme of classification is : A. The supernormal children, or those intellectually superior. B. The normal children, divided into three main groups. I. The ones, those intellectually bright and able to do work of three five- months' terms in two II. The twos, those ordinarily capable and able to do the work of a five-months' term in five months III. The threes, those slow, but able to do the work of a five- months' term in approximately seven months. C. The subnormal children, divided into three groups : I. The moral defectives, those incorrigible or chronically insub- ordinate II. The physical defectives, such as the deaf, or otherwise physi- cally handicapped III. The mental defectives, the morons and high-grade imbeciles. It is estimated that about two per cent of the school population is of superior intelligence and that these children are deprived of their rights by hampering conditions in ordinary classes. The desirable plan is to segregate them, to afford them ample opportunity to gain time in their educational career, and to provide instructions fitted to their capacities and needs. We have not yet fully developed our plan, but in due time there will be centers established for these children . Tem- porarily the supernormal are classed with the ones of the normal division. We have restoration classes in elementary schools for those who for any reason have fallen behind, and coaching or service classes Department] SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS 711 in the high schools. During the summer elementary and high schools are maintained to assist pupils to improve their work and to gain time by extra study. It is clear that we cannot use the same standard of accomplishment in these different classes. There must then be recognized three different treatments of the same subject: that for the threes, limited in nature with much formal drill; that for the twos, not so formal but broader in scope with more associations ; that for the ones, even broader in charac- ter, including more content and a study of relations, such as cause and effect. The three treatments may be termed the mechanical, the con- ventional, and the philosophical. The moral defectives are transferred, when necessary, after full investigation by the department of compulsory attendance, to schools distant from their homes, on the theory that a new environment and new association may effect reform. If not successful, they are, after examination by the psychologist, sent to special schools called ungraded schools. This is usually effective, but when it is not they are taken by court action from their ignorant parents and street associations and committed to the Newark City Home, an institution maintained in the country, where every possible provision is made for their welfare and education. Another plan in making instruction function as vitally as possible is the method of teaching the manual arts and some other subjects of the curriculum. In Newark the manual arts were taught for many years by giving one lesson a week in all grades, with the exception of domestic science in Grades VIIA and VIIIA in place of domestic art. The one-lesson-a-week plan did not afford sufficient time for pupils to ac- quire the desirable skill. The interest was sporadic rather than cumula- tive, and much of the instruction needed repetition. We have introduced an "intensive method" of teaching the manual arts; that is, a lesson each day for boys in manual training and one each day for girls in domestic art or domestic science for a period of approximately five weeks, fol- lowed by the subjects, music, hygiene, and civics for an equal period of time. Drawing every day is then substituted for another five weeks, and so the alternation continues. The second subsidiary ideal is that the organization of the school system shall be elastic and comprehensive. Newark has an all-year system of schools within her traditional system. There are ten of these schools ranging in enrolment from 1522 to 2568 pupils. There are elementary schools, two special schools, a junior high school, a senior high school. There are four terms of twelve weeks each, with vacations coincident with those of the regular school system. It is possible for the capable children to cover the ele- 712 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence mentary course in six years instead of eight and the secondary course in three years instead of four. Those capable of gaining time have the privilege; those who should not gain time need not be retarded beyond the period that they would have attended the traditional schools. The traditional schools in Newark are being supplanted by the alternating or modified Gary schools. They begin at 8:30 in the morning and close at 3:45 in the afternoon. The plan of organization is valuable because it primarily affords better educational opportunities. Newark is developing, too, a system of junior high schools consist- ing of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. At present all of these schools are in large elementary schools where the appeal of the new opportunity to begin secondary work early is an effective means of keep- ing the pupils in school for one more year. Since great numbers of pupils do not survive the first year in the secondary schools, it is better to make the ninth year a goal from which pupils may depart accredited as graduates of the junior high schools, rather than have them with- draw from the senior high schools. More pupils stay to finish the junior high school course than formerly remained for the first year in the senior high schools. The Newark school system includes a junior college, established two and one-half years ago, giving Freshman and Sophomore work of distinctly collegiate grade. While housed in a building with a high school, the junior college is separate in aim, in methods of instruction, in texts used, in laboratory work, in recitations, and in customs and spirit. The faculty is composed of successful high-school and college instructors holding graduate degrees. The courses are arranged for students desiring to obtain baccalaureate degrees and for those wishing to enter secretarial, journalistic, or medical courses in other colleges or in universities. Students must be graduates of a four-year high-school course, and must take college admission examinations if they expect to proceed to a degree. Seventy of the best institutions in the country have agreed to admit the students on the same basis as students from other colleges. Fifteen of the seventeen graduates in June entered, without conditions, Rutgers, Brown, Princeton, the medical college of the University of Maryland, and other institutions of equal rank, and are making satisfactory and creditable records. The third subsidiary ideal is the selection of good teachers and the conservation of their happiness. The teachers are the most important factors in education, because their insight and attainments and character influence the pupils powerfully. Newark has made provision for the selection of well-equipped and competent teachers by a system of competitive examinations conducted by a board of examiners composed of the superintendent and six pro- Department] SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS 713 fessional associates. This board has the statutory right to license teachers. Its members must possess teachers' licenses or an education equivalent to that required to obtain them. The effort is made to secure the happiness of teachers by making the conditions under which they work comfortable and attractive and by providing adequate compensation for acceptable service. For years teachers have had permanent tenure after a probationary period. The teachers belong to a state disability and pension system. The salaries, though less than metropolitan salaries, are good. There have been several new schedules adopted in successive years and another will be- come operative in September, 1921. The minimum salary will be $1500 in elementary schools and the maximum $4400 for heads of departments in high schools. The annual increment is $100 in the lower and $200 in the higher schedules. The Board of Education appointed a salary schedule committee composed of representatives of the board and of teachers' organizations, together with the superintendent and other officials to discuss and to formulate salary schedules and to prepare rules for their operation. Some years ago the superintendent developed a system of collegiate and professional training in coöperation with New York University for training teachers in service. To stimulate teachers to broaden their scholarship and to improve their professional equipment the board, following the precedent, adopted a rule that permits teachers to be advanced one additional step on the schedule every three years provided they present certificates covering collegiate work, or an advanced degree, or research work of approved quality, and have made a record in the classroom of at least good during the period for which recognition is sought. Furthermore, there is provision for granting of leaves of absence of one year for study and observation to teachers of ten years' service, and a year for rest and recreation after twenty years' service. The great national ideal of educational effort is the making of worthy and loyal American citizens. For this we have an Americanization program for the adult foreign-born. It covers the maintenance of classes in the evening schools where not only spoken and written Eng- lish is taught but where the ideals of American life and character and the responsibilities of American citizenship are stressed. This we seek to do in all schools for all Americans. It is a Newark ideal to perfect her schools to this end and as a helpful means to inaugurate a system of educational guidance founded upon psychological tests that shall eventually help pupils select the type of work they are best able to do efficiently. There must be no blind lanes but rather open roads, broad and level, leading to the coveted goals of life-personal efficiency, worthy character, and thoughtful and loyal American citizenship. 714 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence THE IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE SEATTLE SCHOOL SYSTEM FRANK B. COOPER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SEATTLE, WASH.¹ In undertaking to prepare this paper I asked thirty or forty of my co-workers, assistant superintendents, supervisors, principals and teach- ers, to write a statement of what they conceived to be the ideals and accomplishments of the Seattle school system. The response showed thoughtful consideration of the question with a view to determining the purposes and trend of the school organization and its measurable achievements. Therefore, this attempt of mine to answer the ques- tion is a composite. The following statement by an assistant superin- tendent lays out the ground clearly and well; "The aim of the Seattle schools is to provide for each pupil the conditions most likely to stimulate the full development of his powers for service to himself and to society, and to create in him the will to render such service. "To accomplish this aim several definite administrative policies have been consistently followed for a period of years. These are : First, the creation of a favorable atmosphere for personal growth through ac- knowledging submission only to ideals of service, and consistently giving expression to these in a sincerely generous attitude toward the personal problems of teachers and pupils as well as toward the larger problems of the school system. "Second, the selection upon the most satisfactory competitive merit basis that has been found, of the best teachers available to fill vacancies. This is possible because elections of teachers are unhampered by local restrictions. "Third, the direction of the work of instruction through a corps of supervisors, who shall always give first consideration to the teachers, to the end that supervision may be adaptable and constructive, sugges- tive and stimulating, helpful and sympathetic, but never onerous or depressing. "Fourth, the limitation of the number of pupils per teacher to a group of efficient size and classification. In November when attendance is usually at its maximum for the year, out of 952 schoolrooms, only 179 had more than forty pupils enrolled and only twenty-four of these had forty-five or more. The average number of pupils per teacher in the first grade was thirty-four, the average number for the system about thirty-six. "Fifth, the development of courses of study based upon factual material that will function, organized so as to afford opportunities for the children to live pleasurably day by day, to work in harmony, and 1 In the absence of Superintendent Cooper, his paper was read by Frank E. Willard, assistant superintendent of the Seattle schools. Department] SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS 715 through a large measure of self-activity to develop naturally greater thoughtfulness. "Sixth, the discovery of exceptional children of all kinds. The segregation of those suffering from a physical or mental handicap, and the special encouragement of the exceptionally gifted by means of extra promotions with the help of auxiliary teachers or summer-vacation classes." The Seattle system depends upon spirit rather than upon machin- ery. Our idea is to keep the mechanical down and the spiritual up. The elements making for "atmosphere" are given studied cultivation. It has been steadily held that the teachers are the producers of school- room effects and that all others-principals, supervisors, superinten- dents, janitors, and mechanics--are assistants of the teacher in educa- tional production. The comfort and happiness of the teacher is con- sidered an important factor in successful work. A sincere attempt is made to have every teacher feel that she is necessary to the success of the working-out of purposes and plans. Twenty years ago last September the superintendent suggested the appointment of advisory committees, one for each grade, and since that time there have been many such committees selected from the nominees of the teachers. This notable characteristic of the Seattle schools is shown in the latitude given teachers and principals in working out educational pro- blems. Spirit rather than form, and principles rather than rules are held to be the vital elements in both instruction and management. Not much stress is placed upon the method so that one produces a satis- factory educational effect. Purposeful visitation by principals and teachers in different parts of the system tends toward diffusion of ideas and convergence of professional objective. A visitor would discover several different forms of organization in the elementary schools and numerous differentiations of accepted plans and methods. Principals are not restricted in the selection of types of organization or of government. One principal some years ago was permitted to attempt an organization by which classroom teachers were freed from instructing in the special branches and which featured also individual application and progress on the part of pupils. It worked well. There are now several modifications of the plan in use in different buildings while other principals are still holding to the conventional type of school organization. These differing types go smoothly on in adjoining districts notwithstanding variation in prac- tices. There are special-program schools and semi-departmental schools ; there are schools having completely industrialized grammar grades, forerunners of the junior high or intermediate school for which we are not ready until we have the buildings suited to that form of organiza 716 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence tion. There is one building in which the first grades are somewhat departmentalized, another in which the first grades have a single session closing at one o'clock broken by a light lunch at eleven. In school management, the principal sometimes determines the type, or principal and teachers together work out a form. Several varieties of school government obtain: the modified military, pupil-government, and modified pupil government, etc., the aim of all being to secure to the pupils a chance to feel responsibility, to recognize obligations, and to exercise self-control and self-direction in the midst of duties and among co-workers and fellows. A pupil's "citizenship" is featured from the kindergarten up in every school. In the classrooms the teacher is accorded freedom to use her knowl- edge and power in liberal measure. In organization some of our primary classrooms are formal, others allow for some choice on the part of children, and still others are conducted with a large element of freedom. The selection of schoolroom equipment, textbooks, school supplies, particularly in the earlier grades, are subject to the choices and judgments of teachers. Preparation of courses of study is par- ticipated in by principals and teachers. One means used in Seattle to promote good feeling and to minimize the sense of pressure and discouragement incident to the entrance of new teachers to the system is the reception given new teachers. For the last several years about two hundred teachers new to the system have been inducted annually into the corps. On Friday afternoon preceding the opening day of the school year the superintendent has for a number of years met the new teachers with welcoming words and has urged them not to undertake too much at a time of what is new, to proceed not too strenuously, to follow their own way until they find a better, to ask questions, and to seek aid and expect sympathetic response from the official staff in time of need. On the day following, a general teachers' meeting is held where a welcome committee greets new teach- ers at the doors. A list of places to room and board is kept for the use of newly arriving teachers. Last year the educational department of a daily paper advertised for places and assisted teachers in getting located. The educational committee of the chamber of commerce ar- ranged for a reception and dinner to the new teachers on the third week after the opening of the schools. Acknowledgment is due to the considerate and increasingly helpful efforts of the parent-teachers' organizations. The backing of 6,000 women working in an organized way to promote the best interests of the schools is in itself a considerable element of influence quite apart from the direct benefit derived from the activities of these bodies . The school management has welcomed this influence and encouraged its development. Department] SOME IDEALS AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS 717 A glance at the high schools of Seattle shows that the proportion of pupils in the Seattle high schools has grown steadily until today 21.4 per cent, or more than one-fifth of all the pupils attending the public schools in Seattle, are enrolled in the high schools. The total number of graduates last year in the Seattle high school was 13 per cent of the total high-school enrolment, while the average number of graduates for ten representative cities was 9 per cent. Six years ago Seattle adopted the supervised-study plan for the high schools. By lengthening the school day 70 minutes, we have been able to offer 70-minute periods for recitation and supervised study. The year following the introduction of the supervised-study plan, reports from one of our largest high schools showed that pupils had carried more subjects than under the old plan, and that the percentage of sub- ject failures had decreased 16 per cent. We also found that the cost of offering science, manual arts, and general double-period subjects had decreased over 30 per cent, and that there was no increase in the cost of the regular academic subjects. In other words, our high schools, by means of supervised study, are operating at a less expense and our pupils carry more work with fewer failures than before. In order to reach the individual pupils more effectively and give them the proper moral and vocational guidance, advisers are appointed for the boys and the girls. These advisers counsel with pupils con- cerning the subjects they should take, aid them in securing part-time work, suggest vocational inquiry, and give careful attention to the moral and social conditions in and about the school. Each high-school library is in charge of a trained librarian, under the guidance of a specially qualified library supervisor. The books have been catalogued according to the plan followed in the city library. The budget system based upon pupil enrolment has been adopted as the basis for the purchase of books and magazines. Special library lessons are given to all first-year pupils. Teachers in the different departments of the high school are this year having demonstration lessons in "How I Teach My Subject." Three hundred teachers are at present enrolled in a class to receive instruction in present-day history. Many of the teachers are also taking educational courses at the university. The public-school system of Seattle includes not only the kinder- garten, elementary, and high schools, but it also includes the following schools and special classes which vary in their character as the needs vary which created a demand for them: (1) the parental schools-for boys and for girls who need guidance and training if they are to be saved from becoming delinquents; (2) classes in the detention home for children who are under the care of the juvenile court ; (3 ) special 718 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence schools for children who are retarded mentally; (4) schools for the deaf and the blind; (5) classes for overcoming speech defects; (6) classes in the Orthopedic Hospital ; (7) part-time schools for workers under eighteen, who attend classes four hours a week; (8) evening schools for both youthful and adult workers who are ambitious to advance ; (9) Americanization classes (twelve months in the year) for applicants preparing for naturalization ; ( 10) Americanization classes for foreign mothers who desire to learn English and to know American customs ; ( 11 ) vacation schools for both elementary and high-school students who want to earn advanced standing or to make up back work. Instruction is also provided in such classes as: (12) retail selling- with actual training in the stores ; (13) office practice-with actual work in school and business offices; (14) newspaper writing ; ( 15) public speaking ; ( 16) poster making-as part of the training for com- mercial and business fields ; ( 17) design-in which the girls design and make their own dresses ; (18) household management-including sanitation ; ( 19) trade instruction-in day and evening schools; (20) orchestra work-in both elementary and high schools; and (21 ) swim- ming-at the several beaches during the summer months. The public schools supervise: (22) the social activities of boys and girls in the high schools through the boys' and girls' advisers ; (23 ) the play and athletic games on the school playfields; (24) the school gym- nasiums which are open to day- and evening-school classes; and (25) the athletic contests held among the different schools. The public-school system maintains : (26) a garden department which provides for instruction in gardening and supervises the home gardens made by the children as well as several school gardens ; (27) a child-study department for testing children to find natural ability and fitness for special kinds of work; (28) a corps of nurses who visit the schools regularly and the homes as needs arise; (29) school lunchrooms where wholesome food is sold to pupils at cost ; and (30) a vocational guidance and placement department with skilled experts who help students find work in the different trades and professions. These experts help students to determine their fitness for entering different lines of work. They find work for those who must work part time in order to complete their school courses and for those who have com- pleted their courses and want to find places in the business or industrial world. Some achievements for betterment of conditions for teachers are: a twelve-month instalment plan of payment was adopted in 1907; twenty days' half-pay is allowed for absence on account of illness ; two days' full pay for death in family; five days' full pay for absence on account of quarantine; liberty to attend conventions and conferences of Department ] THEODORE ROOSEVELT AS A BOOK LOVER 719 teachers without loss of pay; a mutual benefit association for the help of teachers absent from duty because of ill health; a retirement fund for teachers; salary schedules with a minimum of $1,500 for elemen- tary-school teachers and $1,800 for high-school teachers, the maximum being $2,100 for the elementary schools and $2,400 for the high schools ; due consideration of residence and preferences of teachers in making assignments. THEODORE ROOSEVELT AS A BOOK LOVER CORINNE ROOSEVELT ( DOUGLAS) ROBINSON My earliest memories of my brother, Theodore Roosevelt, are in the nursery at 28 East 20th Street, New York, in the house which the patriotic women of America hope to rebuild and refurnish with all that is left of the old furniture, and thus visualize to his fellow-country- men the simple environment in which Theodore Roosevelt grew to early boyhood. In that nursery, the little sufferer, for he was a fragile and delicate boy almost always in the throes of severe asthma, was from the very beginning, in spite of this suffering, an inspiration to his younger brother and sister along literary lines. As a tiny boy of six, before I can remember him, my mother described him as never failing to have under his right arm, Wood's Natural History, and under his left, Stanley's Life of Livingston in the Jungles of Africa. The delicate child, from the moment that he could read the printed page, was able to concentrate himself with the extraordinary power which became later such a factor in his assimilation of knowledge. He was always absorbed in the marvelous interest of nature, and the exciting adven- tures of the great explorer. The child indeed, in Theodore Roosevelt's case, was father to the man, for to the last days of his varied and busy life, his interest in bird lore and in adventurous exploration was as keen as when the fair, curly head used to be bent in absolute intensity of concentration over the pages of the Natural History, or African adventures. In those days before I can remember, the story ran that he became absorbed in reading about the wonderful habits and methods of the ants. Turning the page of his huge volume, at the head of the follow- ing page, the narrative continued, "The foregoing ant also has such unusual characteristics." The young naturalist not realizing that the word "foregoing" referred to the ants of whose habits he had already read, decided that the adjective in question was applied to a new species, and after ardent investigation of the habits of this supposedly new species of ant, he decided to write an article (remember this was at the age of six) , entitled, "The Foregoing Ant," and having accomplished this feat in a large, painstaking, babyish hand, he then called the mem- bers of the household together to listen to this essay on this hitherto 720 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence unknown representative of the ant family. One can well imagine the amused attitude of the "grown people" of 28 East 20th Street when they listened to the earnest little author delivering his astute analysis of the ways of life of his new-found protégé. Those comprehending "grown-up people" of that old house, however, knew better than to ridicule the budding genius of the small member of the household, and it was not until many years afterward that the boy, Theodore, discov- ered how much amused his parents had been at his first scientific and literary effort. In that same nursery, the little boy of eight wove for his younger brother and sister many stories of bird and beast, such as Kipling himself hardly surpassed in his jungle stories, and there was always a boy in Theodore's stories, a boy very much like "Mowgli" of the Kipling tales, a boy who understood with rare sympathy the habits and the language of his feathered and furry friends, and whose name in the particular case of which I write, I am sure in the boy's own mind, was Theodore Roosevelt. These first literary inclinations grew apace with my brother's growth and always he was seen with large volumes under his arms. In the midst of family excitements, in the midst of rollicking gaiety, he could absent himself in spirit so completely that I have seen him stand for hours on one foot, with a huge encyclopedia resting upon the knee, in entire oblivion of time, space, and environment. By the time he was thirteen years old, he was extraordinarily well informed both from an historical and a scientific standpoint, and the winter which we spent upon the Nile was one of constant study, by the young naturalist, of the new species in that part of the world, so rich in endless varieties of birds. He had learned both perseverance and concentration, and they were always to remain factors in the success of his achievements. He writes from Dresden where my father had placed us to study German during the summer of 1873, following our winter on the Nile, "I am asking Fraülein Anna to give us harder lessons for I do not think we are learning enough." How rare a request on the part of a boy of fourteen, but the thirst for knowledge in the heart and mind of Theodore Roosevelt could never be slaked; German philosophy, Ger- man fiction, German scientific literature were devoured that summer with equal avidity, and it was during that same period that he launched into embryonic fiction himself, in a quaint little tale called, "Mrs. Mouse's Dinner Party," which was written for the Dresden Literary American Club, formed by five little American children in Dresden during those summer days of 1873 . Perhaps the most extraordinary thing connected with my brother's literary attainments was the diversity of his intellectual interests. He Department] THEODORE ROOSEVELT AS A BOOK LOVER 721 was a very remarkable historian, not only having an accurate and all- embracing knowledge of American history, but of every other history, of nearly every nation. During his much-heralded trip abroad in 1909- 10 the inhabitants of the various countries which he visited were simply astounded at his knowledge of their great men and great historical events. In Hungary he surpassed in accurate intimacy of Magyar lore even the most famous of Hungary's own scholars. In Egypt, his acquaintance with the travels of Egyptians, at the same period as the time of Marco Polo, was equally astonishing; wherever he went, his information, political, historical, and literary, of the country which he was visiting, proved a matter of perpetual wonder on the part of his hosts. One reason for his unlimited information was that he never wasted a moment of time. He always knew the book he wanted to read, he always had that book where he could find it at a moment's notice, and he also had the power of such unusual concentration that although hundreds of people might be talking about him he could detach himself and become lost to the contemporary world in a moment of time. Before his trip into the African jungle, I asked him what farewell gift he would like to receive from me, and he answered unhesitatingly that he would like what he called a "Pigskin Library" of the volumes which he intended to take with him. Asking him why pigskin, he said that that type of cover would be the only type that could possibly stand sand and water, and the many possibilities of injury which books carried on such an expedition would be likely to have to endure. The varied volumes carried in that valise have been of interest to all who have heard their names. They were as follows : Bible ; Shelley's Poems; Apocrypha ; Bacon's Essays; Borrow's The Bible in Spain, Zingali, L'Avengro, Wild Wales, The Romany Rye; Lowell's Literary Essays, Bigelow Papers; Emerson's Poems; Shakespeare ; Longfellow ; Spen- cer's Faerie Queen; Tennyson; Marlowe; Poe's Tales, Poems; Mahan's Sea Power; Keats; Macaulay's History, Essays, Poems; Milton's Para- dise Lost ( Books I and II ) ; Homer's Iliad, Odyssey; Dante's Inferno (Carlyle's translation) ; La Chanson de Roland; Holmes' Autocrat, Over the Teacups; Nibelungenlied ; Bret Harte's Poems, Tales of the Argonauts, Luck of Roaring Camp; Carlyle's Frederick the Great; Crothers' Gentle Reader; Browning's Selections; Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn, Tom Sawyer; The Federalist; Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; Gregorovius' Rome; Percy's Reliques; Froissart ; Euripides' (Murray translation) Bacchae, Hippolytus; Scott's Legend of Mont- rose, Antiquary, Guy Mannering, Rob Roy, Waverley; Cooper's Two Admirals, Pilot; Dickens' Pickwick Papers, Mutual Friends; Thacke- ray's Vanity Fair, Pendennis. 722 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence He was a great lover of poetry, especially of all poems which had in them the lilt and swing of sonorous rhythm. He loved Swinburne and Kipling, and was an ardent admirer of Longfellow's ballads, especially the "Saga of King Olaf." He always felt that Longfellow was not sufficiently admired in his own country, and once laughingly announced that he meant to travel the breadth of our great country to inspire a deeper love of Longfellow in the hearts of Americans. When M. Bergson, the great French philosopher, was in this coun- try, he was most anxious to meet the Colonel, and I arranged that they should take an evening meal together at my house. The philosopher had expected to find an erudite historian, an accomplished scientist, and lover of general literature, but I shall never forget the expression on his face when my brother turned and quoted not only many pages of M. Bergson's own works, but an equal number from the contemporary German philosophers. Later the surprised Frenchman said to me: "I expected knowledge, I expected culture, but I did not expect Colonel Roosevelt to beat me on my own ground." Mr. John Burroughs, the well-known naturalist, always felt that my brother was his peer in knowledge connected with his specialties, and in the same way, Professor Fairfield Osborne, President of the Museum of Natural History, was perpetually more and more sur- prised by his knowledge of mammals. Every now and then as a relaxa- tion he would get real pleasure from a detective story, or from some simple story of human life which happened to touch his tenderness of heart or his rectitude of purpose. Book lover he was, indeed, in the truest and deepest sense of the word, and he not only loved books for their own value, for the value they afforded in interpreting world-issues and world-evolution, but he had the power of so assimilating the information which he gath- ered from a book that, in turn, he was able to give to others again that information touched by the spirit of his own wonderful personality. THE AMERICAN PROGRAM IN EDUCATION AND THE DES MOINES MEETING FRED M. HUNTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS , OAKLAND , CALIFORNIA, AND PRESIDENT OF THE N. E. Α. Everywhere today, there is a distinct trend toward civic organization. This is especially true in our larger cities. Rotary Clubs, Kiwanis Clubs, progressive business men's leagues and the like are springing up in every community. All these organizations have as a central thought community interest. They are distinctly unselfish in their nature, and bring men to think in larger terms than merely the scope of their own personal businesses or professions. Consequently, such organizations Department] PROGRAM AND DES MOINES MEETING 723 are a very wholesome influence in our American life. The success and perpetuity of our democratic institutions will be dependent in a large degree upon the community consciousness aroused and sustained by this movement and others similar to it. Accompanying this movement, and in a sense parallel to it, is a tendency on the part of the teaching profession to become conscious of of its power and responsibility. Teachers are no longer content to think in terms of their immediate personal effort. A classroom teacher to fulfill her mission and live up to her ideals must be interested in people and events outside of her classroom. She is now becoming conscious that she is a member of a great professional body, some seven hundred thousand in number, which in a large measure is accountable for the intellectual life and the civic attitudes and ideals of the youth of the land. The school principal is no longer satisfied with properly managing a local unit of school organization. He, too, is conscious of membership in this great professional body and is coming to have a feeling of responsibility for the purposes and policies of the profession as a whole. The superintendent of schools is coming to be more than a local official and community leader. The administration of a good school system locally is not his only aim. He is a leader and shaper of American ideals and American life. This consciousness of power and responsibility that is coming to animate all ranks of the teaching pro- fession is the compelling power behind its movement to organize. Volun- tary teachers' organizations have sprung up in all parts of the country as if by magic. Every city has a classroom teachers' league or a school woman's club or some crystallized nucleus of organization. Almost all states have a state-wide teachers' organization embracing all ranks of the profession. Many of these state associations are already organized upon a delegate basis. The purposes of this movement are not selfish in the ultimate analysis. It is true that there has been a great deal of talk about teachers' salaries, working hours, conditions of living, and related matters. These are foremost because they are fundamental to the existence of teaching as a profession. This discussion has been the means of arousing rapidly the professional consciousness I have just mentioned. But these points are not the final aim and purpose of the profession. True professional consciousness is unselfish just as the civic organizational movements in our great cities are unselfish. The tendency toward professional organ- ization on the part of the teachers has as its aim the best interests of the twenty-five million children of America. It aims toward the train- ing of a universally high standard of citizenship. Its purposes are coming to be clearly defined and well formulated. They are funda- mental and vital to our national welfare. The National Education 724 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence Association is the outward manifestation upon a nation-wide scale of this organizational trend. Our objectives as a national association are clearly defined. They may be said to be: ( 1 ) in every classroom of the nation a well-qualified teacher who shall be an American citizen and amply compensated ; (2) universal training for citizenship ; ( 3 ) equality of educational opportunity for every boy and girl in every part of the United States ; (4) Americanization of every non-American element ; ( 5 ) elimination of the 25 per cent of illiteracy revealed in the selective draft; (6) a leader of education in the highest councils of the nation, a seat in the Cabinet of the president of the United States. The National Education Association has not been slow to take definite steps to realize its purposes and ideals. Definite and concrete measures have been undertaken to carry out the objectives mentioned above. Among these, the following are most significant and outstand- ing : ( 1 ) The National Education Association has reorganized itself with a republican form of government, to be governed by a representa- tive assembly in which no member of the profession is denied a voice through his locally elected representative. (2) It has welded itself into a unified coöperative organization with almost six hundred local associations as affiliated branches, and with thirty-eight of the forty- eight state associations made an integral part of the organization. (3) It has established a high-class periodical-The Journal of the National Education Association-which is sent to every member of the Asso- ciation as a means of intercommunication between the association and its membership. (4) It has established a commission for bringing together and coördinating all the research agencies in the nation studying the problems of education. (5) It has undertaken a constructive national legislative program. The Des Moines meeting of the National Education Association will be the first gathering of the reorganized association. Here the Representative Assembly will gather for the first time as the governing body. The meeting will consequently be of great significance. As members of this great profession of seven hundred thousand teachers we have every reason to look forward with feelings of optimism to this gathering. A united teaching profession organized around a constructive program can and will have tremendous influence in shaping the school policies of the country. We have wonderful evidence of what can be done in the work which state associations organized upon the same plan have already accomplished. I know of one such associa- tion which through a period of fifteen years has rallied around its standard a united and efficiently organized membership embracing the majority of the teachers of all ranks in the state. This association has over this period of years proposed to the state legislature more than fifty measures affecting the school systems of the state. Of this whole Department] AN INVITATION TO DES MOINES 725 number only two major measures sponsored by the association have failed of enactment. What can be done by a state association can be doneupon anational scale, if we sanely and wisely prepare our program and use the forces at our disposal for its accomplishment. Every member of the teaching profession should feel his share of this great responsibility. Every member should unite with some local association and take part in the selection of delegates to the Des Moines convention. Every state association should reorganize itself upon a delegate basis and affiliate with the national organization and work coöperatively with it. All things are possible to the members of a pro- fession who see the vision of what American education can do for our beloved country and who gather unitedly around a single standard. Let us all go to the Des Moines convention, define and formulate our program and use every influence within our power, locally and nationally, to carry it to ultimate success. AN INVITATION TO DES MOINES L. H. MINKEL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS , FORT DODGE, IOWA . I am commissioned by the twenty-seven thousand teachers of the great State of Iowa, seventeen thousand of whom are members of the Iowa State Teachers' Association, which in turn is affiliated with the National Education Association. I bring you greetings and give you a cordial invitation to attend the meeting of the National Education Association at Des Moines next July. Iowa is not primarily a convention State. That is to say, entertain- ing conventions is not our only visible means of support. We make our living by raising corn and hogs. As a side line we develop secretaries of agriculture. Des Moines rather specializes in this product. We have not yet reached the stage in the matter of entertaining conven- tions where we no longer make extensive preparations for the benefit of our guests. Like the families of old, we still clean house, wash up all the linen, and fill our pantries in anticipation of the coming of a great convention. I hope you will not think, however, that because we do not make a business of entertaining conventions that we are not able to take care of very large meetings successfully. Our capital city of Des Moines within the last few years has entertained such notable gatherings as, the Biennial Convention of the Federation of Women's Clubs, the General Conference of the Methodist Church and the International Convention of the Student Volunteer Movement. The hotel rates in Iowa are ridiculously low when compared with those that we have at times been called upon to pay. A first-class room in a modern fire 726 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence proof hotel, can be secured at $2.50 per night per person, and one can see as much of the Atlantic ocean from these rooms as may be seen from many of the rooms in Atlantic City. You remember that the Des Moines river which is an arm of the Atlantic, flows through the city of Des Moines. This summer we are to enter upon a great new era in the affairs of the National Education Association. For the first time, the business of the Association will be conducted by a delegated body representing the state associations and local affiliated groups. Many of these smaller groups are composed largely or entirely of classroom teachers. During the war we heard much, and talked much of teacher par- ticipation in the management of school affairs. We are to determine in these later days whether these fine phrases meant anything of a real abiding nature. If classroom teachers are to attend this great summer meeting, some provision must be made for defraying their expenses. It is hoped that eventually the National Education Association itself may be able to provide sufficient revenue to pay at least a part of the expenses of the delegates, but for the present this expense must be borne by the teachers themselves, by the local affiliated clubs, or by boards of education. I want to urge that superintendents use their influence with boards of education to have at least a part of the ex- penses of these delegates, elected by the teachers themselves, paid from public funds. It is quite as important that these elected delegates go back to their various groups and make first-hand reports of the activities of the National Education Association, as it is that the superintendent report to the board of education. If there are not sufficient funds to pay the expenses of both the superintendent and the classroom teacher delegate from a local club, then let the superintendent bear his own expenses. It should not be necessary, however, for either to have to be put to this expense person- ally. From our little city in Iowa, a great many merchants, dealers in shoes, ladies' dress goods, dry-goods, and so on, make as many as four or five trips to New York City during the year to get the latest bargains and the most up-to-date designs. Not only this, but these merchants send their foremen and their leading salesladies on similar errands. We should insist as teachers, that it is quite as important that our respective communities have the latest and best ideas along educational lines as it is that our ladies have the latest patterns in corsets, hats, and shoes. The taxpayers pay the bills for both of these items whether they be in the form of taxes or higher-priced dress goods. The only difference is that they complain about the taxes while they rather boast of the pro- gressive spirit of the merchants who go to all of this expense to keep the town up-to-date. Department] USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME 727 In Iowa we have tackled the most perplexing problem in education -the rural school-in a way that will interest you all. During the past year we have erected rural consolidated school buildings as fine as the school buildings found in any city in the United States, and we have been completing these buildings at the rate of one a day. There is a reason why Iowa has jumped from the thirtieth place educationally among the states to seventh in the last decade. There is a reason why Iowa is leading the world in the construction of rural consolidated schools and in the low percentage of illiteracy. You will not see in our great state the silent majesty of the moun- tains, but you will see in July, what is vastly more interesting and fas- cinating-as far as the eye can reach in every direction, fields of grow- ing grain, oats, corn, and wheat, prophetic of granaries filled to feed the world. You will not hear the unceasing music of barren waves dashing themselves forever on a desolate shore, but in July in Iowa, you will hear what is more beautiful-the song of the red-winged blackbird and the bobolink, and you will be charmed by the fragrance of the sweet William and the wild rose growing by every roadside and in every fence-corner. We are waiting to meet you and greet you in Iowa, out "where the tall corn grows." BEST USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME JAMES H. VAN SICKLE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. First in importance among the superintendent's duties is the selec- tion of teachers. This should be his exclusive privilege. Applicants should be visited in their own schoolrooms before employment. The superintendent must delegate much of this work to assistants or prin- cipals; in fact, the success of his work as a whole will depend upon his ability to delegate responsibility. He will refrain from doing many things that others can do as well, perhaps better. His task is to assign duties and keep hands off, yet know what is being done. He must serve as the acting head of a great and intricate business; he must serve as a clearing-house for all requests sane or insane, pressed by supervisors, principals, teachers, and the public. He must sift the "likely" requests and present them to the board clearly and convincingly. He must keep the school board informed regarding his policies and plans, and also with regard to the progress and success or failure of such plans and policies. He must educate a constantly changing board, a task that is likely to call for all the skill and tact that he possesses. He must hold himself in readiness to supply any member of the board or the city government, on short notice, with such infor 728 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence mation as may be desired. He must often interpret the board to the teaching force, and the teaching force to the board. He must serve as a court of appeal in cases of discipline. He must keep things smooth in his field. He should not allow himself to be so engrossed in detail that he fails to visualize the big problems. He should give himself time for thought, for reading, and for reflection; he needs food for his own professional life. What are his resources for help? He can look to our present-day teachers' colleges for expert assistance in every field. He can look to his department of reference and research to handle the matters of detail which in the past were the superintendent's nightmare. Of all the developments of the past two decades intended to improve public education, I am inclined to place first the scientific training available for men who are entering the superintendency. I place second the incentive to professional improvement of teachers in service which modern salary schedules furnish; and parallel with this instrumentality the institutions which furnish the advanced professional courses that count in salary advance. HOW SHALL THE SUPERINTENDENT SPEND his timE? CHARLES S. MEEK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MADISON, WIS. In discussing this subject I have attempted to find some of its phases which my colleagues on this program may not have completely exploited. I am, therefore, in the mental attitude of the minister who divided his sermon into three parts. First, he announced his text ; second, he departed from it; third, he never returned to it. My first departure will be in suggesting some ways in which he shall not spend his time. There was once a superintendent who controlled the educational destin- ies of a city for forty years. During all those four decades he spent his time holding his job. He became such an expert in that field of educational endeavor that one of his patrons said, "Nobody but the Lord could ever displace Superintendent X, and the Lord could not do it if He should give Superintendent X twenty-four hours' notice of His intention." A superintendent should devote no time to hold- ing his job. Just as the only way to keep children from getting out of order is to have no order for them to get out of, so the best way. to hold a job is to forget that one has ajob to hold. The school administrator should not waste his time. Therefore, he should not attempt to harmonize that small percentage of teachers in his own corps who are, on principle, conscientious objectors. I have in mind a teacher who did all she could to humiliate her superintendent Department] USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME 729 and to interfere with his program. When he went to another city and was beyond her sphere of influence she proceeded at once to make the life of his successor miserable by forever dinning into his ears the story of the great educational vision and the lovable personal traits of him who had departed. I was the unhappy successor and she made it perfectly obvious to me and to everybody that I possessed none of the rare abilities that were so distinctively characteristic of him who had gone on to greater responsibilities and higher honors. This small coterie of conscientious objectors may not be harmonized and won for teamwork; but they may be rendered harmless by being left severely alone. Though they may not be counted upon for any constructive achievements, they do render a valuable professional service in always keeping the heart of their chief humble and contrite. Furthermore, he who directs the public schools should allot no time to the political, the religious, and the reform movements which, from time to time, divide the community into warring factions. Should he become a partisan in these controversies, which often become so bitter that they disrupt life-long friendships, and even family ties, there is danger that the same alignment for and against the schools shall come to exist as divides the people into pros and antis on the question at issue. Of course the leaders of these movements try to enlist the schools and the teachers. They would sacrifice the schools just as they would devote all their own personal resources to the one great cause. Those who do not enter heartily into the conflict on their own side are furnishing aid and comfort to the enemy. Those who join them are the promoters of the good and the moral. When his patrons are thus aroused the superintendent often finds himself in a difficult position. He should then remember the policy of President Lincoln. No one can doubt that Lincoln wanted to see the slaves free. In his youth when he saw a slave sold from the block in New Orleans he said, " If I ever get a chance to strike that institution I will hit it hard." His "House Divided against Itself" speech was one of the strongest argu- ments ever made for the abolition of slavery. But when the war between the states was in progress and Greeley wrote his prayer of twenty million, urging the president to free the slaves at once by executive proclamation, Lincoln replied : "My para- mount objective in this struggle is to save the Union and is not either to save or destroy slavery. Whatever I do about slavery and the colored race I do because I believe it helps save the Union ; and whatever I forbear, I forbear because I believe it would help save the Nation." History has vindicated Lincoln's statesmanship. The superintendent's chief business is to conduct the schools. What- ever he shall do on any other issue he shall do because of the probable 730 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence effect of his action on the welfare of the schools. He cannot be effec- tive both as an educator and a reformer. On the positive side, how should the school administrator spend his time ? He should of course keep abreast of modern educational inves- tigations and experimentation. Experts, with carefully prepared graphs and tables, have presented scientific inventories of public-school achieve- ments and derelictions. The superintendent should devote whatever time is necessary to know what these experts are doing. He should be in sympathy with their aims and accept their conclusions, but he must not stop where they have stopped. The important and critical phase of his work begins where theirs ends. He has not done his duty when he has learned the elements of weakness and the factors of strength in the schools that he directs. Neither has he discharged his obligation when he and others working with him have decided what should be done to eliminate weakness and to substitute strength. Therefore, the standard by which a superintendent must ultimately be judged is not the validity of the aims which he announces but the extent to which he is able to realize them. He must have excellent dreams, but he must also know how to make those dreams come true. The successful military leader constructs a fine system of strategy, but he also knows how to use that strategy to defeat the enemy. His compatriots are not particularly interested in his plan of battle, but they are vitally concerned with the magnitude of the disaster he inflicts upon the enemy. For the superintendent the formulation of an ade- quate school policy is an academic project. To put that policy over is the crucial test of leadership. The hazard is not in determining what to do but in deciding how to do it. Purely intellectual controversies are easily placated ; individual readjustments occasion friction; per- suasive power of the highest order is required to induce men and women at the cost of much money, labor, and discomfort to make these read- justments. The school executive, therefore, should not get too much absorbed in the purely intellectual aspects of his labor. Some of the time he should offer and invite fellowship. He should not be too much obsessed with the zeal to do everybody an immense amount of good. A part of the time, he should seek from his own people guidance and inspiration. To maintain such a relationship he must nurture all that is human within himself, even his sense of humor. If the chief of a school organization does not take himself and what he has to bestow too seriously, he mingles freely with all groups and with all types of his patrons. The superintendent who devotes some time to the Rotary Club, the Kiwanis Club, and other organizations for men will find the professional crustation within which he has insulated himself violently Department] USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME 731 perforated. His fellow-members are sure to get great joy, and he may get an immense amount of good from the process. A superintendent once went into a Western city with an earnest desire to do there an unusual piece of constructive work. He was fortunate upon his arrival in having his attention diverted from his own task. He became infatuated with the spirit of the West. He joined the chamber of commerce and became associated with a group of broad-minded men who profoundly believed in the wonderful pos- sibilities of this undeveloped region. He learned to admire these empire builders whom no adversity could discourage, and whom no misfortune could subdue. He hunted with them, fished with them, and became their friend and companion. When the time came to direct the schools into some new and untried enterprise, these men threw their mighty enthusiasm into the project not because they were advocates of the educational principle upon which the experiment was based, but because they wanted their friend to win. Some administrators devote little time to making personal friends. They are prone to think that he who promotes school activities through the aid of personal friends is a politician and not an educator. They forget that leadership depends largely upon the personality of the leader; that the technique he applies in seeking support is often more important than the validity of the cause he espouses. People, generally, have neither time nor inclination to study the merits of the public in- terests for which they work. Popular support of any measure depends in a far greater degree upon public faith in him who advocates it than upon the abstract worth of the project. The executive who gets things done develops an organization of loyal personal friends. Without this organization, he cannot be independent of politics and politicians ; with it, he has defenses which the politicians respect and fear. Every superintendent wants to be the accepted leader of his own organization. He must, therefore, devote all his powers toward main- taining his position as educational leader of the professional force of which he is nominally the head. But teachers are not materially dif- ferent from other people, and these same principles that are effective with the public apply in securing their coöperation. They may no longer be kept in orderly array by the exercise of mandatory authority. Everywhere they are asserting that they will no longer submit to the domination of the past. The classroom instructor whom, a quarter of a century ago, Professor James characterized as a "a mite too docile" has departed with the old order of things. The board of education can no longer support the authority of its chosen chief. The people will not approve such a policy, and the teachers will not endure it. The leader who depends upon the inclination of those who are to render that service must possess patience and tact which amounts almost to genius. 732 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence But no good will come of complaining of the difficulties of the task. It must be accepted without comment and without protest. The super- intendent dare not hesitate and work out intricate curves of prob- able error in any procedure he may contemplate. Only educational experts and professors of education have the academic leisure to indulge in such pastimes. The superintendent must do his work with assurance and with dispatch. If he can get no joy out of the program the teachers have defined for him, he can, at least, with simulated cheerfulness make the best of it. Instead of wailing because for him it is not better, he should pray that it shall grow no worse. He need not waive all right to direct the organization which he is supposed to lead. The board of education and the public still hold him, and only him, responsi- ble for the efficient functioning of the schools. He must use a higher type of professional training than the simpler problems of the past ever exacted ; he dare not even approach his difficult task with an academic heart. He must not be committed to any perfectly organized and thoroughly classified series of educational devices the imps of special methods begotten of pedantry. These minute prescribed details of special methods must not be of more importance to him than the good will of the people who are working with him. He who must depend for his authority upon the good will of those whom he is to lead should possess not only vision and constructive ability, but he must also have a soul to which all that is human in the corps will respond. His associates will be far more charitable in con- doning his professional limitations than they will in forgiving his failure to live up to the human demands of his position. As an educator he may blunder, but as a man he dare not err. They do not want him to be too stimulating intellectually, they are in this day perfectly willing to participate in furnishing the brains of the organization, but as their friend he must be sincere for they judge him not by any vague and intangible system of ethics but by the extent to which he appreciates their own aspirations and by the measure in which he alleviates their hardships. He must, therefore, devote time to creating within himself that sympathetic imagination which will aid him in visualizing every- thing from the point of view of even the humblest of his assistants. He must project himself into the various positions of his associates, be thrilled by all their joys, bear all their burdens, and protest against all that arouses their ire . Effective leadership demands that the hearts of all be enlisted as well as that the intelligence of all be mobilized. If the hearts of all are won, then all will do not only everything that is expected of them, but more, far more, than is hoped of them. The relationship which pro Department) USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME 733 cures this reaction is possible only when he who is in the position of authority has great, deep, genuine zeal for service. If he be so con- secrated he may stimulate the abilities of all his associates and infuse into them his own faith and his own enthusiasm faith in themselves, and enthusiasm for their professional labor. This power has been designated as personality or magnetism or other equally indefinite ap- pelation. But no matter how designated, its motive force is self- effacing devotion to education and loving fellowship with everyone associated in this vocation. BEST USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME H. B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT CITY SCHOOLS, BERKELEY, CALIF . To gather an estimate of the present practice, I sent out one hundred circular inquiries to superintendents in the United States from which I had a total of thirty-nine returns. This inquiry asked each superin- tendent how he used his time. In the first column were to be listed in his own terminology the various things he did. In the second column each was to indicate by a figure the order of importance, according to his judgment, of the things he reported. In the third column he was to indicate the time per week devoted to each thing reported, and in the fourth column he was to indicate those things which, in his judgment. occupied too much of his time with the reasons therefore. I purposely avoided suggesting any headings or terminologies by which to guide those answering, as I felt the procedure used would result in a more accurate picture of how superintendents analyze their duties and responsibilities and of how they apportion their time. An analysis of these returns revealed two outstanding facts : first, there is no standard terminology among superintendents by which to express what they do; second, there is no agreement among superin- tendents as to how to figure the time they devote to their duties, nor as to how the total time of each should be apportioned. In reference to the things which superintendents do, after I had exercised a great deal of freedom in combining the headings used in the replies received, I had thirty headings left, and no one heading was used by all, not even that of "Visiting Schools." It is rather a serious situation that but twenty-one out of thirty-nine indicated reading and study as one of the things done. This suggests that it is not sufficiently a part of the superintendent's plans, else he would list it. One superintendent emphasized that "While I have no time to read, I do plan." One cannot help but note with interest the extent to which inform- ing and leading the public is kept in mind. There is increasing evidence 734 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence of the much greater attention given now to leading the public than was thought necessary ten years ago. Sixteen out of thirty-nine indicated by one term or another that this is one of the duties of the superin- tendent. Some used the term "Participating in Civic Meetings," others "Preparing Publicity Material" and others "Giving Lectures and Ad- dresses. " This duty was usually listed last or next to last in the esti- mates of its importance, whereas it probably belongs near the head of the list. In actual practice it must occupy a leading place in all com- munities where there is enthusiastic public support of the schools. In my returns, it occupied just one-tenth to one-eleventh of the week's time-in other words, but a meager half-day per week. Such limited attention is clearly inadequate. The total time devoted to their duties by superintendents varies from twenty-six to sixty-two hours per week, the larger percentage of the total falling above forty-five hours. After listing sixty-two hours per week assigned to his various duties, the superintendent thus report- ing indicated that, in addition to the sixty-two hours, his lunch time was all devoted to committee meetings. The superintendent next to the top in number of hours per week devoted to his duties indicated fifty- nine hours. After tabulating these evidences of his strenuous life, however, he had a sufficient sense of humor left to indicate that he had not counted the time spent in "loafing and recreation." Another superintendent in reporting said "I can't divide the time between my various duties, but 'I am on the job' from 8 A. M. to 10 р. м." But thirty of the thirty-nine superintendents reporting attempted to appor- tion their time. They assigned the major time to visiting schools, meet- ings, conferences, and office routine. In view of the various pressures and demands put upon the super- intendent's time, it is evident that it should be carefully apportioned on the basis of a complete understanding of his duties and responsibilities as the executive and professional head of the school system in his com- munity. That the superintendent of schools may not be a mere weather- vane indicating by the use he makes of his time the demands made by others, he must construct with approximate scientific accuracy a time schedule for his guidance. Against this theoretical schedule he should regularly check his record of the actual uses of his time. He would thus cease to be a weather-vane, and would become educationally a real rudder and guide in his community. Carefully constructed theoretical time schedules will vary with the size of the city or other unit for which the superintendent is responsible. Many duties carried personally by the superintendent in a small or medium-sized city are delegated in a larger system. This is particularly true in the largest systems. Department] USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME 735 Undoubtedly the superintendent's time schedule in a system of any size should be determined by the objectives of public education in our American democracy and in view of the administrative technique essen- tial to the achievement of the results the intelligent public expects of the public schools. That these large objectives may be achieved, the superintendent must adjust his time so as to give due attention to each of a large num- ber of major lines of action. These lines of action may be variously stated, but every fundamental analysis of them must evidence that all of the things done by the superintendent are for the purpose of establish- ing in each classroom of his system just two things : ( 1) the best oppor- tunities and advantages for the education of the children that are pos- sible with our present knowledge; (2) an attitude on the part of each teacher and every child toward their daily work such as will produce in each child from day to day the maximum of growth in all of the respects essential to the most complete democratization and socialization attaina- ble by him. All that we may do and all the money that we may spend must find its original excuse and final justification in what it promises and accomplishes in securing these two classroom essentials. By the success and the economy with which we achieve each of these classroom objectives must each of us be measured and judged as a practical, pro- fessional superintendent of schools. What then are the major things which a superintendent must do that these two goals in classroom technique may be realized ? I propose the following duties. The superintendent must, (1 ) gather information ; (2) study and plan; (3) determine educational programs and pro- cedures for his city; (4) provide physical equipment ; (5) provide and develop his staff ; (6) finance the city's educational program; and (7) promote coöperation. In doing these seven things one does a hundred included minor things but these state adequately and functionally the large duties of the superintendent. Time will permit us to note but briefly each of these lines of effort . First, information must be had as the basis for intelligent action. Definite provision for gathering it in such form that its significant meaning is apparent must be made. Most of it will pertain to condi- tions in the schools and in the city served by the schools. Some infor- mation, however, must be secured for comparative purposes regarding other cities and school systems. In a large system, such data is pro- videdby the research department. In small systems this work must be done by the superintendent and his stenographic help. However it may be done and whether adequately or otherwise, it cannot be omitted. It is a fundamental prerequisite to any sort of rational action. 736 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence Second, studying and planning are evidently necessary to any type of action promising effective results. All data gathered must be dis- criminatingly studied and evaluated. The experiences of others else- where may be gathered in part through study. The great body of rapidly developing theoretical and experimental data must be studied continually if the superintendent's basis for action at any time is to be thoroughly up to date. As such study moves forward tentative plans formulate themselves. The superintendent's time schedule must make definite provision for studying and planning. Third, upon the basis of the data gathered and the studying and planning done, the superintendent is ready to determine in conjunction with the proper officials or associates the educational programs and pro- cedures which should be extended or established in his city. The determining of these programs and procedures will require conferences and meetings with the supervisory and executive staff of the system, various groups of teachers, principals of schools, advisory citizens' com- mittees, and the board of education. Fourth, almost if not altogether more important than all of the other things he does is the task of selecting, assigning, and promoting the growth and advancement of his official staff. It is important, first of all, in its effect upon child welfare, but it is almost as important in the personal effects experienced by each teacher. If this task alone were always well done, good schools with resulting fine progress on the part of children would inevitably follow, even though the superintendent did none of his other work well. Fifth, in the light of the programs and procedures agreed upon, the physical equipment required must be provided. Grounds must be pur- chased, buildings must be erected and furnished, and instructional equipment and supplies provided. All of these when rationally conceived are determined by the character of the school and school work projected. Sixth, after programs have been determined and the equipment and staff needs have been decided upon, the facts are available for settling the financial needs of the system. The task of presenting in detail the financial needs of the schools belongs definitely to the superintendent's list of duties. At this point the problem of making the necessary levies to raise the funds needed should be taken over by the board of edu- cation. As a matter of fact, however, most of us know how necessary it is for the superintendent of schools to give this board function his definite attention and stimulus. Seventh, both careful thought and much time must be given to promoting coöperation. This is best done through initiating, developing, and maintaining all policies and procedures, through democratic, co- operative counsel. Department] USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME 737 The public must not only be kept informed, but ways of consulting it and using its helpful guidance must be employed, for the public is willing and anxious to co-operate in any worthy educational program, but it is unwilling to have co-operation defined as giving its consent blindly to matters in which its wishes and welfare seem to have been ignored. The attitude of the teaching staff and of the entire school officiary is similar to that of the public. There is no excuse for any school administration which does not proceed in thoroughgoing coöperative fashion with all of the official family, of every rank or grade. Only by such a procedure is it possible for the entire official staff to participate in policy-making as well as in policy-executing. I believe that it may be assumed to be axiomatic that any use of the superintendent's time which does not provide amply for working coöperatively with the teaching staff is indefensible. Such coöpera- tive procedure is necessary from at least three standpoints if the largest educational returns are to be made to the community served. In the first place, the combined thinking of the entire teaching staff insures the adoption of better considered policies and of larger programs of action than could emanate from the superintendent alone or even from the superintendent and a few supervisors. In the second place, it insures the projecting of programs which all understand and for which, therefore, they have more sympathy and enthusiasm. In the third place, the growth experienced by the staff in helping to develop the policies to be executed guarantees a more capable body of teachers to do all the types of work the schools undertake. If the spirit and method of the superintendent's administrative procedure is democratically coöperative, it may definitely be expected that this spirit and procedure will characterize the relationships of the entire school system. This procedure is as necessary in each school building and in each classroom as it is in the general relations in the system. It certainly possesses all of the values for the building and classroom which it possesses for the system in general. After any superintendent has defined his tasks in the fashion most satisfactory to himself and has apportioned his time theoretically as he feels it should be spent in his city in view of his particular official organization, he must then frankly recognize that during any given period or year, "best use" means "most needed use" of his time. If he is new in the city he is serving, he will be compelled to assign much time to getting acquainted. Just after the addition of a number of new members to his board of education, practical expediency will dictate a temporary modification of the ideal definition of "best use." If a bond election is on, his theoretical schedule is certain to be badly skewed for a few weeks. 738 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence The important consideration that the "best use" may be made of his time by the superintendent of schools under all circumstances is that he and his immediate associates in his board and his staff shall keep before them the two classroom essentials to be achieved through all of the manifold things undertaken and done in the name of public education. To this end every possible opportunity should be taken to enable the public to realize what the superintendent of schools should be able to do, and should be helped by them to do, that his time may be spent with largest results to the city and schools he is serving. THE BEST USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME CHARL O. WILLIAMS, SUPERINTENDENT SHELBY COUNTY SCHOOLS, MEMPHIS, TENN . I shall lay before you the workings of a county-school system in a state that ranks forty-fourth in a recent nation-wide survey, and you shall be the judges whether or not the superintendent has made the best use of her time. More or less time during the past six years has been spent in putting the office on a business basis ; a filing system has been installed for the safe-keeping of letters, deeds, applications, contracts, requisitions, bills paid and unpaid, etc., and after two changes have been made in the books of the office a system of bookkeeping has been arrived at that is adequate to the needs of the county. Sufficient clerical help has been employed to keep this work always up to date and in order- a bookkeeper, two stenographers and a secretary to the superintendent. The county covers 800 square miles of territory, has a scholastic population of 25,000-120 schools a monthly payroll of 600 employees, and spends $600,000 annually, exclusive of buildings. The county is organized under the county unit system with a board of education for the elementary schools and one for the high schools, which system centralizes the work in the county superintendent's office and entails great responsibility, making her jointly responsible with the chairman of both boards for the expenditure of this money and the administration of school affairs. The consolidation of white schools has been practically completed, there being only two one-room schools left and eighty-five trucks and wagonettes transport these children daily to their respective centers. Buildings to the value of $1,250,000 have been erected and while more buildings are needed and another bond issue is being asked of the present legislature, the county is fairly well supplied. These build- ings are equipped with steam heat, waterworks, electric lights, auditor- iums, community rooms, home-economics kitchens, and sewing-rooms, Department] USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME 739 manual-training departments and laboratories, all of which make possi- ble many varied activities in the schools and in the communities. To direct and encourage these activities and to keep them moving always forward in the line of progress requires considerable help for the superintendent. With that end in view a supervisory force of unusual capacity has been employed, consisting of a supervisor for elementary schools, one for home economics and science, one for high schools, and one for agriculture. The supervisor of 12 high schools is also the supervisor of negro schools and has under her direction 3 negro women supervisors who aid her in looking after the interests of 16,000 negro children who are cared for, poorly in many cases, in 80 negro schools. These supervisors bring to their work a wide range of experience, having actually taught in a number of states and in city and county schools, and having been trained in normal schools, the universities of Tennessee, Chicago, Columbia, Cornell, and Peabody College. These helping teachers are given a very free hand; they are there because they are supposed to have ideas worthwhile and opportunity is given for free expression of these aims. They are fully acquainted with the general policies of the county and admonished to work in such a way as to help and not to hinder the work of the teacher, to stimulate and in no wise destroy initiative and originality on the part of the teaching force. This teaching force is the pride of the county and of the entire state, and to them belongs a large share of the credit for having devel- oped the county schools to the point they have now attained. The loyalty and spirit of progress always in evidence in their ranks is a constant source of inspiration to the superintendent and a stimulus to seek always the best in turn for them. For three years a high standard has been maintained, the minimum requirement to teach anywhere in the county being two years of normal school above the high school . These teachers come from everywhere, and they go everywhere for training-101 out of 220 of them were to be found in the student bodies of 22 leading summer schools last year. A bonus of $50 to $100 paid on their expenses with the first month's salary after their return to the county brought back many of the best teachers and pre- vented that large turnover that is so detrimental to school progress. A salary campaign was waged last April, a result of which was this bonus for summer training and a 30 per cent increase in salaries to be paid for ten months instead of nine. The superintendent and supervisors meet the teaching force in a purely social way twice a year, in the beginning in a good old- fashioned party with the principals as their guests at the home of the superinten 740 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence dent, and at the close of the year at the annual teachers' luncheon with the entire body. This policy is pursued, first of all, because it is an exceedingly pleasant thing to do, for these teachers are men and women of culture and varied experience and quite worth knowing. We usually do things readily for people we understand and like- and however egotistical it may sound, the superintendent and super- visors honestly believe that the teachers would like them if they only knew them, and that they would, because of that sincere friendship, want to help them make the school system go. The presidents of the parent-teacher associations are likewise the guests of the office force once a year, and it has been found that the time has been well spent, for at such meetings barriers of mistrust and misunderstanding are cleared away and ties of confidence and coöperation set up in their place. The county superintendent being a woman, it is necessary that she keep in touch with activities that are of interest to women. For this reason she keeps up her membership in a rural federated club, in the business and professional women's club, and in one of the largest women's clubs in the South, and has charge of the Americanization department in the State Federation of Women's Clubs. If she were a man she would be found among the Rotarians, Kiwanians, Civitans, or some other organization that has for its object the promotion of civic welfare. When the opportunity and call for service came, she spent three weeks at the legislature working for the ratification of the Susan B. Anthony amendment and during her term of office she has been a member of the Education Committee of the Chamber of Commerce. I cannot emphasize too strongly the great opportunity this participa- tion in civic affairs offers to superintendents; the opportunity to keep education in the front rank in the minds of the people is too great to be neglected, and the opportunity to keep human and practical is not to be scoffed at. The county is very well organized for purposes of social and com- munity development, there being a parent-teacher association for each school and a county council composed of their presidents which meets monthly, and a county council of agriculture. It is a wise superinten- dent who keeps his hand on the pulse of such organizations so that he may secure the maximum of coöperation from them in the pro- motion of educational interests. The superintendent is always repre- sented at these county councils by one or more supervisors who keep in the background, but ready at all times to come forward with sugges- tions. This is the great opportunity for clinching the work that is already being done and for building up and educating public sentiment Department] USE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT'S TIME 741 for whatever new work is being contemplated. Then when a move- ment is launched in the county it usually has enough supporters to carry it to success-at least, not one has failed so far. Does this take time? Many days and nights the superintendent spends out in the county on missions of this nature, and though the physical effort is exhausting, she always returns buoyed up with the feeling that it was all worth while. To be a little more specific, every Saturday morning is conference day for all of the teachers; every Tuesday morning the supervisors meet; the third Thursday morning the council of parent-teacher as- sociations meets ; and in the afternoon the county council of agriculture. The first Saturday morning is set aside for the general teachers' meet- ing followed by departmental meetings in charge of the various super- visors; the third Saturday morning is reserved for the principals' meet- ing. On the second Saturday morning the supervisor of the negro schools conducts in a nearby school the negro teachers' meeting on the same general plan as the white teachers' meeting. An effort is made by the superintendent to attend for a short time, at least, all of these meetings. The best work, of course, is done in the supervisors' weekly con- ference when reports of the past week's work are given, plans of visiting and office work for the following week made out, and discussions of vital interest to the school work take place. The Saturday mornings are perhaps the most interesting of all the days for then it is that any teacher from any part of the county may come to discuss anything she may have on her mind and sometimes the office force close their desks at one o'clock, breathless from the variety and number of inter- views which have taken place. The teachers are asked to apply for their positions in March ; after that the superintendent, supervisors, principals, and teachers themselves confer about their return to the county. The work is assigned as early and as wisely as possible, suggestions are given for summer study, and off they go. The supervisors and principals recommend the teachers to the superintendent, and she in turn to the Board, though the law in this state gives that power exclusively to the Board. The most difficult and, at the same time the most telling work, is done in the superintendent's office during the summer months when the schools are not in session. The work of the next year is carefully planned, the course of study revised, supplies ordered, vacancies filled, teachers' meetings planned in a general way, programs studied, visits made to the various summer schools of the state which supply the teachers, and the conference of one week just before the schools open is planned in detail. 742 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence This conference is the index to the year's work; new teachers are at once made acquainted with the county as a whole and cordial and helpful relations are established between them and the supervisory force. The presidents of the parent-teacher associations meet one day with this conference as do members of the Board. The negro teachers are trained for six weeks before they begin work in their schools. Five hundred attended the summer school last year which was taught by a faculty of twenty leading teachers and supervisors of the white schools in that section of the state. A meeting with the wagonette drivers is held and one with the janitors at which electrical and heating experts and plumbers instruct them in the care of the buildings. The boys' and girls' club luncheon, the oratorical contest, the athletic contest, the Tri-State Fair with its twelve school and community ex- hibits, the community fairs, the graduating exercises, and school enter- tainments throughout the year demand a fair portion of the superinten- dent's time. The work with the legislature and the county court in pursuit of finances is the most tiring and time-consuming of all the tasks which lie before the superintendent. Schools are visited in company with the supervisors, one whole day being given to the large schools as often as it can be arranged and a faculty meeting is always held at the close of school when interesting and helpful discussions take place. Service on the textbook commission and the child-welfare commission of the state seemed necessary and was sandwiched in between other duties one midsummer. To sum it all up this superintendent has attempted to be the whip all along the line, encouraging, stimulating, applauding, keeping in the background and letting those who do the actual work receive the credit for it and to build up an esprit de corps based on mutual help and friendship that would stand the shocks of time and hold together against the forces of discontent and disintegration incident to any organization. Andrew Carnegie is reputed to have said that he could not make steel himself, but that he knew a steel-maker when he saw one. Obvi- ously, the best use of a superintendent's time is to find out what needs to be done and then to select the men and women who can do most efficiently the things that he wants accomplished and to be the dynamo that keeps his organization going like well-oiled machinery all the time. Every superintendent should reserve for himself some time for the social side of life, some time for light reading as well as for pro- fessional reading and research and should frequently reserve an evening Department] THE PROBABLE FUTURE of EDUCATION 743 for a lecture, a concert, or the opera. Educational journeys into other cities, counties, and states are worth while for the sake of measuring one's own work and for the acquisition of new ideas. Time could not possibly be better spent than in attending the meetings of the National Education Association and the Department of Superintendence. There is need for a great professional teachers' organization in the United States. Such an organization ought to exercise a wide influence in shaping the educational policies of the country both nationally and locally; it ought to include the major part of the teaching profession; it should eschew ultra class consciousness and seek to hold the respect of the thinking laity of the nation by the selection of wise, sane leaders. Such an organization ought to be democratic in its organization and government. If we can weld the profession into a cohesive, coöperative organization with the interests of the children of our country fundamentally at heart, we will have gone a long way toward solving the problem of creating a public senti- ment willing to finance a truly efficient system of public schools. The National Education Association essays to be such an organization and it deserves the whole-hearted coöperation of every superintendent in this country who has made this cause his own. THE PROBABLE FUTURE of EDUCATION IN THE United STATES—ITS POLICIES AND PROGRAMS HENRY SNYDER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, JERSEY CITY, N. J. The past forty years have witnessed greater development, expansion, and extension of educational systems than the preceding centuries of educational effort. In believing this we cannot claim that the im- provements made are more valuable or more important than those which preceded, for they are necessary consequences and must be regarded, so far as they can be so regarded at the present time, as the opening of the flower and the ripening of the fruit of seed planted during centuries of struggle for educational progress. We have seen a reversal in the at- titude of the teacher toward the pupil, in the character of the control ex- ercised, and in the notion of the purpose of the instruction given. Com- pulsory attendance laws have been enacted. Juvenile courts, separate from the criminal courts, and parental schools instead of prisons have been established for juvenile offenders. Plans for the more flexible grading and the more logical classification of pupils have been adopted, and the need of regrouping the grades of the school has been recognized. The subjects of study in the elementary schools have been simplified by elimination and correlation, and courses of instruction are varied and adapted to suit the needs of pupils. Reliable tests for the accurate measurement of scholastic attainment and of intelligence have been formulated. Increased emphasis has been placed on the professional 744 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence training of teachers and on the opportunities and facilities for giv- ing it. The health of children has been provided for by improved buildings, systematic physical training, medical inspection, and play- grounds. Special classes for the training of children who are delin- quent, backward, anaemic, defective physically or mentally, or excep- tionally gifted have been established. The development and expansion of the high school, with its many optional courses, has been phenomenal. A new field of education has been opened by the organization of vo- cational education and trade schools, and the period of instruction for those who leave the regular schools has been extended by the establish- ment of continuation schools. School age has been extended. Evening schools, courses of evening lectures, and special schools of different kinds have been multiplied. Special attention has been given to persons of foreign birth and to illiterates. The organization of community centers has made the schools more useful to the people. Universities have given their valuable assistance to furthering the progress of edu- cation by the establishment of departments or schools of education. These activities may be designated as accomplishments, or move- ments, or only as experiments or tendencies, but they all evidence the increased interest and faith of the people in the schools, and reveal and illustrate the principles and policies which will direct the progress of education in the future. Such is my faith in the devotion of the people to the schools, that I believe that these will be applied so rapidly and extensively that the benefits of their operation will soon be felt by the remotest child. Of primary importance is the conviction that the people are com- mitted to the protection of childhood. This period must be preserved for the child and must be freed entirely from mercenary exploitation, whether by parent or employer, in order that it may keep healthy and grow strong, and be able to profit by the facilities for education which are offered. Play has been recognized by the schools and in many forms of legislation as necessary to the full development of the child, and opportunities for participating in it, not only as a means of furnish- ing recreation and improving health, but as a method and stimulus of instruction, must be greatly multiplied. Education, in its most comprehensive sense, is fundamental to all life's activities and is the most vital interest of the people. It is the surest safeguard of a democratic nation and the most important function of government. General literature and the utterances of statesmen are full of expressions of this sentiment. The revelations of the deficiencies of our young men, mental and physical, made by our national author- ities in recruiting for war service, appeared startling, and showed, what every well-informed person already knows, how far we have fallen short of our pretensions; but they have also served to arouse the Department] THE PROBABLE Future oF EDUCATION 745 nation in its crisis and to assure the constant practical exemplification of its faith in education for the future. The future will enforce the policy of the conservation of human resources . It must be the test and mission of advanced civilization to develop in the highest degree all the possibilities of every human life, to train it to be useful and to enable it to make what contribution it can to human progress. /In our educational scheme we must inventory and classify all the life-forces of our country. We must train every life effectively so that it may take its proper place in the social struc- ture and may be counted as an asset to the country. Education will be universal in every sense of the word. It will in- volve all persons of all ages, will include all subjects of instruction de- sired by the people, and may be given at any time. It is universal, also, in the interest which it arouses, in the appeal which it makes to all individuals, whether in school or not. We are fast approaching the time when, in considering problems of education, we shall, as a matter of course, consider the relation of every individual, young or old, to the process of education, what he ought to receive, or what he ought to give. We shall then assume that it is the duty of the state as well as of every individual to recognize this connection. The schools are in- evitably connected with every public or social problem, and instruction in the schools is usually demanded for assistance or preparation in their solution. The schools will be expected to respond readily to these demands. Because of the wide difference in the needs of the people and in the hours of labor, we must be ready to offer instruction in any subject, when requested by sufficient numbers, at any time of day or night. As the hours of labor decrease-a tendency which is bound to continue-more attention must be given to the training of children for the profitable enjoyment of their leisure time when adults. I like to recall the argument of Aristotle, who, if he were alive in these days of moving pictures and popular dramas, many of which are harmful, would not allow the forces of evil to monopolize these most enticing in- struments of attractive entertainment, nor would he rely only on censor- ship, but, as a teacher, he would himself use them for inculcating cor- rect taste. Equal opportunities for education ought to be offered to all. Whether it be considered from the standpoint of the benefit of the individual, or the welfare of the state, all should be able to take advantage of every approved educational privilege. As the state con- siders it necessary to remove illiteracy, it should offer education to all illiterates equally. Only by the application of this principle will the troublesome problem of comprehensive, effective, rural education be solved. Its solution will go far toward counteracting the movement of population to the cities, but, what is more important, will be of incal 746 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence culable advantage to the children and to the state. Ordinarily we think mainly, and often only, of elementary education./ What is in my mind at this time is that all forms and varieties of instruction and training, which are or will be offered to children or adults in the most ad- vanced system of education, must be offered to all. The problem is extremely difficult of solution, but it can and will be solved. We must modify the prevalent conception of the purposes and ideals of education. Formerly education was mainly individualistic; that is, it aimed at the good of the individual, at his success in the asso- ciations and transactions of everyday life-in other words, at his suc- cess in his occupation. He has been urged to believe that the tetter his education, the greater his earning power. To the person of foreign birth the only appeal is still, too often, that education enables him to get a better job. Spencer's definition of the purpose of education can be accepted now as only partially true if the individual is trained to live for himself alone. He must be trained for complete living as an individ- ual, as a member of society, and as a citizen. We must prepare him to understand not only his privileges and opportunities, but his obliga- tions to his fellow-men and to the state. When we thus state the pur- pose of education we must not think of it as a process applied to the individual, but as a system, as an organized plan, applied to all indi- viduals as related to each other, and to the state, and when we think of the individual we must keep in mind all the members of society, adults as well as juveniles. Next to moral character, health is the most valuable asset of a human being. Although much progress has been made by child-welfare agencies, - by physical training, and by medical inspection in the schools, thorough health training has received less attention than intellectual training. It required a great war to arouse the American people to a determina- tion to protect the health of the children. In view of the combination of the work done in the schools for this purpose with other co-operat- ing agencies of government, it is probable that the first notable ac- complishment in the education of the future will be the rapid improve- ment of the health and strength of children and of adults. The mental characteristics, aptitudes, and inherent possibilities of children, and the effects and propriety of educational processes, methods, and material can be determined accurately only by scientific study and in- vestigation . The empiricism of the past must yield to the demand for scientific analysis and evaluation. It is more important that the educa- tional laboratory of the future shall be able to discover and suggest a sure remedy for deficiencies in children than that an agricultural labora- tory shall prescribe a remedy for the failure of crops or the disease of cattle, valuable though this be. As the broader aim in education is to secure permanence of right impression or instruction and habit, means Department] THE PROBABLE FUTURE OF EDUCATION 747 must be found for ascertaining the permanent effects of educational courses as they are found in adults. It is one of the serious difficulties in education that judgment of results, whether good or bad, is sure only after the lapse of years, but the difficulty must and will be overcome. Such investigations must lead to a revision and improvement in methods and changes in courses of instruction. Standard tests of proficiency and methods of measuring intelligence will have a constantly increasing influence. Such tests should not, how- ever, have the result of definitely and finally assigning a pupil to a course of training which will limit his possibilities or opportunities for improve- ment. History presents so many cases of individuals who were dull in childhood or whose peculiar capabilities had no opportunities for exercise, and who later were notable in many different fields, that final- ity of judgment in such cases, even after what seems to be decisive tests, is dangerous. Vocational and trade training should be emphasized and extended. Opportunities should be given pupils of entering pre-vocational and vocational courses in order that they may become familiar with voca- tional processes, and that their adaptability to individual vocations may be discovered. There will be developed in the future a plan for general trade training in the schools by the coöperation of trade organizations with school authorities. Experience and further study of the problems involved will undoubtedly remove present differences of view. Past events, including the approval of trade training by labor authorities, point to this result. Something of this kind must come to pass if ap- prentices in sufficient numbers are to be trained. General fundamental training must be provided for all. While we may give training for special occupations we must give such general training as will at the same time enable the youth to participate satisfactorily in all the duties of the citizen. Too great specialization, which excludes general edu- cation, and narrowness of training lead to narrowness of view and are contradictory and prejudicial to the social aim. Special pains must be taken to inculcate in pupils a belief in the worthiness and dignity of labor. Education has placed emphasis upon the training which aims to improve the industrial and social conditions of the pupils. All labor cannot be called "skilled" as that word is usually understood. It is difficult to escape the conviction that if the impetus now constantly given to the young to prepare themselves for skilled occupations continues as pressing and successful as it has been, if all the other forces now at work and to be added in the future continue to induce all to seek education, and if foreign laborers are excluded, the time will come when there will not be sufficient workers who lack edu- cation. To deny this is to admit that efforts to make men seek education will fail. Then, besides, there will be those who will be directed by 748 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence expert judgment to unskilled labor by reason of their fitness for it. Their work should not be disparaged. Pupils should be taught that all honest work is worthy and honorable to the educated man. More ample facilities for college education should be provided. Industrial, commercial, and professional pursuits, as well as operations connected with the war have emphasized the value of this kind of training, so that more young people than ever before are ambitious to secure it. Facili- ties for giving it have not, however, increased proportionately. The splendid buildings and equipment of existing colleges discourage at- tempts to establish competing institutions. On the other hand, some colleges cannot receive all applicants, or they are seeking to secure the most brilliant students and are enforcing regulations which exclude those who, from their viewpoint, are less desirable. I should like to see established throughout the country at the public expense many "neigh- borhood colleges." The extension courses of the universities are now doing much in this direction, but they cannot perform the functions of complete, well-organized institutions. The country will always need trained leaders, and such institutions will increase the opportunities to the youth to qualify for leadership. Official organization must be created for securing, testing, evaluat- ing, and applying fruitful advice given by those interested in education or affected by educational processes, and for disseminating among the people accurate information regarding the aims and results of edu- cational work. Such a comprehensive agency might be established by each of the states because of their widely different special interests, but multiplication of effort and waste of money would be avoided by its establishment by the national government. The United States Bureau of Education, the National Education Association, and organizations of local establishment are doing much valuable work along this line. The quick response of the schools to the conclusions of the investi- gations of agencies organized by private initiative and conducted by experts not officially connected with the schools is proof of their notable service, and demonstrates the value of a more comprehensive organiza- tion. Such a tribunal cannot prevent the expression of ill-considered opinions on educational matters, but it could effectively counteract their injurious influence, especially when uttered by persons of prominence. I cannot refrain from citing a typical illustration. Secretary of State Colby is quoted as saying recently, referring to our representatives in South America, "I wish our schools would clean out the rubbish from their curricula with which they agitate the youthful mind without im- proving it. Better than a smattering of botany, biology, zoology, as- tronomy, trigonometry, plane, spherical, or anything else, the youth of America should be schooled in languages," and more of similar irration- al import. In saying this, Mr. Colby does not agree with Herbert Department] THE PROBABLE FUTURE OF EDUCATION 749 Spencer or with the logic of the educational decisions of the past. If the ex cathedra utterances of such a high official did no harm, we might pardon him for throwing the spotlight on Spanish and Portuguese with such theatrical effect. Mr. Colby ought to know that just as soon as the Secretary of State or the President lets it be known that all our repre- sentatives in the consular service will be chosen solely because of their knowledge of the languages of the people to whom they are sent, and, in spite of what Mr. Colby says, of their scientific, industrial, and com- mercial training, and not for other more questionable reasons, he will have more well-qualified applicants for such positions than he needs, even though all the students in our schools do not study only languages. The schools admit readily that that is their job and they are only waiting for the Secretary of State to give them a chance to perform it. Among the great improvements and devices used in teaching may be mentioned the extension of visual instruction and vocational guid- ance, which connects the scientific study and analysis of the pupil's attainments and mental and physical potentialities with his future career. State school legislative codes must be redrafted in order to reflect more accurately the newer and more comprehensive educational notions, to combine school districts, and thus to increase the unit of administration, to improve all the schools, particularly those in rural sections, to improve the professional status of the teacher, to increase his qualifications, to elevate the standard of professional training and make it more easily obtainable, to include the policy of giving him permanent tenure, to provide greatly increased remuneration so that it will not be possible to classify him with those who are most poorly paid, to increase school revenues, and devise effective methods of raising them, to provide ade- quate means for enforcing parental responsibility effectively, and for securing parental coöperation, and to secure the harmony and co- operation of all governmental agencies affecting the welfare of children. and the education of both children and adults, much of whose time is now wasted and much of whose work is rendered valueless or harmful by duplication or a conflict of authority. In considering changes in education we must consider the conse- quences of events of national importance. Disarmament and general world-peace, while not yet accomplished, must eventually come. With these will finally disappear the demand for special training for war in our schools and colleges, and our courses of instruction must reflect our new relationships with other countries. As the prohibition of the liquor traffic becomes effective, the immediate results ought to be the re- establishment of parental authority and the closer coöperation of the family with the school. Universal woman suffrage means more than voting. It means that women, hereafter, will participate in govern- mental affairs as much as men, and that instruction in civic matters 750 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence must be made to appeal to them equally strongly. We may confidently expect that the advancement of education will reflect woman's influence. The idol of German education has been suddenly shattered. Its aim, not clearly seen before by democratic eyes, has been revealed as an agency for nourishing and fostering despotic autocracy in world-do- minion, in world-commerce, and in world-industry. Its disgrace must be a lesson and an inspiration to us. With constantly increasing fervor we must hold fast to our determination that our youth, and in fact all our people, must know our country, must understand our institutions, must constantly be guided by our national ideals, and must be ready always to give "the last full measure of devotion." But they must not be misled into an egotistic assumption of national supremacy or world- domination. Rather should they seek to encourage the extension of democratic government and share with others the blessings of its rule. The humanitarian impulse which has prompted our country to contribute untold millions to the relief of the destitute of other countries should always tincture our education. If I interpret the history of our country accurately, from the miracle of Washington's successful leadership, through our dangerous crises to our present position of titanic power, punctuated at times by displays of irresistible might, at others by the exercise of unexampled international magnanimity toward the weak, I must feel that the Almighty raised and preserved this nation to exhibit to the world the beneficence of the rule of the people. American education, while aiming in all ways to promote the welfare of the people and to exalt the nation, must teach this lesson of our destiny. Appreciating the sincerity and unselfishness of our historic purposes, the world will not merely be safe for democracy, but will yield in willing submission to the peaceful conquest of democracy and its educational ideals as it never did to the conquest of arms. THE RECONSTRUCTION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION LOTUS D. COFFMAN, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. There are those who believe that American education is in a critical and perilous situation, because many communities are seriously ques- tioning their ability to finance public education, either on the war or the pre-war scale. These same communities are struggling with the diffi- cult problem of securing sufficient revenue to keep the machinery of government together. Two causes have contributed to this situation. One is the war, which laid a heavy hand upon all kinds of property. The burden of taxation is onerous and will remain so for many years to come. As a consequence, everyone is urging economy. All lines of business are feeling the pressure and public officials everywhere are anxious to reduce taxes. Department] RECONSTRUCTION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION 751 A SECOND CAUSE OF DIFFICULTY There is another cause more fundamental than the war that has contributed to the difficulty of the present situation. It is the theory that public education, from the very lowest to the very highest grade, including the university, should be free and equally open to all. We have assumed for generations that the strength, the hope, and the per- petuity of democracy depends upon maintaining a high level of general intelligence among all the people. In early days, we preached the doctrine that this ideal could be attained by graduation from the elemen- tary school, but as life grew complex and more intricate, and the social, political, and economic problems more difficult of solution, we gradually extended the period of education. Private secondary schools became public high schools. The compulsory attendance age was raised. We began talking about graduation from high school as the right of everyone and as the proper basis for the exercise of suffrage. Secondary educa- tion was popularized. It is still increasing in popularity. More than two million students were in private and public schools in this country last year. More will be in high school next year. And with this increase in registration the cost of education will increase. But this is not the end of the story. Our higher educational institutions are also crowded with students. It is clear that this aspect of the present situation cannot be con- sidered apart from the spirit and social philosophy of democracy. For centuries the spirit and philosophy of democracy have rested not upon class distinctions, but upon equality of rights and equality of privileges. These are ideals that should not be given up hastily. When once abandoned, we have no sure foundation for the preservation of many of our most worthy traditions, such as the freedom of assemblage, the right of trial by jury, and freedom of speech. We have long known that ability does not necessarily reside with the rich, and that it does not necessarily reside with the poor. There are able and good men who are rich, and able and good men who are poor. Leadership comes from both. The only true basis for class distinctions in a democracy should be founded upon ability. DOCTRINE OF ALTERNATE LEADERSHIP This theory has been recognized in the past and provision has been made for it in our scheme of education. The merest tyro of a student of social progress is aware that all phases of life have been slowly but surely transformed during the last generation, and that this transforma- tion has expressed itself in differentiation of function. Every artisan trade is highly specialized. So also are the professions. The doctor of a generation ago was a general practitioner, but today he is a specialist upon some disease or some part of the human anatomy. The engineer 752 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence of a generation ago had a general course in engineering, but today he is a specialist in mechanical engineering, in electrical engineering, hy- draulic engineering, highway engineering, chemical engineering, or scientific management. Business, once a trade, is becoming a profession with its lines of special service. Every large establishment has its expert advertiser, buyer, credit man, sales chief, accountant, and busi- ness manager. Every large bank has its expert upon insurance, indus- trial loans, farm loans, foreign exchange, credits, income tax, inherit- ance, occupation, and profits tax. More and more, we are relying upon the persons of unusual training, experience, and skill. This is what is called the doctrine of "alternate leadership." A clear recognition of it and a willingness to subscribe to it is basic to the very existence of a democracy. But can we rely upon alternate leadership entirely? If so, does it mean that only a few shall receive this training? Are there not many common problems which demand a high level of intelligent understand- ing for their solution ? What is the meaning of suffrage, anyway ? Shall we always follow blindly after the leaders ? Shall we, when community health, community safety, and community welfare are at stake? Should I, as an individual not have some intelligent opinions upon them ? Moreover, does not the safety and value of real leader- ship depend upon an intelligent constituency? Will it not become demagogic and untrustworthy under other conditions ? EDUCATION THE GREAT NEED Today we are facing the most momentous issue any generation ever considered. We are working, frequently with singular ineptitude, at the solution of our labor problems, the rehabilitation of our currency, the payment of the war debt, the reconstruction of our economic system, and the determination of our foreign policies. These are not matters to be left for settlement entirely to a sixth grade nation. These are not matters for children to dispose of. They require maturity ; they require study. More training than American people have yet received must be provided before they are ultimately disposed of. It would be tragic for the destiny of the nation for all such matters-matters which depend for their final solution and administration upon mutual understanding-to be left to the social reformer and the professional politician. Should the schools of the country not provide for this common education of the people, what will happen? Exactly what has always happened. The people will provide for it themselves. They will or- ganize classes, groups, and societies for the study of such questions. They will tax themselves voluntarily for the support of these classes, groups, and societies. They will not be denied the opportunity to study Department ] RECONSTRUCTION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION 753 and to learn. The history of public education shows that all matters and all problems fundamental to the life and welfare of the people generally are first considered in this way, and that later they become a part of the instruction of the established school system. If this is a correct analysis of the situation, then certain conclusions are obvious. Education will not go backward, it will not stagnate. On the contrary, it will expand and become more universal. In be- coming more universal, it will include many phases of adult education. The necessity of providing for adult education has been emphasized by four things : (1) the appalling illiteracy revealed by the war ; (2) the necessity for thorough-going constructive work in Americanization ; (3) the failure of Congress to place any limitation upon immigration ; and (4) the impelling desire of people of all ranks and stations to become familiar with the problems of the day. A public school may not be any more of a community center in the future than it has been in the past, but certainly classes in public educa- tion will be located in many parts of the city and country. Teachers will continue to go, not merely with the spirit of missionaries to teach men to read and write, but what their duties, their obligations, their responsibilities are, and the money for this program will be found. The demand to save is wise and should result in the introduction of every conceivable internal economy that does not in any way impair the efficiency of the educational product. But the savings thus made will not be enough to finance the schools of the future. New sources of revenue may be uncovered. They may be found in taxing the ex- travagances of the people. Should a sales tax upon tobaccos, moving pictures, soda water, and chewing gum prove impractical, it should not be forgotten that with a revival of industry, increased production and increased wealth may be adequate to supply all money actually needed for the support of the schools . REVISING THE TAXING UNIT Closely associated with the problem of finding sufficient revenue is the problem of revising the taxing unit. Hitherto, education has been regarded as a community and a state function. These two have not so correlated their burden, and the states have not always so ad- ministered the various phases of education that education has been equal, free, or democratic. Equality of educational privileges in the United States is still a dream. Free education does not exist for all children, and education in many respects is far from being democratic. The first step in the reorganization of the taxing unit, in my judge- ment, would be the establishment of the county as a unit. A large share of the school taxes should be levied in common upon all property within the county. A county board of education should be created 754 'NATIONAL education ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence with power to choose a county superintendent of education. The board of education should also have power, within limits, to determine the length of the school term. Many communities within a given county are so poverty stricken that they are unable to maintain schools a reasonable length of time during the year, or to pay teachers a reason- able salary. It is difficult to think of a more inefficient system than the present local district system. It is the product of earlier days. It has long since outlived its usefulness ; and yet with all of its weakness, it should not be entirely stifled. It has its virtues and strengths, but its partial abandonment would make it possible to raise more money and to distribute it better. In addition to the money raised by the local community and the county, the state should continue to contribute its share. The share that the state should contribute is a matter that remains to be deter- mined. While the state may assess a limited tax upon all the property, it will be possible for it to find other sources of revenue. There may be a gross-earnings tax, an income tax, an inheritance tax, or a sales tax, in addition to the funds accruing from the permanent common school fund . And finally, the federal government should and can raise additional funds for the support of public education; it should grant special sub- sidies for all those phases of education that are essentially of national interest. It will be difficult to determine exactly what these phases are. There will necessarily be considerable overlapping, but certainly health, illiteracy, Americanization, and the training of teachers would fall within this category. Education is not a local problem merely. It is a matter of state and national concern. SHORTENING THE PROGRAM Important as are the revision of the taxing units, the raising of sufficient revenue, and the inclusion of phases of adult education, there in another problem, perhaps even more important than these, that deserves consideration. I refer to a shortening of the program of educa- tion and an adjustment of it to correspond more nearly to individual capacities and to the occupational and professional choices of students. The first of these propositions, the shortening of the program, fre- quently involves a discussion of administrative devices such as the establishment of junior high schools and junior colleges. It can very easily be shown that most of the administrative adjustments, no matter how much notoriety they may bring their authors and proponents, sel- dom result in improving teaching. The program of American educa- tion may not be materially shortened by such devices. It is far more likely to be shortened and improved by such movements as that of Department] RECONSTRuction OF AMERICAN EDUCATION 755 unified mathematics, of general science, and of the reorganization of the social sciences. The time has come when more attention should be given to the study of the materials of education. The whole field of knowledge has been divided so frequently for the purpose of creat- ing separate subjects of study, that a genuinely wholesome point of view of any field is likely to be denied every student. The splitting of the materials of education into a multiplicity of subjects results in an over-emphasis upon the materials occurring within a given subject, and it necessarily leaves the student with a fragmentary conception of nearly every field. A reorganization of the various phases of mathematics, now taught in a high school, will enable the average student to complete the Freshman and much of the Sophomore years of college mathematics before entering college. If a corresponding reorganization were made of other subjects within the high school, and both below and above it, much time could be saved. It does not follow, however, from this statement that all students would advance with equal rapidity. We know that students are as far apart as the poles intellectually, and that we cannot expect them to advance at equal rates of speed, no matter how proficient the instruc- tion may be, but those who are qualified by nature to work in the upper reaches and stretches of education will find their speed accelerated by this reorganization. It will mean that advanced students will be able to begin their study of medical education at least two years earlier than they do now. The same thing will be true of other lines of pro- fessional work. This will result in an enormous saving of time. There is, perhaps, a greater gain even than this, and that is that these students, because of the more advanced training which they take at an early age, will be able to devote more energy and time to investigations and research in their respective fields. Science suffers because many of its devotees have not reached the point in their training where they can actually contribute to it until they have passed into the realms of middle life. IMPROVING INSTRUCTION There is still another respect in which the reorganization of the materials of education will result in great gain, and that is in improving the character of the instruction. No one can study diligently what he is teaching without becoming a better teacher. No one can study the correlation of the materials of a given field and the contacts which that field has with reinforcing fields without becoming more scholarly himself. If there is any one thing which American education needs more than any other thing at the present moment, it is better class- room teaching, and that can be secured only by teachers themselves becoming students of the art of teaching, and of the materials of in 756 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence struction. They have never seriously attempted to do this. This is not a criticism upon their intelligence; it is a reflection upon their profes- sional interest. No group of people can ever become professionally minded until its members become students of their own problems. Thousands of teachers in America are more interested in discussing administrative devices, ways of securing recognition in the administra- tion of the schools, and the rules and politics of legislative procedure, than they are in becoming better classroom workers. Relief from harassing conditions can be secured by agitation and by legislation, but in the long run the best remedy is preparation for one's real work. Just so long as teachers are absorbed by indirect goals, the children whom they have been appointed to serve will suffer. By this, I do not mean to imply that teachers should not be intelligent with reference to political, social, and economic questions, that they should not be informed concerning the management and administration of schools; I am talking in terms of emphasis, not in terms of exclusion. When credits and hours and wages and recognition are the main themes of a body of teachers, we may be certain that their idealism has been highly colored and tinctured by the industrialism of the times, and not by the professionalism of their calling. Could they but direct their energies to a consideration of the revision of the materials of educa- tion, with a view to their classroom use, could they become students of the thing that constitutes the fundamental excuse for the existence of the public school, the themes of our meetings would change and our attitudes would be transformed. What I am saying applies not merely to public-school teachers but to teachers in higher educational institutions as well. Just as teachers are disposed to emphasize many questions and problems that lie at the periphery of their realms, so students think in terms of credits, hours', terms', semesters', and years' work, and the result is that thoroughness of scholarship instead of being a virtue, is neglected. DEFINING THE OBJECTIVES The absurdity of many of the administrative devices can be admir- ably illustrated by the general tendency of many of the high schools and colleges to establish four-year courses for every type of work. Perhaps the colleges are more addicted to this than the high schools. Apparently no matter what the occupation or profession is, it requires four years to prepare for it, and it is assumed that when one has spent the required four years, and acquired the necessary number of credits that he is, therefore, qualified to practice his profession. These assump- tions are frequently made without sufficient thought being given to the subject-matter which the student is taught, or to his ability, or to the speed at which he could progress. Clearly, no course is profes Department] RECONSTRUCTION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION 757 sional merely because it is four years in length. Some one should be wise enough to look beyond any given course, and to define the objec- tives for which that course is intended to prepare. After these objectives have been clearly defined, then he should assemble and organize the materials, the mastery of which will prepare one for the practice of the profession. A course two years in length, or even one year in length, may be just as professional as another course four, five, or six years in length. The difference is not a difference of length. It is a difference in the type of service which one has to perform. As yet, we have not become students of types of service, and we have not attempted to arrange the materials of education with the various types of service and objectives in mind. The fundamental problem of American education is not the problem of money, difficult as that problem seems to be at the present time. That will be taken care of. The money will be provided. I do not believe that the American people will give up the theory that the common school is the hope of the country, and that education should, within reasonable limits, remain free and equally open to all. Special education the student will be expected to assist in paying for, but general education for citizenship will remain free. There may be some hysteria at the present time. It is one of the aftermaths of the war. It is true that, had there been no war, we should have been forced to face this same problem sooner or later, because of the increased regis- tration in the schools, but we would have faced it just as courageously as now, because we recognize that the values of human life are depend- ent upon the type of education that we encourage and support. THE VALUES OF LIFE In earlier times, the values of life consisted largely of food, clothing, and ornaments-material things. Today the values of life consist of knowledge, of art, of associations, and of moral and spiritual contacts. The values of earlier days were essentially local and provincial in character. Those of today are essentially general and cosmopolitan in character. Those of earlier days were individual ; those of today, social. Those of earlier days were non-sharable; those of today are sharable. Food, ornaments, and things that minister to bodily com- forts place definite limitations upon the individual. They prescribe both him and his point of view. If carried to their logical extreme, they isolate him, but knowledge, art, associations, and community and spiritual relationships broaden him, deepen his sense of responsibility, make him a better citizen. The more knowledge one has, the higher his appreciation of art, the broader and the more intelligent his associa- tions, the deeper and keener his sense of community and spiritual values, and the more he shares them the more are they increased. Educated 758 * NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence men may have no more property than illiterate men, but they have access to more social values, and as a consequence, they are more gen- uinely free and more genuinely independent than the man with the prescribed vision. The time has now come when the people of this country must decide whether they want more of the earlier or more of the later values of life. Clearly, the problems of yesterday are not those of today. The moral ideals of the last generation will not serve as a basis for the training of the new social puritans of the present generation. The price one must pay for an intelligent government and a high con- ception of justice is that of a higher and better education. The ques- tions for us to ask, therefore, are, shall we then have less education or more ? Must we remain still or advance ? Shall we have more knowledge, or less knowledge? More art, or less art ? More human contacts, or fewer associations ? Higher and finer moral and spiritual standards, or lower moral and spiritual standards ? Are we willing to pay the price of a better world in which to live? We can create this better world, but it will be expensive. The expense, however, is insig- nificant in comparison to the great returns that we shall receive and share with each other. These are questions which no thoughtful stud- ents of human progress can ignore. Let citizen and teacher alike catch the spirit and meaning of them, and every phase of the reconstruction of the school system will proceed along wholesome lines. Education will not suffer, democracy will be safe, and the world will be better. SCHOOLING OF THE IMMIGRANT FRANK V. THOMPSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS. America has undertaken the problem of national unification or Americanization in a fashion similar to that in which she undertook the conduct of the war. An unsuspected situation was suddenly re vealed to us and we hastened to make amends for past negligence. We wished to attack it wholesale, without large expenditure, and get the troublesome task over with, so as to resume the normal tenor of existence. But we are finding that the problem is more subtle than we had supposed, and that our national genius for getting quick results is balked by this situation, strange to our habitual comprehensions. We shall not be as quickly rid of this newer problem as we were of the war, and our methods must be entirely different. The war was a challenge to the efficacy of our material and spirit- ual forces and its carrying out meant the production of materials, equipment, guns, and machinery, as well as the development of the spirit of courage and sacrifice. National unification presents a more Department] TEACHING AMERICANISM 759 complex situation, and one that cannot be dealt with in a hurried fash- ion. The problem promises to be with us indefinitely, at least as long as aliens come to our shores. Even should immigration cease entirely we should probably need to await a gradual evolution of feeling and action to bring about the condition which is sought by those who hope immediately by the "drive" method to make all individuals 100 per cent Americans. We may rightly proceed by emotional challenges to arouse public attention to the seriousness of the situation, for the securing of funds, and for the establishment of instruments suitable for an enduring function. The process of national unification, however, is primarily one of education and time; it is not to be undertaken im- pulsively, but systematically, persistently, and determinedly. The act of the alien taking out his first papers means very little in relation to national unification. Thousands of aliens are taking out first papers under the coercion of employers in order to retain their employment, many others to avoid oppressive taxation. Nor does the process of naturalization mean much more in many instances. Thous- ands have been naturalized at the instigation of politicians who strive for party control. Naturalization of late has come to mean much more than formerly, and is, consequently, a greater guaranty of desirable citizenship ; but it is a mistake to assume that naturalization of the individual completes the process of unification, and that further con- cern about the attitudes of the naturalized citizen is unnecessary. The problem before us, consequently, is practically permanent in so far as we can forecast the probabilities of the future. Mushroom organizations, like councils of defense, citizens' organizations, and the like, are not competent to undertake successfully the careful and per- sistent efforts necessary toward an effective solution. The organization to be chosen must have permanency like that of our school systems or our courts. The difficulties before us should not deter us. The chief business of a democracy is the making of citizens. The task is never done, but always in process ; each child is a candidate for education for citizenship. We make the mistake of thinking that the problem of citizenship for the foreign-born is essentially different from that of the native-born, whereas the two are fundamentally the same. WHAT ONE REPRESENTATIVE AMERICAN CITY IS DOING IN TEACHING AMERICANISM FRANK CODY, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH . In Detroit we put a broad interpretation upon Americanization. We ay it is any process that will help to make a man or woman a good American citizen. Americanism means "a square deal." This ques 760 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence tion of Americanization is one of the oldest living questions in our history, varying each decade with the political conditions of the time and the concurrent volume of immigration. It was only in the pres- ent age that a combination of events and conditions made American- ism and Americanization the most vital of the problems confronting the people of the United States. The event which brought it home was the world- war. The conditions were the resultant threatened deluge of immigration and the alarming wave of bolshevism which followed the Russian revolution. These conditions were the result of a careless immigration policy and an equally careless policy with respect to the alien after he was admitted. Immigration vitalizes the question of Americanization today. What- ever we may believe is the true policy to be followed in immigration we must admit that in it lies the whole responsibility for the existence of an Americanization question at all, and that the latter question will wax and wane in proportion to the volume and nature of immigration. Without wishing to appear as an advocate of exclusion, I nevertheless do not belong to that school which contends that as a matter of prin- ciple, America has no right to restrict immigration. This is assuredly a case where self-preservation, as the first law of nature, is expedient. Whether self preservation requires at this time restriction or exclusion may be a debatable matter. My experience with Americanization work, has clearly demonstrated that there is a limit to our national powers of assimilation during any given period. What our yearly limit is, I cannot attempt to say. It should be determined from year to year or from month to month, not by guesswork, but by continuous study along scientific lines by a permanent immigration commission similar in character to our Interstate Commerce Commission. Legislation regulating the volume of immigration, as well as legislation dealing with the many domestic and international phases of the question, should be based on the findings of this commission. What we need in this problem first of all is a policy-an intelligent, scientific policy-and what we must positively get away from is our present method of al- ternate apathy and hysteria. The Americanization of the American is a proposition which has come amazingly to the fore of late. I think it is more vital than the Americanization of the alien, important as that is. Our standard is and must continue to be the basis and measurement of the citizenship to which we expect our aliens to aspire. How ridiculous to expect them to surpass us in devotion to American ideals. Americanization has been aptly termed "selling America to the foreigner." I think we could more accurately term it "making America stay sold," for I be- lieve America was sold to most immigrants before they left their native Department] TEACHING AMERICANISM 761 lands. That is why they come. Often they are oversold in that they expect too much of America; they picture it as a land of easily-gotten wealth, and freedom from all restraint and so, in the inevitable dis- illusionment, they suffer a reaction which permanently embitters them against America and things American. The way to sell America or to make it stay sold is to fit the alien as rapidly as possible for his new environment. We know that the foreigner upon his arrival in America seeks shelter immediately with his countrymen and thus helps to perpetuate the so-called foreign colonies of our cities. These colonies present the greatest obstacle to the rapid assimilation of the immigrant. But it is not an unmixed evil because it serves as a buffer, as it were, for the foreigner in his sudden contact with the customs and language of an utterly strange land. It is a wise community which makes use of this colonizing tendency to promote Americanization from within. Plans for working it out must include more than school or recrea- tional activities. They must provide for the voluntary development under proper leadership of a new community or group spirit and or- ganization. We are slowly working toward that in Detroit, avoiding anything that savors of condescension or compulsion. A snobbish attitude of superiority-a failure to appreciate the culture and devel- opment of other peoples-has been too often the cause of failure in extensive Americanization campaigns. Let us acknowledge the excel- lence of the metal, flowing white hot to us from other great lands and races, and seek by intelligent effort to direct it into the American mold. The policy of compulsion is equally mischievous. You cannot force Americanism upon an unwilling alien, and if you try it on a willing one you are liable to antagonize him. I do not agree with the so- called Americanization policy of some manufacturer, which forces an employee to become a citizen or forfeit his job and share of promo- tion. The evils of thus rushing hordes of unprepared and reluctant aliens into the ranks of active, voting citizens are so apparent as to have called for a resolution of condemnation from the National Con- ference of Industries of 1919. As an example of the coöperative method of Americanizing, take our Americanization Committee of the Detroit Board of Commerce. On this committee are a number of representative members of the foreign groups, leaders of influence and of proved devotion to Ameri- can ideals. These meetings themiselves are a lesson in democracy. We have judges, ministers, priests, newspaper-men, merchants, manufac- turers, and schoolmen of all nationalities, creeds, and fortunes sitting down together to see in what way each can help. We get the for- eigner's counsel here ; we get his viewpoint; we get results. 762 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence The Detroit Board of Commerce has spent considerable money and energy in establishing and maintaining its central Alien Free In- formation Bureau and its Hungarian, Polish, and Italian branches. During the fiscal year just closed the central bureau alone helped nearly twenty thousand alien folk out of their difficulties. To promote naturalization through the industries of Detroit em- ploying large numbers of foreign-born workmen, the Board of Com- merce has an experienced Director of Naturalization, one who has had years of experience as a United States examiner and who is schooled in every phase of the difficult processes of naturalization . Professional and specialized advice on every angle of naturalization problems is furnished the declarant at regular intervals at his place of employment. Every naturalization in the courts of our city is attended by this representative of the Board's Americanization work. Much constructive work has been done at these hearings with the petitioners whose cases are ordered continued because of lack of knowledge of our government or because of a technicality surrounding his witnesses, his residence in the state, or for other reasons. Many a petitioner feels that an injustice has been done him, and be leaves the courtroom, often without the judges even suspecting it, with a burning sense of in- justice that long defers Americanization. It is here that the Board's representative does his constructive work. He talks with each such petitioner who has met with any of the difficulties mentioned above, explains the workings of the law, sympathizes with him, encourages him to make another attempt and shows him the course to pursue to meet all requirements for naturalization at the next hearing. The Detroit Board of Commerce wages twice a year, before the opening of the September and January terms of night school, an in- tensive publicity campaign to make every foreign-born person know that there are free classes in the public night schools where he or she may learn the English language. The Committee secures the coöperation and working support of the ministers and priests of the foreign churches in the city, and the announcements from the pulpits are followed by strong recommendation to attend. The announcements of the evening schools issued by the Committee are also distributed through the chil- dren in the various parochial schools, who receive instruction to take them home to their parents and urge them personally to attend the classes and learn the language that they, the children, are learning in the schools. The power of the foreign-language press has always been enlisted by the Committee. Editorial comment and space is de- voted in the English press as well and a conspicuous position is given to all the releases of the Committee. Other mediums of publicity used in these campaigns are the public libraries, the banks and their bran Department] TEACHING AMERICANISM 763 ches in the foreign sections, the Boy Scouts, and the county and city officials. The history of the schools and the history of Americanization in Detroit go hand in hand. For a long time the evening schools were the only institutions that were definitely working along Americaniza- tion lines. Detroit, you know, since the days that Cadillac led a band of French immigrants to its site, has had a considerable alien popula- tion. The Indians were the first to attempt their Americanization on a systematic scale by a determined effort to reduce with the tomahawk the number of these aliens. The Indians then unanimously passed an immigrant exclusion act but it failed, owing to the inadequacy of their navy to give it force. The aborigines, being without a constructive Americanization program, the resultant flood of aliens was extremely disastrous to the American ideal of that day. Today, according to the census of 1910, no less than 33 per cent of Detroit's people were foreign born or of foreign parentage. The increase in our population since then has been over 300,000. A recent nationality survey conducted in our schools showed that 45 per cent of the children had fathers of foreign birth. Detroit's experience with the influx was not different in kind from those of other growing cities but simply differed in degree. These colonies presented their usual almost impenetrable front, but we did not look upon them as a menace but rather as an inconvenience until the breaking out of the world-war. We than woke up, with the rest of the country, to the gravity of the problem which the undigested product of immigration presented. We saw that something had to be done and we turned to the evening schools as the only tool ready at hand. In the spring of 1915 a definite plan of action was formulated. The Board of Education joined hands with the United States Govern- ment, the Board of Commerce and the Detroit employers of for- eign labor, and set out to bring the foreigner to the schools and the school to the foreigner on so comprehensive a scale that the Detroit plan came to stand, in some respects, as a model for other communities. From that time until prior to the entry of the United States into the world-war, Americanization work flourished. In the fall of 1916 it began to drop off and in 1917 and 1918 sank to almost nothing. In our present system all adult Americanization work is bulked under the evening elementary department with a supervisor in charge who reports directly to the superintendent. He has complete charge of organization and administration. Under him is an assistant who trains teachers to teach the Americanization classes, supervises their teach- ing by frequent visits to the classrooms, and directs the afternoon classes 764 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence for mothers. The subjects stressed are English, citizenship, domestic arts and sciences, and the usual grade subjects. The teaching force is especially trained for the work, and a uniform standard of instruc- tion is maintained in all schools. The class work is held as far as possible in our largest and finest high schools, the psychological effect of which policy is distinctly good. For the benefit of the alien who feels that special coaching is neces- sary, the department maintains nine citizenship classes in five schools and one factory. The course is covered in fifteen lessons ; instruction and textbooks are free and pupils may enter at any time. The Manual of American Citizenship, published by the Detroit Board of Commerce through its Committee on Americanization, is used in these citizenship classes. At regular intervals a naturalization official of the Govern- ment visits the school to examine the pupils and award official diplomas which are recognized by the courts. During the last year 418 diplomas were issued and so far this year 234 have been issued. Over 300 pupils are now attending. The present year in the Americanization department of the Detroit public evening schools has been, so far, the most successful since the inception of Americanization in the city. An increase in the initial enrolment in excess of 100 per cent over the enrolment of last year has been registered, while a steady and marked improvement in the material and methods of presentation has served further to increase the proportion as the term progressed, both by attracting new pupils and by retaining more of those who registered at the beginning of the term. During the fall term in the Americanization department, we had twenty-six centers open, employing 135 teachers with 135 distinct class groups meeting two to three times per week. In our schools we en- rolled 3318, in our factory classes 612, and in our mothers' classes 315, a total of 4245 average enrolment. Our average attendance was 2663, a percentage of 63. Of our enrolment 246 were taking citizenship; 2758 English; and 1217 regular grade subjects. A nationality survey showed 95 per cent of foreign birth, representing fifty-eight different countries. The Jewish people led with 17 per cent, the Poles came next with 15 per cent, and the Italians came next with 13 per cent. The total cost of instruction was twelve cents per student hour. If we have been progressing, I lay it to these features of our policy; a trained teaching force, a standard method and course, large attrac- tive buildings, and willingness to extend facilities where necessary. Our system is capable of ready expansion to meet any call made upon it. That its facilities may continue to be more and more widely made use of is our constant aim. Department] THE CIVIC TRAINING OF YOUNG AMERICA 765 THE CIVIC TRAINING OF YOUNG AMERICA ARTHUR W. DUNN, ASSOCIATE NATIONAL DIRECTOR JUNIOR RED CROSS, WASHINGTON, D. C. I invite your attention to what may be called the Americanization of Young America. * * * * * Certain mechanical adjustments are nec- essary-learning the common language, learning to be self-support- ing, acquiring approved social habits, becoming familiar with business and political procedure. But all this avails little if the individual is not made American in spirit, for Americanization is fundamentally a spiritual process. The solemn responsibility of the schools of America at the present critical juncture of national and world-history is ample reason for the most intensive thought we can give to the purposeful training of a responsible, intelligent citizenship. Civic education has received a great impulse during the past five or six years. Since 1915 more than a third of the states have passed laws for its promotion. As a result of such legislation in some states, and in others where there has been no express legislation, state departments of education have been revising their courses of study to meet the demand, and hundreds of local school systems have attacked the problem for them- selves. Heretofore, the superintendent or principal or teacher who has not had a decided opinion of his own on the subject has been much confused by the conflicting opinions and prescriptions of the doctors as to what should constitute the program of studies designed to educate for citizenship. His inclination was, therefore, to do nothing in the way of reorganization. But nearly everybody now agrees that the civic education of Young America requires purposeful instruction and training throughout the entire school career, from the first elementary grade to the end of the high school. We have come to this agreement only recently. One does not need to go far back to find the only provision for instruction of a definite civic character, aside from the study of American history, a single course in civics or civil government, usually in the last year of the high school, and often as a mere appendage to a half-year course in American history. Even now this is true in some schools. But most states and com- munities that are revising their courses of study are making conspicuous provision for continuous, unified, cumulative civic training throughout the twelve years. There is closer agreement as to what this twelve- year course of civic training should include. It is appropriate that I should refer to the great influence of the report of the National Educa- tion Association Committee on Social Studies, published in 1916, in bringing about this desirable result. At least three committees, those of the National Education Association, the American Historical Asso- ciation, and the American Sociological Society, are recommending as 766 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence a minimum course of social studies in the high school, a course in civics, of the "community civics" type, and with definite economic and social bearings, in the first year, European and American history in the second and third years, and a course in the fourth year, for which the name suggested by the National Education Association Committee has been accepted, namely, "Problems of Democracy." I do not want to minimize important differences that still exist, but it is important that there should be agreement on the essentials. It means a sim- plification of the curriculum by a reduction in the number of subjects. It means continuous emphasis upon education for citizenship as the main objective. It means a serious attempt to adapt the material of the social science to the requirements of secondary education. The value of this high-school cycle of social study is largely con- tingent upon what is done in the two earlier cycles, the elementary and the grammar grade or junior high school cycles. Many of those who are insistent, for example, that a special or separate course in economics or in sociology, or some other social " science," be offered in the high school are inclined, it seems to me, to overlook the rather remarkable amount of economic and sociological material that is woven into the earlier cycles of study. The course proposed by the National Education Association and American Historical Association committees provide for more economic and sociological instruction without a sep- arate course in either of these sciences in the high school, than the old-time course of study provided even with such separate subjects in the high school. One of the most significant features of the new course of civic training is its cumulative character. And yet we must see to it that it is cumulative. One of the surprising things that I have observed in many school systems is the complete ignorance of teachers in the higher grades of what is being done in the lower grades. It is much more important that teachers in the higher schools should 'be familiar with the work in the lower grades and build on it, than it is for the teachers of the lower grades to be familiar with the work of the higher schools. The war period was favorable to the development of civic training for two reasons. First, it led teachers to seek to make their subjects function immediately to meet the emergency. Early in the war, for example, the historians organized in Washington a National Council for Historical Service. It was principally made up of representative college-teachers of history, men who were prominent in the American Historical Association. The Council had two purposes; first, by historical research to aid the government in meeting the many prac- tical questions that arose during the war, and especially questions that would inevitably arise when the time came to make peace; and, second, Department] THE CIVIC traininG OF YOUNG AMERICA 767 to stimulate and aid the schools to teach history in its direct bearings on the war. It sought to make history meet the immediate situation. The teachers of the several social sciences did much the same thing. Live schools, everywhere, were laying aside the formal courses and reorganizing social study with an eye to making it function immediately. It was a part of the general program of maintaining the national morale and of securing intelligent response to the social situation. In the second place, during the war Young America was actually participating in the national movement. We have pretty generally accepted, at least in theory, the doctrine that children "learn to do by doing." The other doctrine, equally important, that the subject-matter of instruction, if it is to function, must meet the needs of the child's present growth rather than his supposed future needs ; or that his future needs can be guaranteed only by meeting his present needs- this doctrine we have been slow to accept.. In the introduction to her Lessons in Civics for the Six Elementary Grades of City Schools, published by the United States Bureau of Education, Miss Hannah Margaret Harris says : "We have repeatedly to remind ourselves that any material which has a legitimate place in the course of study holds that place because it is related to some civic situation in which a child is normally to be found, and his reaction to which is capable of being modified by a civics lesson." She has consistently applied this principle throughout her Lessons. "The Declaration of Independence did not mention the questions of our day," says Mr. Wilson in The New Freedom. "It is of no consequence to us unless we can translate its general terms into examples of the present day and substitute them in some vital way for the ex- amples it itself gives, so concrete, so intimately involved in the cir- cumstances of the day in which it was conceived and written. Unless we can translate it into the questions of our own day, we are not worthy ofit It is the highest function of community civics to establish a living consciousness in Young America of the common purposes and inter- dependence of their community life, national as well as local, to culti- vate a spirit and habit of mutual service and team work for the common good, and to develop an immediate attitude toward government, local and national, as our service organization and our means of securing team work. "Making life educational" rather than merely "educating for life" will be the keynote of a functioning civic education. We are making progress in this direction. In the new civics syllabus for the elementary grades of the state of New York, we find under every topic in every grade a list of activities appropriate to the grade and topic. In the new course of study for Utah, we are told that, 768 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence "before promotion from the junior high school the student must not only be able to discuss intelligently any subject treated in the prescribed text, but must also reach a high degree of achievement." It is because of this necessity in civic education of "making life educational" and of giving Young America opportunity to "live their civics" that the National Education Association adopted a resolution at Salt Lake City, recognizing the service to the schools of such or- ganizations as the Boy Scouts and the Junior Red Cross, and urging the schools of America to make wise use of them. It is for the same reason, no doubt, that Detroit has provided for an official Scout Master responsible to the school authorities. It is because of my own con- viction on this principle that I am gladly doing what I can to develop and promote the Junior Red Cross program of Civic Training Through Service. Without doubt this program affords new and real incentive for much of the regular work of the school, and opportunity to enrich the course of study at almost every point. It promotes habits and ideals of service for others. It expands the concept of "our community" to em- brace the peoples of the world. It involves patriotic service to our nation as well as humanitarian service to the needy of the world. In short, it affords, at the present time, an unparalleled experience to some six million young Americans, in local, national, and world-wide team work in service for patriotic and humanitarian ends. If there is one idea that Americanization should implant firmly in the mind and heart either of Young America or of the immigrant, it is that service-mutual exchange of service, team work in service for the common good--is the very foundation of normal community life in a democracy, and the commanding ideal of true Americanism . IMPROVING PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHING SUSAN M. DORSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIF . Public school teaching can be much improved by a more intelli- gent grouping of children according to their intellectual capabilities and their general conduct so that instruction may be adapted to their vary- ing degrees of intelligence, and especially to the peculiar needs of the large group of overage children. To have good teaching there must be a fair promise of successful performance measured in terms of pro- fit to those taught. That there are those in the class doomed to failure paralyzes teacher effort. Emphasis has been placed, and rightly, upon the necessity of segregating the educationally unfit, for the sake of other children. What I wish to urge is the necessity of such segrega- tion in the interests of good teaching. The pall of idiocy, or something only a little removed therefrom, has shadowed many a teacher's school Department ] IMPROVING PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHING 769 room life until work has become hateful, professional aspiration has withered, and the springs of teacher helpfulness have gone dry. Age-grade tables show that about one-third, or 3313 per cent, of the children in the public schools are one year or more behind grade. When we eliminate the 2 or 3 per cent that are actually feeble-minded, there still remains the 30 per cent who could very well get back to grade if they could be given attention according to their needs ; but if instruction is not adapted to them, they are bound to become failures and remain repeaters. An experiment in the interest of the 30 per cent has recently come under my observation which promises much in the way of releasing the energies of these children and making real progress possible. The significant thing is that the instruction is so adapted as actually to encourage and secure sustained effort, self- help, and self-measurement. The mechanics of the classroom proce- dure in this special group are simple. Each child has a portfolio con- taining a series of lesson exercises and questions increasing in difficulty but expressed in plain, understandable language; each lesson in the series forming a distinct unit which may require a longer or shorter time for mastery. As soon as one unit is mastered, the child passes on to the next. When a difficulty is met, the teacher's help is asked, it being understood that the help given shall be such that the child will really solve the difficulty himself. This experiment undertaken in the interest of misfits and overage children has resulted so helpfully that in many instances belated children have covered two and even three half-grades in a half-year and have been entered into their regular grade quite able to move on with the sucessful pupils of their own age. A second means for securing better teaching is the application of vocational guidance to the vocation of teaching. It is a matter of regret that recent exigencies in public-school education have made it necessary to stress the fact that teachers have at all times been underpaid ; as a result the impression has gained strength that the profession is one for the ambitious young person to avoid. Granting that the meager compensation of teachers in the past has been a reproach, even with this disability there are many intellectual and spiritual compensations which should make the vocation attractive, not to speak of those accom- paniments of the profession commonly supposed to be advantages, such as association with the young, the hopeful, the buoyant ; moderate hours of service; and extended vacations. To secure better teaching, it will be necessary to guide into the profession those of good intelligence and good character. While we are guiding into other vocations, what prevents us from pointing the way into our own ? And a very good one it is, to which I mean to in- vite the promising young as to a life of privilege and magnificent 770 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence opportunity. This must be one immediate way of improving teaching. Give us fresh young blood full of ambition and enthusiasm with the far-off look toward the future which never sees the intervening years of work and worry but always the distant glory. How shall we im- prove teaching ? By believing in it ourselves, by stopping our dolorous talk about its hardships, its penury, its limitations, and by seeing with the clear vision of those who love its work and believe in its regen- erating destinies the road that leads to supreme service, highest satis- faction, and most helpful accomplishment ; by inviting the best of those whom we teach to enter a vocation second to none in the opportunity to live lives of contentment, of service, and of achievement-so shall we have better teaching. A third measure that will contribute to good teaching is a some- what better adjustment of teacher training given in departments of education to the everyday needs of the child. I am not one to com- plain of the colleges or of the type of educated product issuing there- from. The magnificent college-trained young manhood and woman- hood of our country speak for themselves. In one particular, however, there is need of a coming together of the departments of education and the public schools, since the greater number of those who graduate from the schools of education are to become the teachers of just boys and girls in the elementary or high schools. These young instructors need to understand thoroughly two things: first, that the university methods, attitudes, and even standards, cannot be carried into the teach- ing of boys and girls ; and second, that the emphasis must be placed upon the development of children rather than upon the development of subject-matter. We are starting now a general movement for more extended training of teachers. This is desirable, even necessary, be- cause as general intelligence increases, teacher intelligence must increase apace. The mighty events of the last few years in which the youth of our nation played their part heroically and in which our entire people participated have lifted the whole nation as on the crest of a mighty wave far above the grade of pre-war intelligence. Every family has gained knowledge of peoples, races, lands, customs ; of appliances, instruments, and modes of living of which formerly little was known. As from a mountain-top we have seen new worlds and the sweep of intelligence has broadened with the vision. Teacher intelligence must be correspondingly enlarged so that there may be better teaching, more human teaching, teaching that takes cognizance of the way men actually live and which has a pre-vision of a better way. No cold, formal, intellectual, merely academic atmosphere can possibly meet the needs of the throbbing, almost feverish, living of today and tomorrow. Our departments of education must train men Department] IMPROVING public SCHOOL TEACHING 771 and women of sympathy and of understanding hearts who will care as much for the present life of the child and for his future fate as for the last jot and tittle of a finished recitation in a favorite subject. They must understand that the young have emotions as well as intellect and that unless these emotions are educated to right expression, they will turn and rend society. Not less of classics, not less of science, of literature, and of art, but more of a human understanding of the heart of the young, beset with hard home conditions or imperiled by over-indulgent parents, or enthralled by social temptations, or galled by poverty, or humiliated by the consciousness of inferior capacity. For all such as these is the Kingdom of Heaven and to that Kingdom the young must be led through the medium of classics, art, science, and vocation, but always with the sympathetic help and guidance of teachers. In the better teaching of which I speak subjects shall become the humble servants of our children, and children shall not be sacrificed to subjects. By all means give us more extended teacher training, better informed, more intelligent teachers to measure up to the demands of the day. At the same time let the humanities become human ; so shall they be glorified. To have better teaching in the public schools there must be an en- larged understanding of the aim of all teaching. Frankly, unhesita- tingly, persistently, the young must be made to realize that public education implies a social partnership, precludes the selfish individualism of the exclusive, and imposes inescapable social and civic obligations upon the recipient thereof. Herein lies the most important essential in the training of teachers for public-school service. No longer should it be left to chance that teachers shall possess sufficiently generous and high-minded natures to train the children of the nation into a com- prehension of their obligations to society and to the state, and to inspire a spirit of service. The first business of all schools of education should be to insure an understanding on the part of those being trained of the place of public education in a republic. They must be definitely taught that the state is not concerned with education as a means for increasing the intelligence of the individual in order that he may the more successfully exploit society for his own selfish advantage, that the whole significance of education at the public expense lies in the mutual helpfulness of the educated and the offering of their combined efforts for the betterment of all. Unless teachers have themselves mastered these fundamental principles of their craft, they are not fit candidates for employment as teachers of present and prospective citizens. Other nations, through their systems of education, have been able to train up generations of men and women to become the slaves of 772 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence even a base national ideal. Surely, the educators of America can grasp and formulate the noble principles and ideals of our national life and give that teacher training necessary to secure the transmission of them to the young. Certain it is that recent experiences should have taught us that teachers whose own notions of their responsibility to the nation growing out of their place in the public schools are vague, undefined, and even indifferent, cannot be relied upon to teach our children those fundamentals which are essential to the strengthening and perpetuity of our national life. An occasional reminder to prospective teachers by those intrusted with their training that loyalty to country and reverence for the flag should be taught, will not suffice. What we need is a rich body of informative material to illuminate the whole subject of the responsibility of the individual to society and to the state. Equally necessary is teacher training in the duty and the art of transmitting to the young through instruction and through school ac- tivities a gripping sense of the obligations and relations of each to all and to that impersonal, yet, ever-present reality-our country. Spora- dic attempts of individuals to write acceptable textbooks along the lines indicated will be abortive; courses of study skilfully adjusted to meet the needs of the better teaching of patriotism will not suffice. Through a unified, suitable, and adequate body of teaching material and through training, a new type of teaching and teacher must be produced the teacher trained first of all to regard his work not as an individual, unrelated task, not as a group task in a single school, or in a system, but as a part of a great national program designed to interpret for the whole people through specific instruction given in the public schools the significance, the accomplishments, the possibilities. the necessities of our particular nationalism. The teaching must be consciously adapted to create in the young such dispositions and atti- tudes as will make them fit to live in a land such as ours as well as apt for its service. The instruction given to teachers to prepare them for this particular and supreme end in public education should be required of each normal school or department of education as a requisite for receiving state and federal aid. If France was able to stand fast with her word, " They shall not pass," it was because her children, grown to manhood, had been educated from their earliest years to a sense of the national danger and of the necessity of preparation and resistance to the death. So must America interpret her national aims and ideals and through unified instruction in the public schools establish in the hearts of her people a national defense . This is my offering to the solving of the problem of better teach- ing: first, a better grouping of children in the public schools for Department] IMPROVING TEACHERS IN SERVICE 773 instructional purposes ; second, the securing of better teachers by the better adaptation of teacher training in colleges and universities to the guiding of young persons of promise into the vocation; third, the scheme together with ability to give instruction which shall contribute real needs of the public schools ; and lastly, an understanding on the part of teachers of the place of public-school education in the national directly, constantly, and designedly to the security, the advancement, and the perpetuity of the nation. IMPROVING TEACHERS IN SERVICE ZENOS E. SCOTT , SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOUISVILLE, KY. Rather than discuss the type of normal training that teachers should have or the minimum amount of academic and professional train- ing high-school teachers should have, I shall discuss certain phases of the proposition-" How can the teachers now teaching be trained to do better work ?" By way of introduction I want to say that we are doing "better teaching" in our public schools. Evidence of this better teaching is shown in the general tendency among teachers for more extensive training; in the greatly improved work and standards of our normal schools, and in the increase in speed with which children are regularly making grades in school. The curricula in elementary and high schools are being enriched. Important changes in method are coming each year. The psychologists have contributed toward improved teaching. The so-called measurement movement in education has doubled better teaching in many places. Experimentation in education is under way in public schools throughout the land. The teacher today has greater opportunities for initiative than ever before. Supervision, also, is less formal, more vital now. School administration which provides for better classification of pupils, better programs and policies for boards of education, for a more adequate system of teacher and pupil record, has insured better teaching. Aims are more clearly defined. Social needs are looked to as bases for organization of courses of study-vocational guidance, training in citizenship. Health education has become an important objective. We have, throughout the past several years, been very critical of what we are doing. Many belonging to the profession have been loudest in their criticisms. The public has looked on interestedly. We have spoken discouragingly of our future outlook. In some cases we have seemed to "enjoy poor health in education." It is time for us to urge success, to urge improvement. It is time to find those things in which we excel and to make progress through the encouragement that comes from viewing such success. The knocker in business has 774 NATIONAL educatioON ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence long been taboo. Education can profit much by the attitude which business has assumed. Let our motto be "Success through encourage- ment." Our immediate task is to make success in teaching more important, failure in teaching less important in our discussions. We must give to the teacher as many opportunities to improve her work, as many opportunities to try again, as many opportunities to succeed as does general business to its salesmen, its clerks, and its stenographers. In order to have the best we must encourage success and make possible constant improvement, not by discouragement but by giving stimulat- ing, sincere encouragement to all members of the profession who are willing to improve. Another important step to improve teaching will come about through a closer coöperation between so-called educational forces on the one hand, and community and business forces on the other. Men and women in education need to recognize the value of all the forces working for better training. These forces must feel that they too have a part to play in advancing education. Business has accepted the worth of education. The school, too, has accepted the contributions that busi- ness has made. The important tasks now are to see to it that good schools pattern after good business and that good business, on the other hand, looks with favor upon the success of good school work. As superintendents and teachers we can deal too much in pedagogy, too little in the immediate application of genuine common sense in education. If we are good scouts, let's permit the public to know it. Certain school systems realize that it pays to advertise, and have begun to adopt this policy in the regular school work. The possibilities here are very great in regard to increasing the efficiency of teaching in our schools. When school boards, administrators, supervisors, prin- cipals, and teachers make definite attempts through which the needs of the children at the present time are more adequately met, when we make it possible for the public as a whole to feel a satisfaction in the work of the schools, and when their good work is so well known that the public underwrites it, we have advertised our schools and as a necessary result we have improved teaching. The children of the schools from the kindergarten to the high school should be the best advertisers for the schools. When we outline our work and plan our procedure so that children believe in and uphold their schools, we have taken an advance step in securing better teach- ing. It is essential that opportunities be provided through the course of study for the children in the various grades to discuss what their schools are, what their schools do, why good schools are important, why they, as pupils, are important factors in a school, what the re Department] IMPROVING TEACHERS IN SERVICE 775 sponsibilities of pupils are in having good schools, and what the respon- sibilities of the public are to insure good schools. Thus is the curri- culum enriched and direct contact made between the pupils and the adult members of the community. The social position of teaching has rapidly improved during the last few years. Whenever a community is encouraged to accept the work of a teacher in the schoolroom and to give her an important place in the life of the community, it has made it possible for that teacher to do better work. The community that desires to get the best service out of its teachers is that community which will make it possible for its teachers to have social duties to perform in keeping with the positions which they hold. Better teaching is closely correlated with better health and happiness upon the part of the teacher. Increase the health of the teaching force of a given community and you thereby increase the amount of energy to be harnessed. Increase the amount of health of a teaching com- munity and you increase the amount of inspiration to be given. In- crease the health of a teaching community and you increase the amount of potential leisure which, if utilized in recreation in the open, will yield rich returns to teachers and the community. Our teaching program in the future must provide through the train- ing course, through provisions by boards of education for recreation and sick leave, and through better organization and system in the plans of supervisors for greater care of the teachers' health. One is old both in spirit and possibilities if he is not fit physically and mentally. He is not old so long as he is fit. The learning process is dependent very much upon the attitude of mind in which the learner finds himself. The happier the surroundings the greater are the opportunities for learning. Better teaching will come only when all of us accept happiness in our work as an essential factor for our improvement and for our professional success. When we in- crease our own happy attitude of mind from day to day we have thereby increased our efficiency as teachers. In order to do better teaching, the teacher must not only accept the opportunities that are hers; she must accept and discharge the obliga- tions which rest upon her to teach, to cheer, to guide, and to stimulate her children in order that these children may be able to do the duties which they shall be called upon to do. There never was a time in educa- tion when greater opportunities were given for men and women to accept the important obligations to be good examples for the young boys and girls in their schools. Our ideals for better teaching will not be correct unless they embrace a program in which we set patterns of industry, honesty, courage, simplicity, obedience, and high standards of patriotism 776 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence and citizenship-the old-fashioned virtues we are to live out, with, and for our children. Handicap in school progress has been brought about because of the failure of teachers as teachers and supervisors as supervisors, to accept equal responsibility for the conditions which have obtained. Where poor teaching is done, supervisors sometimes have placed the blame upon teachers ; where poor supervision is done, teachers sometimes have placed the blame upon supervisors. Supervision is here to stay; it is an established principle necessary to educational achievement. To make the right sort of progress, teachers and supervisors must accept failure or success as results for which the two groups of people are almost reciprocally responsible. To have better teaching, it is most essential that one accept the principle that teachers can continually improve while in service. When a corps of teachers, supervisors, and administrators work on the theory that all can continually improve, they have set a high mark of pro- fessional achievement . The leaders in education should be the first ones to ask themselves this question. They will soon realize that however much skill, leader- ship, and inspiration they can give, it will still be necessary for them, too, to go to school. They will know that better teaching is dependent to a large degree upon their attendance at the summer sessions of our great universities where they can meet for a common exchange of ideas and for important stimulation from the great leaders in education. It is possible for administrators and supervisors to work out plans by which a regular program in demonstration class work may be con- ducted each year in a given system of schools. A subject to be em- phasized for the given year is the center around which demonstration lessons are to be taught. They ought to be worked out in a construc- tive way from the kindergarten throughout the high school and the best teachers from a given system ought to be called upon to teach them. They should be open to all teachers to observe and should be followed by 99 per cent constructive criticism upon the specific lessons taught. Improvement in teaching can come through the establishment of extension courses which may or may not parallel the courses in demon- stration teaching. These extension courses should be taught by the members of the supervisory and teaching corps of a given city. The courses should be so planned and worked out that, if possible, normal school, college, and university credit might be given. Another plan might be followed which would require attendance in such work for a certain number of credit hours every third or fourth year for all Deople in a system of schools. The course should be made to fit the Department] IMPROVING TEACHERS IN SERVICE 777 work being carried out in the schools. A part of it should be based upon the special supervisory problems of the system as a whole for a given period. Through the establishment of teacher study clubs, in coöperation with public-spirited members of a community, great benefits may be derived. These study clubs, in the main, should be offered in order to provide for the general information of the members. In many school systems great progress has been made recently in providing opportunities for pupil leadership, pupil initiative, and for the acceptance of pupil responsibility. Better teaching has been the result. We can increase our good teaching materially if we make it possible for still greater attention to be given to the development of pupil initiative, leadership, and responsibility. What we need is the continued elimination of much of the formal procedure remaining in use today and the substitution of that type of administration which places emphasis upon the releasing of pupil initiative and leadership qualities. One handicap to good teaching is that public-school administration has not provided sufficiently for the rapid promotion of children through special grouping, opportunity, and connecting classes. We need not only to find ways by which special groups of children with marked ability will be able to finish the course in shorter time, but we must also provide ways by which these boys and girls will be called upon to do more than the middle 50 per cent of the boys and girls in our public schools. Children of marked abilities are the ones, for example, that are often "marking time." When provisions are made by which pupils with superior ability may have full opportunity to develop that ability, we have really equalized opportunities. Progress in better teaching has come about recently through the so-called project method of teaching. This method has offered a dis- tinct contribution to education. The future holds greater possibilities if we can make the right balance between so-called project teaching on the one hand and teaching for skills on the other. Project teaching does not necessarily strive for habit of mind versus the development of special skills, but rather, it provides situations through which will be developed the right habits and attitudes of mind equal to the so-called skills which are to be developed. All teachers and supervisors should be able to apply some of the important underlying principles of project teaching. All teachers and supervisors should be able to appreciate more keenly the importance of the development of habits of study, attitudes of mind, purposeful acts, and controls in behavior as well as the development of specific skills. There is a tendency today to separate rather definitely school admin- istration from school supervision. In some school systems, the super 778 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence intendents are satisfied if they understand the administrative side of the work at hand. Supervision, as taught and practiced in some places, has reached a point where the workers in this field sometimes take pride in the fact that they are ignorant of the laws of school administration . Better teaching will come when administration and supervision are so planned and carried out that these two factors of school leadership have reciprocal relations. The administrator must appreciate and be able to supervise ; the supervisor must appreciate and be able to assist in school administration. The time has come, however, when these condi- tions must change, and a fusing of interest must dominate the situation. Teaching is always improved when love and service are guiding prin- ciples which are obeyed by teachers and learners. Sincerity in the teaching work is essential, not necessarily for the success of the teachers but for the success of those taught. When we buy mere ability and training, skill, and technique without the qualities of love for and service toward youth, we are undertaking to win a battle without morale. The forces that work for and build morale in our teaching body are the most significant forces in education. In any system of schools there is needed a spirit of work which gives tone and morale to the forces of that system. All the good agencies of that system must make their contributions. The leader has great responsibilities and obligations to discharge. As general manager and executive officer of the educational army he must plan for and secure an educational morale in his co- workers. Through his office provisions must be made for selecting the special abilities and personalities that will likely succeed. Through his office and the offices of the supervisors and principals must be provided ways by which the newly selected teachers will be made to feel that they "belong" to a new system. Through his office there must come that earnest example of professional growth which makes teachers want to improve while in service. His office must have such knowledge of the vacancies to be filled that the right teachers will be placed therein. He must keep in close enough contact with this teaching body to combine those forces which are potential in his system and make of these forces a well-defined and clearly felt spirit, the morale of a teaching body which is intent upon doing an important piece of work in an enthusiastic and optimistic way. This type of work is of great importance to a system of schools. It will make for better teaching. As a final suggestion in regard to securing better teaching, I think we can make progress if we set a different standard of achievement for ourselves as teachers, supervisors, and school administrators. By way of elimination, less time and energy should be spent upon the less efficient teacher, upon the less efficient supervisor, upon the less efficient administrator. By way of substitution more time and energy Department] THE GREATEST NEED OF THE SCHOOLS 779 must be spent with the more efficient teacher, the more efficient supervisor and administrator. This shift of emphasis is asked for not because the less efficient teacher, the less efficient supervisor, the less efficient administrator do not need help. It is asked for because the standard of achievements is lowered when, in any profession, those less efficient are the only ones upon which effort is placed. The less efficient make less exacting demands upon leaders, and the leaders lose the necessity for preparation. Therefore, teachers should accept the challenge to compete with and lead the best teachers with whom they work. Supervisors should accept the challenge to compete with and lead the best teachers and supervisors of their system. Administrators should accept the challenge to compete with and lead the best administrators with whom they come in contact. This is the one plan which will insure that leaders of the profession will be able to give their contributions in an increasingly efficient manner and at the same time give the right standard of en- couragement to those whom they lead. The ideas presented in this address are given with the hope that they will present a point of view, restate a faith-that they may lead to more open-mindedness on our part as teachers and supervisors ; that they may be of some help in pointing the way to better teaching ; that in addition, they may give us courage to strive for better performances from day to day with an increased joy in having a part to play in a task of such magnitude. THE GREATEST NEED OF THE SCHOOLS -BETTER TEACHING WALTER A. JESSUP, PRESIDENT UNIVERSITY OF IOWA , IOWA CITY, IOWA Public education today, as in every period of great readjustment, occupies a dominant place in the attention of the world. This is true not only in the United States but in Europe, more especially in France, England, and Germany, where great educational revivals are being experienced. Definite progress is being made in educational organiz- ation in England as a result of policies proposed during the heat of the great conflict just passed. More than one hundred thousand students attended German universities last year. European research laboratories report definite programs since the war. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge are crowded to the limit. In our own country, distinct educational progress has been made not only in national organization as indicated by the passage of the Smith-Hughes law, the insistent agitation in favor of the Smith-Towner bill, but definite advances have been made within the past five years in almost every state in the Union in so far as buildings, salary, equip 780 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence ment, and conditions of teaching are concerned. Periods of great political readjustment have been paralleled by marked changes in public education. The period of the French Revolution was marked by an educational reorganization. The Franco-Prussian War was succeeded by an educational reorganization in France and Germany. During our own Civil War legislation was enacted which established in every state land-grant colleges. Indeed, this parallel is so close that it might have been possible for any student of educational history to prophesy safely that this great military conflict would be followed by a new educational impetus. Each new conception of citizenship has demanded a new interpretation of the means whereby this new idea of citizenship could be developed. To- day as in no previous time in the history of this country, the public is debating the issues of American citizenship and is setting up new standards. In a country such as ours, with its constitutional guarantees and its statutory provisions, it is peculiarly necessary that the public realize its absolute dependence upon a program of effective public education. New queries are being raised in regard to the relationship of il- literacy to American achievement, of ignorance to national security, of physical weakness to effective service, of moral training to safe conduct. In no period in our country has there been such clear recognition of the need of public education to safeguard our future. If we are to main- tain American civilization it can only be done through a policy of sound public education, taking into account the end to be attained a whole- some American citizenry. This emphasis upon the social import of an educational program in- volves the necessity for constant scrutiny of the effectiveness of the job. In recent years this scrutiny and criticism has taken the form of endless surveys, constant attempts at standardization, elaborate develop- ment of tests and scales of measuring efficiency, culminating in the ex- amination of millions of men in the selective draft. It is no accident that the so-called scientific movement in educational administration has met with such great favor. The public has been interested in knowing the effectiveness of the teaching job. The professional teacher has been especially critical of the results of teaching. He has been demanding better teaching and seeking means to bring it about. New demands have complicated the issues and multiplied the task. Whereas formerly, students were from a highly selected group, now America demands that we educate the whole group; whereas in earlier days pupils represented a narrow economic, social, and intellectual level, today the public schools teach children from every economic level, from every social status, from every intellectual level. It is a much more diffi- cult problem to teach all of the children than to teach those who want to Department] THE GREATEST NEED OF THE SCHOOLS 781 learn. The earlier school could rest content with furnishing the selected student with an opportunity for learning by hearing classes : now it is necessary to teach with consummate skill if all children are to be given the modicum of training essential to American citizenship. In the development of our schools we have emphasized different things at different times. At certain periods, the emphasis has been on buildings and equipment ; at other times on the curriculum and subject- matter ; and again on the time devoted to certain types of educational activity. Educational tests have revealed that results have not been the direct outcome of specific type of buildings, of specific type of cur- ricula, or the specific amount of time spent. Indeed, excellent results have been secured with poor buildings, with poor equipment with a narrow curriculum, and with a small amount of time. In other words, the factors of education which are easily manipulated and even spectac- ular in form furnish by no means a reliable index of the outcome of teaching. With the new emphasis upon universal citizenship paralleling suf- frage for all, comes a renewed consciousness of the importance of reach- ing every child. Every child must remain in educational "quarantine" until there is evidence that the "test is positive," evidence that education has "taken." This can only be done by effective teaching. We have always been interested in the personality and character of the teacher ; we have even stood for a modicum of intellectual attain- ment on the part of the teacher. However, too little emphasis has been placed upon the technique of the teacher, the skill of the teacher, the facility to get results from the difficult student. We have had schools of method such as the Quincy method, the inductive method, and the like; yet modern analysis of the results of teaching, together with the analysis of the intellectual processes, are such as to indicate that there is little prospect of our being able to teach all the children of all the people by a single or even a small number of methods . The laboratories have shown that the one constant mental reaction is variation. An apparent single act is made up of a series of lesser acts. We do not have the capacity to remember in general ; rather the capacity to remember certain things. The old-fashioned conception of "a good head for mathematics" is now interpreted to mean the con- trol over a thousand intricate habits, skills, and relationships. "A poor reader" may be poor from a number of causes, such as bad "eye habits," inability to "phrase" properly, lack of "phonetic" ability ; vocalization, repetition, substitution, or accent. Diagnostic an- alysis of unsatisfactory results in arithmetic may reveal difficulties not in addition or subtraction, but in "combination," "carrying," "borrow- ing," and the like. 782 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence The experimental work in the schools of education and in the progressive school systems of the country furnishes great encourage- ment . The contribution recently made in diagnostic analysis of diffi- culties which occur in reading, arithmetic, spelling, writing, and the other fundamental subjects of the curriculum should become a part of the equipment of every teacher in the land. Specific treatments for specific educational ailments have produced striking results. The earlier experiments of Brown to determine the effect of three-minute daily drill in arithmetic as a teaching device pro- duced decided results. Kirby's experiments in a slight modification in the teaching device in habit formation revealed a difference in results. Packer's experiments in Iowa City in geography for a period of six weeks produced a difference in results. Within the past year or two experiments by O'Brien at Illinois, Gray in Chicago, Horn in Iowa, revealed that the modification of teaching technique in the rate of read- ing produced different results not only in speed but in comprehension. The experiments in Stoughton, Wisconsin with a diagnostic reading clinic produced remarkable results. If we are to accept the present demands on the part of the public, namely, that the schools are to function in a certain type of citizenship, if we are to recognize that these children come to us representing every variation of social, economic, and intellectual quality, we must recognize that our task centers down to the problem of meeting the child where he is, diagnosing his specific status, and taking him by a process of specific teaching a step toward the goal. The effectiveness of our service will be determined by our ability to teach, our ability to teach will be conditioned by our skill in analyzing the job to be accomplished-the status of the child and the end desired -and modifying our technique in such a way as to accomplish the end. Modern medicine has come to place great emphasis upon the diag- nostic clinic with facilities for analyzing each detail of the patient's case. In a similar way education is developing the same attitude toward the problem of ignorance. No teacher can afford to be ignorant of this great experimental movement of the present time in the schools of education and progressive school systems throughout the country. Ex- perimental education is making a direct contribution to the field of teach- ing. In current professional literature ample reports of many of these experiments are available ; the recent year-books of the National Society for the Study of Education furnish excellent material. The greatest single need in public education is better teaching. This can best be secured and the public faith in education justified only by recognizing the importance of even slight variations in teaching tech- nique. Department] ANALYSIS OF LEARNING PROCESSES 783 ANALYSIS OF LEARNING PROCESSES AND SPECIFIC TEACHING CHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO , CHICAGO, ILL . Everybody gives tests in all the fundamental subjects, but many people regard the resulting scores as quite useless for practical purposes, What does one do when he finds a school or an individual pupil below standard ? Many surveyors of schools have reported tables of figures showing that this or that is not well done and have then left town apparently deaf to the question : What is to be done to improve the situation ? We are mature enough in the application of scientific methods to education to enter upon a second era, the era of constructive, positive correction of defects. This will be the era of analysis and of specific teaching. No longer content merely to measure results, we shall try to understand results and consciously produce better results by dealing with causes . A few months ago President Brown of the Oshkosh (Wisconsin) Normal School published a monograph giving the results of extensive tests which he had made in the Latin classes of New Hampshire when he was connected with the department of public education of that state. A striking fact from President Brown's tables is that pupils gain practically nothing in their power to read Latin during the third year of their study. Second-year Latin has meager results; third-year Latin is a conspicuous failure. This is the unquestionable showing of the tests. When this showing is accepted, Latin teachers will begin to ask what is the reason for the failure of third-year Latin? Let us try a hand at the kind of analysis which should follow the Latin tests. The third-year pupil fails to make progress because he has bad habits of dealing with the Latin text. He picks out his transla- tion word by word. He spends most of his time with his finger in the vocabulary hunting up a possible meaning to fit into the puzzle which he calls an English sentence. This habit the pupil acquired during the first and second years of his study. We may defend the vocabulary habit in the early stages, but there comes a time when, if the study of this subject is to be of value, it must carry the pupil over a sentence at a time, rather than a word at a time. There comes a period in the pupil's development when reading ought to mean in Latin what it means when the learner is able to get from a page of the vernacular real ideas and coherent thoughts. The vocabulary method of translation bars the pupil from this kind of free, intelligent reading. If the analysis suggested is in any degree correct, it opens the way for a series of experiments by Latin teachers which will be sure to be 784 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence productive. The cycle of evolution will then be as follows : first, the test to show the present condition; second, intensive analysis to explain ; third, experimentation to improve the situation; fourth, more tests ; fifth, more analysis ; and so on. What modern science has meant in other spheres, educational science should mean for our school work. Teachers of experience have always improved their teaching by analyzing situations and by changing their methods in the light of their analyses. Educational science is a refinement of what good teachers have always done. The testing movement, the first stage of this science, was a decided refinement of earlier methods. Furthermore, the science of education will have to improve along another line which has characterized the progress of modern science in other fields. Science has added to human equipment for coöperation in analysis and experimentation. No physicist or astronomer works today in isolation. The group coöperates in the development of what we call objective analyses and objective results. So must it be in the science of education. Many an excellent teacher has carried to his grave insights which would have been of immense value to his fellow-teachers. We are just beginning in education to learn how to pool our experiences. I believe the decade that has passed, with its intense discussions, has been nothing but the training school for a mature science in which observation will become as common and as objective as in any sphere of investigation. It is my profound faith in coöperative analysis of school situations which gives me courage to believe that the student of educational science in his laboratory and the classroom teacher may both contribute to the development of better teaching. I look forward to the time when our educational literature will include in large measure statements by teachers of cases with which they have been able to deal. There ought to be a great many experiments on how to follow the vocabulary habit in Latin with something more productive. Such reports will foster the spirit of analysis among our teachers and increase the amount of specific teaching. There will also be a greater taste for the kind of material that my colleagues of the educational laboratory produce. Photographs of the eye-movements of readers show that immature reading involves looking at each word as a unit. The eyes pause on each word long enough to make recognition possible and in oral reading to allow for the slow re- action of pronunciation. The reading of a mature reader is of an en- tirely different type. The eye now takes in, not the single word, but a whole phrase ; and in that highest form of reading, namely, silent read- ing, its movements are more rapid because there is no delay in waiting for pronunciation. Department] ANALYSIS OF LEARNING PROCESSES 785 As soon as we understand the character of silent reading and oral reading we are able to organize our classroom work on a sound scientific basis. Enough analysis of these two kinds of reading has been made to revolutionize the school program in reading. Enough interest has been aroused to make this one of the richest and most influential fields of inquiry. There are two reasons why such inquiry is delayed. The first reason why the distinction between oral and silent reading has been only moderately useful to teachers is that the distinction has not been clearly understood. As a result, instead of being thought of as a de- tailed description of a difference between two stages of development, it has been treated as a kind of partisan issue. It has been scoffed at by some and overworked by others. Some teachers having heard that the distinction between oral reading and silent reading exists, forthwith desire to throw away for all time the old. Let the first grade have only silent reading, they say. They argue from the fact that adults read silently and gain advantage therefrom to the conclusion that silent read- ing should be cultivated from the first. Both of these groups-the scoffers and the exclusive silent readers are wrong. They delay the analysis which will set the whole matter right by their violent partisan attitudes. They have not caught the spirit of true scientific procedure. The second reason why the inquiry into the distinction between oral reading and silent reading progresses slowly is that the school system of the United States is absorbed in routine. We give little or no energy to analysis of what we are doing. At times I grow discouraged with some of the school situations in this country where administrators and teachers are unwilling to spend the time necessary to consider their fundamental problems. I grow discouraged when I find that the work done in our reading laboratory, for example, reaches only a comparatively few people. I grow dis- couraged when I encounter people who think of a scientific laboratory as an institution located in the clouds, if not in a fog. We are a gener- ation of busy, rushing routinists. We are not willing to absorb our- selves in careful analysis; too often we are not willing to absorb our- selves even in the study of analyses made by others. For my part I shall go on advocating analysis of school situations as the most important need of the times. I shall say what I can to encourage the experienced teacher or administrator to pause for the study and comprehension of what is going on. I shall say to young men and women who are looking forward to a career of teaching : Take time in your preparation to look into school situations and see what they involve. I shall try to pick out the most promising can- didates and encourage them to carry on the long, arduous studies which 786 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence in the long run will redound, as does all truly scientific thinking, to the advantage of all. Especially shall I seize every opportunity which presents itself to ask administrative officers to see the importance of analyzing the situ- ations with which they deal. People want to be given the results of scientific studies without giving themselves the pains to make any con- tribution. The only way one can understand scientific analyses is to make some one's self. There is no room in the higher positions for a mere routinist. Analysis and reanalysis are the price of success. If each of us in his own way would adopt some method of promoting analysis, there is no reason why the new era of analysis and specific teaching should not come in with a rush. Let the school administrator encourage his teachers to study intensively a few cases each year and record the results. Let the superintendent show the principal that it is his chief duty to throw light on school problems by making an intensive analysis of them. Let boards of education be brought to understand the importance of investing public funds in such analysis, even to the extent of supporting laboratory work. Let the teacher who shows skill and insight in such work be assigned to tasks which will most produc- tively utilize his or her ability. New insights will come from better analyses of pupils' learning processes. New analyses will focus teach- ing and make it specific. NATIONAL AID FOR EDUCATION HORACE MANN TOWNER, REPRESENTATIVE IN CONGRESS, CORNING, IOWA The educational bill now pending in Congress has been for many years in the minds of the educators of the United States. About three years ago they selected a committee to formulate a bill which was intro- duced in the Sixty-fifth Congress. Later it was revised and reintro- duced in the present Congress. Hearings were had and the bill was recently favorably reported by the Committee on Education of the House and placed on the calendar, too late, however, to be considered during the present Congress. Other considerations, particularly the condition of our national finances, hindered progress. The bill will again be introduced in the next Congress at the beginning of the extra session and pressed vigorously for final action. It is our hope and belief that the bill will be passed during the next Congress. It will certainly be our strenuous endeavor to accomplish that result, which can be done only with the earnest and continuous work of the friends of education throughout the country. The opposi- tion is strong and determined and will not allow the bill to become a law if it can be prevented. I cannot but think that since it is so strongly Department] NATIONAL AID FOR EDUCATION 787 supported by the millions that believe in the wisdom and necessity of its enactment that it will finally become a law; and I am sure that when it does, it will bring such blessings in its train to all the people of the nation as will amply justify whatever service and sacrifice is given in its support. A Department of Education. The bill consists of two parts and has a twofold purpose. It creates a Department of Education with its secretary a member of the President's Cabinet, and it provides for federal aid to the states. The justification for the provision creating a Department of Edu- cation lies primarily in the fact that education is of supreme importance under our system of government and should receive the recognition that its importance merits. It has been a source of wonder to foreign ob- servers of our institutions that the United States has so far failed to give education such recognition. It is almost alone among the nations in that regard. As reported by the Bureau of Efficiency the national government expended over $65,000,000 for the year 1920 for educa- tional purposes. If to this be added appropriations under the proposed legislation it will be essential that these various activities should be integrated and coördinated, both for efficiency and economy. The present Bureau has no authority outside its own limited range. A Secretary of Education would give to education a dignity and status as a national interest that can be secured in no other way. In investiga- tion, research, and reports regarding educational matters the secretary's work would be of great influence and value. Federal Aid. -The second part of the bill contains provisions which authorize appropriations from the national treasury to encourage the states in the promotion and support of education. In order to do this effectively certain specific educational needs are selected which are believed to be the most important and pressing. Thus a specific amount is granted to encourage the states for the removal of illiteracy, for the Americanization of immigrants, to equalize education, for the prepar- ation of teachers, and to promote physical education. A state may ac- cept the provisions of any one or more of the respective apportionments by meeting the statutory requirements and by providing for the expendi- ture from state or local funds of a sum at least equal to the national grant for the particular apportionment authorized. It will be seen that these grants from the national treasury are not dependent upon executive discretion or favor, but are compulsory when the states meet the conditions specifically stated in the act . These requirements are minimum requirements and there can be no reasonable dissent as to their necessity or fairness. The national government cannot make a grant without stating the purpose for which 788 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence the grant is made, and in making a contingent grant it must state spe- cifically the conditions necessary to be met in order to secure the grant. On the other hand, the state is entitled to know just what constitutes the requirements necessary to receive its part of the apportionment, so that it can be assured that if it meets those requirements, it will not have to appeal for executive favor in order to receive its grant, and will not be required to surrender control of its educational system to a central authority. Objections Considered. --Many objections are urged against this bill. It is said that the legislation is unnecessary. This objection is urged both against the creation of a new Department of Education and against the proposal to aid the states by subventions from the national treasury. There is always reluctance about creating a new department. Originally there were but three-state, treasury, and war. An advisory attorney was selected, who afterward became a member of the Cabinet. There came at intervals, navy, post-office, interior, agriculture, commerce and labor, and then separately, labor. Now we have ten departments, but still our Cabinet is one of the smallest among the nations. The purpose of creating all these executive departments was to give recogni- tion to and secure a more effective realization of our primary and essen- tial national interests. Because the national government was not given control of education and because the states have exercised that power does not disparage the fact that education has been throughout our history a primary, almost a paramount interest of the nation. In 1785 the national government made grants of its public lands for the "main- tenance of public schools." The Ordinance of 1787 creating the North- west Territory provided that "Schools and the means of education shall be forever encouraged." From that time down to the present the na- tional government has recognized education as an important interest of the nation, and has aided it with grants both of lands and money. If it has been and is a primary interest of the nation why should not full recognition be given it by the national government ? It certainly is of equal importance with commerce, or agriculture, or labor. National Control of Schools. It is asserted by some objectors that merely to create a Department of Education and select a secretary will transfer the control of the schools from the states to the nation; that in some mysterious manner there will thus be created an autocracy that will reach out and absorb all the educational activities of the nation; that for some undisclosed but malevolent purpose a conspiracy of the educators of the country has been formed to subvert the Constitution and destroy the liberties of the people. It is unnecessary to say that no effort is being made anywhere or by anybody to transfer the control of the schools from the states to the nation. Certainly there is no pro Department] NATIONAL AID FOR EDUCATION 789 vision of the bill which has such purpose. On the contrary, in most explicit terms the secretary is forbidden to exercise any control over the schools within the states, and that power is expressly reserved to the states. The Department of Agriculture was created and a Secretary of Agriculture sits in the President's Cabinet, but no control of agricul- ture is given him, and the purpose of the Department is to foster agri- culture and aid the farmers. So with commerce and so with labor. In like manner, with no greater power and with no other purpose it is believed we should give education a like recognition and a like oppor- tunity to serve the people. The objection is also urged that merely to grant appropriations from the national treasury contingent upon conditions, in and of itself trans- fers control from the states to the nation; that the states in order to secure the funds from the national government will surrender their constitutional rights; in short, that the nation offers to buy from the states the control of the schools and assume the power of directing and managing the education of the people. This objection, strange as it may appear, is the argument most strongly urged by the opponents of the legislation for national aid. It must appear indeed remarkable that such a purpose could have actuated the educators of the country in the formation of their bill. It has not generally been supposed that the schoolmen of the nation were engaged in a conspiracy to subvert the Constitution and secure control of the government. It must appear to every reasonable person that there is no desire nor can there be any purpose on the part of the representatives of the government to take over the control of the schools. The people of the states are not so stupid and submissive as to sell their right to control the education of their children for a money bribe. The legislation is advocated because conditions are urgent and demand action, and because some of the states are unable and others unwilling to meet the emergency without help. It is to stimulate the states to greater activity in the education of their own people ; it is to aid them in reducing the burden and danger because of the ignorance of their people that this legislation is urged. The government has an equal interest with the states in the character of its citizens. The government has no citizens nor interests within its territory outside the states. Their people are its people, and their citizens are its citizens. If the people of the states are ignorant, so are the people of the nation. If to the states ignorance is a burden and a menace, so is it to the nation. If the peace, prosperity, and security of the states must depend upon the intelligence of its citizens, so must it with the nation. It may again be stated that all the conditions upon which aid is granted are statutory and are specifically stated in the act. These re 790 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence quirements may be changed by Congress, but they cannot be changed by the secretary or any other officer. No additional requirements can be added and no autocratic, bureaucratic, or centralized control imposed. It should be further stated that before any state can receive the benefits of the act such state must by legislative enactment accept its provisions-there must be an agreement of the representatives of the people of the nation with the representatives of the people of the state before the legislation can become effective. Under such circumstances it is not probable, it is not possible that the state will surrender its rights or that the nation will transcend its powers . Attention is called to the fact that by the provisions of the bill the administration, the application and distribution of the funds within the state are exclusively committed to the state authorities. I think I am justified in saying that in no other legislation of this character ever enacted have the rights of the states been so carefully guarded. Let me call your attention to this provision of the bill, found in Section 14 : PROVIDED, That courses of study, plans, and methods for carrying out the purposes and provisions of this act within a state, shall be determined by the state and local educational authorities of said state, and this act shall not be construed to require uniformity of courses of study, plans, and methods in the several states in order to secure the benefits herein provided; PROVIDED FURTHER, That all the educational facilities encouraged by the provisions of this act and accepted by a state shall be organized, supervised, and administered exclusively by the legally constituted state and local educational authorities of said state, and the Secretary of Education shall exercise no author- ity in relation thereto except as herein provided to insure that all funds appor- tioned to said state shall be used for the purposes for which they are appropriated by Congress. If any stronger or more explicit statement can be made thereby saving to the states their right to control their own schools in their own way and prohibiting any interference on the part of the general govern- ment, the friends of the measure would be glad to accept it. It is said that the subventions from the national treasury are unnecessary, for the states will meet the emergency and provide the necessary means. If that were true the objection would be good. But is it true? Illiteracy. Take illiteracy for example. The census of 1910 showed that in the United States there were 5,500,000 over ten years of age who could not read or write any language. In addition there were 3,500,000 who could not speak, or read, or write English. This placed us below the standard of most of the civilized nations of the world. But that was not the worst. The examination of the draft registrants for serv- ice in the late war showed that of the men called between the ages of 21 and 31 , nearly 25 per cent could not read a newspaper, could not write a letter home, and could not read the posted orders about the camps. Department] NATIONAL AID FOR EDUCATION 791 The nation's defense is thus doubly impaired; first, because one- fourth of the sons of America called to the colors are incapacitated for efficient service because of their ignorance ; and second, because in a free country its safety is jeopardized when a determining portion of its voters cannot read the ballots they cast and can vote only as they are told. Consider the economic loss which Secretary Lane estimates as at least $825,000,000 each year. The Director of the Bureau of Mines states that of the 1,000,000 men engaged in mining in the United States 620,000 are foreigners, and that of these 460,000 cannot speak English. He states that the removal of illiteracy among the miners would save annually 1,000 lives and 150,000 injuries. Investigation has shown that one-half the industrial accidents are the result of ignorance, be- cause the workers cannot read the danger warnings or understand the orders given. It has been said that illiteracy is a Southern problem. The facts do not warrant that conclusion. Georgia has 389,000 illiterates, but New York has 406,000. Alabama has 352,000, while Pennsylvania has 354,000. Louisiana has 352,000, Mississippi 290,000, and Texas 282,- 000 ; but Illinois has 168,000, Ohio 124,000, and even Massachusetts has 141,000. It is thought that illiteracy is a race problem. But it is much more than that. There are over 1,000,000 more white illiterates in the United States than illiterate negroes. Americanization. Consider the condition of our immigrant popu- lation. We now have over 15,000,000 foreign-born people in the United States. More than 5,000,000 cannot speak, read, or write English. More than 2,000,000 cannot read or write any language. Unfortunately, these foreigners often group themselves into alien settlements or colon- ies, where our language is not spoken, where our journals are not read, and where the whole environment is alien and un-American. These masses of alien ignorance constitute a rich soil for the seeds of unrest and revolt. Revolutionary agitators who come to this country to advo- cate the destruction of our government find here their opportunity. To make the immigrant understand America is the only way to make him love America. He cannot love a country he does not understand. Edu- cation is the first requisite of Americanization. Education, first in our language, and then in the nature of our institutions is the best defense against the bolshevik and the anarchist. This demand is not being met. When great states like Massachusetts and New York and Ohio have actually increased both their percentage and total of illiteracy within the last decade because of their failure to educate their foreign-born, we realize that even their enlightened commonwealths need stimulation and aid. 792 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence Physical education.- Perhaps no disclosure of the draft examinations carries more reproach to our intelligence than the fact that out of about 2,400,000 young men examined for service 700,000, or nearly one-third were found disqualified because of physical disability. Ninety per cent of these disabilities could have been prevented by a knowledge of the simplest rules of hygiene and health. There is but one adequate remedy for this disgraceful and distressing condition, to put into all our schools a system of physical education. Here again is the stimulation and help of the nation needed to remedy the existing unfortunate con- dition. Equalizing educational opportunities. That gross inequalities in educational opportunities exist within and among the states is well known. In the South almost one-half of the negro children never see the inside of a schoolroom. In the North there is hardly a city that has adequate school facilities for all its children. In some rural communities and factory districts the value of the property is so small that local tax- ation cannot support the schools. On an average the country boy has two months less school than the city boy. Unfortunately, it is found that where the educational needs are greatest the schools are most in- adequate. All over our land the poorest schools are in the poorest communities-just where the best schools are most needed. To equalize educational opportunities is a task the nation is especially qualified to undertake. To encourage and aid the backward states to bring their deficiencies up to a reasonable measure of efficiency and service is ap- parently a national duty. By such stimulation and coöperation we may be able to give to every child in America the advantage of at least a common-school education. Preparation and pay of teachers. The most pressing educational problem confronting the people of the United States at the present time is to obtain competent teachers for our schools. Thousands of schools have been closed because no teachers of any kind could be secured. Tens of thousands of schools are now being taught by incompetent teachers ; 300,000 are teaching who have no professional training whatever. The principle cause of this is that the teachers have been paid less wages than almost any other class engaged in public or private service. The average salary paid teachers in the United States last year was $640. This is less than the wages paid scrub-women or ditch-diggers. It is only a fraction of the amount paid mechanics. This condition has resulted in driving thousands of self-respecting teachers from their work. It is certainly the duty of our people to take speedy action to remedy this grave defect. It will bring disgrace to our country and disaster to our institutions if we do not bring up to at least a scale of reason and justice the salaries of the teachers of America . Department] NATIONAL AID FOR EDUCATION 793 An equally imperative duty is that of providing means for the better preparation of teachers. We need about 700,000 teachers to teach our schools, and this requires about 120,000 new teachers each year to keep the quota full. Our schools and colleges preparing for teaching are turning out but 24,000 each year. Nearly 100,000 must enter the pro- fession each year inadequately prepared. This condition is alarming and must be remedied. We must see to it that every school in the land is taught by a competent teacher. Nothing less than that is safe for either state or nation. If illiteracy is a national peril, if ignorance of our language and institutions is a source of danger, if unjustifiable in- equalities exist in educational opportunities in our land, if our young men called to the service of their country are incapacitated because of ignorance of the ordinary rules of health, if schools are being closed for want of teachers, and almost one-half are being taught by in- competent teachers, then it can fairly be claimed that national aid for education is justified and necessary. Mutual obligations. It is urged as an objection that it is unjust to call upon the stronger states to aid the weaker to educate their children ; that the money derived from general taxation which would fall heaviest on the richer states should not be used to help the poorer states ; that each state should bear the burden and responsibility of educating its own people. This objection was urged from the beginning against the whole system of public schools. It was argued that parents should have the burden of educating their own children and that taxation to support common schools was unconstitutional and unjust. It was said the rich man was under no obligation to help educate the children of the poor. It was especially urged that those having no children to educate must not be taxed to help educate the children of others. But those objections were disregarded, and now no one claims that it is unjust to tax the rich man to educate the poor man's children, and the bachelor must pay his taxes to support the schools, whether he wants to or not. It is recog- nized that the welfare of a community or state depends upon the char- acter of its citizens ; that the city or state is concerned for its own safety and peace in the intelligence of all its citizens, and that each must contribute his share for the common good. So with the nation. We have seen how its safety may be jeopardized because of the illiteracy and physical incapacity of so many of its young men. We have seen how the security and prosperity of a free govern- ment depends on the intelligence of its entire electorate. Neither illiter- ates nor alien malcontents can be confined to any one state. And so it is a national problem as well as a state and local problem . Can the nation afford it ?-The cost to the government is urged as an objection to the legislation. To place this additional burden on the 794 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence government at this time of extraordinary expenditures would be unwise, it is said. Our people already groaning under the weight of federal taxes will not approve this addition to the load, it is argued. Granting the full weight of this objection, it must be admitted that the nation must make choice as to its expenditures. Wise action depends on selecting those objects for national appropriations which are most needed and most important. There is nothing in our scheme of govern- ment more important than the education of the people. Whatever else may be left out, education cannot safely be excluded. And this may be said to the credit of our people, the one thing that justifies a tax is that which strengthens and supports our public schools. There are many millions annually appropriated which have much less justification than the appropriations authorized by this bill. We might cut off a hundred million from either the army or the navy bills with less danger and more profit than to omit this appropriation. We gave another hundred millions the other day to the states for good roads. Are good roads of more importance than good schools ? We are still spending millions to remove rocks from our harbors and snags from our rivers ; to remove hog cholera in Iowa and cattle ticks in Texas ; to remove boll weevil in Alabama and wheat rust in North Dakota. Are we justified in re- fusing to spend anything to remove illiteracy ? It is not that the things mentioned are not worthy of consideration, but certainly they are no more worthy of consideration than is the education of our children. Those things are after all but economic ills, while ignorance imperils the safety and endangers the perpetuity of the nation itself. The largest appropriation ever made by Great Britain for educa- tion was made during the late war and in its darkest hour when the soldiers were fighting "with their backs against the wall" and the people had almost lost hope. But Great Britain had been shocked as the United States was later by the disclosures of the examinations of her sons for service because of the ignorance and physical defects of her de- fenders. In supporting his great education bill, Mr. Fisher, Minister of Education, said: "We must ask not only whether we can afford to spend the money, but whether we can afford not to spend the money; and the supplementary question is more important and searching." For four years, with her land invaded, in constant peril of entire defeat with 30,000 of her teachers called to the colors for four years France managed to keep her elementary schools in full operation. Within sound of the enemy's guns, and even under fire, their schools remained open and at work. And this is the message her educators sent to America : "Conserve, endure taxation and privation, suffer and sacri- fice to assure those whom you have brought into the world that here- after it shall be not only a safe but a happy place for them to live." Department] WASTE IN EDUCATION 795 I cannot believe the men and women of America will be less wise or less patriotic than those of England or France. And so I bring to you no discouraging word, no message of despair. I sincerely believe that the great educational measure which you have sponsored and so generously aided will be finally approved by Congress and become a law. To aid in this accomplishment you are called. That accomplish- ment will be one of the great forward steps in the educational progress of the nation. America has made notable contributions in the past to the educational progress of the world. May we unite in the en- deavor to make our present and the future worthy of the past. WASTE IN EDUCATION H. R. BONNER, SPECIALIST IN EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. It behooves us to pause occasionally to locate and measure the waste in public education, to point out some of the factors that contribute to it, and to suggest methods by which the situation may be improved. I shall not attempt to analyze the problem for each individual state but only to deal with the United States as a whole or with certain groups of cities. The statistical report of the Commissioner of Education for 1918 shows that the average person who completed his education in that year had attended school for only 1076 days. This average includes attendance at all types of schools-elementary, secondary, and higher institutions. As the average length of the public-school term is about 160 days, or 8 months, the average person now completing his educa- tion has attended school for 6.7 years of 160 days each. On the basis of a nine-months' term this average reduces to a little less than 6 years of schooling for the average person. Assuming that the average child completes nine-tenths of a grade a year, it follows that the average person completes 5.4 grades during his lifetime. There is conclusive evidence, therefore, that we are a "nation of sixth-graders." This is not an accomplishment of which we should be proud. If this "average" person had attended school continuously for 365 days each year, he would have attended school for a little less than three years. As this "average" person is expected to live 57 years after he becomes old enough to enter school, i.e., 5 years of age, it is seen that he goes to school for one-nineteenth of his lifetime. The number receiving a collegiate education is so small that one would have to meet 61 adults over 23 years of age or 116 persons of all ages to find a single college graduate. Although most states provide 12 years of public elementary and secondary schooling yet the average person takes advantage of 796 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssocIATION [Superintendence only about one-half of the opportunity afforded him for securing an education. Let us ascertain wherein the waste occurs and what remedies may be applied to accomplish better results. Educational statistics show that the average child enrolled in school attends for only three-fourths of the school term provided. Twenty-five per cent of the term is ac- tually wasted by irregular attendance for which the states paid over $173,000,000 in 1918. The average annual cost of education for each child attending daily is about $49, whereas if all the children enrolled attended each day the corresponding average would be only $36. Regular attendance, therefore, would decrease the per capita cost about $13 per child annually without changing the total amount spent. The loss due to irregular attendance in the most wasteful states is about 4 times as great as it is in the better states where the children attend fairly regularly. Only one remedy seems applicable for this phase of the problem a better compulsory attendance law, rigidly enforced. Assuming that children may be expected to be absent from school 10 per cent of the time, we must still face the fact that 15 per cent of the school term in the United States is inexcusably wasted. In 1870 the average child wasted 41 per cent of the short term of 132 days of schooling provided, while in 1918 he wasted by irregular attendance only 25 per cent of the term. In about 48 years, absence from school has been gradually reduced from 41 to 25 per cent, or a net reduction of 16 per cent. If it took the nation 48 years to learn to save 16 per cent of its expenditures for schools, it will take at least 45 years to reduce it to the reasonable expectation of 10 per cent. Some may contend that it does not cost the United States $ 173,000,000 annually to provide schooling for the children who daily stay out of school. It must be remembered that school buildings have been provided for the total enrolment. A. sufficient corps of teachers has been employed to give instruction to all who are enrolled. Extra work is entailed in making up the work of those who are absent. The work of the others is necessarily delayed. The fuel and janitorial costs are not minimized by absence. The cost of supervision does not decrease. In fact, the major expenditures for our schools are deter- mined very largely by the total number of children who choose to enter school and not so much by the average daily attendance. It is highly probable that, if only three-fourths of the children in the United States should attend regularly, the schools could be maintained at about three- fourths of their present cost. Our problem, however, is not to reduce the cost but to utilize it to its maximum purchasing power. The fact that over 5,000,000 of children are out of school each day should cause school administrators to view this problem with alarm. Tax Department ] WASTE IN EDUCATION 797 payers will feel justified in complaining about high tax rates when they learn that 23 cents out of every dollar spent on public education is as good as wasted. In short, this waste is so great that if it were fully utilized the average person who completed his education in 1918 would have had 1434 days of schooling instead of 1076 days, thereby increasing the time that he has attended school from 6 years to almost 8 years of 180 days each, and enabling him to reach the eighth grade instead of the sixth . The waste due to irregular attendance in the rural schools is greater than it is in the city schools. The average city school term is 182 days and the children waste over 21 per cent of it. In the shorter rural school term of 144 days, the children waste almost 29 per cent of it. Bad legislation is largely responsible for this great waste of public money. It seems unpardonable for legislators to authorize the expendi- ture of public money and then not make provision for expending it wisely. Their action can scarcely be approved when they permit six- year-olds to enter school without making provision for their regular attendance. Altogether 47 states permit children to attend school at the age of six, or even younger. Only 2 states defer the age of en- trance to seven years. Not a single state requires regularity of attend- ance of pupils during the first year that they are permitted to attend. This lack of coördination invites irregularity in school attendance. In only 19 states are children required to attend school at the age of seven. In 29 states the corresponding age is eight, while 1 state does not require attendance until children become nine years of age. Would it not be the part of wisdom to require all children to attend school reg- ularly after they once enter ? Such a provision would eliminate much waste especially in the lower grades. It is indeed surprising that this important provision has been so long overlooked by legislatures . From a study of the distribution of pupils by grades, in 23 states in 1918 it was found that there were more than twice as many pupils in the first grade as actually entered school for the first time. In the whole nation about two million pupils are repeating the work of the first grade. About one-tenth of all the children enrolled in the public schools are repeating the work of the first grade. The repeaters in the first grade throughout the United States outnumber our total high- school enrolment. It is difficult, if not impossible, to make a precise analysis of this situation. No other grade contains so large a percentage of " repeaters." Undoubtedly some of these children are in this grade a second or third time because of their inability to master the technique of our written language. The first grade may be the most difficult of all when the mass of absolutely new material to be mastered is considered. The 798 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence most plausible explanation, however, of this high proportion of "re- peaters" lies in the fact that children attend school very irregularly during the first year. Under essentially similar conditions children in the kindergarten waste 46 per cent of the school term. It is highly prob- able that first-grade children waste almost as high a proportion of the school term. No compulsory attendance laws operate to keep them in school. Their presence is optional. All of these factors taken collectively largely explain the waste of school expenditures in the first grade. In 80 cities enrolling over a million children in 1908 there were 66 children repeating the work of the first grade for every 100 beginners. In 1918, there were only 53 "repeaters" for each 100 beginners in these cities. It is seen, therefore, that cities are gradually solving this problem since they now have only four-fifths as high a proportion of " repeaters" in the first grade as they had ten years ago. For the whole United States, however, the proportion of "repeaters" in this grade has been reduced only 4 per cent since 1911. Undoubtedly a wisely adminis- tered compulsory attendance law applying to all children who desire to enrol in school and who have become 6 years of age would reduce the " overweight" of the first grade. The cost of the "repeater" in grades above the first, in my judgment, has been somewhat overestimated. For 80 city-school systems in 1918 it is found that 5.1 per cent of all pupils are repeating the work of the first grade. Assuming that none drop out before they have reached the sixth grade, the proportion of new "repeaters" added to the list each year from the second to the sixth grades cannot exceed 3.2 per cent. It is seen, therefore, that not over 8.3 per cent of all the chil- dren enrolled in city schools are repeating the work of the first six grades. A higher percentage than this may be overage for their grade but they are not necessarily repeating the work of the grade in which they are enrolled. As 70.5 per cent of the pupils are enrolled in these six grades, it is not likely that more than 12 per cent of all the pupils enrolled in city schools are repeating the work pursued. It is highly probable that the correct percentage does not exceed 10, since in the advanced grades no compulsory attendance law operates to keep "repeaters" in school. From the foregoing computations it follows that about one-half of the repetition in all the grades occurs in the first. For the urban and rural schools combined, it is estimated that the number of repeaters in all grades is not far from 20 per cent. However, the waste due to repetition is not necessarily additional to that caused by irregular attendance, since much repetition is charge- able to irregularity in attendance. Let us analyze the other end of the age-grade scale to find out what happens. Of 1000 children entering the first grade in the United Department] WASTE IN EDUCATION 799 States there will still be 1000 when they reach the fifth grade. Only 830 will register in the sixth grade; 710, in the seventh ; and 634 in the eighth. Of the original 1000 only 342 will enter high school ; 246 will reach the second year; 181, the third year; 150, the fourth year; and 139 will continue long enough to complete a four-year high- school course. Parenthetically it might be added that only 72 of the original 1000 will enter college; 52 will become Sophomores ; 39, Juniors ; 30, Seniors ; and 23 will graduate. These small survival per- centages in the higher grades indicate in no unmistakable manner the inability of our schools to hold the young men and women for ad- vanced work. In city schools higher survival percentages obtain. Practically none will drop out before the sixth grade. The seventh grade will have 91 per cent of the number that began, and the eighth grade, 75 per cent. Three-fourths of the beginners in city schools will reach the eighth grade. Sixty per cent of the beginners will enter high school ; 38 per cent will enrol in the second year; 25 per cent in the third; and 20 per cent in the fourth year. In other words one- fifth of city school children will go as far as the fourth year of high school, as compared with 15 per cent for the urban and rural schools combined. It is highly probable that only about one child in eight in the rural schools is now completing a four-year high-school course. In view of the foregoing facts it may seem paradoxical, neverthe- less it is true, that a smaller percentage of children in the rural schools drop out during the ages thirteen to sixteen, than is found in city schools . The census of 1910 shows that of the children thirteen years of age only 89 per cent are in school, while for city schools in 1918 the corresponding percentage in school is only 85. At fourteen years of age the percentages are reduced to 81 for the nation, and 65 for cities . At fifteen they become 68 and 41 respectively, while at sixteen they have been reduced to 51 and 24 respectively. These percentages in- dicate that there is a much greater tendency for the city child than for the rural child to drop out of school. The rural school term is often so short that it takes a child a long time to complete even an elementary course. The average number of days attended in rural schools of 16 states does not exceed 90 per year. To complete even a standard elementary course in such schools, the rural child would have to attend school for at least 16 years. In such cases the pupil would be twenty- two years of age before he becomes eligible to enter high school. In 14 states, urban and rural combined, it takes the average child until he is twenty years of age to complete 8 grades of elementary-school work. It has been found by the Bureau of Education that over 7 times as great a proportion of overage pupils in city schools drop out of school between the fifth grade and the eighth as is found among chil 800 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence dren who are making satisfactory progress in these grades. This occurs despite the fact that a few children who have hitherto made satisfactory progress are added to the overage group in these grades and do not actually withdraw. This is the "critical" period in city school attendance. It would seem, therefore, that lack of success in school work very largely accounts for school mortality during this "critical" period. How have school administrators dealt with this problem ? Many of them have adhered to the old academic course of study, regardless of the demand for an enriched curriculum. Many of the vocational courses now offered are so "ballasted" with the wrecks of obsolete languages, the spoils of profitless wars, and other vestigial structures that many children prefer to sail on a vessel loaded only with useful cargo. In organizing our programs of study, we often fail to take account of the aptitudes and inclinations of the child, thereby virtually driving him into academic ostracism. The youth of fourteen or fifteen years of age should find a type of public-school work which is suited to his particular needs and which will contribute to his efficiency as a citizen. Unless such vocational work is offered to those who desire to drop out of school at these ages the state does not seem justifiable in compelling them to continue in the academic work for which they are not fitted by nature. It is to be hoped that the junior high schools will be keenly awake to this situation. When the schools offer a type of work suited to the needs of these children, the state can no longer countenance withdrawal from school at these "critical ages." What have state legislatures done in the matter ? In 8 states labor permits are granted under certain conditions to children who have reached the age of twelve. In only 4 states are labor permits not granted to children under fifteen years of age. In all other states the age of exit is fourteen. With these low minimums it may be ex- pected that large percentages of children, especially those who are not making satisfactory progress, will leave school at the ages of thirteen, fourteen, and fifteen. It is to be deplored that only one-third of the children in the United States survive to the first year of high school. Are legislatures justified in compelling attendance throughout the high-school course ? It is doubtful, unless the curriculum is so rich and varied that the children can find therein a type of work which will contribute to their vocational and social needs. Vocational efficiency should be the pass- word for withdrawal from our public-school system and not some chronological criterion. Little legislation has yet been enacted on this logical basis. It would not be wise, in my opinion, to extend the compulsory attendance age very far upward unless educational Department] WASTE IN EDUCATION 801 emancipation is granted to the pupil and an enriched curriculum provided. Only 5 states have so far made any serious attempt to secure a uniform enforcement of its compulsory attendance laws in every nook and corner of the state under the supervision of a state attendance officer chosen primarily for this purpose. Each of the other states leaves the matter entirely to the discretion of the local truant-officer to work out his own salvation or to shirk his responsibility. Often the matter is left to the option of the child or its parents, as 7 states do not have even local attendance officers in all the school districts. Frequently a school census is not taken and attendance officers have only incidental means of ascertaining who should be in school. A continual census or registration of additions to and withdrawals from the school district is probably the most efficient method of keeping a school census. "Absence without leave" may thus be immediately de- tected. So far only 3 states have not seen fit to provide for a school cen- sus and most of the others take the census once a year. Some superinten- dents have made no use of the school census except as a means of distributing school moneys. Attendance laws now operate with greater or less stringency in practically every school district in the nation. In only three states in 1918 did local option attendance laws exist, i.e., laws which required adoption or ratification by the local unit of school administration be- fore they become effective therein. The result of such optional ratifica- tion means that many counties in these states do not have attendance laws. Regularity of attendance is not required in those counties which have not taken favorable action on the local option law. It seems strange indeed that attendance laws do not in many states cover the entire school term. Only 28 states require attendance for the full school term provided. Two states require attendance for three-fourths of the term; two states for two-thirds of the term; and one state for seven-tenths of the term. The other states do even worse by requiring attendance for a specified number of days, regardless of the length of the school term. Two states require attendance for 140 days; three states, for 120 days ; one state, for 100 days ; seven states, for 80 days ; two states, for 60 days ; and one state, for only 40 days. If a child attended school each year in this last state only for the minimum term required he would be 60 years of age before he would complete a standard high-school course. It is thus seen that many states provide a longer school term than they think the children ought to attend. In partial explanation of this paradoxical situation it may be said that compulsory attendance laws are like trees they exhibit "rings of growth," each succeeding ring being larger than the preceding. The 802 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence initial law may require attendance for only 60 or 80 days. The next legislation on the question may increase this minimum to 100 or 120 days. The next revision of the law may require attendance for the full school term. It may take several years for a law to pass through this metamorphosis from infancy to maturity. A further laxity in certain attendance laws appears in the number of days that pupils are permitted to be absent before they have violated the law. In 9 states the law contains no provision regulating the matter. In 28 states an inexcusable absence of 1 day constitutes an offense. In all the other states at least 3 days' absence is permitted before legal prosecution can begin. There is no valid reason why chil- dren should be permitted to stay out of school for a single day unless such absence is unavoidable. Let us scrutinize the educational standards of the states to ascer- tain the minimum educational attainment which they expect of each pupil who secures a labor permit and leaves school. Altogether 16 states have no educational criterion. Of the remaining states, 14 re- quire that children be able to read and write; 4 require the completion of the fourth grade; 7, the fifth grade; 3, the sixth grade; and 5, the completion of all the elementary grades. It does not seem unreason- able that all children should be required to complete the elementary grades, if proper courses are offered to overage and non-academic pupils ; yet only 5 states provide for this meager minimum. With the rapid multiplication of public high schools-one each day for 28 years- the time is probably near at hand when all children who are not idiots, imbeciles, or feeble-minded will be obliged to complete a four-year high-school course. Although at present only 150 children out of 1000 continue their education to the last year of high school, the public will not long be willing to support its secondary schools for the benefit of the few who are inclined to take advantage of them-not that they will be discontinued but that they must be better patronized. In concluding these observations certain outstanding features need to be reiterated and re-emphasized and a reasonable prophecy pro- claimed. As a nation we will not long continue to tolerate illiteracy. It will soon be impossible for the ignorant to remain ignorant. Our attendance officers must be more vigilant than they have been in the past. We will not long be willing to see one-fourth of our school term wasted, thereby curtailing the education of our children by 2 years. We will not long permit children to attend school and yet allow them to do so intermittently. It may take half a century or longer, but attendance laws based on the welfare of the child will supersede those which now look so much to the interest of the farmer, the miner, the merchant, and the manufacturer. Some day we shall Department] MAKING THE PUBLIC UNDERSTAND 803 reflect with disdain on our lop-sided compulsory attendance laws which were shown recently in the School Board Journal to be only 54 per cent efficient as measured by 14 standard criteria. We can no longer "wink at the overweight" of the first grade, in- volving as it does four million little children who are going to school only about one-half of the year and struggling unsuccessfully year after year in trying to master the rudiments of the English language. The schools cannot long continue to "assassinate" and banish by degrees 66 per cent of its children by the time they should enter high school, 85 per cent of them by the time they should complete a high-school course, and 97 per cent of them by the time they should have com- pleted a college course. The murderous hand of education must be stayed in the execution of such direful deeds. HOW MAY THE PUBLIC UNDERSTAND WHAT SERVICE THE SCHOOL IS RENDERING THE COMMUNITY? THOMAS E. FINEGAN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION FOR PENNSYLVANIA, HARRISBURG, PA . We shall have a better appreciation of the importance of the sub- ject under consideration if we enumerate some of the chief problems which are now commanding the attention of superintendents, school boards, state departments, and others who bear responsibility in the ad- ministration of public education. Every person identified with the administration of a progressive school system is compelled to devote much time and energy in devising means for the accomplishment of some one or more of these problems. Some of these chief problems are : the expansion of the kindergarten system; the construction of adequate school buildings to afford every child of school age a sitting for every day in the year which such child is required to attend school ; the development of vocational school work which shall meet the great indus- trial problems of the day; the maintenance of such courses in our secondary schools as shall meet the demands of the great social and democratic problems which confront us ; the establishment of a pro- gram of health education, which has become imperative in all parts of the country ; the organization of a plan by which the thousands of illiterates in the country may be taught how to speak and write English , the maintenance of sufficient state normal schools to provide education and training for every classroom in our public schools ; the adoption of a salary schedule which shall retain efficient and experienced teachers after they have entered the service; the maintenance of proper social and recreational facilities to meet the intellectual and physical needs of the children and young people of every community in the country; in 804 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence brief, the organization and administration of the public-school system on a broad, comprehensive basis, which recognizes the imperative need of the equalization of educational opportunity, not only between sections of the country, such as the rural and the urban population, but for different types and classes of children living within the same community or administrative school unit. Every superintendent recognizes that not one of these great prob- lems may be properly solved until sufficient funds are provided therefor. In other words, the one great fundamental question upon which the determination of all these problems rests is the question of adequate revenues. To obtain adequate revenues, there must be a sound, modern system of taxation. May I inquire what state or city in this country has such a system of taxation ? What city or state in America has yet adopted a sound system of educational finance which will provide adequate support for its educational needs for the next twenty-five years? We are undoubtedly in the throes of a great financial depression. We are particularly obliged in such times to practice rigid economy, to supply just the essential needs of an educational system, and not to enter upon experiments of doubtful value. In fact, those responsible for the administration of a school system should always observe these fundamental principles of economy in administration. Nevertheless, we should not permit a popular demand for economy in public places to improperly influence our action in the demands which we make to supply the essentials of a sound system of education for the benefit of the children of the present day. The children of this age are not to be robbed of their inherent right to an education upon a plea for economy. The country is financially able to provide the funds for the maintenance of schools of proper standards. We should insist from first to last that sufficient public funds shall be provided for giving every boy and girl his fair opportunity in obtaining an education that will equip him for service in life when he leaves the public school. A superintendent should never go before his board, a legislative body, or an appropriating committee and ask for funds unless he is able to justify the demand which he makes. If a superintendent cannot present facts and arguments to sustain his position when funds are requested for new enterprises or the expansion of present work, he ought not to receive such funds. Of course, a public-school system should be conducted in such a way that the work done in the school commends itself to the public, appeals to it for support, and is in itself an argument for such funds and other support as the system demands. The pupils' discussion at home of what takes place in the school should in itself be an argument for proper support of the schools. Every person in any way identified Department] MAKING THE PUBlic undeRSTAND 805 with the public-school system is just as much obligated to interpret to the public the aims and purposes of the school system as such person is obligated to do his best work in the classroom . The public press, the civic and industrial organizations of a com- munity, can render great support to a school system. Those who are responsible for administering a school system must seek the coöperation of the public and of every organization and agency in the community. The work of a public-school system should be organized and adminis- tered so that the results achieved commend the system to such organ- izations as chambers of commerce, boards of trade, merchants' asso- ciations, labor unions, and other organizations in the community. When schools are organized on the right basis and are administering to the needs of a community in the proper way, all of these organizations will usually be found giving proper support to the schools. The value of education, or its effect, is not observed so readily as the value or effect of certain public improvements. For instance, if the public builds a macadam or concrete road of several miles, its value is appreciated at once by everyone who uses it. It is quite different with education. Its power and influence is silent. It is not so quickly appre- ciated or readily observed as the value of an improved highway. We must therefore lead the public in general to have a keen appreciation of the effect which a public-school system has upon the life and power of the community itself. I abhor the expression which has become com- mon-of "selling education." Education has a value upon which a price cannot be placed. It is not marketable, to be bought or sold like commodities. It has a superior value, and it is our obligation to make every person have as clear a realization of this value and its effect upon property values as may be possible. There is great value and power in proper advertising of the work which our schools are doing. Whatever is done along this line should be legitimate advertising. We should be truthful. We should state facts. We should not fool ourselves, and we should never fool the public about the condition of our schools. If conditions are bad, admit it. State why they are bad. State how they are to be cured. Make a direct appeal to the public for such help as may be needed to set con- ditions right. If this course is pursued, we may without hesitation speak of the good features of our work. We are obligated to hold before the public our main accomplishments. Publicity based upon a spirit to promote the general welfare and not to promote selfish interests is proper and legitimate. We are not doing enough of this kind of advertising. If we were doing one-half the advertising to acquaint the public with educational needs that is being done by any automobile company, we would be getting the public support which the schools should receive. 806 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence There are, of course, discouragements in our work, but whenever we are unable to accomplish the improvements or make the advance- ments which we feel are imperative, let us go back to the days of our forefathers and examine carefully into the history of the fight which they were compelled to make to obtain the most rudimentary public- school facilities in the days when the nation was taking form. No great improvement has ever been made in the development of any phase of the public-school system that was not made in the face of opposition of power and influence. We should recognize at once that the basis of educational progress in the years to come must rest upon the establishment of permanent peace throughout the world. During the years of the world-war, the inven- tive and scientific energy, the educational and financial resources of the world were organized as one great, vast engine of destruction. The result was the death of more than seven and one-half million men and the creation of a great debt amounting to more than two hundred and eight billion dollars. It will take generations to discharge these monu- mental financial obligations . Leading educational workers of every nation involved in the war advised and aided the government in many ways. The public-school systems of these countries became organized agencies of great influence and power in creating public sentiment and aiding other essential work in the prosecution of the war. These agencies must be utilized by the government in the establishment of permanent peace. What a power the 800,000 teachers and the 22,000,000 enrolled children in the public schools of the nation may be made in the development of public senti- ment in America to demand permanent peace between the civilized nations of the world ! The teachers and pupils of every other nation in the world may be made a power of relative influence. I trust America may lead in asking for a world-congress to be composed of leading educational workers of all civilized nations for the purpose of agreeing upon a plan to teach in the educational institutions of all civilized nations the philosophy and righteousness of peace among the nations of the world. LOCAL INFLUENCE OF THE RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDA- TION RANKING OF MONTANAʼS EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM EDWARD C. ELLIOTT, CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MONΤΑΝΑ, HELENA, MONT. The state of Montana has the best all-round public-school system in the United States according to the results of a comparative study of State school systems made public today by the Russell Sage Foundation-Associated Press Dispatch , May 23, 1920. 1 Not delivered, but printed on request of the president of the department. Department] MAKING THE PUBLIC UNDERSTAND 807 With correct data, that state (Montana) would be several degrees removed from the top of the list- School Life, Official Publication of the United States Bureau of Education-July 1, 1920. The evidence indicates that with corrected data for Montana, the rank of that state would remain unchanged-Dr. Ayres to Commissioner Claxton , July 17, 1920. Dr. Ayres' report has helped us not to think of ourselves more highly than we ought to think-Dr. John H. Finley's statement, June 17, 1920. It may be doubted whether you would indulge me any praise of my adopted state, or give willing attention to any word picture of that imperial domain of plain and mountain extending over an area exceed- ing that of the entire of New England, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland combined, and containing but one-fortieth of the population of these states. Nevertheless, one cannot evaluate education without, at the same time, probing the character and the citizenship of the people behind this education. The half-million people of Montana contributed a larger proportion of volunteer enlistments for the army and navy during the Great War than any other state in the Union. The draft quota of Montana men for national service was calculated on the basis of a population of a million. Montana filled this double quota without complaint. This same people, after three years of devastating drought, and in the face of direct losses to the foundation agricultural interests of the state aggregating three hundred million dollars, courageously went to the polls last November, and, by a conspicuous majority, voted funds for the university, equalling an endowment of twenty million dollars. Did I forget these things, I should be guilty of forgetting the real Montana. Did I dwell upon these things in any prideful way, I should be forgetting the professional problem to which I am under obligation to address myself . In May of last year the Russell Sage Foundation, through Dr. Leonard Ayres, the talented director of its Division of Education, announced the results of an epochal study of certain foundation fac- tors exhibiting the relative rank of the state common-school systems of the country. This study represented the climax of a career of conspicuous, practical service to American education, and of far-reach- ing influence upon the scientific methods for the more effective, intensive cultivation of the field of education. And here may I add a parenthetical paragraph ? In the overwhelming mass of educational literature which our gen- eration has produced there are, it may be submitted, but three books of classic worth to our thinking about education and our doing for children in the school: Dewey's School and Society, Hall's Adoles- cence, and Ayres' Laggards in Our Schools. Disagree with me if you will in my selection. Yet there is not, I am sure, a single one of you who possesses a professional pride in keeping pace with the develop 808 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence ment of our theories of education and in contributing to the refinement of our school practices who will fail to acknowledge his great obliga- tion to the scientific services of Dr. Ayres, or to experience a genuine regret that American schools are no longer to be the benefactors of his skill and constructive vision. It is a discouraging reflection that commerce can lure such a man from education . On the basis of a series of skilfully constructed index numbers the Russell Sage Foundation concluded that the public-school system of the state of Montana ranked first among the fifty-two govern- mental units that make up the United States. Through the courteous and generous assistance of Dr. Ayres, I have been permitted to read some five hundred press comments, from all parts of the continental and insular United States, occasioned by the publication of the state educational index numbers. In addition, I have been privileged to read a large number of individual criticisms, explanations, and interpre- tations. This material furnishes much interesting evidence of rejoic- ing, of regret, of resentment, with here and there a sound reflection regarding the real causes of assigned high or low rank. It was not difficult to detect a certain incredulous surprise, in and out of Montana. The skeptics appeared to. fall into four general classes: those who were certain that Montana was the undeserved victim of a chance statistical shot of an educational sportsman ; those who protested the rather unfortunate and misleading phrase of the Associated Press dispatch that Montana "had the best all-round public- school system in the United States ;" those who were ready to contest the methods by which Dr. Ayres reached his results; and those who sought defense in the charge that wrongful use had been made of their own inadequate or inaccurate state educational statistics. Whatever may be the faults and limitations of life on the far- flung frontier, our people have one saving quality. The West may fool many people, and be fooled by many people. Nevertheless these wester- ners do not deceive themselves. It would be mock modesty to say that Montana was not highly gratified that the state should receive the Russell Sage recognition for educational effort and achievement. Yet Montana was not misled by the possession of this index-number decora- tion. Even though our composite rank was first, the civic and educa- tional leaders of the state were not unmindful of the painfully low rank in certain basic items. That we ranked thirty-third in the average number of days our common schools were kept open, fortieth in the ratio of boys in high school, and fifteenth in teachers' salaries could not but qualify our satisfaction. Neither was Montana misled into believing that her full duty had yet been done for the educational wel- fare of the thousands of children of the sparsely settled rural reaches Department] MAKING THE PUBLIC UNDERSTAND 809 of the state, or for the numerous ambitious and capable youth of the state who aspired to leadership and service through a higher and pro- fessional education. It is a generally accepted opinion that the first positive, direct result of the Russell Sage findings regarding our com- mon schools was the response of our people last November at the polls on the question of adequate and increased support of the university. It is no mere provincial loyalty that leads me to assert that in our recent educational history no finer illustration can be found of the idealistic determination of a people to give reality to the principle of the equality of educational opportunity; and, whatever be the sacrifice, to clear the path toward the highest education for the lowliest child in the state. Of all the critical and other observations provoked by the public- ation of the comparative index numbers none contains a more sympa- thetic appreciation than that of Dr. John Finley-"Dr. Ayres' report has helped us not to think of ourselves more highly than we ought to think •.... " We, of Montana, in all sincerity have accepted this as a working philosophy for meeting our educational problem. The rank assigned to the state is serving to stimulate the leader- ship of the schools to a maximum effort to retain the front position among the states. The index number has established a new goal toward which a unified and energized State Teachers Association, with a corrective and constructive program, will strive. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the forceful leadership of whom during the past four years has resulted in many forward steps, has been provided with a new device for concentrating public attention upon the weak spots of the educational organization and its operation. The index number has told Montana that much remains to be ac- complished before there may be any relaxation of concerted effort. The statistical marksman did not wound Montana; he wound up the state for more rapid and intelligent progress. In connection with this consideration of the local influence of the Russell Sage ranking of Montana's educational system, the follow- ing questions were recently submitted to sixty of the leading county and city superintendents, and high-school principals of the state : (1) Have you read and studied Ayres' monograph, An Index number for State School Systems? (2) In your judgment is the index number a valid and useful device for determining educational advancement and achievement ? (3) Have our Montana education index numbers been discussed to any extent in your (county) (city) especially by your board of education ? (4) Has this country-wide comparison of school systems helped or hindered the public schools in your (county) (city) by increasing or diminishing public interest ? (5) Has our 810 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence . first rank served in any appreciable way to cause the people or author- ities to be self-satisfied with present conditions, especially as to school support? The replies received to these questions were illuminating and en- couraging. Our educational workers, schoolmen and laymen, had read and studied with profit Ayres' methods and conclusions. In general Ayres' study had distinctly helped to increase public interest. It had not produced any community self-complacency. To the question of the validity and usefulness of the index number for determining educational advancement and achievement, there was a frank and discriminating reaction. Almost without exception, it was emphasized that the index number, in the form proposed by Dr. Ayres, omitted many of the vital factors of efficient education. The quality and method of instruction, the extent of supervision, the training and competency of teachers, the variety of educational opportunity, and the success of teaching as determined by its measured results were most frequently specified. This is not the place to examine hypercritically the scientific techni- que by which the educational index numbers were produced. It has been assumed in practically all of the discussions and controversies that the index was a measure of final educational efficiency. I do not believe that Dr. Ayres intended that such an interpretation should be placed upon his index number save as school attendance and school expenditure might be indirectly related to educational results. These index numbers, in their present form and extent, are not, as the public and many of our profession have concluded, complete measures of educational efficiency. On the contrary, they are objec- tive units of value for assessing the faith of the people of the several states in the public school when transformed into the realities of school children and educational expenditures. The relative standing of the states comes not from a comparison of state schools, but from a com- parison of state energy and civic morality for education. If our state educational administrators are wise they will not fail to detect the potential value of one important by-product of the index numbers. That is, the necessity of simplifying and guaranteeing the accuracy of essential state and local educational statistics. It may be safely asserted that under present conditions, too much of our educa- tional counting rests upon certain superstitious regard for the volume rather than the precision of numbers. Too much energy and time and money are expended upon the gathering and the worshipful publication of " salamander" statistics. A dozen or more years ago one of our distinguished educational leaders raised the question: Are we an inventive people in education ? Department] MAKING THE PUBLIC UNDERSTAND 811 He argued convincingly from the negative standpoint. Perhaps it might be successfully contended that we have been clever imitators in education rather than commanding inventors. Perhaps we have been industrious adapters of the educational methods, material, motives, and machinery produced in essence by other peoples. However, over against the total of our proved borrowings is the colossal fact that the modern conception of the free universal school is a distinctly American social invention. This school is our original contribution to human civiliza- tion even if we have not yet plumbed its possibilities for mankind. What we now need is to rid ourselves of the delusion that we are predestined to preserve our own democracy or to play the leader's part in the freedom of the world without a continuous checking and correcting of the organized free school, not according to narrow local adaptations but with the gauge of national needs. The Russell Sage index numbers represent an adaptive invention which furnishes a starting-point for an invaluable national survey of American common schools, and a key to the method for a continuous resurveying of these schools. Such a survey is a prime necessity of the national government if it is to undertake to promote directly the im- provement of the common school for common citizenship. The pro- gressive faith of the people in education must be bulwarked by simple, fundamental facts even though these facts be disagreeable and dis- appointing. The nation will not have effective public schools until the several states have systems of equitable taxation that will yield supporting revenues . The next decade will decide whether or not the people of our American states not only believe in free education for all, but also that all should freely pay for it. We cannot hope to main- tain cheap schools without at the same time producing a cheap civil- ization. The real truth of Jefferson's statement-"If a nation ex- pects to be ignorant and free, in a state of civilization, it expects what never was and never will be"-has been realized emotionally but not financially by America. American educational duty cannot be per- formed without American educational dollars. After a cautious study of the index number as a scientific instru- ment, I have reached the firm conviction that Dr. Ayres has given us the results of our first national survey of education and, by this survey has relocated for us, with accurate vision, the boundary lines of the path of our best educational effort and our most needed educational progress. He has interpreted our old theory of educational opportunity into the language of educational obligation. 812 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence THE STATUS OF THE SUPERINTENDENT TENTATIVE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ON THE STATUS OF THE SUPERINTENDENT, CHARLES E. CHADSEY, CHAIRMAN, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL. Your committee, appointed in accordance with the instructions of . the Department of Superintendence at the Cleveland meeting, presents the following tentative report : The Department of Superintendence has in the past authorized the appointment of committees which have investigated and made reports relative to the relationship between the superintendent and boards of education and the formulation of specific rules of boards of education relating to the powers and duties of superintendents. These reports have been received and printed and to some extent have succeeded in crystallizing the beliefs of those interested in the administrative aspects of city-school systems in favor of a more definite statement of the specific powers appertaining to the office of city superintendent of schools . In spite, however, of the existence of these reports, the situation in the United States has not materially changed. Studies which have been made as to actual conditions have in every case revealed astonishing differences in these conditions as well as corresponding differences in the beliefs of both lay and professional observers as to the proper dispo- sition of powers between the executive and the board of control. It was soon realized by the Committee that it was fundamentally nec- essary, before a report could be submitted which would carry great weight, that more specific and complete data be secured which would show, in the first place, the training and experience of superintendents of schools in the United States now holding office, and, in the second place, present accurate, up-to-date information concerning present conditions as to length of contract, salary paid, provisions for increase in salary, and other data relative to the financial aspects of the superintendent's position. Also in order that there might be a real background as to the general situation it seemed desirable to secure personal data concerning the general financial and social conditions under which the superintend- ent is actually working. It also seemed worth while, although consider- able data was already available, to attempt to secure more complete infor- mation concerning the actual authority exercised at the present time by the individual superintendent of schools of the United States. This information as to authority exercised should ascertain whether the super- intendent initiates, executes, or merely approves the various functions incident to school administration, and how the authority which is exer- cised, whether that of initiating, executing, or approving, is derived, Department] THE STATUS OF THE SUPERINTENDENT 813 whether by state law or charter, by rule or resolution of the board, or by common consent-namely, authority exercised after informal agree- ment with members of the board, or exercised because of custom, or authority assumed for the sake of efficiency. Accordingly, a questionnaire calling for quite detailed information concerning all of these matters was prepared and sent to all of the city superintendents of the United States. Unfortunately it did not prove to be possible to issue these questionnaires in time to have the returns properly tabulated, digested, and conclusions, based upon these data, drawn and submitted at this meeting. The superintendents of the United States are responding to this request apparently with great will- ingness and there is every reason to believe from the number of ques- tionnaires already received that the analyses which will be prepared will present information concerning actual conditions of the greatest interest and value to the superintending profession. In the meantime, as a means of submitting to the members of the Department certain facts and conclusions based upon material already available, although not of as recent date as the material now being re- ceived from the superintendents in the data sheet issued under, the authority of the Committee, the following statement is submitted : In the report of the Committee on the Relation between Superintend- ents and Boards of Education attention was called to the fact that the present status of the superintendent varies greatly in different school systems. A questionnaire sent out at that time showed that successful superintendents differ in their conception as to the effect of a more exact definition of responsibilities and authority. If the result of this explicit definition were to encourage the conception of the superintendent as a man ruling autocratically a school system without giving proper consideration or being influenced sufficiently by the educational sentiment of the community, the board of education and the teaching force, oppo- sition to such a definition would be justified. On the other hand, the existence of the most carefully devised legislation supporting the author- ity of the superintendent will not make successful the administration of the superintendent whose main ambition is to try to conduct a school system along exactly the lines desired by the board of education and teachers without reference to the great problems which can be solved successfully only through the constant development of the work of the school system. The superintendent should stand as representative of the best in modern school administration, he should be a man possessing constructive ideas, plans, visions, and ideals, who desires to keep in closest touch with the conceptions, the criticisms, and the suggestions of the public, the board and the school force; and who in his capacity as leader can secure the coöperation of all these forces to the end that the educational interests of the community may be best subserved. Such a 814 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence superintendent will surely profit by the substitution for the present loosely organized and inconsistent mass of opinion concerning the duties appertaining to the superintendent's office of an exact legal definition of the character and the limits of this authority. It has become a commonplace, in discussions concerning educational administration, to assume that education is a function of the state and that, therefore, members of boards of education are, in legal sense, state officials rather than municipal officials. The legal correctness of this point of view has been sustained in numerous cases argued before su- preme courts of various states in the Union. On the other hand, the fact that for purposes of administration the local unit in a large majority of cases is identical with the municipal unit has resulted in certain duties and responsibilities being assumed, often with statutory authority, by municipal officials. These duties not infrequently are very intimately associated with the levying of taxes and with the legal expenditure of public moneys for school purposes, and sometimes by charter or by statute a municipal officer is given the responsibility of appointing the members of the board of education. These facts have resulted in a considerable confusion in the public mind. The contention that education is a state matter, although sustained by numerous decisions, is in practice often questioned so that almosť continual controversy arises as to the exact relationship between school authorities and other municipal authorities. This difficulty is apt to become more serious as the amount of money necessarily de- manded for educational purposes increases. Without vitiating in any way the fundamentally true conception that education is a state and not a local matter and, as such, must inevitably, in the last analysis, depend upon the consent of the people as expressed either through the constitution or through its legislature, it is desirable that a more clearly stated theory be formulated which will on the one hand recognize the value of local initiative and local responsibility, and, on the other hand, recognize the necessity for definitely expressed power on the part of the state to establish educational standards below which no school system can be expected to fall. It is quite obvious that in the development of a plan for securing the best educational results for the state, no plan can be tolerated which will not definitely place the responsibilty for school efficiency upon the superintendent and the board of education. Part of the problem which presents itself to the Committee, then, has to do with the specific division of these powers between these two outstanding centers of responsibility. A survey of school legislation under which the schools of the country are now operating shows that certain phases of responsibility have been vested sometimes directly with the electorate, sometimes with Department] THE STATUS OF THE SUPERINTENDENT 815 the civic authorities, and most frequently with the city board of education. Occasionally the responsibility has been placed upon the city superintendent independent of the city board of education, in other cases with the county authority and, as to many specific things, the state educational organization has been given ultimate authority. The tendency on the part of legislatures is to eliminate just as far as possible municipal civil authority from any control over school affairs. This tendency is wholly desirable and it is to be hoped that eventually this separation of municipal from educational authority can be made complete. The authority of the state should be enlisted in the securing of these minimum standards, while the fullest opportunity for the develop- ment of types of schools suitable to the particular communities should be given to the superintendent and the board of education. It is fundamentally wise for the state by statutory enactment to specify by law the minimum requirements necessary for filling the office of superintendent, and these qualifications in the interest of efficiency should be raised substantially so that our school systems may be assured of highly trained, competent executives. Legislatures should be urged to enact legislation specifying definitely the powers and duties which shall be assumed by the city superintendent. No more certain method of increasing the dignity and efficiency of the office of city superintendent can be adopted. The question as to the authority which should be exercised by the city superintendent is naturally one concerning which the greatest dif- ferences of practice and opinion may be found. In general, as stated above, his powers and duties would be recognized by the local board of control preferably through state legislation, but while such legisla- tion is lacking, through specific statements in the local charter or the rules governing the board of education. As such, he should have the sole responsibility for the nomination of all educational employees under his supervision, and his relations to the board of education as to the appointment of such employees should be similar to that of the President to the Senate in connection with the nomination of federal judges. While in the great majority of school systems a similar right of nomination should obtain as to all other employees of the board, there are certain cities in the United States where at the present time this particular responsibility may be questionable. The authority of the superintendent in the transfer of all educational employees within positions of the same rank and salary should be prac- tically supreme. As to the transfer of the other employees, the same principles which determine the practice as the appointment of these em- ployees should obtain. The superintendent should have the same author 816 NATIONAL EDUCATION Association ( Superintendence ity of initiative with reference to the termination of services of employees as he has in connection with their appointment. Legal questions which may develop in connection with the dismissal of employees make it nec- essary that such action should be approved by the board of education. In most cities a fundamental duty of the superintendent of schools is the preparation of the budget. This duty is one which preferably should be assigned by the superintendent, who must justify it before the board of education, which body naturally must accept the final re- sponsibility. The duty of taking the school census and of enforcing the compulsory attendance law is also one which should belong with propriety to the office of superintendent of schools. It should be the duty of the superintendent to recommend to the board of education suitable school sites and to approve all plans for the construction of new buildings or additions to existing buildings. The question of the general management of the maintenance of build- ings, including repairs, is another one of the problems concerning which there is at the present time much difference of opinion. In the majority of systems, especially in the smaller cities, the officials employed for this particular duty should be responsible directly to the superintendent who should represent them in connection with all matters that need to come before the board of education. The superintendent should be held responsible for the determination of all subjects having to do with the curricula. On account of the greater familiarity of the superin- tendent with all that has to do with the routine matters of the school and of the administrative office he should formulate the rules and reg- ulations which have to do with such routine matters. Probably the most important single matter that concerns the effi- ciency of a school system has to do with the determination and formula- tion of new policies which are established for the purpose of bringing about educational advancement. The superintendent is employed as the person presumably possessing the power to formulate such policies and one of his duties should be their presentation to the board of education for its consideration and approval. The board of education as respresenting the people must finally accept the responsibility for the adoption of any of these policies but not for their original formulation. The authority of the superintendent in connection with the selection of textbooks and other supplies should be that of initiating. That the superintendent should assume the direction and supervision of all matters which have to do with medical inspection, classroom inspection, civic center activities, continuation schools, evening schools, etc., goes without saying. The question as to how the authority for these various powers exercised by the superintendent should be derived constitutes a most Department] GRADING TEACHERS' SALARIES 817 serious one to nearly all of our states. In the past, in the great majority of cases, it has been secured mainly by board rule or by the informal consent of the board of education or by the assumption of the power without even the consent of the board members or the board as a whole. It is highly desirable that many of these duties should be assigned by state laws to the office of the superintendent. They should specifically state whether the authority of the superintendent is that of initiating, of executing, or of approving, although in the vast majority of cases the authority if exercised by the superintendent must be exercised both in initiating and in executing. It is the hope of this Committee that it may be able to present a year from now a very complete statement as to the actual conditions obtaining in the office of the city superin- tendent in the United States, together with more definitely formulated recommendations as to the specific forms of legislation which it be- lieves, if enacted, would tend to secure a uniformity of school adminis- tration. Charles E. Chadsey, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill., Chairman ; E. C. Broome, superintendent city schools, Philadelphia, Pa.; Nickolaus L. Engelhardt, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, N. Y.; James H. Harris, superintendent city schools, Dubuque, Iowa ; Ernest C. Hartwell, superintendent city schools, Buffalo, N. Y.; Frank V. Thompson, superintendent city schools, Boston, Mass.; A. S. Whitney, 'head Department of Education, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.; John W. Withers, dean, School Pedagogy, New York University ; formerly superintendent city schools, St. Louis, Mo. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF GRADING TEACHERS' SALARIES EDWARD S. EVENDEN , TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. In the discussion of any present-day administration problem in school work it is necessary to keep our feet upon the ground of actual situations, rather than to propose idealistic schemes of reform. There are certain very potent elements which most superintendents must con- sider in any proposal for grading salaries of teachers. The first of these is the so-called "teacher shortage." If in any states or sections this no longer exists, as a shortage of actual in- dividuals to "keep school" in each schoolroom, it certainly exists in the form of having many teachers at work in the schools who were admitted as emergency teachers, and who are hopelessly below the level of train- ing and ability which prevailed before the war. Superintendents are confronted by the actuality of this shortage; by the demands for even more teachers to care for an increasing population, or to lessen the size 818, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence of classes ; and also by the diminished attendance at normal schools and other teacher-training institutions. The second element is that teaching standards have been lowered at a time when the United States needs the best teachers in its history. The next quarter of a century is going to see this country called upon to decide by popular election some very troublesome and important questions involving the relation of capital and labor; bolshevistic ten- dencies and principles, and social and economic policy, which will affect the practices of this country and, through these, those of the civilized world. The highest degree of educational efficiency is necessary to insure intelligent votes on these issues when they arise. This efficiency inay not be hoped for under existing conditions. The third element is the recognition that prices and wages are abnormal, and that a readjustment is already taking place. One phase of this appears in the unwillingness of communities to increase teachers' salaries in the face of falling prices and tightened money conditions without at least a definite assurance that they are going to receive a greater return in service for the increased expenditure. Up to a certain point, teachers' salaries may be increased on the basis of the injustice done by failure to increase them during the war in proportion to the increased cost of living. Beyond that point the community wants to feel that it is not paying more and receiving the same amount of service. It is imperative today that standards of training and ability be raised ; that more and better students be secured for the teacher-training schools, and that the best service possible be obtained from the present teaching staff. The task of so administering salary schedules at this time that these desirable changes may be effected is one of the most difficult and, at the same time, most important problems facing school superintendents. The methods of securing these ends are almost as varied as the number of cities attempting them, but it is my belief that, if the follow- ing ten principles concerning the payment of teachers' salaries are put into practice, they will materially hasten the accomplishment. 1. Minimum salaries for all teachers should be high enough to afford a living wage for twelve months at the standard of living demanded of teachers. The sooner this becomes $1200 or more for every beginning teacher with normal-school training, the better for the schools of the country. 2. Minimum salaries should vary for different amounts of train- ing secured by the beginning teacher. 3. Maximum salaries should be high enough to justify looking upon teaching as a career, rather than as a temporary or "stepping- stone" job. Department] GRADING TEACHERS' SALARIES 819 4. Maximum salaries should vary according to the preparation of teachers. The more time and money a teacher spends in preparation to teach, in other words, the more he invests in his training, the larger should be his returns. Teachers with standard normal- school train- ing should be able to attain a maximum salary of from $2000 to $3000, depending on the size of the city, the cost of living, and the teacher's abilities, while teachers with college or university training under the same conditions should be able to attain from $3600 to $5000 as teachers . 5. Even though maximum salaries generally should serve the pur- poses just listed, it should also be common practice to pay teachers of unusual ability more than the scheduled maximum. Teachers should realize that the "top is open." 6. There should be no salary distinctions between various school divisions when training and experience are the same. 7. Salary increases or annual increments should be of sufficient size to be perceptible in the teacher's annual budget. They should approximate 10 per cent of the salary. 8. Increases should vary in number and amount for teachers with varying amounts of training and experience. Six increases are recom- mended for two-year normal-school graduates, and ten or more for graduates of colleges and universities representing four or more years' work beyond the high school . 9. Successful experience in other cities should be recognized, when a teacher is employed in a city. 10. Increases should not be given automatically to all teachers who are retained in the system. Instead, they should serve as a con- stant incentive to growth and development during teaching. All ten of these principles affect and should govern the grading of teachers' salaries. In a sense, most of them may be considered as paying teachers according to merit, for if training, experience, extra work, and such elements are recognized in the salary, it will be, in most cases, the recognition of superior merit. It is the last of these ten principles, the one which recommends that salary increases and maxi- mums should as far as possible, be based upon teaching merit, which is the most difficult of all to put into practice. It immediately raises the question: What is teaching merit ; how may it be measured ; and, when measured, what is its value in dollars and cents ? The last ten years have seen numerous attempts to place the deter- mining of teaching efficiency upon a more quantitative basis, where the elements of individual judgment will have less influence. The score-card method has been the most successful and several such cards have resulted from these investigations, and have done much" to interest superintendents and teachers in the problem. The method 820 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence or the material of these cards has been modified to suit a great many communities where this plan has been tried, but up to the present time there is very little practice to base predictions upon. As long as the rating a teacher received by means of the score-card did not affect him more directly than to furnish the topic for half an hour's conference with the superintendent or supervisor, it was accepted, but in the ma- jority of cases in which it affected the teacher's salary, it has failed and in no uncertain manner. Two reasons for these failures are : (1) Teachers have been forced to teach on salaries so inadequate that the getting of an increase in salary was magnified out of its true propor- tion. (2) None of the score cards thus far developed have analyzed teaching ability into elements which are quantitatively measurable with any degree of accuracy, nor are they mutually exclusive. In the cities in which salaries were reported to be affected, it was found, where the use of teacher ratings could be followed, that one of two conditions was apt to prevail; either the ratings affected very few teachers, or else almost all of the teachers were rated as "excellent" and received the increase, which practice is even worse in its deadening effects than the customary automatic increase for all who are retained. The first essential to the successful operation of any method of grading salaries, is to secure the interest, co-operation, and consent of the teachers. This not only insures the plan a fair trial, but should it not prove successful, the blame and criticism for its failure is mutually shared. Teachers should constantly keep before the public the fact that salary schedules should be fixed and increases paid not merely for the sake of the individuals now teaching, but more for the three-fold pur- pose of raising the present standards of professional preparation for teachers, recruiting for the profession the strongest young men and women, and keeping these able, trained teachers in the work long enough that the value of their richer experience may be given to the schools- all to the end that American boys and girls may have better schools and that the general level of intelligence for the citizens of this great democ- racy may be raised to the highest possible point. MERIT PROMOTION OF TEACHERS T. J. KNAPP, SUPERINTENDENT PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HIGHLAND PARK, MICH. -Teachers are of different value. Self-evident. Different classes of workers receive unequal pay. Teachers of different value should receive different pay. Difference in usual schedule between beginners and best older teachers much too small. Future high cost of education will cause inquiry into our business methods and judgment. Can we defend our salaries then ? Appropriations limited by taxing limitations. Department] GRADING TEACHERS' SALARIES 821 High minimum takes away from the total and decreases the maximum otherwise possible. Cannot defend our salaries unless there is regard to comparative worth. If teachers' salaries were increased solely on basis of rising prices, they must be lowered in times of lowered prices. Standards need to be raised. During lowering prices and depression, supply of teachers improves. Before the supply surpasses the demand, superintendents must be prepared to distinguish between the fair, the good, and the excellent. Tenure alone does not represent value. Perhaps not self-evident, but true, we believe.-Some phases of a teacher's value are facts ; some are matters of judgment. As we pro- gress in scientific management more phases will be accepted as facts and fewer as matters of judgment. Better to try to measure teachers than not to try. Minimum salary is controlled by market, and, since the value of the teacher at minimum is not known, no other justification is possible. Beyond competition (or the market ) we cannot greatly influ- ence it. Most salaries now paid to all teachers would be justified if paid only to average or fair, until competition crowds out the fair. Higher salaries now paid and to be paid will not be justified unless there are reasons in each case. Percentage PART OF PAGE OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REAPPOINTMENTS Present Salary Increase Elsewhere Probable Ag- Increase Rank Cred- gre- of Base Experience* it ‡ gate Salary ( Graduate Cred- 1 $240 Uni- Here Name School Position ited 2 120 ver- Remarks ) 2 уг. , $1000 X 3 60 sity 4 уг. , 1240, $120 4 0Hrs. 5 at$4 ( 4 ) (2) (6) Jones ... Angell 1 $1000 5 2 $480 $120 $24 $1624 $1440 $184 13 ( 6 ) (3) (15) Smith ... High Latin $1240 3 6 $720 $60 $60 $2080 $1920 $160 8 (5) (1) (30) Brown .. High Reading $ 1000 1 432 $600 $240 $120 $1960 $1690 $280 17 (7) (2) Convention Blank ... Ford 5 $1240 10 2 $840 $120 $2200 $1800 $400 22 Credit *Counting this year. Use nearest half or third, if fractional. As long as experience is of uncertain value, it shall be arrived at comparatively, as is rank. For rank, see principal's record made four times a year. See No. 2. If a teacher is ranked "5." she it not to be retained. See files for teacher's extra credits, reduced to university hours or their equivalent. See No. 3 and No. 4. See plan for refunding convention expenses, No. 5. No. 2. RATING OF TEACHERS Principals shall rank teachers four times a year, October 1, January 1, March 1, and June 1. The last four ratings are to be used in arriving at the official rank for reappointment. The opinions of any supervisors or similarly informed persons are to be solicited by the individual principal. Teachers are expected to know their ranks, and principals are expected to notify them of new or changed rating on the dates above. The superintendent specializes in keeping the principals as nearly uniform as possible in respect to standards and strictness of rating, calling attention to specific cases of what he considers over-rating or under-rating, but seldom if ever over-ruling. 822 NATIONAL Education AssociATION [ Superintendence Therefore, superintendent must lead in movement for merit pro- motion. Our plan is new and crude, to be sure, but is better than the one used before. We recognize two lines of data: facts and judgments. Facts : ( 1 ) preparation, (2) extra credits, (3) advanced study, (4) Conventions and travel, (5) actual years of experience. Judgments :- (1) comparative value of experience, (2) rank. We think it better to attempt to evaluate experience and rank than blindly to group all teachers in same class. Of course, an open method of rating gives teachers a chance to make intelligent efforts at im- provement. [NOTE 1. Folder of information furnished on request. ] A MASSACHUSETTS PLAN OF GRADING TEACHERS' SALARIES U. G. WHEELER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWTON, MASS. The Newton plan of grading salaries, inaugurated some years ago by Dr. Spaulding, is founded on the double and apparently self-evident proposition ; namely, that there is a considerable variation in the worth of different teachers, and that a teacher should be paid exactly what her services are worth. Said Dr. Spaulding, "The only practicably applicable measure of any teacher's worth is the cost of such service as she renders. How much will it cost to fill the teacher's place ? For how much can we secure a teacher as good, should the place become vacant ? Length of service is not merit. Faithfulness, con- scientiousness, loyalty, and hard work are most commendable charac- teristics ; but alone, these characteristics cannot be made the basis of an increase in salary, for we demand all these qualities, and many more like them of every teacher whom we employ, at any salary. Upon this creed was founded the much-discussed "Merit System" of Newton. Briefly, it was as follows. It had but one constant factor and that was a so-called " regular" salary. This was fixed at a figure about equal to the salary necessary at that time, to secure and retain a teacher of such recognized ability that she would unquestionably be placed on the permanent list. All teachers then in service, who had been in the system three years or more, were given or promised this regular salary and no teacher was continued beyond the three-year limit, who, in the judgment of principals, supervisors, and superinten- dent, was not worth this stated amount. Beyond this "regular" salary all teachers might hope to advance. No stated annual increment was promised and no final maximum was fixed. Every advance was granted strictly on merit, and varied in amount according to the degree of efficiency the teacher was judged to possess. It is obvious that in time there resulted considerable variation in the higher salaries paid, and Department] GRADING TEACHERS' SALARIES 823 many teachers of long experience were not advanced beyond the re- gular fixed salary. New teachers were given an initial salary accord- ing to experience and estimated worth, but never in excess of the so- called "regular" salary. Their advance to the regular salary, or beyond, was reasonably certain, for otherwise their places would be filled by more promising teachers. There is only one constant factor in the scheme-the so-called "regular" salary. Suppose we place this at $1600. All teachers in the system are immediately given or promised this amount. New teachers begin at from $1200 to $1600 according to training, experience, and estimated worth, and none are permanently retained who, in three years' time are not rated at $1600 teachers. All may aspire to an unnamed and unknown amount beyond the $1600, the rate of increase and ultimate salary in each case depending solely upon merit as judged by administrative and supervisory officers. FOUNDATION PRINCIPLES FOR GRADING SALARIES A PENNSYLVANIA PLAN F. E. DOWNES, SUPERIntendent OF SCHOOLS, HARRISBURG, PA. The basic principles upon which the Harrisburg schedule is con- structed are the following : ( 1 ) That positions to which both men and women are eligible should carry with them equal opportunities and benefits as to salary schedule, irrespective of the sex of the holders. (2) That salaries should be dependent upon education, experience, and the character of certification held, rather than upon mere grade of position. (3 ) That special self-improvement in service should lead to prompt and substantial reward. (4) That retention in service or salary advancement should be dependent upon the rendering of service that is at least " satisfactory." Equal pay for equal work. The first of these principles will be gen- erally conceded in this age as sound, and probably needs no further elaboration. The time has passed for the subtle argument of " economic necessity, " or "supply and demand," to be used as an excuse for paying men more than women, when employed in the same class of service and when each group is equally well qualified to perform that service. While I regret to state that in our former schedules in Harrisburg certain salary distinctions on the basis of sex existed, I am glad to announce that our present schedule is entirely free from these dis- tinctions. Equal pay for equal qualifications. The Harrisburg schedule is what has come to be commonly known as a single-salary schedule. This probably is a misnomer, for we really have three general schedules -one for academic teachers, one for shop teachers, and a third for 824 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence all others requiring special state certification, such as certification in music, drawing, commercial branches, cooking, sewing, etc. The under- lying principle in each schedule is that its provisions apply alike to all grades of the school system. It assumes that the work of teaching is of equal importance in any grade and that the fact of being assigned to the first year of the elementary schools, the second year of the junior high school, or the last year of the senior high school, is a mere incident, so far as salary remuneration is concerned. Academic teachers are classified as follows in the application of the schedule : (a) holders of provisional, professional and normal certificates (all temporary certificates by law) ; (b) holders of state permanent certificates and normal diplomas; (c) college graduates, with bachelor's degree or equivalent ; (d) college graduates, with a master's degree in cursu; ( e) college graduates with doctor's degree in cursu. Shop teachers have three distinct classifications, according to the amount of professional training they have had beyond the minimum eligibility requirements for employment. Other special teachers, likewise, are divided into three groups, according to professional training. Inducement to self-improvement. The third basic principle in the construction of a sound and just salary schedule, we believe, as pre- viously stated, is that the schedule should provide substantial encourage- ment for continuous self-improvement. The Harrisburg schedule attempts to apply this principle, through the application of the following rule: Sec. 185. All teachers and elementary principals may be granted an imme- diate additional increase of $50 in salary, and the maximum for each teacher may be increased $50, for each eight semester units of college credit, provided that such increase in salary and maximum shall not exceed $300 and that all credits for additional college work shall be filed with the City Superintendent prior to October 15, of each school year. The increases for college credit are in no sense bonuses. They are permanent additions to salaries, continuing during the entire tenure of the teachers affected, and are given irrespective of whether the credits have been obtained prior to or subsequent to employment in Harrisburg. Penalty for poor service. Our fourth basic principle is that the benefit of the schedule should apply only to those whose services are satisfactory, or at least give promise of being satisfactory. No system of rating should be over-rigid in its provisions or in its application. It must not induce a feeling of unrest or fear. It must be applied with justice and sympathy and with due consideration of the interests of the teaching profession. Many a teacher of limited experience may not measure up to standard during the first year or two, but if she manifests a desire to succeed and shows continuous Department] THE RATING OF TEACHERS 825 improvement, even though at first slow, she should be given every en- couragement and her services should not be rated as "unsatisfactory." On the other hand, an uninterested, unprogressive, and otherwise un- promising teacher should not be trifled with. At least it is upon this basis that we are endeavoring to apply the merit system in Harrisburg. THE RATING OF TEACHERS HENRY D. HERVEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, AUBURN , N. Y. We all agree that one teacher differs from another teacher in merit, that to reward teachers according to merit is a consummation devoutly to be wished, and yet few practical schoolmen have made the attempt, and most of those who have done so have lived to repent of their rashness. While the difficulties connected with this problem should not be overemphasized, they must, nevertheless, be faced fairly, if a satis- factory and permanent solution is to be found. Foremost among the difficulties is that of attempting to measure the immaterial in terms of the material. How can such things as influence, stimulus, inspiration, professional zeal, character, in short, all of those subtle spiritual forces that are vaguely grouped together under the term personality-the things that determine a teacher's worth-how can these elusive, imponderable, and intangible things be measured ? We may measure scholarship, but scholarship does not make a teacher. We may catalogue one by one's isolated personal qualities and rate them in percentages, but a catalogue of qualities does not make a personality, and it does not make a teacher. We can tell that Miss A is more pleasing to us per- sonally than Miss B, but we cannot always tell why; and the judgment of the children taught by Miss A and Miss B may be wholly different from ours. Furthermore, our immediate and superficial judgment might be completely reversed if we could read the future and could know what permanent impress upon the lives of children the influence of these two teachers would make. We may as well confess frankly that we do not yet possess an instrument delicate enough or exact enough for the measuring of a teacher's worth. The method of measuring one human being by another has not yet been standardized. The technique of measuring personality is yet to be evolved. We possess nothing which the great body of teachers is willing to accept as either just, reliable, or workable. To be successful a rating system must be raised out of the realm of mere guesswork and personal opinion and placed upon a genuinely scientific basis, which shall be recognized as such not only by the teachers who are to be rated, but also by their friends and by the general public. In order to test out in a limited area the prevailing sentiment on this subject, a brief questionnaire was sent recently to twenty-five 826 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence superintendents in New York state. Of the twenty-three superinten- dents heard from, only two professed to have merit systems in actual operation. One of the two stated frankly that the administration of the system resulted in friction and unrest. The other found no trouble, but the reasons for this are as obvious as they are unusual. In the first place, two-thirds of all his teachers are on the merit list, but more important and more unusual still is the fact that the salaries fixed for teachers never come before the board for confirmation and are never made public, so that there is little opportunity for one teacher to compare her salary with that of another teacher, the chief cause of personal jealousy thereby being removed. All the other superintendents, how- ever, stated in substance that with our present crude, unscientific, and superficial methods of estimating the worth of teachers and with the present distrust of such methods felt by the teachers themselves, the introduction of a merit system would lead to friction and unrest and would cause more trouble than it would cure. Yet, notwithstanding all the difficulties in our path, we must not despair. We must find a way by which genuine merit may be dis- covered, rated, and suitably rewarded. This must be done, if for no other reason than to enable us to finance our present salary schedules. The people who recognize the necessity of adequate salaries for teach- ers will demand that salaries at the present high level shall not be paid indiscriminately to the best and to the worst teachers alike. In conclusion, attention is called to certain fundamental conditions which must maintain as a prerequisite to the success of any merit system : 1. A merit system will depend for its success upon the profes- sional spirit of the teaching corps. If professional standards are to be set up and maintained, the movement toward this end must come from the teachers themselves. Physicians set up and enforce their own professional standards ; so do lawyers ; so do other professional workers . Teachers must do the same or the thing will not be done. 2. The measuring of teachers, in the larger cities at least, should be the sole function of a separate body or bureau. Principals, super- visors, and superintendents have not the time for this delicate and ex- acting work, but even if they had the time, the proper work of principal and supervisor is incompatible with that of judge of professional worth. If the supervisor has the power to determine the professional status of the teacher and to raise or lower her salary, a barrier is at once erected between that teacher and that supervisor which renders the best work of the supervisor vastly more difficult, if not impossible. Finally, difficult as is the problem before us, it is not insolvable. When teachers and the supervisory staff recognize the need of devis Department] REPORTING MEASUREMENTS TO PARENTS 827 ing a fair and workable method of discovering and rewarding merit, when for this purpose the resources of our best pedagogical labora- tories are used to the utmost, and when all work together with mutual confidence, mutual forbearance, and mutual respect toward this common end the solution will be in sight. A PLAN OF REPORTING THE RESULTS OF EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS TO PARENTS I. M. ALLEN , SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. The reason for attempting to report the results of standardized educational tests to parents is set forth in the following letter to parents which accompanied the report-card booklet subsequently described. SUPERINTENDENT'S LETTER TO PARENTS EXPLAINING A NEW REPORTING SYSTEM A NEW DEPARTURE HOW ARE EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS OBTAINED ? The use of the familiar per cent marking How is it possible to measure weight and system in reporting pupils' standing is sup- height? Through the acceptance of universal plemented for the year 1920-21 by a more standard units of measurements. The pound informing and scientific method of report- and the foot are universally and scientifically ing the standing of pupils in the grades and ascertained units. Just so have educational is explained herewith. units of measurement for third grade read- ing, writing, and arithmetic been set up. THE PER CENT PLAN REPRESENTED OPINION Thousands of children in the United States RATHER THAN FACTS have been tested by grade and subject in the The per cent plan gave teacher opinion in same material and out of the statistics com- reference to a pupil's standing in any par- piled a standard of achievement in these fun- ticular subject rather than standard achieve- damental subjects has been determined. It ment for particular grade and subject with is important to note that these standards are which the pupil's score could be compared. not based upon teacher opinion of what any It is a well known fact that teacher opinion particular achievement should be but rather in reference to the same pupil varied, and upon what children over the United States that grading a pupil was often personal actually do achieve. The standard in any rather than impersonal and standardized. grade and subject is the median achievement Reflect how unsatisfactory it would be to or that score which indicates that there are have conflicting opinions in reference to a as many above the standard score as below. child's height and weight. Is it not as dis- The median is a more accurate form of av- tressing to have the child's mental weight erage with which we are all familiar. in reading in dispute? MEASUREMENT OF CLASSES WHAT THE PARENT IS ENTITLED TO KNOW At the beginning of the semester all pupils The parent of a fourth grade child in read- in the elementary grades will be measured in ing is entitled to know whether his child is all the fundamental subjects. A report of up to the standard of a fourth grade child in such measurements will be sent every parent reading, and if not, what specific remedial three times per year, viz : Oct. , Feb. and June. measures may be suggested by the teacher The usual reporting system will probably be to bring the child up to standard. Hereto- used at other periods of the school year. fore our report cards have said: " Your child By consulting the new reports the parent may is below 60 per cent in reading, therefore he know where his child stands in reference to should study harder." Suppose your physician the standards of achievement for like sub- would advise: "Your child is 60 per cent in ject and grade obtained by thousands of chil- health, therefore he should take better care of dren in the United States . his health." You certainly would demand DIAGNOSIS OF CLASS AND RESULTANT PROCEDURE more specific advice in regard to your child's health, and just so has the time come when As soon as the class has been measured in you may require more definite advice in re- any particular subject, the class, 'f necessary, gard to your child's achievement and pro- will be divided into two or more groups for gress in the school subjects. This we hope the purpose of adapting content and method to render through the new system of re- more carefully to the needs of the children. porting. For example, if it is discovered that the low 828 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence est group of a fifth-grade reading class reads methods selected, the important step from with the standard ability of a third-grade then on is to secure improvement and the reading class, the pupils will not be demoted greatest possible amount of improvement to third grade but rather third-grade reading from each member of the class. The report material will be provided for the lowest card based on percentage rating did not stress group of this particular fifth-grade class. improvement as much as it stressed competi- The use of educational measurements not tion. Thorndyke says: "The race of life is only makes it possible to group the children not run to see who can run the fastest, but and to discover the particular achievement of rather that each may run as fast as he may." each child but it also affords the basis of an The new plan of reporting should stress beat- intelligent diagnosis. ing one's own record, or improvement, rather If a child in reading is below standard in than surpassing another's record, or com- comprehension and above in rate, a different petition. treatment is necessary than when the condi- THE THREE ESSENTIALS tions are reversed. Teachers are instructed as to the diagnostic values of these measure- Measurement or discovery of facts, diag- ments and are expected to apply them nosis based on these facts, or the formulation accordingly. of content and method to meet the particu- lar needs of each child, and actual improve- MAXIMUM SELF IMPROVEMENT ment or the maximum development of each THE DESIRED GOAL child are the three steps that the superin- Afer a class has been measured, the indi- tendent has atempted to outline in this ex- viduals diagnosed and grouped, material and planatory letter. An examination of the following pages of the report-card booklet will enable the reader to determine how the results of these standard- ized educational tests are brought home to the parent. INTERPRETATION OF READING REPORT Rate of Reading. -Standard rate signifies the number of words of standard material the pupil should read per minute. This is important as experimentation has shown that speed in reading is an aid to clear comprehension. Encourage the pupil to read silently and rapidly. -Standard comprehension signifies the ability the pupil Comprehension. should have in understanding the printed page. This is indicated by the pupil's ability to answer correctly questions concerning the material read. Encourage the pupil to read to get the point. Read silently, rapidly and with a determina- tion to get the thought of the author. *Standard Pupil's Remarks Score Score Rate Oct. Feb. June Comprehension Oct. Feb. June *If the standard score is underlined the report indicates the standard the pupil should obtain on the completion of the A class in this particular subject. Ifthe standard score is not underlined the report indicates the standard the pupil should have obtained at the date of issue. Department] REPORTING MEASUREMENTS TO PARENTS 829 INTERPRETATION OF SPELLING REPORT Standard. Standard in spelling signifies the per cent of correctly spelled words that should be expected in a particular grade. Generally twenty words are selected from a column containing words of equal difficulty. These columns increase in difficulty by equal steps from A to Z. A third grade child should obtain a higher per cent on columns H than column J. Spelling in Springfield schools is taught by the recall method and the objective of every teacher is to get 100 per cent spelling each day. Standard Pupil's Remarks Score Score Column (Oct.) Column (Feb.) Column (June) 830 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence INTERPRETATION OF WRITING REPORT Rate. Standard rate in writing signifies the number of letters per minute of standard material a pupil of a particular grade should write in one minute. Encourage the pupil to acquire standard rate as this will aid him in obtaining proper movement in writing . Quality. Standard in quality is a particular sample of writing that a child of any particular grade should equal. These samples are always on exhibition. If below standard, encourage the pupil to acquire the standard through practice. The pupil's teacher will be able to analyze his hand writing and point out what particular drills are necessary to improve the quality. Standard Pupil's Remarks Score Score Rate Oct. Feb. June Quality Oct. Feb. June - Department] REPORTING MEASUREMENTS TO PARENTS 831 INTERPRETATION OF ARITHMETIC REPORT Fundamentals.-Standard ability in fundamentals signifies the number of examples in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division-the pupil in any particular grade should work correctly in a given time. Addition . Sets A, E, J, M Subtraction . Sets B , F Multiplication . ... Sets C, G, L Division .. .. Sets D, I, K, N Fractions . ... Sets H, Ο If the pupil's score is below standard he should practice until such ability is brought to standard. Drill problems for the particular grade will be fur- nished parents on request. Reasoning. Standard reasoning ability signifies the ability of the child to determine what steps are necessary in the solving of problems adapted to his particular grade. OCTOBER FEBRUARY JUNE FUNDA- MENTALS Standard Pupil's Standard Pupil's Standard Pupils' Score Score Score Score Score Seorc Set A Set B Set C Set D SetE Set F Set G SetH Set I Set J Set K Set L Set M Set N Set O Principles REASONING Correct ост. FEB . Answers Correct JUNE Ост. FEB . JUNE 832 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence As to what parents thought of the value of this kind of information is indicated by the following summary of a questionnaire sent to about one hundred parents of whom forty-four responded Springfield, Ill., February 18, 1921 MY DEAR PARENT : I am interested in securing your answers to the following ques- tions regardless of whether your answers are favorable or unfavorable to the use of the new report-card booklet. You may use your own pleasure about signing your name as I am interested primarily in the answers to the questions proposed. A prompt answer to this questionnaire will be appreciated and should reach my office in the enclosed envelope not later than Superintendent of Schools QUESTIONNAIRE You will please answer "Yes" or "No" to the following questions, striking out "No" if you wish "Yes" to be the answer and vice versa. 1. Is it advantageous to receive definite information as to rate, accuracy, and quality of reading, writing, and arithmetic? Yes-No. (Strike out Yes or No.) Yes-41 ; No-3. 2. Is it advantageous to compare your child's score with that of the average child in the United States in the same grade who has taken the same test in the same manner ? Yes-No . ( Strike out Yes or No.) Yes-37; No-6; Indiffer- ent 1. 3. Does the new report stimulate your child more than the old report to attempt improvement on his own score ? Yes-No. (Strike out Yes or No.) Yes-24; No-18 ; No difference-3. 4. Is it an advantage to have the report card render an impersonal score rather than personal opinion ? Yes-No. (Strike out Yes or No.) Yes-35 ; No-6; Indifferent-3. 5. Do you agree that the card theoretically possesses the above-named advantages, and still is not desirable for other reasons ? Yes-No. (Strike out Yes or No.) Yes-14; No-22; Not answered-8. 6. If you say "Yes" to Question 5, will you kindly state below what your objec- tions are ? Too complicated for Parents to understand-12; Too much stress is placed on tests-teacher better able to judge-1 ; Too discouraging for the child below standard-1 ; Does not get away from personal opinion of teacher-1 ; Promotions should not be made on tests, but should be made on daily work-2; Thinks personal opinion does make up report-1 ; Not answered-26. 7. Would you prefer to see the report-card booklet abandoned another year or would you prefer to see it continued next year with or without modifications ? (a) Rejected (b) Continued (c) Continued with modifications (Cross out two above and leave the remaining one as your answer.) Rejected -7; Continued-24; Continued with modifications-11, Not answered-2. 8. If your answer to Question 7 is-"Continued with modifications," please state below what the modifications should be, understanding that the report-card booklet would remain as a supplementary report to the teacher's estimate card. In lower grades better to give an exact grade on teacher's estimate card instead Department] THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 833 of A, B, C, etc., and teacher's estimate card should be given monthly ; booklet not definite enough to stimulate improvement in child-1. Should have some way of crediting daily work-especially in arithmetic-1. Should be more than one test each term, also daily recitations should be of more value -1. Should be continued another year so that teachers may become more familiar with grading -1. Should use old method in conjunction with present report card-1 . Should be modified to such an extent that they are made clearer both to student and parent-1 . Should change terms " Standard score" and "Pupil's score" to make report clearer to parent-1. Should be made clearer for understanding of the parent-2. Supplement booklet with ordinary report so more concrete advance of child may be understood-1 . IS THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL “DELIVERING THE GOODS" ?—AFFIRMATIVE BALLARD D. REMY, PRINCIPAL, FOREST PARK JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. The junior high school is an attempt to establish a new ideal in edu- cation. This new ideal is that a public-school system shall fit the needs of all of the children as nearly as can be done, according to their several capacities, their educational intentions, and their life-purposes. Since the studies, surveys, and investigations made revealed this needed adjustment to be most pressing in the early adolescent period, we faced the possibility of best approaching the new ideal by a reorgani- zation of the intermediate portion of the school system. Most of us, I think, agree that a junior high school is a school covering the two or three years of early adolescence commonly cov- ered by our seventh and eighth ; or seventh, eighth, and ninth grades; providing through its organization, equipment, and curriculums for a wider range of educational opportunities, better adapted to the capacities, educational needs, and vocational intentions of its pupils. Let us then consider the data available on some of the main func- tions of the junior high school. Briggs¹ discusses most of them under three main headings : departmental teaching, promotions, and indivi- dual differences, and I shall add for this discussion, power to hold pupils in school. Under provisions for individual differences, he in- cludes such, items as "differentiated curricula," "ability grouping," "vocational and educational guidance," and "sex differentiation." What do the records show relative to departmental teaching ? The study made by Briggs shows that the median percentage of teachers teaching one subject only was between 41 and 50 in the 196 junior high schools reporting; those teaching two subjects only, between 31 and 40; and those teaching three subjects or more, between 31 and 40 per cent. Dr. Thomas H. Briggs, The Junior High School. 834 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence A second item for consideration is that of promotions. This involves the acceptance of pupils from lower school grades as well as transferring to higher grades as they accomplish certain curriculum requirements. Briggs reports, in answer to the question, "Under what conditions, if any, do you admit pupils who have not completed grade VI ?" that 40 per cent said they required the sixth grade to be com- pleted; 60 per cent said "other considerations," such as "maturity of pupil," "overage," "oversize," "dull and overage," "according to indivi- dual need," "on recommendation of principal, or superintendent," "probable ability to do the work," and "on condition." Relative to the promotion within the school, the Springfield¹ study found as follows : Of the 87 schools answering this question 19 per cent reported promotion on credit point basis; 48 per cent pro- moted entirely by subject ; 11 per cent promoted by general average of subjects; 20 per cent promoted by major subjects. Koos² reports that "subject promotion is almost as common a feature of reorganiza- tion as is departmentalization." In a group of 46 reorganized schools, distributed in 12 states in the Middle West, 34 were promoting by subject. Childs said, "a well-nigh universal practice with junior high schools" in Indiana. Brigg's report shows that of 248 schools report- ing, 76.6 per cent promoted by subject. This evidence shows con- clusively that this feature of the junior high school is not only coming into usage, but is already operating in a large measure. Briggs reports 19 different ways in which irregularly promoted pupils are given assistance as reported by 161 junior high schools. Some of the ways are " special room and teacher," "work depending on ability," "vocational (industrial) work," "fewer subjects," "pupils elect programs," etc. Individual differences are met by the junior high school through differentiated curriculums. Various schools reported opportunity rooms or ungraded rooms to care for variations in ability. Not only have great changes been made in the subjects of study included in the vari- ous curriculums offered by junior high schools, but the internal struc- ture of courses has undergone and is undergoing decided changes in the direction of much better materials for study suited to the age of junior high school pupils. Of the 182 schools reporting to Briggs, 116, or 63.7 per cent, offer an academic curriculum ; 94, or 51.6 per cent, offer a commercial curriculum ; 94, or 51.6 per cent, a practical arts curriculum; and 23, or 12.6 per cent, a special trade curriculum. Again, he found a large variety of industrial subjects or topics listed by 173 junior high schools 1The Report of the Springfield (Mass. ) Educational Club on the Junior High School. L. V. Koos, The Junior High School. Childs, Reorganization Movement in the Grammar Grades of Indiana Schools. Department] THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 835 reporting. Eight topics or subjects were listed under agricultural. Nineteen schools reported agriculture, and 7 reported gardening. Un- der industrial, we find woodwork in 77 schools; carpentry in 48; manual training in 23; pattern-making in 11; painting in 13 ; cement- work in 11 ; applied drawing in 33; bricklaying in 11 ; machine shop in 15 ; metal-work in 26; electrical work in 15; cooking in 11 ; and printing in 37. Twenty-seven other types of work were reported. What is the showing the junior high school is making on its power to hold pupils in school ? I believe it is too early in the history of this type of school to reach a satisfactory conclusion as to holding power. In the first place, not enough schools have been in operation for a sufficient period to furnish adequate statistics. In the second place, industrial and educational conditions during and since the war make it an abnormal period for computing statistics. Should the records finally show that no more pupils continued their education than before, many of these same pupils, nevertheless, will have received a much better education for them than under the more limited and restricted opportunities necessary to the old type of organization . This paper quite conclusively proves that the junior high school is "delivering the goods" since it has shown that these schools are succeeding in the following important functions : departmental teach- ing; subject promotion and promotion according to need; caring for individual differences by differentiated curriculums and revision of internal structure of subjects; and power to hold pupils in school. No other movement in education, requiring the constructive work, the battering of traditions, the expenditure of large sums of money for buildings and equipment, and the securing of the right sort of personnel for leaders and teachers without proper previous training for the task, has ever accomplished so much in such a short period of time. IS THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL “ DELIVERING THE GOODS" ?—NEGATIVE L. C. WARD, SUPERINTENDENT CITY SCHOOLS, FT. WAYNE, IND . The business of the elementary school is to give the child a mastery of the tools of learning. We may fairly assume that a child has successfully completed the elementary curriculum when he has learned to read understandingly, to express his thoughts clearly, to perform the ordinary operations of arithmetic with accuracy and reasonable speed, and when he has laid broadly the foundation for decent citizenship through some knowledge of history and geography. With these accomplishments, he is ready for the high school, where he will use those accomplishments to acquire his real education. The elementary school is a school for drill, and the high school a school 836 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence for use. What then is a junior high school? High school confessedly it is not, or there is no need for the "junior." Elementary school it cannot be, for its organization apes too closely the plan of the high school to leave any doubt upon that point. Essentially then, the question before us is the proper use of the seventh and eighth grades, possibly even the ninth. Ought we use these years for more and better drill, or ought we assume the drill phase complete with the sixth year, and so proceed with real education ? I assert that most failures in the high school, not alone in English, but in algebra, geometry, languages, history, and science, are due to simple inability to read understandingly, with some little inaccuracy in the manipulations of arithmetic. Any teacher of algebra or geometry will tell you that most failures in those subjects are due to the written problems which involve close and accurate reading. So will teachers of most other high-school subjects say that their failures are chiefly due to the child's inability to understand what he reads. The proponents of the junior high school have been fond of saying that their invention "bridged the gap" between the last year of the junior high school and the first year of the high school. It is perhaps sufficient to say that there has never been a serious gap between the eighth and ninth grades, in any community where high schools exist. The real gaps are between the sixth and seventh years, when the over- age dullard is permitted by law to go to work, and between the ninth and tenth grades where the child mentally or physically unfit leaves the high school. Does anybody here believe that the placing of a natural division of the school at this point-beginning at one gap and ending at the other-will tend to increase the number of pupils in the last three years of the high school ? A second point often urged for the junior high school is that it offers a fuller and richer curriculum. No man dares remove from the seventh and eighth grades, mathematics, English, history, or geography and these subjects offer as much fullness and richness as the average twelve-year-old digestion can assimilate. Even more ridiculous is the third objective of the junior high school, that of enabling the youth, by means of the "full and rich" curriculum to "find himself." How can honest men believe that any possible school organization will enable children of twelve, thirteen, or fourteen to find themselves ? Any scheme of education which seeks to persuade any eighth-grade boy into any occupation or profession is unfair to the boy to choose for himself in his maturity what course he shall follow. Not only that, but it is impossible for schools so to do. Furthermore I wish to assert that the junior high-school ideal is utterly destructive of the fundamental basis for the existence of the Department] RELATION OF SCHOLARSHIP TO PAY 837 public school, namely-training for citizenship in a democracy. At least eight years should be devoted to a common school, a school in which all children receive a common training in those subjects which are essential to decent citizenship. The junior high school ideals of differentiation of courses and elec- tion of subjects must infallibly lead to the formation of classes and castes years before a sane judgment of values can be possible. Any influences which make for caste exclusiveness among little children we must suppress for the common good. Can anyone believe that the foundations can be laid too broad, or that a common training should perish with the sixth grade? I am not fully convinced that our free- dom of election in the high school or in the early years of college is a good thing, but I am absolutely convinced that a similar freedom in the grades can work only untold harm. Finally, that of money. The most moderate estimates place the cost of junior high school instruction at $25 per pupil over instruction of the older type. Perhaps it is worth more. I do not wish to oppose the organization of early adolescents into schools of their own. I do not wish anything but the best teachers, in point of training and experience, to be had for these children. I do not believe that the failure of the junior-high-school movement has come from any such fault. Its failure lies in our failure of broad vision. We have failed to remember that back of all special trades, occupations, and professions there must be a great body of common knowledge and common learning. This common possession cannot be acquired in six years of school. Our intermediate grades must still be schools for drill in the fundamentals ; and I do firmly believe that our country would be greatly the gainer if this period of drill in the com- mon foundations of citizenship were carried through even the ninth grade. RELATION OF SCHOLARSHIP AND GROWTH IN SCHOLARSHIP TO MERIT AND PAY DAVID B. CORSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWARK, N. J. Some educators hold that four years of cultural work should be required as a preparation for the profession of education. This is impractical because the general conditions and remuneration of teachers throughout the country are not attractive enough to cause candidates to make such preparation. In view of the teacher shortage and the general state of public education the standard of four years' high and two years' normal for kindergarten and elementary teachers and col- lege graduation for secondary teachers is high enough. 838 NATIONAL EducatiON ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence There can be no doubt of the fact that normal graduates should possess greater scholarship. There is overemphasis in normal training upon methodology. The acquisition of skill in the art of teaching and school management is considered the great desideratum. Such skill is surely very acceptable, but it should be founded upon a better codifi- cation of the science of education and upon better general scholarship. A large part of the instruction given in schools lower than the normal is not persistent. The range of scholarship in elementary and high schools is sufficiently broad, but its depth is too shallow for adequate preparation to teach. Students in the law school, the theo- logical school, the medical school, devote time to the acquisition of knowledge upon which to base the technical skill of the several pro- fessions, so it should be in the school of education. There should be opportunities for teachers in service to improve their scholarship. In many of the great cities of the country the col- leges and universities afford these opportunities. In my own city of Newark there is no university, but one in New York City meets the need by sending her professors and instructors to Newark. Some years ago, however, the present superintendent of schools instituted in coöperation with New York University, collegiate and professional courses in Newark. These courses are credited toward a degree. The value of this work in stimulating the teachers to improve their scholar- ship has been great. The recognition of scholarship in salary advantage is important, but there are other factors in a teacher's success that should not be ignored. Demonstrated personal power combined with scholarship con- stitute the right basis for salary reward. The college graduate is not more valuable in the schoolroom at the beginning of his career than the normal-school graduate, hence the theory that he should be paid a larger initial salary has justification only in the fact that his education has cost more. Time may demonstrate that his better scholarship makes him more valuable, but at first it is a mere assumption. Newark will introduce a plan next September to reward teachers for improved scholarship. For a minimum of ninety hours' collegiate or professional study, combined with a record of good through a period of every three years, teachers may be advanced one step on the schedule. This will tend to keep teachers studying, but not so strenuously as to interfere with the classroom work, for that should be first. The great rewards of life come to people for what they are and what they do, not for what theydid when preparing to do. Scholarship, although important, should not be magnified unduly. With the teacher it is a means to the great end of educating children, and he who possesses it should also possess the personal power to make it function. Scholarship should not count for more than half in any plan to recognize the work of teachers . Department] RELATION OF YEARS OF EXPERIENCE 839 RELATION OF YEARS OF EXPERIENCE TO MERIT AND PAY F. E. WILLARD, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SEATTLE, WASH. Doubtless all school systems at present recognize years of experi- ence as a factor in determining the pay of teachers. Doubtless, also, all will agree that "years of experience" alone is a very poor measure of efficiency or professional growth. However, in spite of its limitations it has one decided advantage ; it can be accurately measured beyond the point of dispute. It has strength where other standards are weak. Nevertheless, an analysis of efficiency in teaching shows there are at least two important elements in it that come only with years of experience. One of these is technique-skill, expertness in giving in- struction and in making assignments. Some teachers acquire technique very rapidly. A girl of superior ability with good preparation, who is a student of her problems, may in a very few years after graduating from the training school take a high rank in this respect. The other element is represented by stability-wisdom, sureness of judgment in the presence of a crisis. This element is acquired more slowly than the other. It depends upon experience both in the school- room and outside the schoolroom; it comes from knowledge of life ; it is the product of maturity. I do not know that anyone has attempted to draw a curve to repre- sent the median tendency of the rise, the span, and the decline of individual teaching power. If such a curve could be drawn, I imagine that it would rise sharply for a number of years at the beginning while technique and wisdom were acquired with experience ; that it would then flatten out to a position nearly horizontal but still inclining upward, and so continue until the decline of physical health and strength. Just how many years should be covered by the initial up- ward curve would be a matter of opinion. Doubtless there would be disagreement on this point. It seems reasonable to assume, however, that it might cover ten or twelve years, and these are the years to which an automatic salary schedule properly applies. However, when salary schedules are being made, practical considera- tions may modify theoretical considerations. The minimum and the maximum salaries may be determined by what a district thinks it can pay or will have to pay, rather than by a scientific appraisement of the value of the services for which payment is rendered. When maximum and minimum salaries are determined, the difference may be divided into as many steps as there are years in the theoretical period during which a teacher is reaching her maximum power. In Seattle the minimum salary was fixed at the price that it seemed necessary to offer in order to attract the type of teachers that was 840 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Superintendence desired. The maximum salary represented an appreciative attitude toward teaching, a desire for the most efficient service obtainable, and a willingness to pay as much as it was thought the district could afford. The difference was divided into ten parts representing ten yearly salary increments in recognition of years of service. As two years' successful experience are required before a teacher is eligible to election at the minimum salary, this schedule in effect provides an automatic rising scale for the first twelve years of experience. This arrangement is not perfect, but as it stands, in the light of our present experience, it does not seem unreasonable. Seattle, I believe, would be glad to pay teach- ers in accordance with their real merit, if this could be determined and some merit system could be found that would not create more problems than it would solve. When such a system is found, it is not likely to displace the automatic salary schedule but will be supplementary to it. SALARY DIFFERENCES, IF ANY, BASED ON THE RANK OR CLASS OF THE TEACHER FRANK W. BALLOU, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. My discussion of the above subject must be somewhat theo- retical since I have not been associated with any school system where the uniform salary schedule exists for all ranks of teachers in the service. I have been associated, however, with a school system where teachers in the first two grades have received less pay than teachers in the third and fourth grades and where this same condition continues through the eighth grade. I can, therefore, speak from personal observation concerning the undesirability of such differences in salaries among teachers within the elementary schools. Such a pro- vision is unsatisfactory educationally because it places all inexperienced teachers in the lower grades and all experienced teachers in the upper grades. It is bad administratively since, whenever a vacancy occurs in Grade VIII, four promotions in the preceding grades are necessary. It is my belief that the profession may in time come to look upon our present salary differences between kindergarten, elementary-school, and high-school teachers as unnecessary and undesirable. I shall undertake to state a few fundamental principles as a basis for our discussion of this subject. At the outset I think we will agree with the principle that one pupil in the school system is entitled to as efficient a teacher as any other pupil. A kindergarten pupil or a first- grade pupil has a right to as efficient a teacher as a senior in the high school. The second principle which seems to me to be involved in this dis- cussion is that different ranks of teachers require different types of professional preparation. Kindergartners are for the most part uni- formly trained professionally. At the other extreme of the school Department] SALARY DIFFERENCES BASED ON RANK 841 system, namely, in the high school there is a much larger amount of academic training required, but still many teachers are being appointed to the high school without any professional training. In the working out of a uniform salary schedule for the school system it would appear necessary, therefore, to classify positions in terms of equivalents in the amounts of training and experience. The fundamental principle which covers my own convictions with regard to the matter under discussion may be stated as follows : Salary schedules should be based on the amount, character, and quality of academic and professional preparation and teaching experience. I see no justification for a lower salary for a college graduate in Grade VII or VIII than for a college graduate in the first or second year of high school . In the application of a uniform salary schedule which shall recognize the amount, character, and quality of academic and professional train- ing, provision should be made whereby such training will really func- tion in the service of the teacher. We are all familiar with the teacher who undertakes to accumulate a large amount of college credit but whose service does not improve accordingly, and, indeed, in some cases deteriorates. It should be a fundamental consideration that the amount, quality, and character of the professional and academic preparation should result in improved teaching service. With a uniform salary schedule based on the foregoing general principles superior teachers would not frequently be tempted to accept promotion to supervisory and administrative positions for financial reasons. Under present conditions, in order to secure higher compen- sation it frequently happens that an A-1 teacher in a given grade of the school service is promoted to a higher grade or to an administrative position with the result that the school system loses an A- 1 teacher and secures a second-rate principal or supervisor . SALARY DIFFERENCES, IF ANY, BASED. ON THE RANK OR CLASS OF THE TEACHER JESSE H. NEWLON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLORADO It has been the custom to pay the elementary and the high-school teachers in our city-school systems on different salary schedules. The differential has ranged from two or three hundred dollars to as high as ten or twelve hundred dollars in some instances. There can be only one justification for such a practice and that is the assumption that well-trained teachers are not as necessary in the elementary schools as in the high schools. The college and the university have set the standard for the high 842 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ( Superintendence schools. They have demanded that high-school pupils be instructed by teachers who are graduates of standard colleges and universities or have equivalent training. There has been no agency for the standardization of teaching qualification in the elementary schools and the tacit assump- tion has been that four years of preparation was not necessary. We have accepted two years as a desirable standard, while, as a matter of fact, even in the best city-school systems in the country we have, in recent years even, employed teachers of little or no professional train- ing above the high school . All the children of America are taught in the elementary schools. Unfortunately, many of them will receive no education except that provided in the elementary and junior high schools. This being the case, the preparation of the teachers in the elementary schools is a matter of utmost importance to the citizen who pays the bill. The mortality in the elementary and junior high schools is highly excessive. The lack of preparation of the teachers in these schools is largely responsible for this mortality rate. For my part, I have become thoroughly convinced that four years of preparation is the minimum that we should demand of the teacher in any grade of the public schools. For those who are to teach in the elementary schools, especial emphasis should be placed upon the prin- ciples of education, psychology, methods of teaching, and upon child study. In the junior and senior high school, more emphasis must be placed necessarily upon subject-matter, but even here we need far more strictly professional training than we have demanded in the past. If we are to have well-trained teachers in the elementary schools, we must pay them fair salaries. The salary schedule should provide that teachers of equivalent preparation and ability will be paid on the same schedule, regardless of the grade in which they teach. In Denver we have put this belief into actual operation, and under the new salary schedule the college graduate will be paid on the same basis, whether he teaches in the elementary school, junior high school or the senior high school, and we are not doing this at the expense of the salary of the high-school teacher. Our salaries for high-school teach- ers will compare favorably with those paid in any city in the country. At the same time, we are demanding that all teachers have strictly professional training, and the college graduate who comes to us with less than the training which we are demanding will be required to make up the deficiency within a specified number of years if he remains in the system. All that I have said has referred only to the classroom teacher. So far as the classroom teacher is concerned, there should be only one rank, except that we must in the near future work out a practicable plan of paying teachers on the basis of merit. Up to the present time, Department] RELATION OF POSITION TO PAY 843 we have not solved that problem. Of course, those who assume greater responsibilities and fill more difficult positions, such as principals, di- rectors, and assistant superintendents, should be paid in proportion to their responsibilities. RELATION OF DIFFICULTY OF POSITION AND QUANTITY OF WORK TO PAY H. S. WEET, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N. Y. The subject assigned to me obviously raises two questions : ( 1 ) Are there certain types of teaching positions which are more difficult than others and which consequently hour for hour, require a greater expenditure of energy ? (2) If there are, should teachers holding such positions be granted greater compensation purely because of this one factor ? It seems to me that we must answer the first question in the affir- mative. The teacher, for example, who has the eighth-grade work of the grammar school and the greater part of whose pupils, accord- ingly, are going directly into the high school, has a more exacting position than does the teacher of the kindergarten. When I ask my- self why this is true, however, I am compelled to find the answer in the fact that this eighth-grade teacher has made upon her a more immediate and a more rigid demand for an accounting of her steward- ship than is the case with the kindergarten teacher. I am not attempting to justify this condition but rather to state it as a present day fact. The second question must be answered in the negative. I shall try to state with the briefest possible comment my two reasons for this judgment. In the first place, the public school has a right to expect from a teacher all the time and strength and energy that may fairly be required of a person who is in a normal healthy condition physically. To require less is gross neglect and to require more is criminally shortsighted. If the standard of such a normal day's work is to be that which is required of the teacher in the more difficult position, then we are expecting of the other less than we have a right to demand. If, on the other hand, the normal standard is to be that required of the teacher in the less exacting position, then we are making demands upon the other in excess of physical strength and consequently lowering effective teaching through undermining health. It is bad enough to do this latter thing unconsciously, but it is infinitely worse to put a premium upon it by writing higher pay into the salary schedule. In the second place, I know of no possible way, from an administrative point of view, of determining the extent to which in all the possible ramifications of a public-school system the various lines of work can be graded according to relative difficulty and con 844 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence sequent demands upon physical strength. In our own system we have a single salary schedule from the kindergarten through the eighth grade. We diminish the time demands of the eighth-grade teacher by having certain subjects taught by other teachers. This is par- ticularly true, for example, in manual training and domestic science where special-subject teachers are employed. We do not expect a special-subject teacher of music to teach the same number of hours that a teacher of manual training, for example, or even a teacher of grade subjects would teach. Hour by hour, we recognize the phy- sical-energy demand as greater in the case of the teacher of music. We consequently try to make the adjustment so far as possible through diminishing the time rather than increasing the compensation. It does seem to me that in all this we must not confuse the diffi- culty of a given position with the inherent failure of that position to grant anything like normal professional compensation to the teacher. We do provide a somewhat higher maximum salary for our special- class teachers of subnormal pupils, for example, than for teachers of normal pupils. It is difficult to defend the statement that a teacher of subnormal children is called upon to work harder or that she faces greater difficulty. On the other hand, all the things aside from mere salary returns that go to compensate the teacher are at low ebb in this type of position. HOW SHALL MERIT BE EXPRESSED IN SALARY SCHEDULES? IRA I. CAMMACK, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO. Believing that financial recognition of the character and quality of service rendered by the teacher is essential to the growth and develop- ment of teaching as a profession and necessary to secure the highest type of service, the salary schedule adopted in the Kansas City schools last year was framed with this idea as its determining factor. The recognition of merit by increased compensation was believed to be justified by the following : ( 1) That it is in accordance with the universally accepted idea of justice. (2) That it recognizes in prin- ciple and practice conditions now prevailing in commercial and indus- trial activities and in professions other than that of teaching. (3) That its general acceptance and incorporation in salary schedules will make strong appeal to ambitious, gifted young men and women to elect teaching as a life-career. (4) That it furnishes a powerful, human, and legitimate motive to stimulate effort on the part of teachers already in the service to reach the highest possible plane of professional achieve- ment . ( 5 ) That it will stimulate and serve as a justification for making Department] RELATION OF POsition TO PAY 845 more adequate preparation on the part of those who are preparing to teach. (6) That it will be a powerful factor in dignifying the pro- fession and giving it a standing in the public mind which it has never possessed. If quality of service could be fully, accurately, and justly measured, I believe it should be the chief, if not the only factor in determining salary schedules. Until such time, however, when adequate methods and standards of rating teachers shall be developed, the prominent fac- tors which contribute to the professional preparation and improve- ment of teaching should be recognized and incorporated along with quality of service in the formation of salary schedules. While the missionary spirit and altruistic ideals and motives must continue to be powerful factors in the professional life of the true teacher, recognition by advanced salaries to those who reach the higher planes of professional achievement will give teaching not only among those who practice it, but in the mind of the public at large, a new interest, a new dignity, and a new life. In accordance with the foregoing, the Kansas City schedule pro- vides supersalaries beyond the regular schedule provided for teachers possessing only the minimum qualifications in preparation and render- ing service which is rated as "good" and "satisfactory." These salaries are based upon the four following factors : (1 ) Professional pre- paration beyond the minimum requirements. (2) Extended successful experience, or length of service. (3) Continued study and professional growth . (4) A superior quality of service rendered. Briefly described, our regular schedule for all elementary teachers begins with the minimum of $1200 and progresses by successive steps to $ 1800 as the maximum. This may be reached regularly in nine years, which time, however, may be shortened to five years by addi- tional preparation beyond the minimum, coupled with successful ex- perience and superior teaching. The supersalaries for elementary teachers above the regular maxi- mum extend to $2300. These salaries are paid under the following conditions : 1. Teachers of eight years' or more successful experience, of which three must be in Kansas City, and whose additional preparation covers forty semester hours of normal, college, or university credit in academic and professional subjects, or its equivalent, in excess of the minimum requirements and who possess superior qualities as teach- ers and who secure superior results in the classroom, may receive sal- aries of $2000 reached by $100 advances. 2. Teachers with ten years' experience, at least four in the Kansas City schools, and with one hundred and twenty semester hours' credit of a character specified for the class just mentioned, and rendering a 846 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Superintendence quality of service more distinctly superior than those in the first class, will receive salaries of $2200 in advances of $ 100 each. These advances are permanent and are extended year by year as long as the quality of service indicated is maintained. An additional $100 for attendance at summer schools is granted when specified quality and quantity of work is done. This advance, however, holds only for the year following such attendance. The schedule also provides that distinguished service may be ac- cepted on recommendation of the superintendents and approval of the board, for part of the educational requirements just mentioned. It also provides that for the preparation last described and for distin- guished service, special salaries beyond the maximum of $2300 may be given. Of the more than 1000 teachers in our elementary schools, there were 89 who received advances toward the $2000 maximum and 19 who received advances toward the $2200 maximum, or a total of 108 teachers who received permanent advances because of superior work and ex- tended preparation. Twenty-five elementary teachers below the regular maximum of $1800 received special advances because of superior work and additional preparation. This gives a total of 133 elementary teachers, or more than 13 per cent, who received advances in which the quality of work was a determining factor. Fourteen elementary teachers with the specified educational require- ment failed to receive the advances because the quality of service ren- dered did not measure up to the required standard. One appealed from the ratings of the superintendents and carried her cause to the board of education, where the ratings of the superintendents were sustained. The salary schedule for the high-school teachers and supervisors provides for advances beyond the regular schedule, as follows : For superior teaching when accompanied by a master's degree or its equivalent, in academic or professional subjects, $100 in addition to the regular schedule is given. If this additional preparation contains twenty-four semester hours in strictly professional work in education, with at least eleven hours made in resident graduate work, an additional $100 is granted. These increases in salary continue from year to year as long as the high qual- ity of service required is maintained. For attendance at summer school, $ 100 additional is paid for the year following such attendance, giving a total of $300 above the regular schedule. Thirty-seven high-school teachers and supervisors are now receiving an advance of $100, and 29 an advance of $200 under the provision just mentioned, or 66 out of a total of 354, or 19 per cent of the total number. The additional salaries for attendance at summer school, continued only for the year following such attendance, are now being received by 108 Department] SUPPORT OF LOCAL SCHOOLS 847 high-school teachers and 389 elementary teachers, or a total of 507. This payment for attendance at summer school is justified by the general re- quirement for continued professional growth and improvement. As an evidence of the interest created and the unanimity with which the ideas of merit and professional standing have been accepted, there were enrolled in our extension classes and in our summer school main- tained by our teacher-training department and in college and univer- sity summer school, 917 teachers, or more than 60 per cent of the entire number. The great number of inquiries from our teachers concerning super- salaries for next year, and the general interest created by their payment this year, justify us in the belief that what had already been accom- plished is small compared to the ultimate benefit that will result to the schools of our city by the incorporation of provisions for additional compensation for superior merit and extended professional preparation. THE PARTICIPATION OF STATE AND NATION IN THE SUPPORT OF LOCAL SCHOOLS M. C. POTTER, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE, WIS . The per capita rural tax returns in relation to per capita urban tax returns stand approximately as one to four. The idea of the isolated community, of the medieval city state, of eighteenth-century localism in America, has slowly given way in most social and economic particulars to a larger community consciousness. The American "State" is come to be in many respects practically the community unit. A regard for all the children of the community has brought to pass a fairly general distribution of urban school tax returns for rural purposes. These sums are in many states comparatively insignificant in contrast to the amounts raised by rural local taxation. In such states the amounts thus raised directly by the rural people, tend to insignificance compared with local funds raised in those states where general distributive funds approach an equality with the purely local levies. So much for the indubitable necessity for an enlarged conception of the community and the unquestioned quickening power of capitoline subsidies in the promotion of any provincial activity. There is, more- over, a special tendency in school activities for their blessings to run away or slop over so as to inure to the benefit of neighboring or distant communities quite as much as to the local community which most generously taxes itself. The equalization of general financial responsi- bility for benefits enjoyed in general seems entirely reasonable. On the other hand, the moral and economic sterilization incident to ignor- ance and unhandiness in one community, while apt to remain at home rather more closely than the fructifying forces of enlightenment and 848 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ Superintendence skill, are by no means susceptible to strict quarantine against their admission into more enlightened neighboring communities. The equali- zation of educational opportunity is not a mere sentimental catchphrase. It presents an economic aspect quite as appealing to the thrifty com- munities which now tax themselves heavily for school purposes as to the most thriftless community. The mere act of paying into poor Community B a sum equal to that spent for schooling by enlightened Community A would not alone guarantee any sort of educational equali- zation. But the interest with which intelligent men are wont to follow up their investments may be counted upon to follow these funds into Community B. The considerable intelligence in the national govern- ment might be counted upon to exercise some sort of influence in B communities on behalf of the various communities whose investments they would naturally be bound to guard in behalf of the very purposes for which they are made. But there has been considerable experience with federal distributive aid recently in the field of industrial education. Indeed, some of our critics have hilariously explained that the successful raid on the pro- ceeds of federal taxation by the industrial education people explains the present attempt by the friends of education. Concerning our securing funds as provided by the federal govern- ment under what is popularly called the Smith-Hughes Law, our dis- tinguished supervisor Charles F. Perry expresses the opinion : It is questionable whether the benefits received would merit the amount of routine necessary to obtain funds for the evening classes of this school. If the Board of School Directors wished to accept federal vocational aid, making use of the opportunity offered by the federal government, it would be against the advice of all visitors to us from cities which have accepted such aid. The dis- tant, irresponsible, vague control, inseparably connected with the acceptance of such aid, would seriously handicap us in making our distinctive local contribu- tion to a fuller national life. I believe that thoroughgoing sincerity is preferable to compromised victory in arguing for a national educational secretariat. I recognize that variation from type has been the measure of civilization in America. I fear a nationalistic Kultur imposed from afar as much as anyone. If the bill provides that the national government will match dollar for dollar the money provided for education within a state by the legis- lature thereof, I also wonder what is to prevent the Minnesota legis- lature (for instance) from providing all the revenues raised for the local schools within that commonwealth. If money so provided will be duplicated by the National Treasury, I foresee created a very consider- able inducement in the hearts of local electors to favor the surrender of local autonomy. I know that a locality which derives the major portion of its funds from sources other than local taxation must ultimately Department] SUPPORT OF LOCAL SCHOOLS 849 lose its local autonomy as and when the distribution of general funds becomes the province of vigorous personalities. I recognize that no matter how kindly or inoffensive the gentlemen who may initiate the program, it will sooner or later come into "stronger hands. " Then, though the pristine prophets and legislators may have been extreme advocates of local particularism, increased control from afar is bound to result. But, admitting that the total general aid received by any locality from both state and nation should never exceed the amounts raised by direct local levy (as Minnesota, with her tremendous general state ⚫school resources, has long recognized) , I nevertheless assert the prin- ciple of proper, proportional, and moderately controlled general aid in behalf of the equalization of educational opportunities and of the finan- cial burdens incident thereto. The application of this principle so modified can be accomplished without penalizing thrift and industry in certain sections for the sake of aiding wastefulness and laziness in other sections. Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts 7 SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-W. G. HUMMEL, state director for vocational education .. Seattle, Wash. Secretary-MARION S. VAN LIEW, state supervisor of home economics, State Department ofEducation... ....... Albany, N. Y. FIRST SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, MARCH 2, 1921. The Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts of the Na- tional Education Association met at Atlantic City, Wednesday afternoon, March 2, at two o'clock in the Casino of the Brighton Hotel. In the absence of the president, Charles Carroll, state director of vocational education, Providence, R. I., presided. C. A. Prosser, director Dunwoody Industrial Institute and J. C. Collicott, superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio, whose names were on the program were unable to be present. Will C. Wood, state superintendent of schools, Sacramento, Calif., delivered a paper on WHY SHOULD A STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION SUPPORT AND PROMOTE A VOCATIONAL EDUCATION PROGRAM ? Treva E. Kauffman, specialist in vocational education for girls, State De- partment of Education, Albany, N. Y., gave a report of the meeting of the department at Salt Lake City. In the general business meeting which followed, Adelaide Steele Baylor, federal agent for home economics, Washington, D. C., suggested that a committee be appointed to urge the officers of the Association to give a place to vocational education on its general program. The suggestion was put in the form of a motion and carried. It was moved that the department recommend to the officers of the National Education Association that they consider a winter meeting of the Department of Vocational Education to be held in connection with the general meetings which occur at that time. MARION S. VAN LIEW, Secretary . こ SECRETARY'S MINUTES DES MOINES MEETING OFFICERS President-W. G. HUMMEL, state director for vocational education ......... Olympia, Wash. Secretary-MARION S. VAN LIEW, state supervisor of home economics . Albany, N. Y. FIRST SESSION TUESDAY FORENOON, JULY 5, 1921 . On the morning of July 5, 1921, at the Polk County Court House, the Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts was called to order by the chairman, W. G. Hummell, director of vocational education, Olympia, Washington. In the absence of the secretary, Miss Van Liew, state supervisor of voca- tional homemaking, Albany, New York, Alma Merwin, of Iowa, acted. 851 852 NATIONAL EDUCATION AssociatioN [Vocational The following program was given : Adelaide Steele Baylor, federal agent in home economics, substituted for Mr. Monroe of the Federal Board, and spoke upon the subject, "The History of the Vocational Educational Movement in the United States." K. G. Smith, supervisor of part-time education, Lansing, Michigan, read a paper on "Establishing a State Program of Part-Time Education." John Callahan, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis- consin, led in a discussion on part-time education. Wilbur Bender, director vocational education, Des Moines, Iowa, second speaker in the discussion, asked to have his speech deferred until the next meet- ing on Wednesday. Meeting adjourned. SECOND SESSION-WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JULY 6, 1921. On Wednesday afternoon, July 6, the second meeting of the Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts was called to order by the chairman, Mr. Hummell. The following program was given : VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AS A PERMANENT FACTOR IN PUBLIC EDUCATION- N. D. Showalter, president, Washington State Normal School, Cheney, Wash. WAGE EARNING A FACTOR IN DETERMINING THE FUTURE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM FOR GIRLS-Mrs. Anna L. Burdick, Special Agent, Industrial Education for Girls and Women, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. PART-TIME EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE-Discussion led by Wilbur H. Bender. BUSINESS SESSION Report of committee on resolutions. Miss Baylor moved and seconded that resolutions be read as 'a whole. Carried. Mr. Bender, chairman of the resolutions committee, presented the follow- ing resolutions : In view of the small federal appropriations for vocational education in home economics and the growing importance of this type of work not only in the full-time schools, but in the part-time and evening schools, as shown by the rapid increase in the number of schools established for this purpose and the numerous applications now on file in the various states awaiting funds for support: Be it resolved, That the Vocational Section of the National Education Asso- ciation re-endorse the Fess Amendment (H. B. 21) , which provides for addi- tional appropriations for vocational education in home economics, thereby equal- izing such appropriations with those now available for vocational education in agriculture and trade and industry. Continued educational progress must be based on consistent and united efforts, therefore, Be it resolved, That the Vocational Section of the National Education Asso- ciation pledge its support to the newly appointed commissioner of education in his efforts to continue and expand the service which the United States Bureau of Education has always rendered the public schools of the country. Motion made by Miss Baylor that the resolutions be adopted as read. Seconded and carried. Moved by Miss Baylor that the secretary be instructed to send copies of the resolutions in regard to the Fess Bill to members of the House Educational Committee at Washington, also directors and supervisors of vocational home- making of each state. Seconded and carried. Department] NOTES ON DES MOINES ADDRESSES 853 Suggested that each state have several copies of the resolution to be sent through the Vocational Educational Department to their representatives at Washington. Miss Baylor moved that the United States Commissioner of Education have a copy of the resolutions. Seconded and carried. Report of Committee on Nominations. President-Wilbur H. Bender, director vocational education, Des Moines, Iowa. Secretary- Frankie Connell, director part-time school, Hannibal, Mo. The president-elect took the chair. Mr. Hummell, in his closing remarks, made a report on a resolution which was passed last year. This resolution was to the effect that the Executive Board of the National Education Association make an appropriation of possibly $500 for research for vocational education. Mr. Hummell's report was to the effect that the resolution had not been acted upon by the Executive Board, and it was his wish that the matter be pushed rather than dropped. Miss Baylor moved that the officers be instructed by this section to work with the committee from the Council of Education to co-operate with this com- mittee to work with and to secure funds for research work. Seconded and carried. Mr. Hummell moved that the chairman be instructed to use his discretion as to whether or not the Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts meet with the Department of Superintendence. Seconded and carried. Adjourned. ALMA MERWIN, Secretary, pro tem. NOTES ON THE ADDRESSES GIVEN AT DES MOINES Subject HISTORY OF THE VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES-Miss Baylor, Substitute for Mr. Monroe of Federal Board. Vocational Education has been successful in communities, in the states, and in the nation. Wisconsin was the first state to establish a law for vocational education-then Indiana improved over Wisconsin by unifying and having a board and advisory committee. Indiana has had a part-time law since 1913. Wisconsin has excellent part-time laws. Other states followed. In 1917 half a dozen states had a vocational educational program. Then a national feeling was born, with the idea of backing these states and communities in their endeavor. This meant a study in order to do this, a commission was created with the result that the Smith-Hughes law was enacted which was by far the most im- portant act to promote vocational education. The sum for promotional work and for stimulating vocational education was small but the na- tional sanction gave it great impetus. For four years the Smith-Hughes Law has been in effect. The number of schools in the year 1920 double 1918 and 1919, also more pupils and better interest. Progress is not measured by schools nor pupils but a growth in comprehension of what vocational education 854 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational means . State plans show this development. In 1919 every state had a law. Seventeen states have directors, seven state superintendents act as directors and delegate the work to supervisors. Each state has an agricultural supervisor, trades and industrial supervisor, and a home economics supervisor. Six have home economics supervisors with full - time assistants . Home economics has gone ahead by leaps and bounds. States have made appropriations to meet vocational homemaking education. Voca- tional education makes people think. We are asking the questions : where are we heading ? what are we trying to do ? who are the people in the classes ? how are we meeting this need ? Progress is shown by our type of thinking. We have turned our attention to the analyses of the job of homemaking-with the storekeeper, with the manufacturer and the homemaker. Therefore, it gives us contact, which is a contri- bution in making vocational education function. The program of home economics has been enlarged by project method. In the past we have not interested the people outside the school- room in education. Part-time laws aid with this, and evening school work also. This is done because we do not encourage young people to work all day, then study at night. One and one-half million girls and boys drop out before they finish high school. Some provision should be made for their education after they leave school. No small part of the success of the vocational educational movement depends upon training the teacher. Sympathy, good common sense, tact are qualities of the vocational educational teacher. Success de- pends upon the teacher. Selection of the teacher should be especially emphasized. A large part of the vocational educational plan for each state should be devoted to lectures, short courses, correspondence courses, institutions available to enlarge the training and experience of these teachers. The future depends upon the now. The care with which we decide upon our policies is in proportion to the returns we are able to make. Subject : SCHOOLING VERSUS EDUCATION-Mr. Callahan, State Su- perintendent, Wisconsin. Men are educated who leave school when young. Schooling has been improperly sold. What would conditions be if matters existed as we say that we should like them to be. Example, if every boy and every girl were to finish high school what would conditions be? The situation would not be a good one. We must feed industry, and these people should be trained to do this job. Business men are alive to the needs of education. We must give education to people to have them fit the jobs into which they are to go. Train the individual to fit the job. When you begin part-time education there is a job ahead. The great need is trained people. Department] NOTES ON DES MOINES ADDRESSES . 855 There is no tendency on the part of the legislature or anyone to re- strain action ; rather the tendency is to drive faster than the machinery of vocational education is able to conduct the work. The laws of Wiscon- sin are very stringent in regard to part-time education. New laws this year push the State Board for Vocational Education to keep up with it. Mr. Showalter, Vocational education is at a critical stage; therefore, we should know the direction in which we are going. We should know the ten- dencies. A historical setting of states' rights in education shows us that 1802 is the time the national government began to subsidize education whereby a person should find his place because his training was such that he would immediately fit in. A change has come. Man must earn his living by the sweat of his brow. Therefore a person must have training. Senator Marrow established the act where A. & M. colleges were possible. The purpose is to train individuals for choice and become trained and find adaptation, but all the time there has been no subsidy for classical schooling. The high schools were established to bridge the gap between the grades and college and the university. We have made several applica- tions for education, the justification for mental discipline, subject-mat- ter, character-building, etc. University professors are now saying that too many students are in the university who are not fit to be there. They had better be at home. Do people apply tests and assign students to this grade or this field ? Valuable as these things are, personal and individual contacts make a difference. Abstract thinking has always given us our new learning, but how many deal in that field. America is trying a new job-that putting all the children through the same education would not meet the needs. We believe that each individual is new. Then we must have adaptations in education to suit all these individuals. The school must give opportunity for children to find themselves . Is it less education because it makes a person find himself ? What is the public school established for to make better citizens-successful vocational education must be a permanent feature in education. It must grow; it must enlarge-government continually subsidizing this prac- tical type of education-a multiplicity of production makes possible a great range for choice. The school must multiply opportunities for adaptation through curricula. School gives a certain amount of fundamentals. Suppose then the schools give first, six years to fundamentals, reading, arithmetic ; then differentiate (prevocation) to junior high ;-where he finds himself-in the senior high school ; then into a school of specialization, down through vocational education. It must be financial. The idea must be sold, which then will be thoroughly financed. 856 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational Is knowledge worth anything that cannot be applied? It is the appli- cation of knowledge that counts. Research which diagnoses and after diagnoses does not apply the remedy is not worth one's while. It is the doing of things which count. Vocational education is a permanent factor to stay today, tomorrow, and always. Mrs. Burdick wished to present the problem of the wage-earning phase of women's work and their influence on an educational program. From the standpoint of number, of types, of occupation, of wages, of geography, this distribution is sufficient to merit consideration. The number of women wage-earners previous to present stringency-includ- ing teaching-is 14,000,000. The following has to do with girls, geo- graphically. (Age groups prior to child labor law) Proportion at work 10 13 ... 1 out of 12 14 15. .1 out of 5 16- 20. .2 out of 5 21- 44 *. .1 out of 4 44 .1 out of 7 The tendency to work continues from the age of sixteen on up to twenty-four; then women go into the home. In Massachusetts 60 per cent of the women from the ages of ten to twenty are in occupation. In California 35 per cent of the women from the ages of ten to twenty are in occupation. In Georgia 40 per cent of the women from the ages of ten to twenty are in occupation. This shows the chance of employment for women. Twenty-five per cent of all the women in the United States are in gainful occupations. Wage School Intelligence 68 per cent less than 67 per cent do not 70 per cent below 15 $15 per month. finish the 8th grade. years of age according to mental tests. What is the significance of the foregoing figures ? Women in collegiate employment offices have a different angle from which they view employment. The war did not help women much. Col- lege girls have a very erroneous idea of work, wage, and economic value. During the war period the girls exhausted the dramatic side of the jobs without any idea of appreciation of the value of the work which should be done, aside from the pay. However, the colleges are making opportunity for experience in industry which leads girls themselves to think of work problems. The college girl, therefore, finds herself a competitor with the job which the *21 to 44. Women do double duty, work both in the home and in industry. This is done largely to get funds to educate the children so that the children may have better ad- vantages and opportunities in the world than the parents have had. Decline in this period, figures for men and women similar. Department] NOTES ON DES MOINES ADDRESSES 857 high-school girl makes, and a competitor with the high-school girl herself. The accent on certain college courses in vocational education is the study of psychology. Girls are then sent to juvenile court without ex- perience. Some college courses are being arranged to dovetail work and practice, especially in Ohio. California established junior collegiate opportunity for vocational courses because of a great need for assistance in dental and hygiene work. High-school changes are coming. Detroit now keeps school open all day, offering work in trade dress-making, nursing, millinery, dentists' assistants, and dietitians. The hospitals have turned the training in dietetics and chemistry over to the high school. In Colorado there was need for chemists in the sugar factories. Women trained in high school are filling these positions. In Florida the training of nurses has undergone a complete change through the courses offered in the high school. The courses almost completely revolutionized drudgery. Industries are taking over the edu- cation of employees. Akron, Connecticut, and Indianapolis are looking toward meeting needs in the high school. Nation, state, and local com- munities are interested in getting leaders to teach employees . 1 1 Department of the Wider Use of Schoolhouses SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President-RAYMOND F. CRIST, Department of Labor . .....Washington, D. C. Secretary-MARGARITA SPAULDING GERRY ...... Washington, D. C. TUESDAY MORNING, JULY 9, 1921 At the meeting of the Department of the Wider Use of Schoolhouses held Tuesday morning, July 5, at the Central Christian Church in Des Moines, Iowa, I. B. Morgan, of Kansas City, Kans ., acted as chairman in the absence of the president. A motion was made by Frank L. Dykema, of Grand Rapids, Mich., that the plan presented by Donald F. Stewart, president and editor of the American Viewpoint Society, Incorporated, of New York City, for the publication of a series of books covering the story of America-its history, its government, its institutions, its opportunities, and its ideals-be indorsed, and further, it is the intent of those present, personally and as members of the National Education Association, in co-operation with the Naturalization Department of the United States Department of Labor and the Federal Bureau of Education of the De- partment of the Interior, to stimulate in every way possible the nation-wide dis- tribution of these most needed books. The motion was seconded by Edward L. Burchard, associate editor of The Community Center, Chicago, Ill., and was unanimously carried. Three papers were given : "The Plan Whereby the People Shall Have the Means of Knowing the Truth about Our Country"-Donald F. Stewart, president, The American View- point Society, New York, N. Y. "The Schoolhouse and the Immigrant"-I. B. Morgan, director of continu- ation schools and vocation bureau, Kansas City, Kans. "Wider Use of Schools "-Frank L. Dykema, Grand Rapids, Mich. The following officers were elected for 1921-22 : President, Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash.; vice-president, I. B. Morgan, director of continuation schools and vocation bureau, Kansas City, Kans .; secretary, Eugene C. Gibney, director of community centers, Board of Education, New York, N. Y. MARGARITA SPAULDING GERRY, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE PLAN WHEREBY THE PEOPLE SHALL HAVE THE MEANS OF KNOWING THE TRUTH ABOUT OUR COUNTRY DONALD F. STEWART, PRESIDENT AND EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN VIEWPOINT SOCIETY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Many are greatly concerned today about the safety of this country. Indeed, some believe that the civilization of the world is threatened. 859 860 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Wider Use of Accordingly, many plans are advanced that have for their purpose the saving of the United States. Of all the plans advanced for this purpose the one stated by Abraham Lincoln, fifty-seven years ago, seems to be the most logical. It is this: "Let the people know the truth and the country is safe." By the adoption of this plan Lincoln brought the Ship of State through a most tempestuous voyage safely to port. The present troubled sea can be weathered if we, too, follow the same course taken by this master pilot. Lincoln knew that a democracy cannot survive unless the people, in the performance of their duties as citizens, act with intelligence. The enjoyment of the privileges of American citizenship is the reward which comes to those who intelligently perform their duties. If the majority of citizens so perform these duties, and thus enjoy the privileges, then the country is safe, for no man knowingly endangers that which gives him enjoyment. In order adequately to perform the duties of citizenship, America requires of its citizens a very high degree of intelligence on all matters that concern its political, industrial, economic, civil, and social life. It has always required this. But today America requires it to a greater degree than ever, for the problems that press are greater in number and far more complex in character than at any time in the history of the country. Unfortunately, America assumes that the people, generally, have a working knowledge of questions that have concerned and that do now concern the nation. It takes for granted that the average citizen has learned the truth about its history, its government, and its laws; that he knows of its vast wealth and in- finite resources; that he appreciates the opportunities that it offers, and is proud of the successes of those of his fellow-citizens who have made the most of them. America assumes that its flag is respected, that its ideals are honored, and that its commands will be obeyed by all. : America assumes this. Is its assumption justified ? The painful fact is that the average native-born American knows little about his country. Because scant attention has been given to the instruction of the naturalized American his knowledge of the country is naturally less. Lacking such knowledge, how, then, can the voter-native or foreign-born-intelligently perform the duties of citizenship ? How can he appreciate or enjoy the privileges of democracy ? How can he even be sincerely loyal to his country ? This lack of understanding is, we believe, the major cause of the prevail- ing unrest which threatens the safety of the country. Remove this cause. "Let the people know the truth and the country is safe." If Lincoln's admonition is sound, and if the prevailing unrest is a menace to the safety of the country, are we then to conclude that Schoolhouses] THE TRUTH ABOUT OUR COUNTRY 861 the people have not been or are not being told the truth? Are those in control of the sources of information-the schools, the press, and the screen-not telling the truth ? The public school operates almost exclusively for children. ( The enrolment of adults in the evening classes throughout the country is so small, when compared with the total population, as to make the influence of this splendid work, nationally speaking, almost negligi- ble.) The average child leaves school at the age of twelve, a "grad- uate" of the sixth grade. It has been rightly said that we are a na- tion of sixth-graders. Upon leaving school, the youth, with his sixth-grade education, begins at once the struggle of existence. This struggle, for a long period-sometimes for life-absorbs, to the exclusion of all else, his physical and mental energies. If by fortune or natural ability this economic struggle should lessen, the young man rarely accepts this as an opportunity to continue his studies, for a sixth-grade education does not develop in one the habit of study nor the knowledge of how to study. Recently a leading American university sent a questionnaire to over 30,000 men and women over twenty-five years of age, who had left school at about the age of twelve. One of the questions asked was: "Do you feel the need of more education?" When the an- swers were received and examined, it was found that less than 2 per cent felt the need or desire of more education. Does the fault lie, as the New York Sun, editorially, has sug- gested, with our textbooks ? It would seem so, at least to a large de- gree. Apparently the average "sixth-grader" upon leaving school seems only too glad to put everything that pertains to the class- room forever behind him. In the course of time the youth becomes a citizen. In the per- formance of the duties of citizenship, he at first automatically does as he is told, or neglects these duties altogether. If, in time, a crisis arises in the affairs of the country and conditions become not to his likingly, he strikes-blindly, unintelligently perhaps, but nevertheless none the less effectively. This man is typical. He is the average American. Because he is a representative of the great majority, periodicals of every descrip- tion-the greater number, in fact-are edited and printed for the sole purpose of winning his patronage. Pictures are thrown on the screen and are counted successful if he applauds. True, some individuals, and not a few organizations, have at in- tervals made an attempt to provide the average American with the means whereby he could learn the fundamentals of citizenship. But never yet have these local publishing efforts borne the marks of pro 862 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Wider Use of gressive journalism; even those who are responsible for them feel that they will not be accepted. Their rejection is made doubly sure by giving them a form so unattractive that no one would want them, even as a gift. Never yet, for example, has the story of this country's marvelous development an inspiring theme-been featured in print as attractively as the average news story of the moment,-featured, printed, and sold for him, the average American. And this is just what must be done can be done. Every subject that concerns the nation must be placed within the reach of the aver- age American and presented in form so attractive that he will reach for it. Thus must be published and popularized the complete story of this country. It must be made as interest-compelling as a serial in a magazine or in the movies. It must be edited and "dressed up" especially for him. The American Viewpoint Society, a department of Boni & Liver- right, Publishers, New York City, has perfected plans to do this work. The society will publish periodically a unit of a series of profusely illustrated sixty-four-page brochures-thirty in all on subjects that relate to the political, industrial, economic, social, and civil life of the nation. These brochures will be of standard size, quality, and design. Each will contain more than one hundred photo- graphic illustrations ; and, to permit their proper reproduction both as to size and detail, the best quality of coated paper stock will be used, cut to size 8½ by 11/4 inches. Upon the date of publication of a brochure of the series, an educa- tional film based upon the text of the book will be released. The same effort that will be made to have the text of each book pedagogically ac- curate will be employed in the production of the film. In this tremen- dously important contribution to visual education, the society will have the co-operation of the leading educational film-producing organizations in the country. Because of the care that will be taken in the making of the screen production of the text, approximately one hundred and fifty selected pictures from each film will be used in the illustration of a book. In fact, more than half of the contents of each book will be given over to illustrations. The society cannot emphasize too much the care that will be taken in the selection of illustrations . By this method, the society will endeavor to popularize the textbook so that the boy or girl, who, because of economic necessity may have had to leave school all too soon, will have become so interested in the subjects introduced in classroom-especially those pertaining to citizen- ship-that he will naturally seek to continue the studies. This he will do if his textbooks have, in their attractiveness, impressed him with the responsibilities of citizenship. Schoolhouses ] SCHOOLHOUSE AND THE IMMIGRANT 863 Truth is an established principle. Therefore, to do this work effec- “ tively, to let the people know the truth," the editorial department of the society will be careful to see that no bias, opinion, prejudice, nor propaganda enters into the telling of it. The greatest care will be taken to have the text of each book pedagogically accurate, honest, sincere, loyal-in a word, truthful. This is guaranteed. An editorial board composed of those actively engaged in educational work has been formed to co-operate with the editorial department of the society in the selec- tion of writers, preparation of text, and in the selection of illustrations. The American Viewpoint Society begins this important enterprise fully recognizing the obstacles in the path. At present, there is no popular demand for its product, for the reason that matter of this character has never before been published and sold. It must create the demand. It is confident that it can, assuredly, if it will but receive the practical co-operation of those who have so emphatically and enthusias- tically indorsed its work. To all such, the society makes the same guaranty that it made to the Naturalization Department of the federal government, to the Fed- eral Bureau of Education, and to the school authorities : ( 1 ) That no propaganda will enter into any of the pages of the brochures of the whole series ; (2) that the text-matter will be written by experts and checked by authorities, for this was the editorial board chosen ; (3) that each brochure will be fully illustrated; and (4) that the price of each will permit of but the smallest profit . This, briefly, is the plan. Thus it is hoped that the admonition of Abraham Lincoln, to "let the people know the truth," will be translated into action. THE SCHOOLHOUSE AND THE IMMIGRANT I. B. MORGAN , DIRECTOR CONTINUATION SCHOOLS AND VOCATION BUREAU, KANSAS CITY, KANS . It was a beautiful story among the ancient Greeks that there was one spot sacred to all the leading nations where hatred, envy, and malice did not flourish, where both friend and foe might meet on friendly terms to worship the same god, pour libations upon the same altar, and make costly offerings to the object of their adoration. This sacred spot was the small island of Delos which, as the story goes, was once a floating island, but was attached to the bottom of the sea by Zeus that it might become the birthplace of Apollo, in whose honor a beautiful temple was erected, and the entire island was dedicated and consecrated to the worship of the god of poetry and music. We have in our own country a temple or temples far more beautiful, in one sense, and far more useful than the temple of Apollo. 864 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Wider Use of It is the Temple of Learning dedicated to the highest interests of humanity, in which are erected altars to Liberty, Justice, Equality, Fraternity, and Patriotism. At these altars the youth of our land are being educated in the great lessons and purposes of life, and into this sacred temple and to these altars the immigrant is brought representing nearly all the nations, tongues, and creeds of the earth. As he is a prospective citizen of the United States he approaches the altar of Liberty and thus speaks : " O Liberty, this is the land of freedom and opportunity and I long for that which every human heart desires, that liberty which brings contentment, happiness, initiative, and aggressiveness, that which adds greatly to the value of life and all earthly possessions, without which life is a burden and death is wel- come." Liberty answers the petitioner thus : "Thou art a stranger within our gates and in this sacred abode. We welcome thee into this Temple of Learning and will gladly grant thee liberty which thou seekest. Bear in mind, however, that liberty in the highest sense of the word is the possession of the honest, law-abiding citizen, that liberty is not license. It means greater responsibility, greater enlightenment, ability to choose the right and reject the wrong, observation of the Golden Rule, and aggressiveness in all things for the betterment of the community-in short, it means intelligent self-direction and self-control. Liberty does not imply the right to undermine the government which gives thee pro- tection or to do any injury whatever to thy fellow-man." The immigrant now advances to the altar of Justice and thus ad- dresses himself : " O Justice, I have been oppressed in the land of my nativity and I appear before thee seeking justice. I left my native land on account of injustice and I have already seen indications of in- justice and unfair discrimination since I have been here, and I humbly beseech thee that justice shall prevail both in public and private re- lations." Justice responds as follows : " Indications of injustice are found in many directions, but as we advance in the science of government and the people become more enlightened and more conscious of their responsibilities, the causes of injustice shall be removed and justice shall prevail publicly and privately. "Thou shalt remember that he who seeks justice must himself be just. If thou art an employer of men, justice demands that each em- ployee be paid a living wage and that the home and working environ- ments are conducive to health, morals, and happiness, and that each employee who proves himself faithful and efficient be given an oppor- tunity to become a shareholder and a partner in the industry. If thou art an employee, justice demands that thou shalt be genuinely inter- ested in the success of thy employer as well as thy own. Note care- fully that the interests of employer and employee are mutual and that Schoolhouses ] SCHOOLHOUSE AND THE IMMIGRANT 865 the remuneration of the employee must be derived from the output of the industry, that if the output is meager and of poor quality owing to the unfaithfulness of the employees the amount to be divided among the employees is correspondingly meager, but if the output of the concern is large and of good quality as the result of faithful and efficient work done by men who do not shirk their tasks and are not destructive of the property of the employer, the sum to be divided among the employees is correspondingly large. To pay the labor out of the capital of the con- cern means immediate closing of the doors of the industry." The stranget is now guided to the altar of Equality where he speaks as follows : "I have come from the land of kings and nobles where equality does not exist, where royalty, nobility, and the clergy are privileged classes and the masses are almost in a state of serfdom. I beseech thee, therefore, O Equality, give me that which I shall prize above all others. Let me stand by the side of my fellow-man and say and feel that I am his equal." Equality from her sacred altar, with becoming modesty, accosts him thus : "Equality is a subject that is not very well understood and is frequently misconstrued. In the economy of nature there are no two plants or two animals that are exactly alike, no two brothers can be found that are alike in every respect. We have the one-talent, two-, five-, and ten-talent individuals ; but equality thou shalt have in this sense. Thou shalt be equal to any other person before the law and thou shalt have equal opportunities and equal political rights after citizen- ship is conferred upon thee. All persons in this country have certain inalienable rights, among them are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. When thou castest thy vote at any national election, thy vote will count as much as the vote of the richest or the most influential man in the country. Do not place thy light under a bushel or hide thy talents in the earth. Each one fulfils his mission in life when he lets his light shine and uses his talents to the best of his ability for the good of others as well as for himself. Do thy duty to thy family, thy neighbors, thy city, state, and nation and live an honest, upright life and see that thy children are educated and imbued with the ideals which thou art receiving here, and thou wilt be an honored and respected citizen of a great republic." The immigrant is now led to the altar of Fraternity and petitions thus : " O Fraternity, I long for the love and association of my fellow- man. Man is a social being and as a rule dislikes a life of isolation. I pray thee, give me that fraternity which is a sweetener of life and solderer of society. As iron sharpeneth iron, so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend ." Fraternity replies to his petition in the following manner : "Ο stranger, I hear thy petition and recognize thy needs. Selfishness and 866 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Wider Use of avarice are abroad in the land and fraternity flourishes not as it should. This condition has existed from the earliest history, but better days are coming. 'And the Lord said unto Cain, Where is Abel thy brother ? And Cain answered, I know not. Am I my brother's keeper ?" This is a question asked today by many individuals and societies who wish to shirk their responsibilities. To feed the hungry, to clothe the naked, to shelter the homeless, and to lift up the erring are fraternal and charitable deeds that are worthy of great praise and commendation, but to lead an individual into a self-supporting, self-controlling, self-respect- ing situation and to direct him along the path of duty, success, and patriotism are by far a higher type of fraternity. Fraternity is a much abused term and greatly misunderstood. Fraternity thou shalt have, but seek that fraternity which will inspire thee to a better life and higher patriotism, remembering also the words of the wise, 'A man that hath friends must show himself friendly." Thou hast a duty toward thy brother as well as thy brother has a duty toward thee. The national, state, and local governments are interested in thy education and natur- alization. There is a great need for the co-operation of all uplifting organizations and instrumentalities to welcome and educate the new- comer and to exemplify the doctrine of the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man . "The need of co-operation is paramount when we consider that 33,000,000 have immigrated to this country in a century and 79 per cent of these came the last fifty years and 30 per cent the ten years preceding the world-war. In June, 1919, the foreign population numbered 17,000,000. Seventy-five per cent are located in 18 per cent of our territory, 72 per cent are in the cities, and the illiterate adults in the United States number 7,000,000." Our petitioner now is guided to the altar of Patriotism and makes the following requests : "O Patriotism, I desire to become a citizen of this Republic. I have lived here a period of years. My children were born here and it is my wish to live here the remainder of my days. In my native land the right of franchise is very much restricted, the poor have very few privileges. The voting power of the subjects is in pro- portion to their wealth, and legislation, in the main, is class legislation. I desire to swear allegiance to the Constitution and the flag of my children's country, and to renounce my allegiance to the government of my native land. " Patriotism replies with zest and inspiration : "We congratulate thee upon thy desire to become a citizen of the foremost country upon the face of the earth. Thou art seeking great honor and I trust that thou wilt prove thyself worthy of this great distinction. Citizenship carries with it the right of voting, and the right of voting implies that the voter Schoolhouses ] SCHOOLHOUSE AND THE IMMIGRANT 867 should have a knowledge of the English language, the Constitution of the United States, the history of his adopted country, the operation of the government, national, state, and local, and an understanding of the political questions of the hour. It is thy duty to exercise the right of franchise honestly, independently, and intelligently as often as the op- portunity legally presents itself. Remember at all times that the efficiency and perpetuity of our government are absolutely dependent on the honesty, intelligence, and faithfulness of the voters. Every honest, independent, intelligent voter is an uncrowned king who does not permit himself to be led hither and thither by unsound annd unpatriotic doc- trines, but at all times keeps cherished in his heart the highest good of his country, the honor and good name of his flag, and stands ready at all times defend it even with his life. Depart in peace and do your duty as becomes a man and a citizen of a free and enlightened nation." It is proper at this point to call your attention to the guide which the stranger had in the Temple of Learning. This guide is the guardian angel of the stranger as he passes from altar to altar. This is a tireless, faithful guide with boundless love for humanity, always helping, direct- ing, and inspiring the immigrant to a higher life and better citizenship, Each day under the instruction of this guide the immigrant acquires a better knowledge of the English language, clearer ideas of the govern- ment, and a keener insight into the true meaning of citizenship. Every immigrant under this guidance becomes a genuine convert to true Americanism, and each one contributes to the efficiency and perpetuity of the government. If you have not seen this guide at work, visit the night schools where these classes for immigrants are being conducted, and you will become conscious of the altars herein described and the indefatigable effort put forth to direct the prospective citizens along the path of duty. This guide has the simple appellation of "teacher," whose name leads among those who love their fellow-men. This teacher wears the crown of work well done to humanity and to the Republic. Visible and tangible recognition this teacher should receive from state and national governments. The teachers and the temples of learning in all parts of our land are the most effective naturalization agents we have and are the chief and cheapest defense of the nation. May we guard these sacred institutions with jealous care. May the people in their annual pilgrim- ages to these temples of learning take with them their free-will offering in the form of liberal taxation to support these institutions, and should anyone act or speak against this sacred institution, the public schools of our land, let his offending hand wither and his tongue cleave to the roof of his mouth for the heinous crime committed against the shrine of Liberty, Justice, Equality, Fraternity, and Patriotism . INDEX 1 C General Index [Names of authors are set in SMALL CAPITALS .] roups, Segregation in, as a Means Ability Groups, American Program in Education, What of Taking into Account Individual Dif- Shall Be the Program in Education for ferences (RAY H. BRACEWELL) , 674 City School Systems in View of the Accounts, Summary of, 240 Objectives of the ? (RANDALL J. CON- Act of Incorporation, I DON) , 108 ; (J. W. GOWANS) , 115 ; Address before the National Council (J. J. (J. M. GWINN) , 109 TIGERT) , 341 American Program of Education, What Address of Welcome (N. E. KENDALL) , 31 ; Part Shall the Colleges and Universities (P. E. MCCLENAHAN), 33 Play in the ? ( L. D. COFFMAN) , 99 ; Addresses Given at Des Moines on the (IRVING S. CUTTER) , 104 "History of the Vocational Educational American Teacher, The (J. G. CRABBE) , Movement in the United States," Notes 281 on the, 853 Americanism, What One Representative Administration, Rural School Democracy American City Is Doing in Teaching through Efficient (ALBERT S. Соок) , 575 (FRANK CODY) , 759 Administration of Schools, State (E. W. Americanization, Education and (HENRY BUTTERFIELD), 362 J. RYAN) , 38 Aims and Principles of the Kindergarten Americanization Work, Approved Methods and Early Grades, The Unity in (STELLA in ( CECILA RAZOVSKI) , 655 LOUISE WOOD) , 463 Analysis of Learning Processes and Specific Aims of Rural Education, The (WILLIAM C. Teaching (CHARLES H. JUDD), 783 BAGLEY), 694 ANDERSON, MARIE-Curriculum Organiza- All-University Freshman Year, The tion and the School Plant, 648 (FREDERIC BASS) , 456 Auditor, Report of, 246 ALLEN, I. M.-A Plan of Reporting the AYER, ADELAIDE M.-Training County Results of Educational Measurements to Superintendents and Rural Supervisors Parents , 827 in Service, 539 American Education, The Most Important BAGLEY, WILLIAM C.-The Aims of Rural Thing in (FRED M. HUNTER), 274 Education, 694; Federal Aid for Public American Education, The Reconstruction Schools, 618 of ( LOTUS D. COFFMAN) , 750 BAKER, ANNA-The Contribution of the American Education, The Rural School- Elementary Schools toward BetterWorld- The Great Problem in (ERNEST BURN- Living, 442 HAM) , 699 BAKER, N. R.-Financial Support for American Educational Systems, The Strug- Rural Schools, 547 gle for Power in (HOMER H. SEERLEY) , BALDWIN, B. T.-New Standards of 337 Physical Growth and Their Use in American Program in Education, The, and Nutrition Classes; Abstract, 391 the Des Moines Meeting (FRED M. BALLOU, FRANK W.-Salary Differences, if HUNTER) , 722 Any, Based on the Rank or Class of the American Program, The, in Education as Teacher, 840 It Is Related to the Classroom Teacher BARKER, CHARLES E.-How to Live a (EFFIE MACGREGOR) , 84 Hundred Years-An Outline, 673 ; Social American Program, The, in Education as Hygiene in the Schools, 54 It Is Related to the Work of the Class- BARNARD, FLORENCE-Discussion : The room Teacher (PHEBE MATHEWS) , 83 ; Business of Living, 325 (AGNES S. WINN), 73 Basis for the Improvement of Instruction, American Program, The, in Education as The Use of Scientific Measurement as a It Is Related to the Work of the Normal (F. B. KNIGHT), 450 Schools and Teacher-Training Institu- Basis for Instruction, The Use of Scientific tions (JOHN A. H. KEITH), 93; (F. J. Measurements as a (CARROLL R. REED), KELLY), 89; (JOHN R. KIRK), 96; 448 (ROBERT H. WRIGHT) , 87 BASS, FREDERIC-The All-University American Program, The, in Education as Freshman Year, 456 It Is Related to the Work of the Principal BAYLOR, ADELAIDE STEELE-Report of (JOHN A. SEXSON), 77 ; (J. J. ZMRHAL), Sub- Committee on Consolidation of 74 Schools, 352 871 872 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BENNION, MILTON-Preliminary Report of CHADSEY, CHARLES E.-The Status of the the Committee on Citizenship and Superintendent (Tentative Report of Character Education, 344 the Committee on the Status of the Better Teaching-The Greatest Need of Superintendent) , 812 the Schools (WALTER A. JESSUP) , 779 CHALLMAN, S. A.-Safety to Life in School- BLACKWELL, J. D.--Stimulating Interest in house Planning, 627 Vocational Agriculture through Junior CHAMBERLAIN,ARTHURH.-How to Secure Project Work, 560 Results through Professional Organiza- BLAKE, KATHERINE DEVEREUX-Report of tion, 55; Report of Committee on Thrift the Committee on Changes Needed in Education, 167; Thrift Education, 315 the Elementary School Course, 364 CHAMBERLAYNE, ELLEN F.-The Relation of the High-School Library to the Other BONNER, H. R.-Waste in Education, 795 Departments of the School, 492 BRACEWELL, RAY H.-Segregation in CHANDLER, J. A. C.-Response to Ad- Ability Groups as a Means of Taking into dresses of Welcome, 34 Account Individual Differences, 674 Character Training, The Place of Religious BRAY, A. W.-Certain Factors in the Sanctions in(Jo (JOHN HERBERT PHILLIPS), Respiration and the Circulation in 347 Children, and Their Intercorrelations, CHARTERS, W. W.--The Limitations of the 392 Project, 428 Brilliant Pupil, A Square Deal for the ChildHygiene, Department of, Secretary's (M. R. MCDANIEL), 676 Minutes, 377 BROGDON, NETTIE E.-The Course of Circulation in Children, Certain Factors in Study in Montgomery County, 567 the Respiration and the, and Their BROWN, MAUD A.-The Course of Study in Intercorrelations (A. W. BRAY), 392 Hygiene Reduced to Its Lowest Terms, Citizenship for College Students, The 393 Required Course in (ISIDOR LOEB) , 456 BROWNE, HETTY S.-Initial Steps in the City School System, What Shall Be the Development of Rural-Education De- Program in Education for ? (PETER A. partments in Normal Schools, 557 MORTENSON), III BURNHAM, ERNEST-The Rural School- Civic Training of Young America, The The Great Problem in American Educa- (ARTHUR W. DUNN) , 765 tion, 699 CLARK, FRANCES H.-Stimulating Interest in Vocational Agriculture through Junior Business Education, Department of, Sec- Club Activities in the Schools, 563 retary's Minutes, 369 Classroom Teachers, Department of, Sec- Business Houses and Business Schools, retary's Minutes, 399 Co-operation between (ROBIN LYNN CLERK, F. E.-The Comprehensive School HAMILTON) , 376 Building, 630 Business Schools, Co-operation between CODY, FRANK-What One Representative Business Houses and (ROBIN LYNN American City Is Doing in Teaching HAMILTON) , 376 ericanism, 759 BUTTERFIELD, E. W.-State Administra- COFFMAN, LOTUS D.-The Reconstruction tion of Schools, 362 of American Education, 750; What Part By-Laws, 6 Shall the Colleges and Universities Play By-Laws of the Library Department, 473 in the American Program of Education ? Calendar of Meetings, 16 99 CAMMACK, IRA I. How Shall Merit Be COLBY, JOSEPHINE-Desirable Working Expressed in Salary Schedules ? 844 Conditions More Attractive than Salary, CAMPBELL, MACY-A National Program 402 for Consolidation, 609; Rural Recrea- Collective Organization, Minutes of Open tion and Social Life-Outline of Report Forum on Teacher Progress by, 305 to Committee on Rural Education of the Commercial Subjects in Secondary Schools, National Council of Education, 355 Qualifications for Teaching (G. F. Canvassing Committee, Report of the, 684 KNIPPRATH), 373 CARNEY, MABEL-Report of the Com- Commission on Co-ordination of Research mittee on the Preparation of Rural Agencies , Report of the, 169 Teachers, 589 Commission on Reorganization of Ele- CARR, JOHN W.-Preliminary Report of mentary Education (OLIVE M. JONES) , Committee on Pensions, 155 135; (MARGARET S. MCNAUGHT) , 131 CAULKINS, E. DANA-Universal Physical Commission on the Reorganization of Education-A National Necessity, 521 Secondary Education, Report of the CERTAIN, C. C.-Tentative Report of the (WILLIAM B. OWEN) , 163 Committee on Secondary School Library Committee on Changes Needed in the Problems, 667 Elementary School Course, Report of Certificate, 15 the (KATHERINE DEVEREUX BLAKE), 364 INDEX 873 Committee on Citizenship and Character Community Service of the Democratized Education, Preliminary Report of the Rural School (WILLIAM W. EVANS), 577 (MILTON BENNION), 344 Comprehensive School Building, The (F. E. Committee on Comparative Instruction in CLERK), 630; (S. O. HARTWELL), 636 ; One-Teacher and Consolidated Rural (WILLIAM B. ITTNER), 633 ; ( STANLEY Schools, Report of the (JOHN M. FOOTE) , MACOMBER) , 638; (DWIGHT H. PER- 583 KINS), 632 Committee on the Distinction between the COMSTOCK, ADA-The International Fed- Administration and Supervision of Rural eration of University Women, 416 Schools, Report of the (FANNIE W. CONDON, RANDALL J.-What Shall Be the DUNN) , 584 Program in Education for City School Committee on Elementary School English, Systems in View of the Objectives of the Abstract of Report of the (EDWIN M. American Program in Education ? 108 HOPKINS) , 440 Conference on Elementary-School Course Committee on Expenses of Delegates, Minutes, 301 Report of the, 182 Consolidated Schools in Middle Western Committee on Foreign Relations, Reports States (GEORGE S. DICK) , 606 of, 176 Consolidation, A National Program for Committee on Health Problems in Educa- (MACY CAMPBELL) , 609 tion, Report of (THOMAS D. WOOD) , 157 Constitution and By-Laws of the Depart- Committee on Illiteracy, 159 ment of Rural Education, 527 Committee on Normal School Libraries, Contribution, The, of the Elementary Report of the (WILLIS KERR), 502 Schools toward Better World-Living Committee on Pensions, Preliminary Re- (ANNA BAKER), 442 port of (JOHN W. CARR) , 155 COOK, ALBERT S.-Rural School Democ- Committee on the Preparation of Rural racy through Efficient Administration, Teachers, Report of the (MABEL CAR- 575 NEY) , 589 COOPER, FRANK B.-The Ideals and Committee on Racial Well Being, Second Accomplishments of the Seattle School Report of Progress of (HELEN C. System, 714 PUTNAM), 362 COOPER, FRANK IRVING-Safety to Life in Committee on Resolutions, Report of the, Schoolhouse Planning, 629 26 Committee on Rural Education of the Co-operation between Business Houses and National Council, Rural Recreation and Business Schools (ROBIN LYNN HAMIL- ΤΟΝ), 376 Social Life-Outline of Report to (MACY CAMPBELL), 355 Co-ordination of Research Agencies, Re- Committee on Rural Education, Tests and port of the Commission on, 169 Measurements in Rural Schools-Tenta- Correct Taste, Stepping-Stones to (A. B. tive Conclusions from the Special NOBLE), 496 Investigation Being Carried on for the CORSON, DAVID B.-Relation of Scholar- (FRED D. CRAM) , 357 ship and Growth in Scholarship to Merit Committee on Salaries, Report of the and Pay, 837; Some Ideals and Accom- (D. B. WALDO), 140 plishments of the Newark School Committee on Secondary School Library System, 707 Problems, Tentative Report of the Cost of Textbooks, Informing the Public (C. C. CERTAIN) , 667 of Relative (E. L. HOLTON) , 425 Committee on Sources of Revenue, Report County Superintendents and Rural Super- of the (OWEN B. WILLIAMS) , 138 visors, Training, in Service (ADELAIDE Committee on Tenure, Report of the M. AYER) , 539 (CHARL O. WILLIAMS) , 145 County Unit, The Relation of the Village Committee on Thrift Education, Report of to the Rural-School Administration and (ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN) , 167 the (GEORGE A. SELKE) , 604 Committee on Visual Education, Pre- Course in Citizenship for College Students, liminary Report of the, 139 The Required (ISIDOR LOEB), 456 Committee on a Working Program for Course of Study in Hygiene, The, Reduced Smith-Lever Extension and Vocational to Its Lowest Terms (MAUD A. BROWN), Education Forces in the Various States, 393 Report of the (A. R. MANN), 592 Course of Study in Montgomery County, Communicable Diseases in Schools, An The (NETTIE E. BROGDON), 567 Efficient Plan for Control and Preven- Courses of Study, To What Extent Should tion of (THOMAS D. WOOD), 378 Rural Teachers Participate in Making ? Community Organization, Some Funda- (W. J. HOLLOWAY) , 566 mentals of Rural (DWIGHT SANDERSON) , CRABBE, J. G.-The American Teacher, 281 549 874 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION CRAM, FRED D.-Tests and Measure- Discussion : What Thrift Teachings De- ments in Rural Schools-Tentative velop in the Child (C. H. DEMPSEY) , 323 Conclusions from the Special Investiga- Diseases in Schools, An Efficient Plan for tion Being Carried on for the Committee Control and Prevention of Communi- on Rural Education, 357 cable (THOMAS D. WOOD), 378 Current Practice in School Architecture, DoBBS, ELLA VICTORIA-Methods and Best (JOHN J. DONOVAN), 642 Equipment, 465 Curriculum Organization and the School DONOVAN, JOHN J.-Best Current Practice Plant ( MARIE ANDERSON) , 648 in School Architecture, 642 CUTTER, IRVING S.-What Part Shall the DORSEY, SUSAN M.-Improving Public Colleges and Universities Play in the American Program in Education ? 104 School Teaching, 768; Position and DANA, MARION-The Waitsfield Experi- Responsibility of Trained Women in Education, 413 ment, 535 . Daylight in the Schoolroom (EDWARD DOWNES, F. E.-Foundation Principles for Grading Salaries-A Pennsylvania Plan, JACKSON) , 308 823 Deans of Women, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes, 407 DRIVER, LEE L.-Platform of the Depart- DECKER, RALPH-The Helping Teacher in ment of Rural Education of the National New Jersey Jersey,, 688 Education Association, 601 DEFFENBAUGH, W. S.-Improvement of DUNN, ARTHUR W.-The Civic Training of the Village School, 531 Young America, 765 DELAMATER, H.-Physical Examination of DUNN FANNIE W.-Principles Underlying Pre-School Age Children with Nutri- The Rural Elementary-School Curricu- tional Expert in Attendance, 396 lum, 570; Report of the Committee on Democratized Rural School, Community the Distinction between the Administra- Service of the ( WILLIAM W. EVANS) , 577 tion and Supervision of Rural Schools, Democratized Rural School, The Prepara- 584 tion of Teachers for a (ROSAMOND ROOT) , Editorial Council, The, 129 572 Editorial Council, The, of the Journal of Demonstration Schools, Teacher-Training the National Education Association, 128 and (JOHN F. SIMS) , 350 Editorial Department, Report of, Septem- DEMPSEY, C. H.-Discussion : What Thrift ber, 1920-July, 1921 , 235 Teachings Develop in the Child, 323 Educating the Other Half (HOMER C. Department : of Business Education, 369; CHANDLER) , 37 of Classroom Teachers, 399; of Deans of Education, The American Program in, and Women, 407; of Educational Publica- the Des Moines Meeting (FRED M. tions, 421 ; of Elementary Education, HUNTER) , 722 427; of Higher Education, 455; of Education and Americanization (HENRY J. Kindergarten Education, 461 ; Library, RYAN) , 38 471; of Music Education, 507; of Education, The Expansion of (HOMER H. Normal Schools, 515 ; of Physical Educa- SEERLEY), 272 tion, 517; of Rural Education, 523; of Education, Health Crisis in (THOMAS D. School Administration, 617; of School WOOD) , 306 Patrons, 653; of Science Instruction, Education as It Is Related to the Class- 663; of Secondary Education, 667; of room Teacher, The American Program Vocational Education and Practical Arts, in (EFFIE MACGREGOR), 84 851 ; of Wider Use of Schoolhouses, 859 Education as It Is Related to the Work of Department of Records and Accounts for the Classroom Teacher, The American Year June 1, 1920-May 31, 1921, Program in (PHEBE MATHEWS) , 83 ; Report of, 221 (AGNES S. WINN) , 78 Development of Rural-Education Depart- Education as It Is Related to the Work of ments in Normal Schools, Initial Steps the Normal Schools and Teacher- in the (HETTY S. BROWNE), 557 Training Institutions, The American DICK, GEORGE S.-Consolidated Schools in Program in (JOHN A. H. ΚΕΙΤΗ), 93; Middle Western States , 606 (F. J. KELLY) , 89 ; (JOHN R. KIRK), 96 ; DILL, B. E.-How to Improve Textbooks (ROBERT H. WRIGHT), 87 -Sensing the Demand, 421 Education as It Is Related to the Work of DILLARD, JAMES H.-The Negro in Rural the Principal, The American Program in Education and Country Life, 580 (JOHN A. SEXSON), 77 ; (J. J. ZMRHAL) , 74 Discussion: The Business of Living Education, The Most Important Thing in (FLORENCE BARNARD), 325 American (FRED M. HUNTER), 274 Discussion: School Thrift Organizations Education, National Aid for (HORACE (JUSTIN F. KIMBALL) , 321 MANN TOWNER) , 786 Discussion: Thrift-Civics (ADA VAN Education, Thrift (ARTHUR H. CHAMBER- STONE HARRIS) , 328 LAIN) , 315 INDEX 875 Education in the United States, The and Its Bearing upon the National Probable Future of Its Policies and Program, 116 Programs (HENRY SNYDER) , 743 First Representative Assembly of the Education, Waste in (H. R. BONNER) , 795 National Education Association, 1921 , 26 Education, What Part Shall the Colleges and Universities Play in the American FITZPATRICK, EDWARD A.-The Teacher's Program of ? (L. D. COFFMAN) , 99 ; Responsibility to the Board of Educa- (IRVING S. CUTTER) , 104 tion, 400 Education of the Women of the United FLEMING, T. ALFRED-Safety to Life in States (AURELIA HENRY REINHARDT) , 65 Schoolhouse Planning, 623 Educational Measurements, A Plan of FOOTE, JOHN M.-Report of the Com- Reporting the Results of, to Parents mittee on Comparative Instruction in (I. M. ALLEN) , 827 One-Teacher and Consolidated Rural Educational Progress during the Year Schools, 583 (J. M. GWINN) , 340 Foreign Relations, Reports of Committee Educational Publications, Department of, on, 176 Secretary's Minutes, 421 " Four H" Clubs and the School, Boys' and Educational Sidelights (JOSEPHINE C. Girls' (WILLIAM H. KENDRICK) , 564 PRESTON), 653 FOWLER, BURTON P.-Socialization of the Elementary Education, Department of, Six-Year High School through theOrgani- Secretary's Minutes, 427 zation of Student Activities, 672 Elementary Grades, Joy Reading in the FOX, FLORENCE C.-Limits of the Project, (A. B. ZACHERT) , 476 437 Elementary-School Course Minutes, Con- FRANZEEN, CARL G. F.-Suggestions for ference on, 301 Deriving Standards of Measuring Elementary School Principals, Department Achievements of Kindergarten-Primary of, Secretary's Minutes, 453 Children, 467 Elementary School, The, and the Readjust- Freshman Year, The All-University (FRED- ments of the Next Ten Years (IDE G. ERIC BASS), 456 SARGEANT) , 444 Fundamental Ethical Problems of Today Elementary Schools, The Contribution of (PEARL R. WASSON) , 417 the, toward Better World-Living (ANNA Future of Education in the United States, BAKER), 442 -Its Policies and Program The Probable ELLIOTT, EDWARD C.-Local Influence of (HENRY SNYDER) , 743 the Russell Sage Foundation Ranking of GARDNER, ETHEL M.-The School Building Montana's Educational System, 806 in Its Reaction on the Teacher's Work, Equipment, Methods and (ELLA VICTORIA 404 DOBBS), 465 General Sessions of the Association, 31 Equipment for Vocational Education GOWANS, J. W.-What Shall Be the Pro- (GEORGE B. THOMAS), 649 gram in Education for City School Ethical Problems of Today, Fundamental Systems in View of the Objectives of the (PEARL R. WASSON) , 417 American Program in Education ? 115 EVANS, WILLIAM W.-Community Service Grading Salaries, Foundation Principles of the Democratized Rural School, 577 for-A Pennsylvania Plan (F. E. EVENDEN, EDWARD S.-Fundamental Prin- DOWNES), 823 ciples of Grading Teachers' Salaries, 817 Grading Teachers' Salaries, Fundamental Executive Committee, Reports of, 249, 686 Principles of (EDWARD S. EVENDEN) , 817 xpansion of Education, The (HOMER H. Grading Teachers' Salaries, A Massachu- SEERLEY), 272 setts Plan of (U. G. WHEELER), 822 Expenses of Delegates, Report of the GREGG, F. M.-Vitalizing the Teaching of Committee on, 182 Hygiene, 394 Experience, Relation of Years of, to Merit Growth, Supervision for (MAUDE NEW- and Pay (F. E. WILLARD), 839 BURY) , 544; (CASSIE R. SPENCER) , 572 Federal Aid for Public Schools (WILLIAM GRUENBERG, BENJAMIN C.-Sex Education C. BAGLEY) , 618 for Secondary Schools, 675; Social Field Secretary Department, Report of Hygiene in the Public Schools, 663 the, 223 GWINN, J. M.-Educational Progress dur- Financial Support, Can Adequate, Be ing the Year, 340; What Shall Be the Secured for Rural Schools ? (GEORGE Program in Education for City School L. TOWNE) , 358 Systems in View of the Objectives of the Financial Support for Rural Schools American Program in Education ? 109 (N. R. BAKER) , 547 HAMILTON, ROBIN LYNN-Co- operation FINEGAN, THOMAS E. How May the between Business Houses and Business Public Understand What Service the Schools, 376 School Is Rendering the Community ? HARDING, W. L.-The Importance of the 803; The State Program in Education Rural School, 692 876 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION HARRIS, ADA VAN STONE-Discussion: Immigrant Education, Department of, 460 Thrift-Civics, 328 Immigrant, The Schoolhouse and the HARTWELL, S. O.-The Comprehensive (I. B. MORGAN), 862 School Building, 636 Immigrant, Schooling of the (FRANK V. Health Crisis in Education, The (THOMAS THOMPSON) , 758 D. WOOD), 306 Importance of the Rural School, The Health Habits, Teaching First and Second (W. L. HARDING), 692 Graders (FLORENCE A. POWELL), 396 Improvement of the Village School (W. S. Health Instruction and Health Supervision DEFFENBAUGH) , 531 (LILIAN WELSH, 410 Improving Public School Teaching (SUSAN Health Problems in Education, Report of Committee on (THOMAS D. WOOD) , 157 M. DORSEY) , 768 Health Service in New York State, School Improving Rural Schools by Standardiza- (WILLIAM A. HOWE), 384 tion (EDITH A. LATHROP), 354 Health Supervision, Health Instruction and Improving Teachers in Service (ZENOS E. (LILIAN WELSH), 410 SCOTT), 773 Health Supervision of School Children on a Instruction in Reading, How a Test State-Wide Basis (C. P. KNIGHT), 379 May Be Used to Improve (MAUDE Helping Teacher in New Jersey, The MCBROOM), 446 (RALPH DECKER), 688 International Federation of University HERVEY, HENRY D.-The Rating of Women, The (ADA COMSTOCK) , 416 Teachers, 825 Invitation to Des Moines, An (L. H. High-School Library, The Relation of the, MINKEL), 725 to the Other Departments of the School ITTNER, WILLIAM B.-The Comprehensive (ELLEN F. CHAMBERLAYNE ), 492 School Building, 633 Higher Education, Department of, Sec- JACKSON, EDWARD-Daylight in the School- retary's Minutes, 455 room, 308 Higher Education in Business, The Articu- JESSUP, WALTERA.-The Greatest Need of lation of Secondary and (C. O. RUGGLES), 369 the Schools-Better Teaching, 779 HILLIS, MRS. ISAAC LEA-How May JOHNSON, T. E.-State Program inEduca- tion and Its Bearing upon the National Parent-Teacher Associations Best Co- operate with the Public Schools ? 661 Program, 125 HOLLOWAY, W. J.-To What Extent JONES, H. O.-A Teacher's Opportunity Should Rural Teachers Participate in from a Health Officer's Viewpoint, 386 Making Courses of Study ? 566 JONES, OLIVE M.-Commission on Re- HOLMES, ARTHUR-Moral Aspects of Physi- organization of Elementary Education, cal Education, 518 135 HOLTON, E. L.-Informing the Public of Journal of Proceedings, 23 Relative Cost of Textbooks, 425 JUDD, CHARLES H.-Analysis of Learning HOPKINS, EDWIN M.-Abstract of Report Processes and Specific Teaching, 783 ; of the Committee on Elementary School Reorganization of Seventh, Eighth, and English, 440 Ninth Grades, 303 HOWE, WILLIAM A.-School Health Service Junior Club Activities in the Schools, in New York State, 384 Stimulating Interest in Vocational Agri- Hundred Years, How to Live-An Outline culture through (FRANCES H. CLARK), (CHARLES E. BARKER), 673 563 HUNTER, FRED M.-The American Pro- Junior High School, Is the, " Delivering gram in Education and the Des Moines the Goods" ? Affirmative (BALLARD D. Meeting, 722; The Most Important REMY), 833; Negative (L. C. WARD), 835 Thing in American Education, 274; Junior Project Work, Stimulating Interest Report of the President on the Program in Vocational Agriculture through (J. D. and the Development of the Associa- BLACKWELL) , 560 tion, 184 KEITH, JOHN A. H. The American Pro- Hygiene, The Course of Study in, Reduced gram in Education as It Is Related to to Its Lowest Terms (MAUD A. BROWN), the Work of the Normal Schools and 393 Teacher-Training Institutions, 93 Hygiene in the Schools, Social (CHARLES KELLY, ELIZABETH-The School Derelict, E. BARKER), 54 701 Hygiene, Vitalizing the Teaching of (F. M. KELLY, F. J.-The American Program in GREGG), 394 Education as It Is Related to the Work Ideals of Democracy, The Relation of of the Normal Schools and Teacher- Public Playgrounds and Recreation - Training Institutions, 89 Centers to Our National (JAY B. NASH), KENDALL, N. E.-Address of Welcome, 31 519 KENDRICK, WILLIAM H.-Boys' and Girls' Illiteracy, Committee on, 159 " Four H" Clubs and the School, 564 INDEX 877 KERR, WILLIS H.-The Normal-School MCCLENAHAN, P. E.-Address of Welcome, Library-An Educational Institution, 33 482; Report of the Committee on MCDANIEL, M. R.-A Square Deal for the Normal School Libraries, 502 Brilliant Pupil, 676 KIMBALL, JUSTIN F.-Discussion: School MACGREGOR, EFFIE-The American Pro- Thrift Organizations, 321 gram in Education as It Is Related to Kindergarten and Early Grades, The the Classroom Teacher, 84, Unity in Aims and Principles of the MCNAUGHT, MARGARET S.-Commission (STELLA LOUISE WOOD), 463 on Reorganization of Elementary Educa- Kindergarten Education, Department of, tion, 131 Secretary's Minutes, 461 MACOMBER, STANLEY-The Comprehen- Kindergarten-Primary Children, Sugges- sive School Building, 638 tions for Deriving Standards of Measur- ing Achievements of (CARL G. F. MANN, A. R. Report of the Committee FRANZEEN) , 467 on a Working Program for Smith-Lever Extension and Vocational Education KIRK, JOHN R.-The American Program in Education as It Is Related to Work of Forces in the Various States, 592 the Normal Schools and Teacher- Mathematics, the Project Instrument Training Institutions, 96 ; Preparation (THEODORE LINDQUIST) , 435 ofMusic Supervisors-Shall They Have MATHEWS, PHEBE-The American Pro- a Balanced College Education ? 509 gram in Education as It Is Related to KNAPP, T. J.-Merit Promotion of the Work of the Classroom Teacher, 83 Teachers, 820 MEEK, CHARLES S.-How Shall the Super- KNIGHT, C. P.-Health Supervision of intendent Spend His Time ? 728 School Children on a State-Wide Basis, Methods in Americanization Work, Ap- 379 proved (CECILA RAZOVSKI) , 655 KNIGHT, F. B. The Use of Scientific Methods and Equipment (ELLA VICTORIA Measurement as a Basis for the Improve- DOBBS), 465 ment of Instruction, 450 MILAM, CARL H.-The Part of the Public KNIPPRATH, G. F.-Qualifications for Teach- Library in Public Education, 501 ing Commercial Subjects in Secondary MINKEL, L. H.-An Invitation to Des Schools, 373 Moines, 725 LATHROP, EDITH A.-The Continued Minutes of Open Forum on Teacher Prog- Emergency in Rural Teacher Supply and ress by Collective Organization, 305 How to Meet It, 552 ; Improving Rural Montana's Educational System, Local In- Schools by Standardization, 354 fluence of the Russell Sage Foundation Learning Processes and Specific Teaching, Ranking of (Edward C. ELLIOTT) , 806 Analysis of (CHARLES H. JUDD), 783 Moral Aspects of Physical Education Legislative Commission, Report of (ARTHUR HOLMES) , 518 (GEORGE D. STRAYER) , 159 MORGAN, I. B.-The Schoolhouse and the Library Department, Secretary's Minutes, Immigrant, 862 471 MORTENSON, PETER A.-What Shall Be Limitations , The, of the Project (W. W. the Program in Education for City CHARTERS) , 428 School Systems ? III Limits of the Project (FLORENCE C. FOX) , Music Education, Department of, Secre- 437 tary's Minutes , 507 LINDQUIST, THEODORE-Mathematics, the Music Supervisors, Preparation of Shall Project Instrument, 435 Project They Have a Balanced College Educa- LINDSEY, BEN B.-The Parenthood of the tion ? (JOHN R. KIRK), 509 State, 42 NASH, JAY B.-The Relation of Public Local Associations, State and, Affiliated Playgrounds and Recreation Centers to with the National Education Associa- Our National Ideals of Democracy, 519 tion-Charter Members, Including Those National Aid for Education (HORACE Which Affiliated before the First Meeting MANN TOWNER) , 786 of the Representative Assembly at Des National Council of Education, Secretary's Moines, 251 Minutes: Atlantic City Meeting, 269; Local Schools, The Participation of State Des Moines Meeting, 332 and Nation in the Support of (M. C. National Program for Consolidation, A POTTER), 847 (MACY CAMPBELL) , 609 LOEB, ISIDOR-The Required Course in National Program, The State Program in Citizenship for College Students, 456 Education and Its Bearing upon the LONG, JOHN A.-A Project Basis for Social (THOMAS E. FINEGAN) , 116; (T. E. Study in the Upper Grades, 432 JOHNSON) , 125; (GEORGE H. REAVIS), MCBROOM, MAUDE-How a Test May Be 122 Used to Improve Instructionin Reading, Need of the Schools, The Greatest-Better 446 Teaching (WALTER A. JESSUP) , 779 878 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Negro in Rural Education and Country Preparation of Music Supervisors-Shall Life, The (JAMES H. DILLARD) , 580 They Have a Balanced College Educa- Newark School System, Some Ideals and tion ? (JOHN R. KIRK) , 509 Accomplishments of the (DAVID B. Preparation, The, of Teachers for a CORSON), 707 Democratized Rural School (ROSAMOND NEWBURY, MAUDE-Supervision for ROOT) , 572 Growth, 544 PRESTON, JOSEPHINE C.-Educational Side- NEWLON, JESSE H.-Salary Differences, if lights, 653 Any, Based on the Rank or Class of the Principles Underlying the Rural Ele- Teacher, 841 mentary-School Curriculum (FANNIE W. NOBLE, A. B.-Stepping-Stones to Correct DUNN) , 570 Taste, 496 Normal- School Library, The-an Educa- Professional Organization, How to Secure tional Institution (WILLIS H. KERR), 482 Results through (ARTHUR H. CHAM- Normal Schools, Department of, Secre- BERLAIN) , 55 tary's Minutes, 515 Program and the Development of the Officers for 1920-21 , 19 Association , Report of the President on Organization, How to Secure Results the (FRED M. HUNTER) , 184 through Professional (ARTHUR H. CHAM- Program in Education for the City School BERLAIN), 55 System, What Shall Be the ? (PETER A. ORTMAN, E. J.-Teacher Councils, 293 MORTENSON) , 111 OWEN, WILLIAM B.-Report of the Com- Program in Education for City School mission on the Reorganization of Second- Systems , What Shall Be the, in View of ary Education, 163 ; Report of the the Objectives of the American Program Committee on Sources of Revenue, 138 in Education ? (RANDALL J. CONDON), Parent-Teacher Associations, How May, 108 ; (J. W. GOWANS) , 115 ; (J. M. Best Co- operate with the Public Schools ? GWINN), 109 (MRS. ISAAC LEA HILLIS) , 661 Progress during the Year, Educational Parenthood of the State State,, The (BEN B. (J. M. GWINN) , 340 LINDSEY), 42 Project Basis , A, for Social Study in the Participation of Teachers in School Upper Grades (JOHN A. LONG) , 432 Management (HARLAN UPDEGRAFF), 284 Project, How Can the, Be Safeguarded ? Pensions, Preliminary Report of Com- (GRACE M. SHIELDS), 430 mittee on (JOHN W. CARR) , 155 Project Instrument, Mathematics, the PERKINS, DWIGHT H.-The Comprehen- (THEODORE LINDQUIST) , 435 sive School Building, 632 Project, The Limitations of the (W. W. Personal Development, Does the College CHARTERS), 428 Emphasize Service for Others to the Project, Limits of the (FLORENCE C. FOX) , Detriment of ? (FLORENCE PURINGTON) , 437 418 Promotion of Teachers, Merit (T. J. PHILLIPS, JOHN HERBERT-The Place of KNAPP), 820 Religious Sanctions in Character Train- Public Library, The Part of the, in Public ing, 347 Education (CARL H. MILAM) , 501 Physical Education, Department of, Sec- Public Playgrounds and Recreation Cen- retary's Minutes, 517 ters, The Relation of, to Our National Physical Education, Moral Aspects of Ideals of Democracy (JAY B. NASH), 519 (ARTHUR HOLMES) , 518 Public School Teaching, Improving (SUSAN Physical Education, Universal-A National M. DORSEY) , 768 Necessity (E. DANA CAULKINS) , 521 Public Schools, Federal Aid for (WILLIAM Physical Examination of Pre-School Age C. BAGLEY) , 618 Children with Nutritional Expert in Public Schools, How May Parent-Teacher Attendance ( H. DELAMATER) , 396 Associations Best Co-operate with the ? Physical Growth, New Standards of, and (MRS. ISAAC LEA HILLIS) , 661 Their Use in Nutrition Classes: Abstract Public Schools, Social Hygiene in the (B. T. BALDWIN) , 391 (BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG), 663 Platform of the Department of Rural PURINGTON, FLORENCE-Does the College Education of the National Education Emphasize Service for Others to the Association (LEE L. DRIVER) , 601 Detriment of Personal Development ? POTTER, M. C.-The Participation of 418 State and Nation in the Support of Purpose of the School Library, The Local Schools, 847 (SHERMAN WILLIAMS) , 488 POWELL, FLORENCE A.-Teaching First PUTNAM, HELEN C.-Second Report of and Second Graders Health Habits, 396 Progress of Committee on Racial Well- Power in American Educational Systems, Being, 362 The Struggle for (HOMER H. SEERLEY), Rating of Teachers, The (HENRY D. 337 HERVEY) , 825 INDEX 879 RAZOVSKI, CECILA-Approved Methods in Report of the Committee on Elementary Americanization Work , 655 School English, Abstract of (EDWIN M. Reading in the Elementary Grades, Joy HOPKINS) , 440 (A. B. ZACHERT) , 476 Report of the Committee on Expenses of Reading, How a Test May Be Used to Delegates, 182 Improve Instruction in (MAUDE MC- Reports of Committee on Foreign Rela- BROOM), 446 tions, 176 Readjustments of the Next Ten Years, Report of Committee on Health Problems The Elementary School and the (IDE G. in Education (THOMAS D. WOOD) , 157 SARGEANT) , 444 Report of the Committee on Normal School REAVIS, GEORGE H.-The State Program in Education and Its Bearing upon the Libraries (WILLIS KERR), 502 National Program, 122 Report of the Committee on the Prepara- Reconstruction of American Education, tion ofRural Teachers (MABEL CARNEY) , 589 The (LOTUS D. COFFMAN), 750 Recreation Centers, The Relation of Public Report of the Committee on Resolutions, 26 Playgrounds and, to Our National Ideals of Democracy (JAY B. NASH) , 519 Report of Committee on Salaries (D. B. REED, CARROLL R.-The Use of Scientific WALDO) , 140 Measurements as a Basis for Instruction, Report of the Committee on Secondary 448 School Library Problems, Tentative REINHARDT, AURELIA HENRY-Education (C. C. CERTAIN), 667 of the Women of the United States, 65 Report of the Committee on Sources of Relation of Difficulty of Position and Revenue (WILLIAM B. OWEN) , 138 Quantity of Work to Pay (H. S. WEET), Report of the Committee on Tenure 843 (CHARL O. WILLIAMS) , 145 Relation, The, of the High-School Library Report of Committee on Thrift Education to the Other Departments of the School (ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN) , 167 (ELLEN F. CHAMBERLAYNE), 492 Report of the Committee on a Working Relation of Scholarship and Growth in Program for Smith-Lever Extension and Scholarship to Merit and Pay ( DAVID B. Vocational Education Forces in the CORSON), 837 Various States (A. R. MANN) , 592 Relation of Years of Experience to Merit Report of Department of Records and and Pay ( F. E. WILLARD), 839 Accounts for Year June 1, 1920-May Religious Sanctions in Character Training, 31, 1921, 221 The Place of (JOHN HERBERT PHILLIPS), Report of Editorial Department, Septem- 347 ber, 1920-July, 1921 , 235 REMY, BALLARD D.-Is the Junior High Report of Executive Committee, 249 School " Delivering the Goods " ?- Report of the Field Secretary Department, Affirmative, 833 223 REORGANIZATION COMMITTEE REPORT, 681 Report of Legislative Commission ( GEORGE Reorganization of Elementary Education, D. STRAYER), 159 Commission on (OLIVE M. JONES) , 135; Report, Preliminary, of the Committee on (MARGARET S. MCNAUGHT) , 131 Citizenship and Character Education Reorganization of Secondary Education, (MILTON BENNION), 344 Report of the Commission on (WILLIAM Report, Preliminary, of Committee on B. OWEN), 163 Pensions (JOHN W. CARR) , 155 Reorganization of Seventh, Eighth, and Report, Preliminary, of the Committee on Visual Education , Ninth Grades (CHARLES H. JUDD), 303 Visual Education, 139 Report of Auditor, 246 Report of the President on the Program Report of the Canvassing Committee 684 and the Development of the Association Report of the Commission on Co-ordination (FRED M. HUNTER), 184 of Research Agencies, 169 Report of Reorganization Committee, 681 Report of the Commission on the Re- Report of Resolutions Committee, 684 organization of Secondary Education Report, Second, of Progress of Committee (WILLIAM B. OWEN) , 163 on Racial Well- Being (HELEN C. PUT- Report of the Committee on Changes NAM) , 362 Needed in the Elementary School Course Report of the Secretary, 208 (KATHERINE DEVEREUX BLAKE) , 364 Report of Sub-Committee on Consolidation Report of the Committee on Comparative of Schools (ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR), Instruction in One-Teacher and Consoli- 352 dated Rural Schools (JOHN M. FOOTE), Report, Thirty-fifth Annual, of the Board 583 ofTrustees on the Permanent Fund from Report of the Committee on the Distinction June 1 , 1920, to May 31, 1921, 243 between the Administration and Super- Report of the Treasurer of the National vision of Rural Schools (FANNIE W. Education Association, June 1, 1920, to DUNN), 584 May 31, 1921, 239 880 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Report on Two Meetings (NINA C. VANDE- Rural Supervisors, Training County Super- WALKER), 462 intendents and, in Service (ADELAIDE M. Resolutions Committee, Report of, 684 AYER), 539 Resolutions of the Department of Rural Rural Teacher Supply, The Continued Education, 525 Emergency in, and How to Meet It Respiration and the Circulation in Chil- (EDITH A. LATHROP) , 552 dren, Certain Factors in the, and Their Rural Teachers, To What Extent Should, Intercorrelations (A. W. BRAY), 392 Participate in Making Courses of Study ? Responses to Addresses of Welcome (J. A. (W. J. HOLLOWAY) , 566 C. CHANDLER), 34 Russell Sage Foundation Ranking ofMon- ROBINSON, CORINNE ROOSEVELT (DOUG- tana's Educational System, Local In- LAS)-Theodore Roosevelt as a Book fluence of the (EDWARD C. ELLIOTT), 806 RYAN, HENRY J.-Education and Ameri- Lover, 719 canization, 38 ROBINSON, J. ALBERT-Safety to Life in Safety to Life in Schoolhouse Planning Schoolhouse Planning, 626 (S. A. CHALLMAN), 627; (FRANK IRVING Rochester School System, Some Ideals and COOPER) , 629; (T. ALFRED FLEMING), Accomplishments of the (HERBERT S. 623; (J. ALBERT ROBINSON), 626 WEET) , 703 Salaries, Foundation Principles for Grad- Roosevelt, Theodore, as a Book Lover ing-A Pennsylvania Plan (F. E. (CORINNE ROOSEVELT [ DOUGLAS] ROBIN- DOWNES), 823 SON), 719 Salaries, Report of the Committee on ROOT, ROSAMOND-The Preparation of (D. B. WALDO) , 140 Teachers for a Democratized Rural Salary Differences, if Any, Based on the School, 572 Rank or Class of the Teacher (FRANK W. RUGGLES, C. O.-The Articulation of BALLOU) , 840; (JESSE H. NEWLON) , 841 Secondary and Higher Education in Salary Schedules, How Shall Merit Be Business, 369 Expressed in ? (IRA I. CAMMАСК) , 844 Rules oftheFirstRepresentativeAssembly SANDERSON, DWIGHT-Some Fundamentals of the National EducationAssociation, of Rural Community Organization, 549 1921, 26 SARGEANT, IDE G.-The Elementary School Rural Community Organization, Some and the Readjustments of the Next Ten Fundamentals of (DWIGHT SANDERSON), Years, 444 549 Scholarship and Growth in Scholarship, Rural Education, The Aims of (WILLIAM Relation of, to Merit and Pay (DAVID B. C. BAGLEY) , 694 CORSON) , 837 Rural Education, Department of: Secre- School Administration, Department of, tary's Minutes : Atlantic City Meeting, Secretary's Minutes : Atlantic City 523 ; Des Moines Meeting, 600; Resolu- Meeting, 617; Des Moines Meeting, 641 tions, 525; Constitution and By-Laws, School Architecture, Best Current Practice 527 in (JOHN J. DONOVAN), 642 Rural-Education Departments in Normal School Building, The Comprehensive (F. Ε. Schools, Initial Steps in the Development CLERK) , 630; (S. O. HARTWELL) , 636 ; of (HETTY S. BROWNE) , 557 (WILLIAM B. ITTNER), 633 ; (STANLEY Rural Elementary-School Curriculum, MACOMBER) , 638; (DWIGHT H. PER- Principles Underlying the (FANNIE W. KINS), 632 DUNN) , 570 School Building, The, in Its Reaction on Rural Recreation and Social Life Outline the Teacher's Work (ETHEL M. GARD- ofReport to Committee on Rural Educa- NER), 404 tion of the National Council of Education School Children, Health Supervision of, (MACY CAMPBELL) , 355 on a State-Wide Basis (C. P. KNIGHT), Rural-School Administration and the 379 County Unit, The Relation of the Village School Derelict, The (ELIZABETH KELLY), to the (GEORGE A. SELKE), 604 701 Rural School Democracy emocracy through Efficient School Health Service in New York State Administration (ALBERT S. COOK) Соок), 575 (WILLIAM A. HOWE), 384 Rural School, The-The Great Problem in School Library, The Purpose of the American Education ( ERNEST BURN- (SHERMAN WILLIAMS), 488 HAM) , 699 School Management, Participation of Rural School, The Importance of the (W. Teachers in (HARLAN UPDEGRAFF) , 284 L. HARDING), 692 School Patrons, Department of, Secretary's Rural Schools, Can Adequate Financial Minutes, 653 Support Be Secured for ? (GEORGE L. School Plant, Curriculum Organization and TOWNE) , 358 the (MARIE ANDERSON) , 648 Rural Schools, Financial Support for (N. Schoolhouse and the Immigrant, The R. BAKER), 547 (I. B. MORGAN) , 862 INDEX 881 Schoolhouse Planning, Safety to Life in Social Study in the Upper Grades, A Pro- (S. A. CHALLMAN), 627 ; (FRANK IRVING ject Basis for (JOHN A. LONG) , 432 COOPER) , 629; (T. ALFRED FLEMING), Socialization of the Six-Year High School 623; (J. ALBERT ROBINSON), 626 through the Organization of Student Schooling of the Immigrant (FRANK V. Activities (BURTON P. FOWLER) , 672 THOMPSON), 758 Sources of Revenue, Report of the Com- Science Instruction, Department of, Sec- mittee on (WILLIAM B. OWEN) , 138 retary's Minutes, 663 Specific Teaching, Analysis of Learning Scientific Measurement as a Basis for the Processes and (CHARLES H. JUDD), 783 Improvement of Instruction, The Use of SPENCER, CASSIE R.-Supervision for (F. B. KNIGHT) , 450 Growth, 572 Scientific Measurements as a Basis for Standardization, Improving Rural Schools Instruction, The Use of (CARROLL R. by (EDITH A. LATHROP) , 354 REED), 448 Standards of Measuring Achievements of Kindergarten-Primary Children, Sug- SCOTT, ZENOS E.-Improving Teachers in gestions for Deriving (CARL G. F. Service, 773 FRANZEEN) , 467 Seattle School System, The Ideals and Standards of Physical Growth, New, and Accomplishments of the (FRANK B. Their Use in Nutrition Classes: Abstract COOPER), 714 (B. T. BALDWIN) , 391 Secondary Education, Department of, State Administration of Schools (E. W. Secretary's Minutes, 667 BUTTERFIELD) , 362 Secondary and Higher Education in Busi- State and Local Associations Affiliated with ness, The Articulation of (C. O. RUG- the National Education Association- GLES), 369 Charter Members, Including Those Secondary Schools, Qualifications for Which Affiliated before the First Meet- Teaching Commercial Subjects in (G. F. ing of the Representative Assembly at KNIPPRATH) , 373 Des Moines, 251 Secondary Schools, Sex Education for State Program, The, in Education and Its (BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG), 675 Bearing upon the National Program Secretary, Report of the, 208 (THOMAS E. FINEGAN), 116; (Τ. Ε. SEERLEY, HOMER H.-The Expansion of JOHNSON) , 125 ; (GEORGE H. REAVIS), Education, 272 ; The Struggle for Power 122 in American Educational Systems, 337 Status of the Superintendent, The (Tenta- Segregation in Ability Groups as a Means tive Report eport of the Committee on the of Taking into Account Individual Status of the Superintendent) (CHARLES Differences (RAY H. BRACEWELL) , 674 E. CHADSEY) , 812 SELKE, GEORGE A.-The Relation of the STEWART, DONALD F.- The Plan Whereby Village to the Rural-School Administra- the People Shall Have the Means of tion and the County Unit, 604 Knowing the Truth about Our Country, Service for Others, Does the College 859 Emphasize, to the Detriment of Personal STRAYER, GEORGE D.-Report of Legisla- Development ? (FLORENCE PURINGTON), tive Commission, 159 418 STUNTZ, HOMER C.-Educating the Other Service the School Is Rendering the Com- Half, 37 munity, How May the Public Under- Sub-Committee on Consolidation of stand What ? (THOMAS E. FINEGAN) , 803 Schools, Report of (ADELAIDE STEELE Sex Education for Secondary Schools BAYLOR), 352 (BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG) , 675 Summary of Accounts, 240 SEXSON, JOHN A.-The American Program Superintendence, Department of, Sec- in Education as It Is Related to the retary's Minutes: Atlantic City Meet- Work of the Principal, 77 ing, 679 SHIELDS, GRACE M.-How Can the Project Superintendent, How Shall the, Spend His Be Safeguarded ? 430 Time ? (CHARLES S. MEEK) , 728 SIMS, JOHN F.-Teacher-Training and Superintendent, The Status of the (Tenta- Demonstration Schools, 350 tive Report of the Committee on the Six-Year High School, Socialization of the, Status of the Superintendent) (CHARLES through gh the Organization of Student E. CHADSEY) , 812 Activities (BURTON P. FOWLER) , 672 Superintendent's Time, Best Use of the SNYDER, HENRY- The Probable Future of (JAMES H. VAN SICKLE) , 727 ; (CHARL Education in the United States-Its O. WILLIAMS), 738; (H. B. WILSON), 733 Policies and Programs, 743 Supervision for Growth (MAUDE NEW- Social Hygiene in the Public Schools BURY), 544; (CASSIE R. SPENCER), 572 (BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG), 663 Support of Local Schools, The Participa- Social Hygiene in the Schools (CHARLES E. tion of State and Nation in the (M. C. BARKER), 54 POTTER) , 847 882 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Survey for Aristocracy or Democracy Trained Women in Education, Position and (A. E. WINSHIP), 302 Responsibility of (SUSAN M. DORSEY), Survey of the Survey, A (A. E. WINSHIP) , 413 363 Training County Superintendents and Teacher Councils (E. J. ORTMAN) , 293 Rural Supervisors in Service (ADELAIDE Teacher Progress by Collective Organiza- M. AYER), 539 tion, Minutes of Open Forum on, 305 Treasurer of the National Education Teacher-Training and Demonstration Association, Report of the, June 1, 1920 Schools (JOHN F. SIMS) , 350 -May 31 , 1921, 239 Teacher's Opportunity, A, from a Health Truth about Our Country, The Plan Officer's Viewpoint (H. O. JONES) , 386 Whereby the People Shall Have the Teachers, Merit Promotion of (KNAPP) , 820 Means of Knowing the (DONALD F. Teachers, The Rating of (HENRY D. STEWART) , 859 HERVEY) , 825 University Women, The International Teacher's Responsibility, The, to the Board Federation of (ADA COMSTOCK), 416 of Education (EDWARD A. FITZPATRICK) , 400 UPDEGRAFF, HARLAN-Participation of Teachers' Salaries, Fundamental Principles Teachers in School Management, 284 of Grading (EDWARD S. EVENDEN), 817 Use of the Superintendent's Time, Best Teachers' Salaries, A Massachusetts Plan (JAMES H. VAN SICKLE), 727 ; (CHARLO. of Grading ( U. G. WHEELER) , 822 WILLIAMS), 738 ; (H. B. WILSON) , 733 Teachers in Service, Improving (ZENOS E. VANDEWALKER, NINA C.-Report on Two Scott) , 773 Meetings, 462 Teacher's Work, The School Building in VAN SICKLE, James H.-Best Use of the Its Reaction on the (ETHEL M. GARD- Superintendent's Time, 727 NER), 404 Village School, Improvement of the (W. S. Teaching Americanism, What One Repre- DEFFENBAUGH) , 531 sentative City Is Doing in Teaching Visual Education, Preliminary Report of Americanism (FRANK CODY) , 759 the Committee on, 139 Teaching Commercial Subjects in Second- Vitalizing the Teaching of Hygiene (F. M. Qualifications for (G. F. ary Schools, Qualifications GREGG), 394 KNIPPRATH) , 373 Vocational Agriculture, Stimulating Inter- Teaching First and Second Graders Health est in, through Junior Club Activities Habits (FLORENCE A. POWELL) , 396 in the Schools (FRANCES H. CLARK), 563 Tenure, Report of the Committee on Vocational Agriculture, Stimulating Inter- (CHARL O. WILLIAMS) , 145 est in, through Junior Project Work Tests and Measurements in Rural Schools (J. D. BLACKWELL) , 560 -Tentative Conclusions from the Special Vocational Education, Equipment for Investigation Being Carried on for the (GEORGE B. THOMAS), 649 Committee on Rural Education (FRED Vocational Education and Practical Arts, D. CRAM) , 357 Department of, Secretary's Minutes : Textbooks, How to Improve-Sensing the Atlantic City Meeting, 851 ; Des Moines Demand (B. E. DILL), 421 Meeting, 851 Textbooks, Informing the Public of Rela- Waitsfield Experiment, The (MARION tive Cost of (E. L. HOLTON), 425 DANA), 535 Thirty-fifth Annual Report of the Board of WALDO, D. B.-Report of Committee on Trustees on the Permanent Fund from Salaries, 140 June 1, 1920 to May 31, 1921 , 243 WARD, L. C.-Is the Junior High School THOMAS, GEORGE B.-Equipment for "Delivering the Goods " ?-Negative, Vocational Education, 649 835 THOMPSON, FRANK V.-Schooling of the WASSON, PEARL R.-Fundamental Ethical Immigrant, 758 Problems of Today, 417 Thrift Education (ARTHUR H. CHAMBER- Waste in Education (H. R. BONNER) , 795 LAIN), 315 WEET, HERBERT S.--Relation of Difficulty Thrift Education, Report of Committee on of Position and Quantity of Work to (ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN), 167 Pay, 843 ; Some Ideals and Accomplish- TIGERT, J. J.-Address before the National ments of the Rochester School System, Council, 341 703 TOWNE, GEORGE L.-Can Adequate Finan- WELSH, LILIAN-Health Instruction and cial Support Be Secured for Rural Health Supervision, 410 Schools ? 358 WHEELER, U. G.-A Massachusetts Plan TOWNER, HORACE MANN-National Aid of Grading Teachers' Salaries, 822 for Education, 786 Wider Use of Schoolhouses, Department of Trachoma, Wiping, Out of the Lincoln the, Secretary's Minutes, 859 Public Schools (KATHERINE H. K. WILLARD, F. E.-Relation of Years of WOLFE), 397 Experience to Merit and Pay, 839 INDEX 883 WILLIAMS, CHARL O.-The Best Use of the of Committee on Health Problems in Superintendent's Time, 738 ; Report of Education, 157 the Committee on Tenure, 145 Work of the Classroom Teacher, The WILLIAMS, SHERMAN-The Purpose of the American Program in Education as It Is School Library, 488 Related to the (PHEBE MATHEWS) , 83 ; WILSON, H. B.-Best Use of the Super- (AGNES S. WINN) , 78 intendent's Time, 733 Work of the Normal Schools and Teacher- WINN, AGNES S.-The American Program Training Institutions, The American in Education as It Is Related to the Program in Education as It Is Related Work of the Classroom Teacher, 78 to the (JOHN A. H. KEITH), 93 ; (F. J. WINSHIP, A. E.-Survey for Aristocracy or KELLY) , 89; (JOHN R. KIRK), 96; Democracy, 302; A Survey of the (ROBERT H. WRIGHT) , 87 Survey, 363 Work of the Principal, The American Pro- WOLFE, KATHERINE H. K.-Wiping Tra- gram in Education as It Is Related to choma Out of the Lincoln Public Schools, the (JOHN A. SEXSON), 77; (J. J. 397 ZMRHAL), 74 Women in Education , Position and Working Conditions, Desirable, More Responsibility of Trained (SUSAN M. Attractive than Salary (JOSEPHINE DORSEY) , 413 COLBY), 402 Women of the United States, Education of WRIGHT, ROBERT H.-The American Pro- the (AURELIA HENRY REINHARDT) , 65 gram in Education as It Is Related to WOOD, STELLA LOUISE-The Unity in the Work of the Normal Schools and Aims and Principles of the Kindergarten Teacher-Training Institutions, 87 and Early Grades , 463 ZACHERT, A. B.-Joy Reading in the WOOD, THOMAS D.-An Efficient Plan for Elementary Grades, 476 Control and Prevention of Communic- ZMRHAL, J. J.-The American Program in able Diseases in Schools, 378; The Education as It Is Related to the Work Health Crisis in Education, 306; Report of the Principal, 74 : Date Loaned 14063 28MY 64 MR 185 MY 200 Demco 292-5 89008768962 689008768962a