1 I >>\ v^ (AJZ K/f. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/addressesproceed58natiuoft ADDRESSES AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE , NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES EWat A,^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION '"' OF THE UNITED STATES Addresses and Proceedings OF THE FIFTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH JULY 4-IO 1920 VOLUME LVm «# % 1920 publisbt bi? tbc Hssoctation secretary's office, WASHINGTON, D.C. / Id lUo Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois. U.S.A. CONTENTS \ PAGE Act of Incorporation i By-Laws 5 Calendar of Meetings 14 Officers for 1919-20 17 Secretary's Minutes of General Sessions . . . . 21 GENERAL SESSIONS Introductory Remarks — Smith 29 Address of Welcome — Child 30 Response to Address of Welcome — Winship 31 The National Council of Education — Seerley 33 President's Address — Preston 35 The National Education Association as the Interpreter of American Civilization — Bradford 39 A National Program for Education — Strayer 41 The Recognition of the Relation of Education to Our National Life: I. Jones 48 11. Wood 50 Adequate Pay for Teachers — Claxton 55 Americanization — Burrall 58 The Stranger within Our Gates — Clark . . . . " 60 How We Are Training for Citizenship in Our Public Schools — Cooper ... 63 How Are We Teaching Citizenship in Our Schools ? — Benezet 64 How Citizenship Is Taught in the Schools of Los Angeles — Dorsey .... 66 What the War Has Contributed toward Teaching Citizenship — Benton ... 68 Are We Getting Proper Returns from Industrial Education in Our Public Schools? — Greer 73 The Farm Woman's Problems — Ward 75 The Nation's Duty to the Health of the School Children— Wood .... 79 Health Education — Jean 81 Sports to Build Bodies — Pearse 83 Health Education in Utah — Gowans 84 Health Crusade Work in Wyoming — Slade .85 Health Education — McN aught 87 The School Board's Place in the Educational System: 1. Iverson 88 II. Miller 89 What Should Be Done to Keep High-Class Superintendents in the Schools ? I. Bradford 90 II. Geiger 91 The Part the Teacher Should Play in the School Administration — Clark. . . 93 The Place of Classroom Teachers in the Administration of School Affairs — Skinner 95 The Part the Teacher Should Play in the Administration of the School System: I. Herron 94- II. Winn iw 97 ^ V • VI NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION . ... PAGE The Teacher m Administration — Adair 99 Definite Objectives in Education — Sisson loo Education: The Defense of the American Home — Arnold 103 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Salt Lake City Meeting Secretary's Minutes 107 The National Council's Future — Seerley m City Systems — Wilson . . . . ^ 113 Rural Schools — Sims 116 Thrift Readjustment and Progress — Chamberlain 117 Discussion: I. Jensen 121 II. Blake . 123 III. Muir 124 IV. Winship 125 V. Sherman 126 VI. Adams 127 VII. Gwinn 129 VEIL Lester 129 IX. Dorsey 130 X. Ryan ' 132 XL Stehhins 133 Extension Systems for Improving Teachers in the Service — Minkel . . . . 135 What Is New in Our Point of View ? — McCoy 136 The Next Step in the Study of Consolidation — Baylor 138 The Organization of Rural High Schools — Muir 141 The Call to Arms in 1920 — Preston 143 Forty Years of the National Coimcil of Education — Aley 144 Preliminary Report on Tenure of Teachers — Swain 147 The Salary Situation with Remedies — Chamberlain 154 The Tenure of Teachers — Ferguson 158 Cleveland Meeting Secretary's Minutes 160 Report of the President with Recommendations as to Policies and Plans for the Guidance of the Present Administration — Seerley 163 Teachers' College Problems — Felmley 164 Program of Constructive Work — Judd 167 Thrift and Conservation — Chamberlain 169 The Need for Teaching a Democratic Solution of Social Problems — Yocum. . 172 Report of the Sub-Committee on Curriculum of the Committee on Superintendents' Problems — Yocum 174 The Participation of the Teaching Staff in School Administration — Wilson. . 176 Democracy in Management of the Schools — Stillman 178 Participation of Teachers in Management, Comparison of Theories, and Suggested Study for Their Evaluation — Updegraf 180 Report for Committee on Health Problems in Education — Wood . . . . 184 Health Service — Dodson 185 Discussion — Wood 187 The Main Issue of the Year — Preston . 188 CONTENTS ' vii DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION PAGE Secretary's Minutes 191 Necessity for Activity and Experiment for the Education of Little Children — Cunningham . 192 The Elindergarten Makes Adequate Provision for the Children's Physical Develop- ment— Ezekiels 193 Mental Testing for All Kindergarten Children — Dickson ...... 196 Individual Differences in Kindergarten Children — Woods 198 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 203 The Value of Instruction in Accident Prevention as a Factor in Unifying the Curriculum — Payne 204 Making Language a Real Part of the Curriculum — Driggs 205 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 209 The High School's Part in the Making of a Greater America — Engleman . . 209 Is the Teaching of English in the High School Functioning Effectively ? — Dukes . 213 The Need of Standardizing the Qualifications of Deans for High Schools — Willson 215 Some Problems of the Junior High School — Gugle 217 The Six-year Unified High School versus the Senior and Junior High Schools — Shafer 221 Influence of the World War on Secondary Education — Beveridge . . . . 227 DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 231 The Emergency in Higher Education — Zook * 231 The Freshman Class in 1940 — West and Koos . ' 235 DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS Salt Lake City Meeting Secretary's Minutes 237 Religious Education — Lewis ^ 238 The Reasons Why All Teachers Should Have Preparation Equivalent to That Required for Good Secondary Instruction — Peterson . . . . . . 239 A Story of Rural Education Reorganization — Seerley 240 Discussion — Powell 243 Effective Democracy in the Faculty and the Administration of a State Teachers' College — Zeigel 244 Student Self-Government in Teacher-Training Institutions — Evans .... 248 Discussion of Paper on Student Government — Bennion 250 Cleveland Meeting ' Secretary's Minutes 251 Intelligence Tests — Harvey 252 The Personal Qualifications of Instructors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exemplifying Hygiene and Physical Education Tests in Teacher-Producing Institutions with View to Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests inJthe^Schools — Reed 254 viii NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE The Personal Qualifications of Instructors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exemplifying Hygiene and Physical Education Tests in Teacher-Training Institutions, with a View to the Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests in the Public Schools — Heilman 256 Should Salaries in Teachers' Colleges and Normal Schools Parallel Salaries in Universities ? If So, Why ? If Not, Why Not ? — Brown 260 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 263 Retail Selling as a Factor in Commercial Education — Morris 264 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes ' ... 269 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION Salt Lake City Meeting Secretary's Minutes 271 Some Inmiediate Demands for Community Service — Ager 272 Rural Schools That Serve Effectively — Crawford 274 School Progress in Pioneer Communities — Williams 275 Some Immediate Requirements for Rural School Betterment — Sims . . . 277 Cleveland Meeting Secretary's Minutes . . t ^ 278 Some Needs of Rural Education Which May Be Met thru This Department of the National Education Association — Allan 280 The State of Maine Vlaji— Thomas . . . . ' 282 The Country Life Movement at Home and Abroad — Butterfield .... 284 State Requirements and Standards — Hale 286 Rural School Activities — Heistand 288 The Zone Plan of Supervision — Pittman 289 Securing an Adequate Supply of Prepared Teachers for Negro Rural Schools — Favrot 292 Practice-Teaching for Prospective Rural Teachers — Black 295 Holding Students Up to Standard thru Follow-Up Work and Extension Activi- ties— Curran 297 Securing Recognition of the Rural Problem in Teacher-Training Institutions — Hill 299 Resolutions Passt by the Department of Rural Education 301 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Secretary's Minutes 305 Elementary Science: What, Why, and How ? — Johnson 305 Just a Word about Education — Holden 306 DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 309 CONTENTS IX DEPARTMENTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND CHILD HYGIENE PAGE Secretary's Minutes 311 The Physical Director and Social Ethics — Stewart 312 Success of Nutrition in Classes in Boston and Chicago — Hedger . . . .313 The Fundamentals Underlying Economic Fitness — Kleeberger 315 Medical and Physical Examinations — Their Value and Scope— Stookey . . . 317 Health Education — Jean 3^8 Discussion — Brown 3^9 Discussion: The Health Crusade— Ga«e« ' . . . 321 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Salt Lake City Meeting Secretary's Minutes 323 President's Address — Wunderlich 324 Adoption of Program of Constructive Measures as a Forward §tep in School Administration — Freece 325 Eighty- Year Fluctuations in the Cost of American School Bmldmg^— Burgess . 329 Determining the Number of Rooms for a Departmental School Building^Coo^er . 330 Clevelaito Meeting Secretary's Minutes 333 Economy in Schoolhouse Planning and Construction — McCornack .... 333 Vocational Guidance and Placement — Leavitt . . 335 The Influence of the War on Vocational Education — Brace 337 Part-Time Schools — Vaughn 34° DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Secretary's Minutes 343 The Menace of the Teacher Shortage — Reilley 344 A Brief View of One Year's Experience in New York State with Classes for Non- English-Speaking Women — Woodward 345 America's Pledge to the World — Sisson 348 Downfall of Autocracy — Winship 350 The Teacher's Salary as a Factor in Establishing Cast — Fahey . . . . 351 DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN Secretary's Minutes 357 Student Government — Kerr 358 Problems of the Curriculimi — Johnston 361 The Problems of the Social Life of College Women — Simrall 363 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS Secretary's Minutes 365 The Health of School Children a Commtmity Problem — Wood 365 Utah's Health Legislation — Gowans 367 Health Organization Work in Public Schools — Jean . 369 School Revenue and Its Effect — McN aught 371 A Child's Study Period — Anderson 373 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION LIBRARY DEPARTMENT PAGE Secretary's Minutes 375 Summary of Introductory Remarks — Rice . . 377 Relation of the Public Schools to Various Library Agencies — Downey . . , 378 The Public Library and the School — Sprague 379 Picture Material for Geography Classes — Burr all 382 Some Plans in Operation for Stimulating Home Reading by School Children — Wolcott . 383 School Libraries and Americanization — Morgan 386 The Present Status of the High-School Library in the United States — Walker . 387 Thrift in Reading — Fowler 391 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS , Secretary's Minutes 395 Is There Need for a New T3^e of Text in High-School English ? — Driggs . . 395 How Should Textbooks Be Selected? — The Superintendent's Point of View — Siders 397 The Selection of Textbooks from the Publisher's Point of View — Taber . . . 399 Limiting the Spurious Output of Textbooks thru Editing — Searson .... 401 DEPARTMENT OF WIDER USE OF SCHOOLHOUSES Secretary's Minutes ' 403 The Night Schools in Kansas City, Kansas — Morgan 403 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Secretary's Minutes 407 Resolutions of Department of Superintendence 410 The Democratization of Supervision — Hosic . . . 414 The Socialized Recitation — Pendleton 416 Dollar Education — Lewis 418 America's Gift to France — Miles 420 Five Decades of Educational Progress — Winship 422 Current Tendencies and Problems in Education — Himelick 424 The New School— Po^n 428 Teachers' Salaries — Withers . . . 431 Methods of Financing Large City School Systems — Ettinger 434 Planning a Comprehensive Building Program — Packer 437 The Teaching of Patriotism — Gildemeister > . 438 Americanization under the New Hampshire Law — Brooks 441 A Federal Department of Education: Burris 444 Bagley 449 Teachers' Associations — Coffman . 4S8 Constructive Factors in American Education — Garber 466 The Greatest Need in Public Education Today-— Wise and Responsible Leader- ship— Hartwell 468 The Educational Challenge of the Present World Situation — King . . . . 469 Compulsory Character Education — Smith 47 1 Physical Education in New Jersey — Maroney 474 The Denver Opportunity School — Cole . . . . 477 CONTENTS XI PAGE Some Problems of Administration Confronting the Public Jimior College — Davis . 478 Shortage of Teachers — Harvey 480 Teacher Shortage from the Standpoint of a Coimty Superintendent — Eolloway . 482 Suggestions for a Practicable and EjEfective Program of Americanization — Shiels . 484 Americanization — Snyder 487 The Making of a State Department of Public Instruction — Cary .... 490 The Functions and Organization of the State Department of Education Considered in the Light of Present Needs and Plans — Hines 493 The Problem of an Adequate Number of Adequately Trained Teachers — Finley . 495 Teacher Recruiting — Pearson . . , 497 Financing a Modern School Program — Shawkey 499 Supervised Study in the Grades — Hall-Quest . . 502 Strengthening the Superintendency — Broome 505 Continuous School Census — Davis 508 School Surveys as Professional Reading — Wiley 510 Elimination of Waste in Education — Shearer . . . 513 Democracy in School Administration — Blanton . . . . . , . . 515 Regulations on Schoolhouse Construction in the United States in the Year 1920 — Cooper . 518 Golden Deeds in Character Education — Cassidy 523 The Relation of Silent Reading to Efl&ciency in Study — Horn . . . . . 526 The Present Status of the Junior High School — Benson . . . . . . 528 Teaching Citizenship — Lewis 531 Modern Health Crusade — DeForest 535 Teachers* Salaries and Salary Schedules in the United States, 1918-1919 . . 537 Secretary's Report 703 Treasurer's Report, June i, 1919, to May 31, 1920 — Matthews 707 Thirty-fourth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees, June i, 1919, to May 31, 1920 711 Necrology 713 Index 715 s NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1857-187O The National Teachers Association Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Purpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. The name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the "National Educational Association." 1870-1907 National Educational Association Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, "National Education Association," which was changed to "National Educational Association," by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- National Education Association of the United States Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the "National Educational Association." The charter was accepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Con- vention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: Section i. That the following named persons, who are now officers and directors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeffer, *Eliphalet Oram Lyte, *John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews, of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, *George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O'Con- nor, *Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; *George W. Twitmyer of Delaware; *J. Ormond Wilson, *William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, * Deceased. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of the District of Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; *Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, *Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, *Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; *Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, *Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; *Warren Easton, of Louisiana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot, *Mary H, Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, *Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, *James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska; *Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey; *Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; *James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, *William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; *Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; *Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert Lange, of South Dakota; *Eugene F. Turner, of Teimessee; Lloyd ^. Wolfe, of Texas; David H. Christensen, of Utah; *Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; *Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by the name of the "National Edu- cation Assocation of the United States," and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Edu- cation; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Depart- ment; skteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the nimiber and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its by-laws. Sec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not inconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the Constitution of the United States; to take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorpora- tion; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. ■"Deceased. ACT OF INCORPORATION Sec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia, which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corpora- tion as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation; provided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corporation; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year Sec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members — viz., active, associate, and corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the by-laws of the corporation. Sec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vice- Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Conmiittee, and a Board of Trustees. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacan- cies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the by-laws of the corporation. The Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows : the President of the Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Direc- tors, to serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Director for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect one tTustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unex- pired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership. Sec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the "Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association," when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trus- tees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two- thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall other- wise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treas- urer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. "When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceedmg five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treas- urer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. Sec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Wash- ington, District of Columbia; provided, That the meetings of the corporation, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the by-laws. Sec. 9. That the charter, constitution, and by-laws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new by-laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Association shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to\)rganize the "National Educa- tion Association of the United States "; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, pro- vided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty- first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District of Columbia. Sec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released BY-LAWS or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obli- gations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corpora- tion had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. Sec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Sec. 12. That said corporation may provide by amendment to its by-laws that powers of active members exercised at the annual meeting in the election of officers and transaction of business shall be vested in and exercised by a representative assembly com- posed of delegates apportioned, elected and governed in accordance with the provisions of the by-laws adopted by said corporation. Section i-ii were past by Congress and approved by the President June 30, 1906. They were accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Education Associa- tion of the United States by the active members of the National Education Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. Section 1 2 was past by Congress and approved by the President of the United States May 13, 1920, as an amendment to the original act of Incorporation. It was accepted and adopted as an amendment to the Constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members thereof in annual session at Salt Lake City, Utah, July 9, 1920. BY-LAWS [Complete as amended at the Annual Business Session, Salt Lake City, July 9, 1920 ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP Section i. The membership of the National Education Association of the United States shall consist of three classes. Active, Associate, and Corresponding, whose quali- fications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. Sec. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work at the time of their becoming members. Sec. 3. The annual dues of an active member shall be $2.00, which shall entitle him to attend all meetings of the Association and its several departments, to receive the Bulletin free, and, on application, to secure all publications of the Association at a price fixt by the Publication Committee, which shall be the approximate cost. By the payment of annual dues of $5.00 an active member shall receive, in addition to the Bulletin, without application or other condition, the volume of Proceedings and all other regular publications of the Association, including reports of committees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 4. All life members and life directors shall have all the rights and privileges of active members without the payment of annual dues, and shall receive free without application or condition the publications of the Association. Sec. s Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not actively engaged in the profession of teaching, but interested in the promotion of education. The annual dues of an associate member shall be the same as the dues of an active member and he shall have the same rights and privileges excepting the right to vote and hold office. Sec. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board of Directors as Corresponding Members. The nimiber of corresponding members shall NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION not at any time exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the publications of the Association. Sec. 7. The annual dues of all members shall be paid at the time of the annual meeting of the Association or shall be sent to the Secretary on or before November i. An active member failing to pay his dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privileges of membership and after being in arrears one year shall be dropt from the list of members. Sec. 8. The membership year shall be the same as the fiscal year of the Association, from Jufte i, to May 31, inclusive. New members may join at any time, and the mem- bership of those joining between March i and June i shall extend to the end of the fol- lowing membership year. Those joining after January i may, if they so elect, have their dues apply to membership for the following year. Sec. 9. The Secretary of the Association shall furnish each member of the Association a Membership Card, declaring him to be a member of the National Education Association for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such entitled to all the rights and privileges granted by the Charter and By-laws of the Association. Sec. 10. The right to vote shall be limited to active members of the Association whose dues are paid. The right to hold office in the Association or in any department shall be limited to active members whose dues are paid. The right to vote and hold office in the Council shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Each active member shall have one vote. ARTICLE II— ELECTION OF OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS Section i. The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Directors of the Association shall be chosen by the Representative Assembly by ballot, at the annual business meeting, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their suc- cessors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in oflSce during the terms for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. Sec. 3. The State Teachers Association or Educational Association of a state, territory, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each Affiliated State Asso- ciation shall be a state unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled to representation in the Representative Assembly as herein- after provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Association shall be $10.00 for each delegate to which said state shall be entitled, with a maximum of $100.00. Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the Volume of Proceedings, reports of committees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 4. A local educational association or teachers' organization within a state, territory, or district may affiliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be a local unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled to representation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated Local Association shall be $5 . 00, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, including the Volume of Proceedings, reports of committees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. BY-LAWS Sec. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both state and local, shall be furnisht a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and support of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such affiliated association and its members in so far as such interests come within the purpose and object of the National Education Association as set forth in its Charter. The Secretary of the National Edu- cation Association shall, with the advice and approval of the Executive Committee, make such arrangements for mutual cooperation between the National Education Asso- ciation and the State and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interests of the teaching profession. Sec. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association, up to five hundred such active members, and thereafter one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. Sec. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. Sec, 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the election of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but one Affiliated Local Association. Sec. 9. The officers of the National Education Association as named in the Charter and the State Superintendent or Commissioner of Education of each state, territory, and district, shall be ex officio delegates to the Representative Assembly. The President of the Association shall preside at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly and the Secretary of the Association shall keep the records thereof. In case of a tie the President shall cast the deciding vote. Sec. 10. Delegates shall file their credentials with the Secretary of the Association on blanks furnisht by him for that purpose not later than ten days before the beginning of the annual meeting. The Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credential Committee, when appointed, with such information thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Association. The Representative Assembly shall be the final judge of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meetings of the Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertaining to the Association. The Representative Assembly shall adopt rules of procedure which shall not conflict with the Charter and by-laws of the Association. It shall recommend an equitable plan for paying the expenses of delegates to the annual busiifess meeting of the Association. Sec. II. The officers shall be permitted to hold meetings other than for business purposes and expenses therefor shall be provided. ARTICLE III— DUTIES OF OFFICERS Section i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association. In his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association, and, with the approval of the Executive Committee, shall determine the time and place of the general meeting of the Association and of the various departments not definitely 8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION fixt by these by-laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in the programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and chair- man of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized by the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Directors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vice-President for the ensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication. Sec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Association as provided in the articles of incorporation and the by-laws, and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, shall be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and, in the absence of direction by the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the President, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer, shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings of the Board of Directors, or on the approval of the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meetings of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary of the Board of Directors, and a member of the Committee on Publication. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all money, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish, nor distribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Publication Committee. Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of the Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall pay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of the Association and the chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever tjie surplus funds in his possession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirty- first day of May of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than July I, and when approved by said committee they shall be transmitted by the committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting and to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his tenn of oflBice, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and Other property in his possession belonging to the Association. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed by Section 6 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council of Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power to fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees; shall recommend to the Executive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association, the Council of Education, and the departments. The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred under authority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee, or the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or BY-LAWS Executive Committee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting for the work of all special committees of research and investigation authorized and provided for at the annual business meetings, shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees) to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. Sec. s. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging for the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of the various departments. The Executive Committee shall recommend to Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active membership of the National Education Association or by any of its depart- ments; it shall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such investi- gations. When such special committees are provided for and duly authorized by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision of them, shall receive and consider all reports made by them, and shall print such reports, and present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to, the Representative Assembly at the annual busi- ness meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the office of Secretary. Sec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds of such amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful performance of their duties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Com- mittee not later than July r prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Asso- ciation. It shall choose annually its own chairman and secretary. ARTICLE IV— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Section i. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual meeting on "Educational Progress during the Past Year"; and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. Sec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred and twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Asso- ciation. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected. Sec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory, nor district in the United States shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council. Sec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. 10 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Sec. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive amiual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denominated honorary- members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association with the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council. Sec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president, a secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secretary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties pertaining to his oflSce, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication. Sec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws or its government not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or the by-laws of the Association; provided, That such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative. Sec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolisht upon a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly taken at the annual meeting of the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V— DEPARTMENTS Section i. The following departments are now (1920) in existence, to wit: The departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Vocational Education and Practical Arts; sixth, of Kindergarten Education; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of Secon- dary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth, of Child Hygiene; eleventh, of Physical Education; twelfth, of Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School Administration; fourteenth, the Library Department; fifteenth, of Special Education; sixteenth of School Patrons; seventeenth, of Rural Education; eighteenth, of Classroom Teachers; nineteenth, for the Promotion of the Wider Use of Schoolhouses; twentieth, of Edu- cational Publications; twenty-first, Deans of Women. Sec. 2. The active members of the Association, and no others, are members of each department of the Association. Sec. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold its annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined by said department, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the Association. Sec. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session of business or informal roundtable conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers. Sec. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice-president, and a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their election, be active members of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of president of any of the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the President of the Association. Any other departmental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the president of the department. BY-LAWS II Sec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the department for publication. Sec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception stated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section i of this article in the order of their establishment and shall be dropt from the list when discontinued. Each department may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or these by-laws. Sec. 8. A new department may be establisht by a two-thirds vote of the Board of Directors taken at a regular meeting of the board or by a two-thirds vote of the Repre- sentative Assembly at any annual business meeting; provided, That a written application for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding annual business meeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the field of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be establisht. A department already establisht may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any business meeting of the Association; provided, That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the preceding year, or at the preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it fails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years. ARTICLE VI— COMMITTEES Section i. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors on the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee consisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a trustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided in Section 6 of this article; and the committee shall report its findings at the meeting of the Representative Assembly. Sec. 2. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association, tlie state and local delegates from each state shall select one member for each of the following committees: Credentials, Nominations, Resolutions, and Necrology. The Committee on Credentials shall receive the official list of the delegates from the Secretary and report thereon to the Representative Assembly. Sec. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the third day of the annual meeting at 9:00 a.m., at a place designated by the President of the Association, and shall nominate persons, for the following offices in the Association, to wit : one person for President, eleven persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from each state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board of Directors, It shall report to the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting. Sec. 4. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting of Representative Assembly, and, except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee without discussion. This committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announst in the printed program, for the purpose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them. Sec. 5. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the publisht Proceedings a list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year, accompanied by memorial sketches whenever practicable. Sec. 6. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual rneeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licenst to do business 12 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and compare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of the said accountants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors, at their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association. ARTICLE VII— MEETINGS Section i. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education, and of each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance with these by-laws. An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies may be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two-thirds of the directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee. Sec, 2. The annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly shall begin on the second day of the annual meeting at 9:00 a.m. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting at 10:30 a.m. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announst in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately fol- lowing the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to above in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman, and shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shallbe given to every member of the board by the secretary thereof. ARTICLE VIII— PROCEEDINGS Section i. The proceedings of the Association, the Council, the departments, the commissions and committees, shall be publisht at the discretion of and under the direction of a committee appointed by the executive committee, provided, That in the opinion of the executive committee the funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. Sec. 2. No paper, lecture, nor address shall be read before the Association or any of the departments in the absence of the author, without the approval of the President of the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be publisht in the Proceedings without the approval of the Publication Committee. ARTICLE IX— QUORUM Section i. Representatives from twenty-five states and territories shall constitute a quorum in all meetings of the Representative Assembly and of the Board of Directors . ARTICLE X— APPROPRIATIONS Section i. Unless otherwise ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meetings, not less than 10 per cent of the gross income of the Association each year shall be set aside for such educational investigations and studies as may be ordered in accordance with Section 5 of Article III. ARTICLE XI— AMENDMENTS Section i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at the annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly by unanimous consent, or by a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly if the alteration or amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announcement of the proposed action shall have been made in the ofl&cial pub- lication of the Association. CERTIFICATE 13 NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incor- porate the National Education Association of the United States," Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer Irwin Shepard, Secretary VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY lO, 1907 1. Resolved y That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter granted by an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States," passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meet- ing of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title "National Education Association of the United States," and the dates "1857-1907." 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize under the charter granted by the act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4, 1907. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) James L. Enos, Chairman. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. 1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO Z. Richards, President. J. W. BuxKXEY, Secretary. A. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer. 1859— WASHINGTON, D.C. A. J. RiCKOFF, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. i860— BUFFALO, N.Y. J. W. BuLKXEY, President. Z. Richards, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. • i86x, 1862 — No session. 1863— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruikshank, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1864— OGDENSBURG, N.Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z, Richards, Treasurer. 186s— HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. WiCKERSHAM, President. S. H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867 — No session. 1868— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. James Cruikshank, Treasurer. 1869— TRENTON, N.J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. 1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1907 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873— ELMIRA, N.Y. B. G. Northrop, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 187s— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. M. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A, Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878 — No session. 1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880-CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1881— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. G. J. Orr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbell, Treasurer. 1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1884— MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1885— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. F. Louis Soldan, President. W. E. Sheldon. Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1886— TOPEKA, KANS. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1887— CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1889— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 14 CALENDAR OF MEETINGS IS i8go— ST, PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891— TORONTO, ONT. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education) Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard. Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1894— ASBURY PARK, N.J. Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 189s— DENVER, COLO. Nicholas Murray Butler, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1896— BUFFALO, N.Y. Newton C. Dougherty, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1898— WASHINGTON, D.C. J. M. Greenwood, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1899— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. E. Oram Lyte, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. i9cx>— CHARLESTON, S.C. Oscar T. Corson, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Carroll C. Pearse, Treasurer. 1901— DETROIT, MICH. James M. Green, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer. 1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. William M. Beardshear, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer. 1903— BOSTON, MASS. Charles W. Eliot, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. W. M. Davidson, Treasurer. 1904— ST. LOUIS, MO. John W. Cook, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. McHenry Rhoads, Treasurer. 1905— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N.J. William H. Maxwell, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. James W. Crabtree, Treasurer. 1906 — No session. 1907— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Nathan C. Schaeffer, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1908- 1908— CLEVELAND, OHIO Edwin G. Cooley, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. , Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer. 1909— DENVER, COLO. Lorenzo D. Harvey, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer. 1910— BOSTON, MASS. James Y. Joyner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer. 191 1— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Ella Flagg Young. President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Durand W. Springer, Treasurer. 1912— CHICAGO, ILL. Carroll G. Pearse, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Katherine D. Blake, Treasurer. 191,3— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Edward T. Fairchild, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1914— ST. PAUL. MINN. Joseph Swain, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1915— OAKLAND, CALIF. (International Congress of Education) David Starr Jordan, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer, 1916— NEW YORK, N.Y. David B. Johnson, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1917— PORTLAND, ORE. Robert J. Aley, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Thomas E. Finegan, Treasurer. 1918— PITTSBURGH, PA. Mary C. C. Bradford, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. 1919— MILWAUKEE, WIS. George D. Strayer, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. 1920— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Josephine Corliss Preston, President, J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS FOR 1919-20 GENERAL ASSOCIATION Josephine Corliss Preston President Olympia, Wash. J. W. Crabtree Secretary Washington, D.C. A. J. Matthews Treasurer Tempe, Ariz. VICE-PRESIDENTS George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University New York, N.Y. Wm. M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools Pittsburgh, Pa. Sallie Hill, Grade Teacher, Public Schools Denver, Colo. J. M. McCoNNELL, State Superintendent of Education St. Paul, Minn. T. J. Knapp, Superintendent of Schools Highland Park, Mich. Annie W. Blanton, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Austin, Tex. J. A. C. Chandler, President College of William and Mary . .• Williamsburg, Va. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools Los Angeles, Calif. May Trumper, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Helena, Mont. R. D. Hetzel, President New Hampshire College Durham, N.H. W. S. Booth, Asst. State Superintendent of Public Instruction Springfield, 111. BOARD OF TRUSTEES Carroll G. Pearse, Chairman President, State Normal School Milwaukee, Wis. James Y. Joyner Secretary La Grange, N.C. Walter R. Siders Superintendent of School Pocatello, Idaho Agnes E. Doherty Central High School St. Paul, Minn. Josephine Corliss Preston State Superintendent of Public Instruction Olympia, Wash. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Josephine Corliss Preston President Olympia, Wash. George D. Strayer Vice-President New York, N.Y. Carroll G. Pearse Chairman, Board of Trustees Milwaukee, Wis. A. J. Matthews Treasurer Tempe, Ariz. Mary C. C. Bradford Member by Election Denver, Colo. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ez officio Josephine Corliss Preston, Olympia, Wash. Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis. George D. Strayer, New York, N.Y. J. W. Crabtree, Washington, D.C. A. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz. Life Directors Aley, Robert J Orono, Me. Jewett, A. V Abilene, Kans. Bradford, Mary, C. C Denver, Colo. Johnson, David B Rock Hill, S.C. BiCKNELL, Thomas W Providence, R.I. Jordan, David Starr Board of Education Nashville, Tenn. Leland Stanford University, Calif. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth New York, N.Y. Joyner, James Y La Grange, N.C. Butler, Nicholas Murray New York, N.Y. Marshall, T. Marcellus Stouts Mills, W. Va. Claxton, p. P Washington, D.C. Maxwell, William H New York, N.Y. Cook, John W Dekalb, 111. Pearse, Carroll G Milwaukee, Wis. CooLEY, Edwin G Chicago, 111. Skinner, Charles R Albany, N.Y. Corson, Oscar T Columbus, Ohio State Teachers' Assocla.tion of Illinois Eliot, Charles W Cambridge, Mass. Strayer, George D New York, N.Y. Gove, Aaron Denver, Colo. Swain, Joseph Swarthmore, Pa. Graham, H. A Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Taylor, A. R Decatur, 111. Green, James M. Trenton, N.J. Teachers' Institute Philadelphia, Pa. Harvey, Lorenzo D Menominee, Wis. White, Charles G Menominee Wis. 17 I~8 • NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION HEADQUARTERS STAFF J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Hugh S. Magill, Field Secretary R. S, Erlandson, Ass't. Secretary Sue L. Fratis, Ass't. Field Secretary Helen T. Hixson, Recorder Sallie Hill, Ass't Field Secretary Joy Elmer Morgan, Editor I20I Sixteenth St. N.W., Washington, D.C. State Directors Alabama W. C. Griggs, Superintendent of Schools Gadsden Arizona CO. Case, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . . Phoenix Arkansas S. D. Lucas, Superintendent of City Schools Augusta California F. M. Hunter, Superintendent of City Schools Oakland Colorado H. B. Smith, Secretary Colorado Education Association, 232 Century Bldg Denver Connecticut W. S. Dakin, 17 Westland Avenue West Hartford Delaware A. R. Spaid, Commissioner of Education Dover District of Columbia. . . Flora Hendley, Supervising Principal Public Schools. . . Washington Florida F. A. Hathaway, County Superintendent of Schools .... Jacksonville Georgia M. L. Brittain, State Superintendent of Schools Atlanta Idaho W. R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools Pocatello Illinois R. 0. Stoops, Superintendent of Schools Joliet Indiana H. Lester Smith, Dean School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington Iowa L. H. MiNKEL, Superintendent of Schools Fort Dodge Kansas T. W. Butcher, President State Normal School Emporia Kentucky F. C. Button, State Supervisor of Rural Schools Frankfort Louisiana J. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools New Orleans Maine Glen W. Starkey, Deputy State Superintendent of Schools Augusta Maryland William Burdick, Supervisor Physical Education, McCoy Hall Baltimore Massachusetts Caroline Armitage, 57 Madison Street Somerville Michigan T. E. Johnson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Lansing Minnesota L. D. Coffman, College of Education, University of Minnesota Minneapolis Mississippi E. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools Greenville Missouri Samuel A. Baker, State Superintendent of Public Schools Jefferson City Montana W. K. Dwyer, Superintendent of Public Schools Anaconda Nebraska E. L. Rouse, President State Normal School Peru Nevada Samuel O. Weld ay. Superintendent Elementary Schools Elko New Hampshire Theodora Richardson, Grade Teacher, 481 Lincoln St. Manchester New Mexico E. W. Bowyer, Superintendent of Schools Clovis New York. ... 4. Olive M. Jones, Principal Public School No. 120 New York North Carolina Robert H. Wright, President Teachers Training Schools Greenville North Dakota N. C. Macdonald Bismarck Ohio W. W. McIntire, Principal High School Norwood Oklahoma E. E. Oberholtzer, Superintendent of Schools Tulsa Oregon W. C. Alderson, Coimty Superintendent of Schools Portland Pennsylvania Grace G. Swan, Principal Cowley School, 1201 Sherman Ave Pittsburgh Rhode Island Walter E. Ranger, Commissioner of Public Schools — Providence South Carolina J. E. Walmsley, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College Rock Hill South Dakota J. W. Ault, Superintendent of City Schools Madison Tennessee C. P. Jester, Principal Central High School Memphis Texas H. D. Fillers, Superintendent of Schools Bonham Utah Milton Bennion, Dean School of Education, University of Utah Salt Lake City Vermont M. D. Chittenden, Supt. of Schools Burlington Virginia Cornelia S. Adair, 1301 Grove Avenue, Teacher, Special Class Work Richmond Washington Jennie M. French, Earlham Court Takoma West Virginia M. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Free Schools. . . Charleston Wisconsin J. F. Sois, President State Normal School Stevens Point Wyoming J. J. Early, Superintendent of Schools Sheridan Alaska L. D. Henderson, Conunissiooer of Education Juneau DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 19 Philippine Islands Luther B. Bewley, Acting Director of Education Manila Hawaii ,. Vaughan MacCaughey, College of Hawaii Honolulu Porto Rico Ralph S. Garwood, University of Porto Rico Mayaguez Saskatchewan A. A. Kennedy, Inspector of Schools Weyburn DEPARTMENT OFFICERS Superintendence President E. U. Graff, Superintendent of Schools Indianapolis, Ind. First Vice-President . ... D. J. Kelly, Superintendent of Schools Binghampton, N.Y. Second Vice-President . . H. C. Johnson, Superintendent of Schools San Diego, Cal. Secretary Charl O. Williams, County Superintendent of Schools Memphis, Tenn. National Council President Homer H. Seerley, President State Teachers College . . . Cedar Falls, la. Vice-President Josephine Corliss Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Olympia, Wash. Secretary Adelaide Steel Baylor, Federal Agent for Home Eco- nomics Washington, D.C. Kindergarten President Nina C. Vandewalker, Director Kindergarten Dept., State Normal School Milwaukee, Wis. Vice-President Margaret McIntire, Supervisor of Kindergartens Cambridge, Mass. Secretary Julia Bothwell, Supervisor of Kindergartens Cincinnati, Ohio Elementary President Lillie Ernst, Principal Cote Brilliante School St. Louis, Mo. Vice-President Z. E. Scott, Superintendent City Schools Trenton, N.J. Secretary Gail Calmerton, Supervisor of Primary Instruction Fort Wayne, Ind. Secondary President W. W. McIntire, Principal Norwood High School Vice-President Charles H. Perrine, Principal Wendell Phillips High School .' Secretary Anna Willson, Principal High School Higher President Guy Stanton Ford, University of Minnesota Secretary J. J. Pettijohn, Director of Extension, Indiana University Normal President John R. Kirk, President State Teachers College. . . Norwood, Ohio Chicago, III. Crawfordsville, Ind. Minneapolis, Minn. Indianapolis, Ind Vice-President Joseph Rosier, President Fairmont State Normal School Secretary Anna M. Tibbetts, Fargo College Business President J. A. Bock, Head Commercial Department, South Division High School Secretary Lillian Neipert, State Normal School Vocational President John Callahan, State Director Vocational Education First Vice-President Cleo Murtland, University of Michigan Secretary Arthur F. Payne, College of Education, University of Minnesota Rural end Agricultural President H. A. Allen, Rural School Agent, Department of Edu- cation Vice-President Amalia Bengston, County Superintendent of Schools, Renville County Secretary Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University Science President George R. Twiss, Ohio State University Vice-President James H. Smith, Assistant Principal, Austin High School Kirksville, Mo Fairmont, W. Fargo, N.D. Milwaukee, Wis. Whitewater, Wis. Madison, Wis. Ann Afbor, Mich. Minneapolis, Minn. Augusta, Maine Olivia, Minn. New York. N.Y. Columbus, Ohio Chicago, 111. 20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Music President W. Otto Miesner, State Normal School Milwaukee, Wis. Vice-President Glen H. Woods Oakland, Calif. Secretary Sarah B. Callinan, William Penn High School Philadelphia, Pa. Hygiene President O. B. Nesbitt, School Health Commissioner Gary, Ind. Vice-President H. S. Gruver, Superintendent of Schools Worcester, Mass. Secretary Alice H. Wood, Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund Chicago, III. Physical President Randall D. Warden, Director of Physical Education. . . Newark, N.J. Vice-President Lawrance L. Hill, Director of Physical Education Albany, N.Y. Secretary Esther Watson, Secretary New England Division War Work Council, Y.W.C.A Boston, Mass. School Administration President Albert Wunderlich, Commissioner of Schools St. Paul, Minn. Vice-President George W. Gerwig, Secretary Board of Education Pittsburgh, Pa. Secretary Willdvm C. Bruce, Editor American School Board Journal Milwaukee, Wis. Classroom Teachers President Sara H. Fahey, Teacher of English, SeWard Park Inter- mediate School New York, N.Y. Vice-President Ethel M. Gardner, Teacher in Park School Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary Jeannette O'Rourke, Teacher in Grade School Seattle, Wash. Deans of Women President Kathryn S. Phillips, 316 W. 94th St New York City Vice-President Eva Johnston, Dean of Women, University of Missouri Columbia, Mo. Secretary Anne Dudley Blitz, Dean William Smith College Geneva, N.Y. Treasurer Florence M. Richards, Dean of Women, State Normal Schools Winona, Minn. School Patrons President Lou FRANas, 913 Madison Ave Columbus, Ohio Vice-President Gertrude S. Martin, 932 Stewart Ave Ithaca, N.Y. Library President O. S. Rice, Supervisor of School Libraries, State Depart- ment of Public Instruction Madison, Wis. Vice-President Florence N. Hopkins, Librarian Central High School. . Detroit, Mich. Secretary Irma Walker, Librarian High School Biwabik, Minn, Educational Publications President Henry G. Williams, Editor Ohio Teacher Columbus, Ohio Secretary George L. Towne, Editor Nebraska Teacher Lincoln, Nebr. Wider Use of Schoolhouses President ". Raymond F. Crist, Director of Citizenship, Department of Labor Washington, D.C. Vice-President LB. Morgan, Principal Continuation Schools Kansas City, Kan. Secretary. Margarita Sfaulding Gerry, Board of Education Washington, D.C. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH, JULY 4-10, 1920 EDUCATIONAL SUNDAY A patriotic program was given at the Salt Lake City Tabernacle, Sunday afternoon. It consisted of music and an address on Abraham Lincoln, by Hugh S. Magill, Field Secretary, National Education Association. FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS OPENING SESSION — Monday Evening, July 5, 7:30 o'clock The Fifty-eighth Annual Convention of the National Education Association was opened in the Tabernacle, Salt Lake City, Utah, Monday evening, July 5, 1920, at 7:30 o'clock. E. A. Smith, superintendent of schools, Salt Lake City, Utah, introduced Vice- President George D. Strayer, of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, who presided at the session. The meeting was opened with community and patriotic singing. Addresses of welcome were given by George N. Child, state superintendent of public instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah, and by Simon Bamberger, governor of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, and responded to by A. E. Winship, editor. Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. Homer H. Seerley, president Iowa State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa, gave the annual report of the Council of Education. Vice-President George D. Strayer introduced Josephine Corliss Preston, state super- intendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash., president of the National Education Association, who gave the presidential address, which was entitled "The Nation, Our Field." President Preston announced the Committee on Resolutions and other committees. SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6, 2:00 o'clock The following program was presented: "The National Education Association as the Interpreter of American Civilization" — Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo. "Report of the Commission on the Emergency in Education" — George D. Strayer, professor of educational administration, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "The Recognition of Education as Related to Our National Life" — Olive N. Jones, principal Public School No. 120, New York, N.Y. 21 22 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION "The Recognition of Education as Related to Our National Life"— Will C. Wood, state superintendent of public instruction, Sacramento, Calif. "Adequate Pay for Teachers"— P. P. Claxton, U.S. Commissioner of Education, Washington, D.C. THIRD SESSION— Tuesday Evening, July 6, 7:30 o'clock Following community singing, led by B. Cecil Gates, director of music, L.D.S.U., Salt Lake City, the meeting was given over to a discussion of "Civic Education," and the following program was presented: "Americanization"— Jessie L. Burrall, chief of school service, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. "The Stranger within Our Gates" — Walter A. Clark, president University of Nevada, Reno, Nev. "How We Are Training for Citizenship in Our Public Schools" — F. B. Cooper, superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash. "How Are We Teaching Citizenship in Our Schools?" — L. P. Benezet, superin- tendent of schools, Evansville, Ind. "How Citizenship Is Taught in the Schools of Los Angeles" — Susan M. Dorsey, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Calif. "What the War Has Contributed toward Teaching Citizenship" — Guy Potter Benton, chairman advisory council, Associated Educators of America, New York, N.Y. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FOURTH SESSION — Wednesday Afternoon, July 7, 2:00 o'clock The topic for the afternoon was "Industrial Education," and the following program was presented: "The Opportunity School" — Emily Griffiths, principal Opportunity School, Denver, Colo. "Are We Getting Proper Returns from Industrial Education in Our Public Schools ?" — E. A. Bryan, commissioner of education, Boise, Idaho; John N. Greer, assistant superintendent of schools, Minneapolis, Minn.; Ellen Dabney, supervisor home eco- nomics, Seattle, Wash. ^ "Industrial Democracy in the New Era" — Rufus B. Von Klein Smid, president, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. "The Farm Woman's Problems" — Florence Ward, chief of home demonstration work, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. FIFTH SESSION — Wednesday Evening, July 7, 7:30 o'clock The general topic for discussion was "Health Education." After a health demon- stration under the direction of Ann Raymond, The Health Fairy, Child Health Organiza- tion in America, New York, N.Y., followed by community singing, addresses were given as follows: "The Nation's Duty to the Health of the School Children "—Thomas D. Wood, professor physical education. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "Sports to Build Bodies" — C. G. Pearse, president. State Normal School, Mil- waukee, Wis. "Health Education in Utah" — E. G. Gowans, state director of health education. Salt Lake City, Utah. "Health Crusade Work in Wyoming" — A. A. Slade, commissioner of education, Cheyenne, Wyo. "Health Education" — Katherine D. Blake, principal, Public School No. 6, New York, N.Y.; Sally Lucas Jean, director, Child Health Organization, New York, N.Y.; Margaret S. McNaught, commissioner of elementary schools, Sacramento, Calif. "Nutrition Classes" — Caroline Hedger, physician, Chicago, 111. FOURTH- DAY'S PROCEEDINGS SIXTH SESSION — Thursday Morning, July 8, 9:00 o'clock The session opened with community singing led by Edward P. Kimball, assistant organist. Tabernacle, Salt Lake City, which was followed by selections given by a ladies' trio. The program was devoted to the "National Congress of School Boards, Superin- tendents, and Classroom Teachers." The following program was given: t JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 23 "The School Board's Place in the Educational System" — J. S. Freece, president of school board, Davenport, Wash.; A. L. Dillon, school director, Clovis, N. Mex.; G. A. Iverson, member of school board, Salt Lake City, Utah; Mrs. V. H. Miller, chairman school board, section I.E.T.A., Tacoma, Wash.; Mrs. Caroline B. Kinney, board of education, Minneapolis, Minn. "What Should Be Done to Keep High Class Superintendents in the Schools?" — Wm. M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.; Mary D. Bradford, superintendent of schools, Kenosha, Wis.; W. F. Geiger, superintendent of schools, Tacoma, Wash.; John Milne, superintendent of schools, Albuquerque, N. Mex.; J. G. Collicott, state director of vocational education, Indianapolis, Ind. "The Part the Teacher Should Play in the School Administration"— M. G. Clark, superintendent of schools, Sioux City, Iowa; Cornelia Adair, president National League of Teachers' Associations, Richmond, Va.; Jessie Skinner, teacher, Jefferson High School, Portland, Ore.; Stella Herron, teacher, New Orleans, La.; J. R. Kirk, president. State Teachers' College, Kirksville, Mo.; Agnes Winn, teacher, Seattle, Wash.; J. W. Todd, superintendent of schools, Salem, Ore. Following the addresses a report was given on State Superintendents' Conference. SEVENTH SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July 8, 2:00 o'clock After a musical program, consisting of community singing, led by P. Melvin Petersen > director of music. Salt Lake City, and harp solos by Evelyn Shedd, Tulsa, Okla., the following program was given: "School Building" — J. L. Pease, chairman, school board, Oakland, Calif. "Definite Objectives in Education" — Edward O. Sisson, president, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont. "Education: The Defense of the American Home" — Sarah Louise Arnold, dean of Simmons College, Boston, Mass. "Education for the New Era" — Payson Smith, commissioner of education, Boston, Mass. EIGHTH SESSION— Thursday Evening, July 8, 7:30 o'clock Following a musical program, addresses were made by Margaret Hill McCarter, writer and lecturer, Topeka, Kans., and Simeon D. Fess, member of Congress from Ohio and chairman Committee on Education, Washington, D.C. FIFTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS NINTH SESSION— Friday Morning, July 9, 9:00 o'clock The business meeting occupied the Friday morning session. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS It is gratifjdng to record the hearty and spontaneous response of the American people in meeting the crisis that has so seriously threatened the public schools. The rapid and continuous increase in the cost of living, the low scale of teachers' salaries, and the keen demand in other fields for the kind of ability that good teaching requires, have led thou- sands of public school workers to leave the service, while other thousands, remaining at their posts, have been discouraged and deprest by the difficulties involved in making their meager earnings meet their own needs and the needs of those dependent upon them. The test has been severe, but it is our hope that the peak of the crisis has been past, and it is our further hope that the awakened interest of the public in the welfare of the schools will, in the near future, make our profession more attractive than it has ever been to the best type of young manhood and young womanhood, as the basic significance of its work requires. THE need of greater ACTIVITY AND EFFICIENCY We believe that at no time in the history of education has it been so important that teachers and school administrators should unite in a determined effort to render to the public the most devoted and efficient service of which they are capable. Fidelity to 24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION our trust must be our watchword; improvement of our service must be our unswerving aim. Rewards may still be far from adequate, recognition may still be incomplete, but our duty is clear: standards must be lifted, the quality and quantity of our service must be increast, and our unselfish devotion to a great cause demonstrated. Our deeds must be made to justify our words, so that the skeptic may be convinst and hostile critics of the public school may be disarmed. BETTER PREPARATION REQUIRED We believe that the ends which we seek demand, above all else, an immediate and thorogoing improvement of the agencies for the preparation of teachers. We commend and indorse the conviction, now so rapidly gaining favor in our profession and in the public mind, that those who enter the public-school service, whether they are to teach in rural schools or in urban schools, in elementary schools or in high schools, should have had a minimum of four years' carefully planned preparation, following upon graduation from a four-year high school. We earnestly recommend the extension of the brief and quite inadequate programs for the preparation of teachers that now prevail. We also desire to record our conviction that sound public policy dictates the selection of candidates for the teaching service on a rigorous basis of merit. ' THE SMITH-TOWNER BILL A PARAMOUNT NECESSITY We are convinst that adequate preparation of teachers, and the elevation of standards of selection, can be achieved only thru an acceptance of the principle that the wealth of the nation as a whole can legitimately, and may justifiably, be drawn upon to equalize opportunities for the education of all the nation's children. We reaflSrm our faith in this principle, and urge the immediate passage of the Smith-Towner bill by which federal participation in the support of public education is provided and which, at the same time, preserves the autonomy of the state in the management of its schools. We condemn the efforts of the enemies of the public schools to defeat this measure, particularly by stigmatizing it as a measure which involves national control of education, ^ Such control is not only clearly unconstitutional, but it is out of harmony with 'the spirit of American institutions. This Association pledges itself as unreservedly to do its utmost to thwart any movement or proposal that would centralize control of the public schools, as it does to its support of the measure. We call attention once more to the singularly valuable features of the Smith-Towiier bill: to the program that it sets for the reduction of adult illiteracy, for the Americaniza- tion of the immigrant population, for the vast extension of health education, for the adequate preparation of teachers, and for the creation of a Department of Education under a Secretary who shall have a seat in the President's Cabinet. We reiterate the fact that each item of this program strikes at an outstanding weakness of American education which the experience of the war set in high relief. We call the people's atten- tion to the fact that these emphasized problems are still with us, and that unaided state and local action has failed in any appreciable measure evep to begin their solution on a nation-wide basis. The Smith-Towner bill is the only measure that has been proposed to cope with all of these problems. That measure now languishes in Congress, primarily because of the opposition of a minority of the people whose leaders are traditionally opposed to public education. We seriously and earnestly commend to the American people the program proposed in the Smith-Towner bill, framed with the interests of America's children and America's free schools solely in mind. BETTER PROVISION FOR EDUCATION ESSENTIAL If the work of education is to be maintained, if it is to be so improved and developt as to meet the growing needs of the Republic, there must be a decided increase in financial support. We believe that revenues sufficiently ample must be provided to serve the following ends: (i) To pay salaries attractive enough to retain good teachers now in the service and to induce promising young men and women to prepare for teaching. We hold that provision for the retirement of superannuated teachers is fundamentally a part of the salary problem; (2) to provide school rooms sufficient in number to give each child a seat for a full-day session; (3) to extend and improve the facilities for teacher- training, so that ultimately all teachers may be fitly prepared professionally; (4) to provide ade- quately for vocational training, part time, and continuation schools and all other special schools that the welfare of the community demands; (s) to establish kindergartens as soon as practicable in connection with all primary schools; (6) to furnish to all children JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 25 of the nation, whether rural or urban, equal educational opportunities; (7) to pay equal salaries for equal service to all teachers of similar training, experience, and success. We believe that these desirable ends may be accomplisht if education is recognized as a national and state affair as well as a matter of local interest. The nation for its own safety should contribute money to strengthen the educational work of the states. The state should contribute at least half the money needed to support the schools within its borders, and in addition provide an equalization fund sufficient in amoimt to main- tain uniform standards in all of its schools. We believe that teachers, freed from the economic burden of insufficient salaries, relieved from the overwork due to crowded schoolrooms and half-day sessions, and strengthened by better professional preparation, will put into their work the devotion, skill, and efficiency necessary to make the schools of the Republic more nearly equal to the demands of a high order of citizenship. HIGHER VALUES IN EDUCATION The National Education Association affirms and forcibly emphasizes the high signifi- cance of the economic factor in both national and individual life, and therewith the signal importance of vocational training in raising personal efficiency and augmenting the total output of the energies properly directed into the channels of industry and com- merce; and it insists and urges that the whole educational system must be organized and actuated with proper regard to the practical, vocational, and professional needs of the individual and of the community at large. At the same time the National Education Association recognizes the old and immutable truth that no kind, amount, or degree of merely material prosperity or success can satisfy the fundamental and inextinguishable cravings of the human spirit, or can fulfil the needs of the individual in his life as an active citizen in a democratic country or meet the demands of the state for that service which will preserve and advance the social and political as well as the economic welfare of its people. The National Education Association regards with deep and anxious concern the multiplied tokens of a widespread lowering of recognition of intellectual efforts and achievements, of a growing impatience with all forms of mental effort, and, especially, of that effort which does not issue in prompt and abundant sensible and material returns; of a general distrust of thought and a general eagerness for action; of an increasing ten- dency toward decreasing the amount and quality of service performed for the increast rewards already given. Therefore, the National Education Association would stress the crying need that general or cultural education must not be overshadowed by vocational training; that on the contrary it should be emphasized and strengthened and animated along the whole front of educational activity; that in the changed order of things of today there is still no excellence without great labor and that no adequate education can be secured by the youth of America without paying the price in long hours and years of hard intellectual effort. EDUCATION FOR CITIZENSHIP We maintain that education for the responsibilities of citizenship is an increasingly pressing obligation on the schools at this critical period of national and world affairs and to that end education for citizenship must fill a large place in school programs from the kindergarten to the graduate courses of the universities, and this education must provide for practice along with instruction, so that there may be training in habits, ideals, and attitude of service for the common weal of community and nation. We acknowledge the valuable services which a number of organizations for the development of civic ideals and habits in children have rendered to the public schools, and we lurge that the widest possible use be made by all schools, of the ways and means afforded by such organizations for the building of better citizenship. RATIFICATION OF SUFFRAGE AMENDMENT URGED The paramount interest of women in the education of their children should, on the general enfranchisement of the women of America, become an added force for educa- tional progress, and, since justice to the women of our nation in conferring the ballot upon them in the several states of the Union, has been too long delayed, we urge upon the states of Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Florida, speedy ratification of the national suffrage amendment, to the end that all women of the United States may exercise at the November election the full rights of American citizenship, and the Secretary of this Association is hereby instructed to trans- mit a copy of this resolution to the governor of each of these states named. 26 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ADMINISTRATION OF THE SMITH-HUGHES LAW We favor such change in the administration of the Smith-Hughes law as will, in the future, avoid interference with the autonomy of the states in the plans and management of vocational education. INCREAST RECOGNITION FOR STATE DEPARTMENTS Since the progress of education in the state as a whole is largely dependent upon wise and efficient leadership by the state department of education, and since in many states, such departments are placed on a plane of professional preparation and of remuneration which impairs their efficiency, we favor the recognition by legislatures and by the public, of the state superintendent of public instruction or state commissioner of education as the chief executive and administrative officer of the entire educational system of the state and we recommend that in the .preparation of state budgets the state department of education be clast with the state's highest educational institutions. We hold that educators employed in state departments of education should be placed on the same basis, both as to scholastic requirements and as to remuneration, as are those of the state's highest educational institutions. PHYSICAL WELFARE As effective health education is essential to the conservation of the chilc^who is the most important asset of the nation, we favor definite plans for physical training to be carried on regularly in every school of the nation; we endorse the making of good- health practices a part of the daily life of the child; we recommend some such system as the modern health crusade as a part of an effective course of health education; we favor the teaching of social hygiene in all teacher-training institutions and recommend the cooperation of teachers with all organizations of parents in the instruction necessary to the inculcation of sound ideas and attitudes in children and youth. As to the essentials of social hygiene, we favor the establishment by the states and the nation of definite standards and ideals of physical perfection of children of school age, to be placed before both pupils and parents, and we advise the adoption of a plan of regular reports to parents, of the physical standing of their children, to the end that every American child may build his life on a basis of sound physical health. IMPORTANT DEMANDS REAFFIRMED We affirm and pledge anew our support of the following: (i) The development of a unified, well equipt, well taught, and well supervised rural school system; (2) the provision of facilities, including housing, that will contribute toward making the life and work of the rural school teacher not only tolerable but attractive; (3) state supervision of both private and public schools; (4) the employment of the English language as the vehicle of instruction in all schools, both public and private; (5) the selection of the highest type of citizens for service upon school boards without regard to sex or political affiliation. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN EDUCATION The ideals of a world community require the united effort of all nations looking to universal education as the surest means of establishing democracy thruout the world and of advancing the interests of the free peoples. We therefore favor the formation of international bureaus of education as a means to this end and recommend that the Presi- dent of the National Education Association, with the advice of the Executive Committee, appoint a committee of five on international education relations, which shall have author- ity, under this Association, to cooperate with like committees from other countries, and the trustees of the Association are hereby authorized to provide such financial support as the movement may in their judgment require and justify. THE CIGARETTE CONDEMNED The rapid increase in cigarette smoking among people of all ages and both sexes and especially among growing boys is not only a cause for alarm but a call to arms. Therefore the Association pledges its membership to cooperate in wisely directed efforts in city, state, and nation in safeguarding the youth from cigarette smoking and kindred vices to the end that American ideals for manhood and womanhood may be preserved for coming generations. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 27 THE EIGHTEENTH AMENDMENT The Association declares itself in hearty accord with the recent decision of the Supreme Court of the United States affirming the validity of the Eighteenth Amendment, and it further believes in and calls for the impartial and fearless enforcement of the Volstead Act or similar act substantially in harmony in spirit and application to said act, opposing any backward step which shall endanger the fundamental institution of society. RECOMMENDS PERMANENT TENURE The National Education Association strongly urges the passage of laws in each state granting permanent tenure to teachers during efficient service, coupled with an efficient method of ridding the service of inefiicient teachers and insuring the fullest pro- tection of counsel to all teachers. ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF LOCAL COURTESIES » We desire to acknowledge the helpful cooperation of the press, the commercial club and its committees, the faculty and students of the public schools, and of the University of Utah, the church and schools of the Latter-Day Saints, and the citizens of the state and city, thru their various organizations. We desire to express our appreciation of the royal welcome accorded to us by Salt Lake City. It is the sense of this Association that the newspapers of Salt Lake City have provided the fullest and most complete report of the proceedings in the history of the Association. COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS F. B. Cooper, superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash., Chairman. May Trumper, state superintendent of public instruction, Helena, Mont. Annie Webb Blanton, state superintendent of public instruction, Austin, Tex. Robert J. Aley, president. State University, Orono, Maine. Charl O. Williams, superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of city schools, New Orleans, La. G A. Grout, superintendent of schools, Portland, Ore. GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ERNEST A. SMITH, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Nearly three quarters of a century ago on a July day there came out of the fastnesses of the mountains after many months of weary journey over the plains a band of pioneers. Their leader lookt out over this arid valley of Salt Lake and said, ''This is the place." Since that eventful day the desert has in truth and wondrous beauty been made to blossom as the rose. Tonight there have assembled in this Tabernacle the representatives of more than half a million teachers of America. For the National Education Association in sober truth and fact " this is the place," this is the time. As a body it has grown great and is growing greater year by year. A crisis is now at hand in its affairs. In the thought of many of its leaders the time has come for a reorganization of the Association on a representative basis. This will not mean the loss of any of the principles under which it has prospered in the past. The reorganization must proceed in harmony with the spirit of the Union of the forty-eight states under the genius of whose plan the society has hitherto operated. By such a step only can the organ- ized educational forces of the nation take their proper place of influence for good in public affairs and in the promotion of their sacred trust, the highest welfare of the boys and girls of America. In igiyin the midst of war, there was appointed by President Mary C. C. Bradford the Committee on the Emergency in Education. As chairman of that committee was named Dr. George Drayton Strayer, of Teachers College, Columbia University. The emergency was pre- eminently an affair of educational administration and reorganization. The man to lead this commission was widely recognized as the highest authority in this field and the pioneer teacher in this department of research. The record of work done by the commission is familiar to all in this gather- ing. Dr. Strayer as its chairman drafted the Smith-Towner bill which must become a law at the next session of Congress. He has also been identified with the vigorous program for advancing the standard of quali- fications for teachers and the substantial increase of salaries. It is a particularly happy precedent that assigns at this time to the President of the National Education Association of the preceding year the honor of presiding at the opening session of the succeeding convention. It is my high privilege to present now as chairman, Dr. Strayer, Chairman 29 30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of the Emergency Committee, President of the National Education Associa- tion in 1918-19, the steadfast friend of all teachers and the peerless statesman of constructive education. ADDRESS OF WELCOME G. N. CHILD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH It is our pleasure to welcome you to the fair state of Utah. Our memories are still bright* with pleasant recollections of a meeting held by the Association in this city in 1913. Again you have honored us with your presence. This we regard as an expression of confidence in our hospitality and of faith in the patriotic devotion of our people. The choice of Utah for the second time is not only gratifying to our state, but we take it as a compliment to the entire West. Out where the hand clasp's a little stronger, Out where the smile dwells a little longer, Out where the sun is a little brighter, Where the snows that fall are a trifle whiter, Where the bonds of home are a wee bit tighter. This is the land of the Pioneers. In 1847, before this country had past from the control of the Mexican government, strong and determined men and women began to build here a comrdonwealth. After a long and perilous journey over a comparatively unknown and trackless waste, they reached this valley. Forthwith they planted the Stars and Stripes on Ensign Peak, and began the arduous task of providing food and shelter for a famisht people. Streams of crystal water had for untold ages run useless to the inland sea. This life-giving element was turned upon the thirsty soil, and the parched desert blossomed into a field of plenty. So began modern irrigation among the Anglo-Saxon race. To this practice is due in large measure our happy homes and prosperous communities. In the valleys of these mountains a great state has been establisht thru faith and perseverance. It is a state vast in territory and blessed with many of the natural resources which make for human progress and happiness. It is rich in precious metals, in coal and iron, has wonderful possibilities in agriculture and stock-raising; its climate is unsurpast; but most of all we take pride in the quality and the quantity of our boys and girls — they are the largest dividend producers that we have. We therefore join with you in considering thek welfare and their education as our greatest problem. Utah has definitely set herself the task of educating all of her boys and girls. She is determined to equalize, as nearly as may be, edu- cational advantages thruout the state. To this end a program of education has been outlined which promises to consummate this high resolve. The legislature of 19 19 enacted into law a most progressive and far- reaching program of education which was designed to meet the new demands Sessions] RESPONSE TO ADDRESS OF WELCOME 31 of education emphasized by the Great War, to awaken a deeper insight into human needs, both individual and social, and to develop the highest possible type of citizenship thru insisting that each child shall become physically fit, morally straight, and vocationally efficient. Moreover, in the state of Utah, education and supervision are afforded boys and girls up to eighteen years of age. Public responsibility is increast thru providing for the active cooperation of the home and community in the business of education. Civic organizations and the employers of labor are made to share also in this educative process. All of the schools are organized into forty consolidated units — five city systems and thirty-five rural districts. This tends to equalize school advantages and to make for efficiency and economy of administration. Thruout the entire state, all told, there are approximately but one hundred one-room schools. In behalf of the teachers of Utah, it is a pleasure to extend to you a most hearty welcome. You may find the weather at times a little warm, but I assure you our hearts are still warmer. You are among friends who will gladly administer to your comfort and happiness. Besides, we very much desire that this meeting shall result in inspiration and progress to the Association/ and that all visitors shall not only cherish memories of valuable counsel but of sincere hospitahty. If you find something lacking, tell us. Surrounding this city are many attractions which should add to the pleasure of your visit. Great Salt Lake may be reacht in thirty minutes, but I warn you that time passes rapidly while one is floating on this briny sea. A short ride takes us into the heart of the Wasatch, where canyon breezes and gurgling streams soothe as beautiful mountain scenes inspire. A little farther out may be found some of nature's rarest beauty spots. Mount Timpanogos, Little Zion, and Bryce's canyons, the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, and the renowned Yellowstone National Park may be reacht from our city in a few hours. The largest copper mine in the world is but twenty miles away, with its gigantic reducing plant still nearer. It is our wish that you remain after the closing day of the convention long enough to enjoy some of these natural beauties of form and color. Again, in behalf of the teachers of Utah, it is an honor and distinctive pleasure to welcome you. May each day of your visit be filled with profit and pleasure. RESPONSE TO THE ADDRESS OF WELCOME A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. I can recall no opportunity which I have more keenly appreciated than this, because I think no one who has never lived in Utah has had as interesting an acquaintance with the state for so long a time as have I. It will be forty-five years next Saturday since the first editorial excur- sion from the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific was met at Ogden by Wilford Woodruff, who escorted them to Salt Lake City, Provo, American Fork 32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Canon. His account of it also says that the party remained several days and was given a feast by the city. In the Deseret News of that date is a list of the seventy-two in the party, and it chances that I am the only one of the seventy-two who is now alive. It is interesting to recount the fact that it was only six years after the last spike was driven that bound the continent between the Great Oceans with bands of steel, and that it was but ten years after the first sleeping- car prest the rails. Since then I have been here times out of nmnber, so that it is safe to say that I have seen this desert made to blossom as a rose as no one else wholly without the pale of the Saints. My second visit, in 1882, was as an excursionist seeking lecture material, but in 1883 and onward my interest in Utah has been wholly educational. From 1883 to 1886 I was secretary of the New West Education Com- mission, one of the national societies of the Congregational denomination, and we had scores of schools in Utah, Idaho, Colorado, and New Mexico, and I was in the intermountain region much of the time, though my real business was to see that the schools were amply finanst. No one knows better than I how great is the temptation to exaggerate, to state it mildly, when exaggeration brings easiest money, and I think I come as near escaping that teniptation as has anyone, for even in those most trying years for Utahans my appreciation of the sacrifices and achieve- ments of the citizens was genuine. In 1886, appreciating that whatever of necessity there had been for this work was ended, I resigned and accepted the responsibility and oppor- tunity of educational platform work and journalism, and I have been within your borders every year and often many times each year since then, largely because of my appreciation of the spirit and devotion of the public school leaders which have culminated in your administration. Governor Bamberger, in the most notable progress in educational legislation of any of the forty-eight states of the Union. When Dr. Leonard P. Ayres began his studies of the annual standing of the states in the fourteen fundamentals of education, I said to him: "Let me make a good Yankee guess that you will find that Utah has led the country in progress in these fundamentals." To which he replied: "Heroic, all right, for there are forty-seven other states." When his studies were complete, he wrote: "How could you have known that Utah was to lead, as she does lead, all states in progress in the fundamentals?" It was merely the application of my psychology of newness, namely, that only the new makes timber, which I first phrased when I stood among the famous redwood trees of the Eureka country of Northwest CaUfornia, where trees three hundred feet tall, straight as arrows, have one hundred Sessionsl THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 33 and fifty feet without a branch or knot, and then one hundred and fifty- feet of fohage which annually puts out a lot of twigs, valueless in them- selves, which annually add a thin belt of timber from the root to the crown. New growth must make timber and there can be no timber without new growth. I knew that Utah in your administration. Governor, was putting out the noblest phases of educational newness under the canopy of Heaven and I knew that that must have functioned in progress in fundamentals, must represent timber-making in education. Fortunately, there is proof that this tribute to Utah is not the exuber- ance of a platform opportunity, for two years ago I wrote editorially of "Utah's Educational Leadership," which was issued as a booklet by the International Harvester Company, of which more than 50,000 copies have been called for from all parts of the Union. I may be pardoned for a more intimate personal word in closing. It is fifty-one years ago this month since I attended a meeting of the Associa- tion at Trenton, New Jersey, since which time I have attended more of these annual meetings than has any other past or present member, and, since it has been foreordained that this is to be the final meeting of the National Education Association as it has been since 1856, it can be readily seen that to me this opportunity has a significance that no one else can appreciate. THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA Foriy years ago the National Council of Education had its beginning at Chautauqua, New York. It consisted at first of fifty-one members, then of sixty members, and later of one hundred and twenty members. It has always been a delegate body, one- half of the members being selected by the departments of the National Education Association or by the General Association acting as a unit, and the other half being selected by the Council as a working organization. Its aim was to consider the greater problems of public education, to conduct investigations into plans and practices, to determine ways and means adapted to American systems of management, and to make reports as to findings, conclusions, and determinations from year to year for public information and guidance. The amount of work that has been done by this delegate body, the influence that its reports have wielded, the efficiency of the system of study and investigation inaugurated, the benefits to education given have always commended the wisdom of the organization and endorst the practicality and the capability of the great undertakings and enterprises that have guided and controlled public opinion in educational legislation, organization, and management. I 34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General By agreement, the committee round table system of organization and management was accepted as the best for a dehberative, legislative delegate body to employ to get definite results. These committees were assigned to certain distinct fields of educational investigation, so that practically no important question could develop in the annual meetings of the National Education Association that did not at once have a designated place for fur- ther consideration in the Council, with opportunity for continued investi- gation and discussion until the conclusions reacht were well seasoned, well formulated, and well accepted as not needing further attention or consider- ation. By this means, the Council became the committee for final reference of all problems that were raised, its function being to prepare the conclusions in formulated documents and resubmit them for adoption and for publica- tion as the sense of the National Education Association members concern- ing the progress of educational thought and practice. Originally the members of the Council came two days ahead of the General Association and had their business transacted when there were no other conflicting engagements or attractions. The members gave their entire time and attention, and the attendance of members was recorded at every session. The discipline was such that the work was notably done and the committees always were ready, delivering reports that were remark- able for their construction and their completeness. After the enlargement of the body, the meetings were located on the program of the National Education Association week, at times when members were on duty elsewhere or when other prominent meetings of attractive character were being held. These conditions militated against the services that were possible to be rendered and the officers in charge were unable to secure the undivided attention, the united interest and the important deliberation that the great issues in hand demanded. Despite all these difficulties, much valuable work has been accomplisht, and with a better understanding as to functions, needs, and possible services to be rendered, the time is now here when the present National Council of Education under proper organization can serve with great efficiency the National Education Association in ways and thru undertakings that will justify its existence and bring honor to its hard-working, conscientious membership. It should be recognized that there can be no better way to make the National Education Association annual meetings a decided permanent power for good than thru a delegate committee body like the Council to which it sends the greater problems under discussion for final adjustment, formulation, and report. To this end, the National Education Association should bend every effort to develop and to secure a remarkable membership made up of actual leaders in education, where services in this constructive capacity will enlarge constantly the influence and the commanding power of the National Education Association as an organization for the welfare of all true education in the United States. To this end the efforts of these Sessioos] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 35 great annual conventions should be united on plans rather than on men, on things to be done rather than on conflicts of factions, so that the efforts that are organized will seek the best welfare of all the American people and the most rapid development and progress of the greatest and best American civilization. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS THE NATION, OUR FIELD MRS. JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, OLYMPIA, WASH. It affords me great pleasure to meet and greet this large and representa- tive group of men and women tonight as President of the National Education Association. I have felt proud and have deemed it a great honor to serve as president this year. ' The National Education Association is now a potent factor in the civic and educational life of this nation. The world- war awakened us to a new realization of our responsibilities of the service that we should render in education. It brought us face to face with the defects in our American System. The war, as nothing could have done, brought to the attention of an indifferent public the importance of education and its inestimable contribution to public life. When the public school machinery of the United States swung its force into action upon the numerous. war drives, Mr. Business Man who had paid his school tax rather grudgingly; Mr. Banker Man, who had scrutinized his school tax in a cold and calculating way, not so sure that there had been value received for the dollars paid; Mr. Farmer Man, who had fussed and fumed many times because of the fads and frills of education (nothing like this when he was a boy); Mr. Labor Man, who too many times claimed the schools were maintained for the capitalists' children — schools needed to be more practical; Mrs. Society Woman, who did not think the teachers had sufficient social prestige to belong to her exclusive set; all of these groups of people had it borne in upon their conscious minds that public schools make an important link between home and society. The greatest machinery in the world in turning its wheels into action upon the needs of the world-war gained an appreciation for the education of the youth of our land that promises permanent recognition of all edu- cational demands as well as increast revenue to meet those demands. For instance, the first outstanding problem set forth by the National Education Association Emergency Commission at Pittsburgh in 191 8 — that of "Com- pensation for the Teacher" together with all that it involved, brought the 36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General National Education Association leaders and speakers in close touch with all associations of business men, bankers, farmers, club women, labor organizations, and parent-teacher organizations. "You must pay our teachers more money," was the message forcefully presented to them and thru them to thousands of others. The American public was startled by the disclosure of facts which the :war revealed, but, even then, many would not listen. Not until the school- room doors closed by thousands; not until Miss Inexperienced and Miss Untrained walked into schoolrooms, to instruct inefficiently hundreds — yes, thousands — of America's future citizens, was the great message of the "teacher need" borne in upon the public mind. The National Education Association blazed a trail that encouraged state educational leaders and stimulated them to action. This year in one eastern state thru united effort an appropriation of $20,550,000 was secured for teachers; from a southern state $4,000,000 in this year; and from a far western state $3,500,000 for teachers' salaries. Everywhere states have reported increases this year. "Adequate Salaries for our Teachers" — That is the slogan from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Thus our first outstanding problem in education is being solved. There has been an important movement launched on Thrift Education thruout the nation. It is said of us and justly that we are a spendthrift nation. Statistics show that we save less per capita than most other countries do. The school's part in this national thrift program is to attack it in the broadest sense, that is, the saving of four things — time, talent, health, and money. It needs no argument to show that these things are paramount in the life of the nation. The nation will ,not be safe nor sane nor stable until there is greater conservation of these great essentials. We are living in a period of exceptional extravagance and high prices. Never in the history of the nation has there been such waste of time, labor, money, and materials. During the recent world's conflict, we were told that thrift would win the war, that we should save food, clothing, and money. The people responded wonderfully to the drives that were made, and economized sometimes until it hurt. It is evident, however, that the practice of thrift has not carried over. On the contrary, we are now experi- encing a reaction which has reached the point of danger. It is imperative that a concerted effort should be made to check extravagance and to promote thrift as a life habit. Rural Education should have a special session upon this general program but time forbids. We as a great body should not be unmindful of the importance of the rural-school problems. Our food supply comes from the country. How shall we keep our farmers and their wives in the country raising the nation's foodstuffs if we fail to provide good schools for their children? How shall we provide good schools for these rural children unless we give them good teachers — teachers with initiative, leadership, Sessions! PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 37 experience, high ideals, character, broad ^sympathies aftd understanding and educational qualifications ? Nowhere are ideal teachers needed more than in rural districts; but they are not to be found there in large numbers. Why? Because country schools have not kept pace with city schools. Country schools have too long been the teacher-training centers for city schools. Why? Because of low salaries; inadequate conditions of rural teachers, and the loneliness of rural life. Housing conditions of teachers in rural communities have been a vital problem. The "teacherage" has come as a partial solution. Let it be known that a district furnishes a school cottage for the use of its teacher and that district may have its choice from among the best teachers that the state affords. And it is also notable that the teacher who has the use of a cottage is not anxious to make a change each school year. It was a significant fact this year in the state which I represent that in every district where there was a teacherage there was no question of teacher shortage. In Norway, -Sweden, and England cottages are furnisht for the teachers — ^most of whom spend a lifetime in the same school. The loneliness of country life — an isolation that is stagnation of soul as well as of mind — ^furnishes us with a great need for sociaHzation of rural communities. Consohdation of schools is bringing much to rural life, but even consohdation of schools is coming far too slowly. The need for constructive work in rural schools and rural development is everywhere being recognized. The new rural awakening is upon us. We have a broader vision of the vitaUzed community life in our rural neighborhoods. The country folk are at last coming into their own. The fundamental task of the rural advance is the quickening of country life, the vitalizing of the country school, the changing to a larger social and economic unit for our rural neighborhood districts. A rural school plant must be evolved that will be adaptable to its needs in all respects, one that will equal, if not outdistance, the city school plant. Rural folk need to be brought across all lines of neighborhood feeling, religious creed, partisan politics, and social position based on income, to a common ground of equaUty and mutal helpfulness. The keenest thinking of the past fifty years has been devoted to devising machinery by which things should work together for good; by which mechanical forces should be combined for the service of man. The solution of our rural problem, of the right adjustment among individual citizens lies practically in the construction of machinery by which people may work together, think together, act together for good. The sense of social solidarity which gives rich and deep meaning to the word "neighbor" must never be lost sight of in either rural or urban life. The colonists of early American history did not just try to Hke each other, they met to discuss common problems so that they might get together upon a common ground, to disagree agreeably under rules which guaranteed 38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General each an opportunity to be heard. They constructed a headquarters of coordination and found it to be a means of cooperation ; and incidentally when they did, they found, of course, that most of the unpleasant things which they thought about each other were not so. REORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The most important thing which we have to face together at this time is the reorganization of this great body which we represent. We are at the parting of the ways. We have important things to do. They must be done under the leadership of the few who represent the educators of every state in the union. In the seven years that I have been associated by actual contact with this organization, experience has taught me that, to do the great work of the National Education Association as well as it should be done, a delegate plan as an official working body is the ultimate solution. This need has arisen because of the change in general status of edu- cational affairs. Education today, instead of occupying a minor place in the hearts and minds of the public at large, is now being recognized as the one factor that can work out a strong, sound policy for our national government in the enlarged service which it must render in the world's social, moral, economic, and industrial program. The educators of this country see clearly now, as never before, the necessity of their active participation in civic life. We can no longer sit back and leave to others the entire conduct of government affairs. We, as educators, cannot train for citizenship in its fullest sense unless we possess a thoro understanding of political life. Such conception can only be gained thru actual contact with life problems and actual participation in affairs of government. Politics is the science of government. It is also that part of ethics which has to do with the regulation and government of a nation or state. It is the preservation of its safety, peace, and prosperity, the defense of its existence and rights against foreign control or conquest. It is the augmen- tation of its strength and resources. It is the protection of its citizens in their human welfare rights. Some one has wisely said that "Every citizen is in poUtics, the Con- stitution of the United States puts him there and his conscience grants him no exemption. " Let us be statesmen here in this meeting. Let us continue to build for the welfare of the greatest number. The educators of our country occupy a strategic position. We have some great tasks ahead. The immediate task before us is the reorgani- zation of the public school work. If the public schools continue to be the most important factor in our RepubHc they must reflect the more clearly these social, moral, economic, and industrial conditions. A new course of Sessions] THE ASSOCIATION AND AMERICAN CIVILIZATION 39 study that meets the .nation's need of adjustment with a social and indus- trial program must be workt out by all states. Our country is confronted with the financing of American education thru the state school system. The problem is how to secure possible source^ of increast revenue as education becomes more expensive; how to distribute this state revenue in such a manner as to equaUze educational opportunity. We can only render our greatest service by understanding thoroly these larger duties that devolve upon us. Not until we understand the "call of civic life" with its great moral need, its social need, its economic. and industrial conditions, can we fully prepare for the great work we have to do. As American educators, let us not be afraid to face the problems of civic Hfe. Let us measure up 100 per cent American, training all of the children of all the people for American citizenship, thereby enabling each child to realize his best possibilities in life. That is our task in our field — the nation. THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AS THE INTERPRETER OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION MARY C. C. BRADFORD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OP PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DENVER, COLO. The interpreter has always loomed large in human history. Not the interpreter in the sense of the mere translator, but the interpreter as the one who sounds the keynote that gives meaning to the music of civilization. The greatest poets and prophets are richly endowed with the interpretive gift, as are also great painters and musicians, great novelists and orators, great leaders of public affairs and great organizations. Among such organizations, the National Education Association stands in the front rank. Thru its activities it interprets the fundamental expres- sions of local, state, and national life. It crystallizes the thinking of those who practice the m.ighty profession of teaching. It serves as a clarifying mental medium for those who administer educational organization. It illumines the vital relations existing between the home, the schoolj and the community. It serves as a clearing house for the diverse views of edu- cational experts, and sometimes it also offers itself as the crucible in which educational experiments may be made. All this, and more, has been its mighty function in the past, but in recent years, and in those that are approaching, it has occupied, and is to occupy, a still more important field of service. It has interpreted the thinking of American school people. It is to vitalize the living of American school people. Its present is beginning to realize, and its future is to fully demonstrate, the potency of Uves trans- formed by straight thinking until thought becomes a vital, radiant reality, 40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General and action is glorified by its direct relation to the intellectual urge behind it. Practical ideaHsm in education is the interpretive note of the National Education Association today. Philosophic thinking and pedogogical Utterances are being made the servants of an uninterrupted service to teachers in each local community, in each commonwealth, and thruout the nation. The National Education Association has ''set the Httle child in the midst" and is judging itself by the results obtained in the service of the children, thru a strengthened and enricht educational system. Nearly three years ago the Association began to realize that a con- tinuous and practical policy was necessary. It became dissatisfied with the old notion of unlimited academic discussion as a panacea for all the ills that education is heir to. The war had drawn America into the fiercest current of the world struggle, and the inevitable pressure of duty forst the Association into pubhc service. The challenge of the hour for a readjust- ment of educational activities of those who "formed the second line of defence,*' was answered by the organization of the War Emergency Edu- cation Commission in the opening months of 1918, a report of which, by its chairman, will be made later. Upon this Commission have sat in conference, for two years and a half, representatives of pubHcly and privately supported state institutions, of university and normal school rank, representatives of the great body of chief school officers from the several states, women's colleges, kindergarten- ers, high-school teacher^ — indeed of almost every phase of educational activity. This commission, composed of such educators as the above, has met with representatives of the Government, and with innumerable repre- sentatives of ofiicial and non-official educational bodies of all types. The publications of the Commission, under the titles of Commission Series i, 2, 3, and 4, have met with instant recognition by educational philosophers, pedogogical experts, and the country at large; while the Educational Bill, the product of the best thinking and effort of the Commission, has commanded such support as has rarely been accorded to a legislative measure, organizations numbering a membership of about ten million people having endorst it. At the present writing, it seems probable that both National political conventions will contain resolutions favorable to the great principles and plan of administration embodied in the Smith- Towner bill. The National Education Association, in addition to its other activities, has conducted a nation-wide campaign for increast salaries of teachers, and in this no less than other practical ways, has become the interpreter of the nation's demand for a highly trained, highly paid, and highly honored body of professional educators. The record of the Association has interpreted in the past America's demand for the type of civilization that can come only thru real education Sessions] NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 41 in the present. It is providing a medium for the preservation of its great historic tradition and, as well, for an active, unified, and consecrated service in the cause for which, thru the centuries, men and women have laid down their lives — the great cause of safeguarding free institutions, thru liberty enthroned upon law, governments incarnating justice, and a humanity expressing love. A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION A FINAL REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON THE EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION, PRESENTED BY ITS CHAIRMAN GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The Commission on the Emergency in Education was appointed by Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, then President of the National Education Association, and by Doctor Thomas E. Finegan, then President of the Department of Superintendence, in February, 1918. In addition to those thus appointed it was agreed that the Commission should include the members of the Executive Committee and of the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association. This group met in Washington at National Education Association Headquarters, immediately following the meeting of the Department of Superintendence in 1918, and has met at irregular intervals from that time until its last meeting yesterday. The following is a summary of the work which the Commission has done: I. The heavy responsibiUties for the National service placed upon the already depleted and overworkt teaching personnel, together with the educational inadequacies and shortcomings revealed by the draft, led the Commission to undertake at once to devise ways and means of meeting the emergency. The confusion and congestion caused by the "War Work" in the schools received first attention. The Commission had no official status, but the Government agencies welcomed its cooperation as representing the public-school workers of the Nation. Thru its efforts a "Clearing House" was establisht at Washington; the activities of a score of departments, bureaus, and committees, all attempting to work thru the schools, were coordinated, overlappings were eliminated, rival claims reconciled, and the entire range of "war activities" so reorganized that they not only served their immediate purpose much better than before, but also fulfilled an educational function. Once this was accomphsht, the Commission devoted its energies to the preparation of a program thru which the outstanding defects of public education as revealed by the war might ultimately be remedied. The program which resulted was embodied later in the Smith-Towner bill, a measure which will be described in detail in subsequent paragraphs. 42 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General 2. The Commission made a scientific inquiry concerning the salaries of teachers thruout the Nation, and pubUsht a report thereon which was used as the basis for salary campaigns thruout the country. 3. It recommended to the Executive Committee the appointment of a Field Secretary, and thus made available to the teachers of the country this most important service which has been rendered them by this department. 4. It organized a committee on the enlistment of the profession, and devised plans which have proved most effective in helping to secure the large increase in the enrolment of active members in the Association. 5. It formulated a definite statement advocating the participation of teachers in the formulation of administrative policies and proposed a definite plan for cooperation of classroom teachers looking to the more complete democratization of the teaching profession. 6. Thru a campaign of pubHcity carried on from the platform in the magazines of the country, the Commission and the officers of the Associ- ation developt the earnest and effective cooperation of the pubUc in sup- port of measures for the proper recognition and the more adequate support of education. 7. It has secured the cooperation of civic organizations and forward- looking citizens thruout the Nation in support of the Smith-Towner bill which is conceded to be the most important and far-reaching educational measure ever brought ta the consideration of the Congress. 8. In a general statement which was prepared and circulated thruout the United States, and in its special publications, the Commission has tried to bring home to the profession and to the American people the crying need for a great national program which would give boys and girls an opportunity for education in terms of adequately educated and pro- fessionally qualified teachers, courses of study which will provide for variations in ability and vocational outlook, longer school terms and more adequate school equipment. We have advocated the development of a program which will remove illiteracy, which will provide an oppor- tunity for adult foreigners to come to understand our institutions and to participate in our national hfe, a program which will make provision in terms of health service for the national physical growth and development of every boy and which will make possible opportunities for education for boys and girls in rural America equal to those now enjoyed by children in our most enlightened urban communities. Members of the Commission recognized very early in their work that this great national program would require for its accomphshment the sanction and support of the Nation. The Commission therefore devoted its energies to the preparation of a bill embodying this program. This measure was first presented to Congress in the fall of 1918. The bill was distributed thruout the Nation and was revised in terms of the criticisms Sessions] NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 43 received from state, city, and county superintendents of schools, normal schools, university and college presidents, and others interested in the cause of public education. After such revision the bill was resubmitted to Congress and was known in the past session as the Smith-Towner education bill. This measure has the unqualified endorsement of the session of the National Education Association at Pittsburgh and at Milwaukee and the meetings of the Department of Superintendence held in Chicago and Cleveland. Thruout the length and breadth of the land, educators and others interested in education have given their most earnest support to the measure. Among the organized groups that have endorst the bill are the General Federation of Women's Clubs, the American Library Association, Patriotic Order of Sons of America, and American Federation of Teachers, the National Council of Jewish Women, Association of Col- legiate Alumnae, the Educational Department of the Inter-Church World Movement, the Associate Committees of Women of both the Democratic and Republican National Committees, the National League of Women Voters, and the Daughters of the American Revolution. In addition to these national bodies there have been hundreds of Chambers of Commerce, Rotary Clubs, Kiwanis Clubs, Women's Clubs, and others that have taken action in favor of the measure after the bill has been presented for their consideration and after the objections which might be expected to follow have been satisfied. Certain objections to the measure have been proposed both from within as well as outside our professional group. None of these objections have, in the minds of those responsible for the administration of public education in the United States, been considered valid after they have been presented by those who have proposed them. The bill provides for the establishment of a Department of Education with a secretary in the president's cabinet. The suggestion that it would be better to have a national board of education whose executive officer should be appointed by them, was repudiated by the Department of Superintendence after a debate on this subject held at their last meeting. It seems clear that, if national leadership and a national sanction for the development of educa- tion are to be proyided, the method already employed in the establish- ment of the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor should be followed. There has been the suggestion that the establishment of such a depart- ment will lead to the centralization of authority over education and the limiting of the states in their own efforts which is, in effect, guaranteed to them in the Constitution. The answer to this objection is found in the bill itself which provides that the act shall not be construed to require uniformity in the organization of the educational facilities in the states or of the plans or methods which are to be used in the development of 44 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General education as encouraged by the bill. It is further provided in the Smith- Towner bill that the schools which are aided by provisions of the act should be organized, supervised, and administered solely by the legally constituted state and local educational authorities. There are those who question the wisdom of the measure from an exactly opposite angle and who suggest that a National Department of Education should establish standards or that such standards should be written into the bill and form the basis for participation by the states in the appropriations that are made available. In reply to this argument it is proposed, first of all, that the bill itself provides minimum standards in the requirements that schools shall be open at least twenty-four weeks in the year, that compulsory education for children between seven and four- teen years of age shall be required, and that no state may participate that does not require that the language of instruction in all schools, both pubhc and private, during the elementary school period, be English. To require standards higher than those which can be met by states which have the least educational development would be to deny aid to those who need it most. The purpose of a national program, as embodied in this bill, is to equalize educational opportunities thruout the nation. It has been suggested by some of the critics of the measure that the bill should have specified the bureaus, divisions, or administrative units to be transferred to the Department of Education. It has seemed wiser to those who have studied the problems carefully to propose that the Bureau of Education be made the nucleus of the new department and that the transfer of other administrative units be determined after careful study and investigation has been made by the Secretary of Education in cooperation with the other members of the President's Cabinet with whom he is associated. It would seem legitimate that the Secretary of Education have as his most important duty during his first year in ofl&ce, after con- ference with his colleagues and with the President of the United States, to propose to the President and to the Cabinet the constitution of the Depart- ment that would best serve the needs of the Nation. The Si^ioot bill which proposes a reorganization of the several departments of government to the end that the waste of duplication and overlapping be eliminated is in direct accord with our program. It seems doubtful whether any one without the intimate knowledge of oug who serves in the Cabinet can propose a plan which would satisfactorily determine which of the bureaus, divisions, or administrative units, should be included in the new depart- ment. There are those who have objected to the appropriation of money by the National Government for removal of illiteracy, for Americanization of foreign born, for training teachers, for development of a program of health service and physical education, and for equalization of educational opportunities. It is well to call to mind the fact that we have done much Sessions] NA TIONA L PROGRA M FOR EDUCA TION 4 5 in the United States to provide for education in engineering and agricul- ture which has been provided by the National Government in its appro- priation to colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. In like manner we have felt the need for encouraging education in industrial and household arts in a secondary school level, and have made much progress, due pri- marily to the encouragement offered thru national appropriations for the purpose. There have been, and I assume there always will be, those who would deny the wisdom of appropriating money from the National Treasury for the purpose of strengthening our systems of pubhc education. The reply to such an objection seems to be obvious. The person who is illiterate is not a good citizen. He may, in the hand of the demagog, become an enemy to our institutions. The man of foreign birth who has not had an opportunity to understand American life or to participate with us in the development of our institutions may be, as we all know, un- American even to the point of seeking to destroy the society with which he is not in sympathy. The man who is physically unfit has neither the opportunity to enjoy life nor to contribute his part to the common good. It is the crying shame that boys and girls of America today must go to school to teachers who are, as a group, less educated and less well trained professionally than are the teachers of any other civilized country in the whole world. It is hard to understand how anyone can remonstrate against national support for education and at the same time propose that there be equality of educational opportunities in our American democracy. In recent years the National Government has gone into the states and into the localities within the states and taken from them their most remunerative sources of revenue while leaving to the state and to the locality the most expensive function of government. The Nation should contribute to the support of its schools and seek thru such contribution an equalization of the opportunities provided. It is a sound principle which proposes that the wealth of a nation be put back of the education of all its children. The Commission on the Emergency in Education has dealt with the problems of teachers' salaries. There was prepared for the Commission a report on salaries and salary schedules which brought together data which have proved valuable in salary campaigns thruout the United States. We recognize the necessity for larger salaries in order that the abler of our young men and young women may find in teaching a life career. It is important that those who wish well for the public school system think of the salary question, not merely in terms of requests of teachers for more money, but more particularly from the standpoint of the kind of service which the schools may be able to secure. We need to bring to the attention of the public an analysis of the salary problem which will enable them to understand the need for increase, as much as 100 per cent as compared with salaries paid in 1914. The significance of the salary paid 46 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General is to be found in the opportunity which is provided to those entering the teaching profession for growth in efficiency in their chosen profession. The community may pay a teacher barely enough for his existence. This means that the teacher, if he is careless enough to make no plans for the future, may have enough to buy food, clothing, and shelter, and pay for the absolutely necessary dental and medical services which he needs. This subsistence salary in most of our city communities we would place, at the present time, at $1,500. The supposition is that there is to be good food, comfortable quarters, reasonably decent clothing, and satisfactory medical and dental care when the need arises. If teachers are to be free from the anxiety which the provident com- monly have with respect to the possibility of illness and old age, they must have a larger salary in order to make provision against these disabilities. This cannot be done on the lower salary level. An increase of 20 per cent above the subsistence salary must be provided for what may be termed a salary providing economic independence. We expect teachers to transmit to boys and girls not only the elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic, but the ideals and standards which are peculiar to our race and to our country. If teachers are to work system- atically and enthusiastically with children in the development of this broader training in citizenship, they must have what is termed a cultural salary. By that we mean that they must be able to have books and maga- zines, to enjoy good music, to travel, to continue their professional study, and the like. The mere economic independence which they may enjoy on an $1,800 salary will not provide for their personal growth and develop- ment and for their cultural life which is so essential to the best teaching. Another 20 per cent must be added to the $1,800 salary if this desired result is to be secured. If teaching is to be made attractive to the ablest of our young men and women, there must be a higher minimum salary available for those who do work of a very high order in their profession. This salary, which might be called a professional salary should be available for all who have spent their time and money in preparing to teach and who show unusual professional ability, whether they teach in the first grade or in the high school. We have made a very great mistake in drafting the best of our classroom teachers for' the supervisory and administrative posts, for which often they are not peculiarly fitted. We need capable teachers in the classroom not only for the work which they will do for the boys and girls with whom they are associated, but for the sake of lifting the pro- fession in the estimation of the community, and, for the sake of making it attractive to capable young men and women. Salaries for unusually capable teachers should be equal to the salaries available for the successful workers in other callings. Sessions] NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR EDUCATION 47 The Commission has sought earnestly to enhst the cooperation of all members of the profession in the development of our American public- school system. We have insisted that teachers recognize their obligation to participate in the development of administrative policies of the school system in which they are employed. We have suggested as well to boards of education that by legislative enactment these obligations of classroom teachers be recognized. If the best young men and women are to be attracted to teaching as a profession it will be because they see in this calling a chance to contribute to the common good. When classroom teachers feel that they need to think and plan for the development of the good of the school system and that they, thru their recognized repre- sentative, may influence the board of education, the representatives of the public who do and should determine the policies which are to prevail in the public-school systems, we may hope for more enthusiastic professional services for those already in the profession and that teaching will prove more attractive to capable young men and women. The Commission has workt for the professional organization of teachers in the city arid county as local groups working with the boards of educa- tion and with superintendents of schools, either thru councils or other organizations; in state associations which bring to the attention of the state legislature the needs of public education in their commonwealth; and in a great National Education Association which shall consider the needs of the Nation and propose from time to time steps which should be taken to realize our American ideals. We believe just as sincerely that the professional organization of teachers should not affiliate with any other body. Those who serve the whole public cannot afford to serve parties or groups within that public. We know of no surer way to destroy con- fidence in the American public-school system and our profession than for the great body of teachers to organize themselves in affiliation with any church, party, or group whose aims and purposes are peculiar to the members of the group thus organized. Whatever may be our judgment with regard to the legitimacy of the program of organized labor, teachers as a group can- not federate with labor for the realization of their aims and at the same time hope to keep the confidence of the whole people. It has not always been clear to teachers who have been persuaded to affiliate themselves with organized labor that affiliation carries with it the obligation to work for the interests of the group with which one affiliates and by virtue of that fact to work as a partisan against other groups who are equally responsible and equally important in the body politic. The support of the public schools must come from all the groups. If our educational program be sound and if we work for that which will be of advantage to the whole public we must forever refuse to become affiliated as a profession with any religious group, any political group, or any economic group. Progress in 48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the realization of American ideals lies not in the direction of the soviet, but rather in the cooperation of all of us for the public good. The task of the moment is to secure the passage of the Smith-Towner bill by Congress. The measure of our professional zeal and our efficiency as a group will be found next year in the degree to which we are able to work together and to enlist public support for the Smith-Towner bill. The Commission on the Emergency in Education propose^^ that there be appointed a legislative committee composed partly of those who have developt the national program embodied in the Smith-Towner bill, and partly of other members of the National Association who are willing to devote themselves to the work which will need to be done in Washington and thruout the Nation. We know that the friends of public education are more numerous than the enemies of our public schools. We are confident that we are approach- ing the day when a Secretary of Education shall sit at the Cabinet table to propose for the consideration of the President and his associates such measures as will make for the realization of a more efficient system of public schools thruout the Nation. We believe that America — free, just, and efficient — will make good the promise of democracy and that on the foundation laid in a greater American school system will arise the Greater American Republic. THE RECOGNITION OF THE RELATION OF EDUCATION TO OUR NATIONAL LIFE I. OLIVE N. JONES, PRESIDENT NEW YORK PRINCIPAL'S ASSOCIATION My subject is a tremendous one. I cannot hope to do more than indicate its main divisions and request you to trace their connection, because I hope you will emphasize these connections both in your own thinking and in the impression you make upon the thinking of others. I propose to begin by stating to you in outline the manner in which this subject appeals to me, the logic, and psychology of it as I see them. There are three main divisions of the subject : 1. Wherein the relation of education to our national life consists, what evidences of such a relation can we find. These briefly stated, I find to be: a) The illiteracy among our people. h) The unassimilated foreign born living in our land. c) The need for an enlightened citizenship. d.) The safety and security of our Americanism, in other words, the preservation of our national ideals. 2. The extent to which these relations are recognized. This, I believe, we can only discover by investigating what is said or done to secure the recognition by three great groups roughly classified as: a,) The big political, industrial, and business interests. Sessions] RELATION OF EDUCATION TO NATIONAL LIFE 49 b.) The general public. c.) The teaching body. 3. The development and maintenance of education in such a way as to secure the best results from the relations proved to exist. The main topics for consideration under this heading occur to me as: a.) Status of the teacher. b.) Organization of teachers. c.) Standards of teacher-equipment and of pupil-equipment. d.) The determination of educational policies. e.) The teaching of civics and history. The first of these three main divisions, we need not dwell upon. Most of the evidences of the relation of education to our national life we all know, or think we do. The draft forced us to know some of them. The extent of the Americanization movement shows our awakening to our duty to the foreign born we have admitted to our shores. It is significant that Judge Elkins, after serving as Ambassador to Turkey, became an active agitator for teachers to make impossible the colonizing in our big cities, as he found it in Constantinople, to the utter destruction of national life and of any hope for democracy. The best thing I have seen in this connection is the emphasis at every meeting on this relationship, showing that we are awake to the fact that an enlightened citizenship is the most important duty confronting the educators of America, for their problem and their duty it is. Democracy is meeting its surest test right now. Which are we to have? A true democracy, which means equality of right, of opportunity, or a false democracy, a false and artificial equality of individuals, simply because they all happen to have, alive and in the same country, egoists to whom equality means the measure of their own individual ability to go ahead ? Therefore, we must develop an enlightened citizenship, trained by patriotic teachers, alive to their civic responsibility. Americanism must be to us a political religion and teachers are the preachers of this gospel. They must provide a unifying influence. Hence, the tremendous significance of that word "recognition" is our subject. Problems, as great as these we have considered, demand educa- tional statesmanship. Does the public know it ? Do teachers feel it ? Do we recognize the relationship between these problems of our national Hfe and the teaching body of America ? When the teacher and the average citizen get together in a recognition of the fundamental Americanism of what the National Education Associa- tion has arrived at, no power wielded by politician, or big interest, or propagandist of a false and un-American democracy can hold them back. That aim, as I see it, and as T believe in it, is official recognition, by the appointment of a Secretary of Education in the President's Cabinet, of the fundamental relationship between education and the preservation of our 50 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General national ideals. It means that the Government of the United States recognized that its children, its future citizens, are as valuable and as essential to the safety of that Government and of its people as its railroads, or its cattle, or its farmers, or its ships. Who but the enemy of America and American ideals can urge that we weaken our people by a failure to give official recognition and federal aid to education, while other nations are acting upon the newly recognized relation of education to national life by creating Ministers of Education and bestowing the places upon their most honored statesmen ? It was granted in ,1918 that an emergency existed, and that emergency an educational emergency. Then came recognition of the foremost aspects of that emergency, namel}^* Salaries of teachers, organization of teachers, federal aid, and dignified recognition of education. This was right and wise action by our leaders nationally. Have we ever unconsciously done the same by localities and states ? What use to talk, of standards, of civic responsibilities, of idealism to people forced by wage conditions to a struggle for mere existence — to borrow carfare between payday and payday. What use to ask civic leadership, to seek respect from citizens for the advice of those who are unable to secure respect from the community by (this) their way of living or from boys and girls by their dress and personal appearance ? And how obtain salary standards — or any other standard — • except by organized effort. What is everybody's job, nobody does, there- fore, the fundamental step, the cornerstone of our building of national recognition of the national value of education is the organization of the teachers of America into, a unified body consciously working for a highly professionalized ideal of patriotic service. Every profession has been advanced by its own members working consciously and concertedly to that end. The surgeons were once barbers ; the lawyers were once servants, and, as they have raised themselves by self-imposed laws and standards, irre- spective of and independent of each other and of any other group, capitalistic or industrial, political or industrial, religious or social, such an organization of teachers is vital to the e^stence of the nation itself. II. WILL C. WOOD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, CALIFORNIA Thruout the ages, war has been an awful flame in which human beings and institutions have been tried and tested. The city-states of the Greeks, serviceable in their day, crmnbled in the heat of conflict, and with them perisht faith in the gods of Olympus. The institutions of Rome, great as they were, succumbed at last in the unending conflicts forced by Goths and Vandals. It is not surprising therefore that the recent world-war, surpass- Sessions] RELATION OF EDUCATION TO NATIONAL LIFE 51 ing all others in scope and intensity, has put all earthly institutions to the supreme test. Nor is it surprising that, in the early days of peace, men stood stunned and aghast because of the imperfections displayed by human nature and the gaping effects revealed in human institutions in the light of the great conflict. Governments are questioned, not alone in Russia, China, and Mexico, but also in the countries of the leading world victors. Economic and social institutions, failing to solve the problems of the cost of living and the restoration of production, are on the operating table in most countries, on the dissecting table in others. Even the church has come in for a sharp challenge on account of its failure to apply the balm of Gilead to the wounds and burns of our social system and its failure to restore mankind to faith in spiritual dominion. On every hand we note a disposition to question the efficiency of our institutions and an attempt to re-define the relation of these institutions to human life and ideals. It would seem that the period in which we live will be known hereafter as the Era of Little Faith. It is an era of criticism, of unrest, of querulousness, and of pessimism. During the war we schooled ourselves to believe in the utter depravity of our enemies; we allowed our emotions of hatred to be fanned into an intense flame. We yielded to the force of the unending waves of propaganda and we developt in our nation a spirit of intolerance and skepticism which has not yet run its course; which is now manifested in bitter partisanship, national prejudices, class hatred, and racial bigotry. Is this great institution, the public school, considered in its relation to national life, a failure as some would have us believe ? On every hand we hear sweeping criticisms of our system of education. Business men declare that the graduates of our schools cannot read, write, or spell; that they cannot add, subtract, multiply, or divide accurately; that they are lacking in a sense of responsibility. The manufacturer declares that our boys come to the shop with wholly impractical attitudes, many of them more inter- ested in better pay and shorter hours than in the job, or the quality, or quantity of the product. The War Department has issued a statement that the faults of our boys may be summed up under one head — " slouchiness. " The universities and colleges include all the previous counts of the in- dictment of our schools and add that a considerable percentage of our graduates are lacking in broad interests and in general intelligence. It is a sweeping indictment that is brought against our young people and I am not one who would make a sweeping denial. But I would file a demurrer to the complaint, basing it upon the wholly tenable ground that the schools cannot be held responsible for all the frailties and short- comings of human nature. We are now attempting to educate all the children of all the people, and a considerable proportion of human beings have not been endowed with minds capable of development along lines of academic scholarship. The schools may develop brains; they cannot supply them. 52 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General And now we come to the direct answer to the question "Are the schools a failure, considered in the light of their relation to our national life?" My answer is an unequivocal ''No." In support of this denial I would introduce two lines of evidence. First of all, I would set forth the fact that Americg. is a successful nation. America is successful commercially. In per capita of wealth and per capita of production, even in these days of underproduction, our country leads the world. America has the most extensive and on the whole the most efficient railway system in the world. In mining and manufacturing, America has forged to the forefront during the last sixty years. We have an economic system and a banking system that with all their faults have met successfully the world's greatest eco- nomic crisis. America is successful, also, considered from the standpoint of scientific advancement. The nation excels especially along the line of applied sciences. America, in spite of her obvious shortcomings, is a success judged from the standpoint of moral advance. The small percentage of illegitimacy, the high position that women occupy, the triumph of national prohibition, the persistence of the hope of the world-peace among our people, in spite of disheartening set-backs due to lack of faith and vision — all are great witnesses of America's moral success. And what is responsible for this marvelous success of the American people ? Is it due to the ancestry of the people ? Let me point out that an overwhelming majority of the American people are descended not from the economically successful people of Europe but from Europe's common folk — from the economically non-successful people of Europe. One of the chief reasons for their coming was failure to succeed economically across the water. Social and economic heredity do not explain the success of the American people. Environment and wealth of natural resources can only partly explain it. The great fundamental reason for the success of the American people is to be found in the institution which with all its faults, has kept open a pathway for merit of whatever kind; which has kept open the door of opportunity for all the children of the common folk of our land — the American public school. The second line of evidence I would offer in support of my denial of the failure of our schools is the record of our nation in the great world crisis. The American people showed ability to rise to a supreme crisis and meet it successfully. We accomplisht the impossible in seventeen months of warfare. When the armistice was signed we had 2,083,000 men on European soil and they had turned the awful tide at Chateau Thierry and in the Argonne. How well they fought against the experienced forces of an enemy, trained to the minute, is a matter of history. For their initiative,' for their abihty Sessions] RELATION OF EDUCATION TO NATIONAL LIFE 53 to meet new situations, for their grit and nerve, for their pluck and courage and dash, the whole world honors them. And 90 per cent of these boys were products of the American public schools. A nation that has the ability to turn from peace to war in a period of seventeen months with such signal success cannot be said to have a failing school system. Since you have permitted me to draft the indictment, file a demurrer, make the answer, and offer the evidence, I trust you will allow me to render the verdict. And the verdict is that they are not faults of ineffi- ciency so much as they are faults of insufficiency. There has been insuffi- ciency of vocational training for the millions of young people whose chief abilities and interest are with tools and other instruments of production. We are now beginning to make provision for their training under the Smith-Hughes law and part-time education laws enacted by several states. However, there is a need for great expansion of work along vocational lines. A second insufficiency is in Americanization. In this great country 14 per cent of the people are foreign born, another 14 per cent are of foreign parentage, and still another 6| per cent are of half-foreign parentage. The problems of interpreting to the alien and his children the ideals of America, developing in them a real consciousness of their oneness with the American life and teaching them to live in accordance with American customs and standards of living, is one which can be shirked only with peril to our national life and institutions. And yet, until recently, the national govern- ment which regulates and controls the stream of immigration has done nothing toward the education of the great body of adult aliens within our gates. A third insufficiency is in elementary education. There were 400,000 boys called to the American colors to fight to make the world safe for democracy, who were unable to read in any language the proclamation of the president requiring them to register or the simple directions for answering their questionnaire. The tests given by the army authorities during the war revealed that 24 . 9 per cent of the young men who enlisted in the army could not read a newspaper intelligently or write an intelligible letter. The census of 19 10 showed that two- thirds of the total adult illiteracy is in the rural communities; that, among native white adults, there were seven times as many iUiterates in the rural districts as in the urban centers. There has been woeful insufficiency of education in the fundamental tools of knowledge. Another insufficiency has been revealed in the physical development of our people. Approximately one- third of the young men subject to the draft were rejected on account of physical defects. A considerable pro- portion of the defects were pathological, but most of them were preventable. If a similar examination of young women had been made, there is little reason to doubt that the percentage of physical defects among them would 54 ^^ TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [General have been even larger. The insufficiency of physical training and of education for healthful living is a problem that demands immediate attention. The National Commission on the Emergency in Education, after a careful study of social conditions and a thoro analysis of war experiences, has mapped out a plan of action which will help greatly in overcoming the insufficiencies of our school system. It has planted itself firmly on the ground that the hope of America is in her public-school system. It has attempted to provide federal aid for Americanization, for overcoming illiteracy, for physical education, for teacher-training, and for the equali- zation of educational opportunities in the elementary and secondary schools. It has combined the principle of state autonomy in educa- tional matters with the principle of federal support. Its program is broad, forward-looking, statesman-like and thoroly American. Because of its fundamental soundness, it will commend itself to the American people who are irrevocably committed to the principle of public education, severed from partisan or sectarian influence or control. It is for us — the teachers of America — to take the far-reaching educational program to the American people, not for the sake of ourselves but for the sake of the children we teach and of the country we love and serve. The program that has been outlined will cost more than our school system is now costing. We must improve and be prepared for the protest from short-sighted citizens who maintain that the schools are costing too much. Just one comparison in answer. The expenditures of the United States for the war during the two years between April i, 191 7, and April i, 1919, according to official figures of the War Department, was $21,850,000,000. The total amount expended by the United States and all the States and Territories, counties, school districts, and municipali- ties of our country for public education between 1787 and 191 7 was only $14,400,000,000. In other words we expended 50 per cent more in two years for the purpose of killing Germans and preparing to kill Germans than we expended in 130 years previous, for the making of American citizens thru public' education. And yet, it was to the men trained in our schools that America turned in her hour of trial for the means to defeat the foe of America, of democracy, of human civilization. The public schools have been the salvation of America; they are and will ever be the hope of America; they are the chief force making f6r the perpetuity of democratic ideals for reconstruction on the basis of social righteousness. It is to the schools that America must look for the development of the bodies, minds, and souls of future citizens who will see that American democracy is made safe and kept safe for itself and the world. Sessions] ADEQUATE PAY FOR TEACHERS 55 ADEQUATE FAY FOR TEACHERS p. p. CLAXTON, U.S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. Teachers worthy of places in the schools in which American children are prepared for life, for making a living, for the duties and responsibilities of democratic citizenship, and for eternal destiny can never be fully paid in money. The work of teachers of this kind has high money value, much higher than it is generally understood to have. It also has other values that cannot be measured in dollars and cents. It has ever been and probably must always be that workers of whatever sort receive the larger part of their pay in kind, as millers take toll of the grist they grind, whether of com, gr wheat, or barley, or rye. Those that work with material things that have easily measured cash values receive their pay chiefly in money or in things whose values are most easily measured in money. The physician, who foregoes ease and comfort and risks his hfe that others may live; the minister, who takes a vow of poverty that he may preach the gospel of wealth and point his fellows to the way of Hfe here and hereafter; the soldier who endures the hardships of the trenches and dies that others may live and be free; the mother who passes thru the shadow of death and denies herself leisure, comfort, and the necessities of life that the state may have citizens and that the race may not perish from the earth — these do not expect to be paid in full either in money or in the appreciation of their work by their fellows. For them as for teachers there are other and higher forms of reward, and only these can be accounted as finally adequate. Teachers who do their work well and who, either in fact or by faith, see the world made better as a result, individuals made healthier, wiser, happier; sin and suffering made less; the commonwealth made more; social purity and civic righteousness increast public laws made more just; patriotism broadened and purified; state and nation made stronger and safer against attack from without and decay from within, and the world lifted to a higher plane and into a brighter sunshine and a purer atmosphere, these are possest of wealth unseen and for most unseeable. Not for the sake of the teachers, primarily, but that the schools may be made fully efficient; that children may be well taught; that the material wealth of state and nation may be increast so that we may have the means of paying our debts, building our highways, caring for our unfortunates, and meeting other pubHc expenses and at the same time enough for all the people to live in comfort; that our democracy may be preserved, purified, and made more effective; that scientific discovery, useful inven- tion, and artistic expression may be promoted; that we may act well our part in the commonwealth of the world, we must pay such salaries as will 56 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General bring into the schools as teachers men and women of the best native ability, men and women strong and well organized physically, mentally, and spirit- ually; men and women of the finest culture and the most thoro and comprehensive education, academic and professional, and so adjust their salaries as to enable us to hold all those who show themselves most capable and best fitted for the work. In this most important of all our enterprises we cannot afford to pay less. Nor should we fear that by paying good salaries we shall degrade the cause of education and lower the ideals of the teacher. In this country as in no other and now as never before we have placed all service on a money basis, making money the means of exchange of service as well as of commodities. The time has now come when men and women of unusual native ability and strength of character can mg^e more money in any of hundreds of occupations than they can in teaching. Few of them will teach any longer as they have done in the past while waiting to find themselves or to make money for a start in business or for paying for preparation for other work. They will accept employment which is at the same time more attractive and more remunerative. From now on schools will be taught (i) by unprepared and inexperienst young men and women of mediocre ability and less, while waiting for the maturity which is required for employ- ment in the minor and more common occupations; (2) by the left-overs of such men and women who have failed to find more attractive and remu- nerative employment elsewhere but have not wholly failed as teachers; or (3) by men and women of better native ability, stronger character, more thoro education and the professional preparation which will enable them to succeed to such an extent that they may be induced by the payment of adequate wages to continue to serve their country in a high and valuable way as teachers. This constitutes the real crisis in education. We have come to the parting of the ways. The choice lies with us. Which shall we accept? Make-shift teachers of the first two classes we may continue to get in sufficient numbers by paying salaries relatively as large as those paid in 19 14 before the beginning of the large increase in the cost of living and the decrease in the purchasing power of the dollar, and by continuing the pohcy of failing to recognize proven abihty and increast power and skill by a corresponding increase in pay. To have the same relative value and purchasing power as salaries paid in 19 13-14, the present salaries and salaries for some years to come must be approximately twice as large as they were then. For teachers of the third class — ^and we should be satisfied with no other — we must pay salaries larger relatively than we have paid at any time in the past and must adopt a policy which will give such recognition to teachers of unusual ability as will hold them in the service of the schools against the temptation of better pay elsewhere. Temporary increase in pay of teachers will not be sufficient. There must be such guaranty of Sessions] ADEQUATE PAY FOR TEACHERS 57 good wages in the years to come as will induce young men and women of such native ability and character as good teachers can be made of to accept teaching as a profession and take the time and spend the money necessary to prepare themselves for it. The demand for professional preparation and continued service, coupled with inadequate pay, can only result in supplying the schools with teachers of small caliber, little native ability, passive and negative character, weak in purpose and will, unfit to become the inspirers and guides and educators of those who are to make up the citizenry of the great democratic republic, solve the problems and do the work of the new era. Such teachers are not fit seed corn for the new harvest to which we should 9,nd do look forward. The average wealth production of the adult worker of the United States is not far from $1,250 a year — ^probably somewhat more. The average for men and women of the ability, preparation, and industry of such teachers as we are talking about cannot be less then $2,000; it is probably nearer three or four or five thousand dollars. But in view of the fact that teaching is by its very nature an altruistic calling, and also because it may reasonably be supposed that the purchasing power of the dollar will increase considerably within the next few years and the cost of living as measured in dollars relatively decrease, let us agree on $2,000 as an average salary for teachers in elementary and secondary schools of the United States. This is three times as much as the average for the year 191 7-18, and more than 150 per cent above the average for the year 1919-20. If the pay to beginners is so fixt that the average for all teachers in the first year in urban and rural elementary schools and high schools is $1,200, this will allow salaries of $2,000, $3,000, $3,500, and $4,000 for those who have gained experience and proved their worth. Salaries of $5,000 or more may be held out as rare prizes for those who are willing and able to pay the price of such great and fine service as is recognized by unusual rewards in other professions. I am not including in this average the salaries of superintendents and other administrative officers, nor am I including salaries of teachers in universities, colleges, technical, and professional schools. Will the people pay? The wealth is theirs, the children are theirs, the schools are their agents, owned and supported by them for the education of their children and for the attainment of all that this means and can be made to mean for their own happiness, for the individual welfare of their children, for the production of material wealth, for the individual and common good, for the public welfare, for civic righteousness and social purity, for strength and safety of State and Nation, for all that patriotism means, and for all that supports life and makes it worth living. I have faith to believe that when the people are made to understand this they will respond. They have never failed. They will not fail now. S8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Our schools are the greatest cooperative enterprise of our democracy. Thru them, in theory at least, all pay according to their ability, regardless of their wealth, that all may, regardless of their poverty, have as nearly as possible equal opportunity in education and in all those things that depend on education. Never in our history has education for the individual, for society, for state, for the nation, and for the world meant so much as now. We understand now better than ever before the importance of the teacher in the school. Let us help the people to understand these things and the rest will follow. AMERICANIZA TION JESSIE L. BURRALL, CHIEF OF SCHOOL SERVICE, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D.C. I wish to leave the practical working out of the Americanization of our adult foreign and native born to the others on the program, and call atten- tion to the eighteen million children of our public schools today, whether born in America or in other lands, who are in great need of Americanization. We must inculcate in the minds of our people a respect for the public schools. We have allowed in the last ten years criticism of the teaching profession by teachers and superintendent, well meant, but nevertheless destructive, to be given out. We must work together as never before to see that the public appreciates the good features of our schools and loyally builds them up to the point of greatest efficiency. But once we have secured the needed and equippt teachers, how are they going to teach Americanization ? How are they going to get into the minds of thousands of children the meaning of America ? We have said certain words so often that we almost ignore the deeper meaning of them — "We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness." Our business is to translate these words into the speech, thought, and action of out boys and girls. We have had enough of patriotic talk, of vain repetitions. Let us take up those words and make them meaningful to children. Life, Liberty, Happiness! If the men and women of the next gener- ation are going to have the will to make secure those three inalienable rights to their fellow men, we must begin now with the boys and girls by seeing to it that they have the will and desire to secure those rights for their fellow schoolmates. How can a boy or girl growing up in the schools be given a chance to cultivate the will to secure for his comrades the right to life? Let us give only one simple translation that any boy or girl can understand and use as a guide to conduct. To secure the right to "Life" means, in brief, giving to everyone around a square deal. Do you believe Sessions] AMERICANIZATION 59 there is a profiteer in America today who did not cheat in the spelling lessons long ago, or cheat in games, or bully the smaller boys? Liberty — our much abused old word. Liberty! Let us remind our boys and girls that liberty does not mean freedom to do as they please, to spread poison on the streets, to disfigure public buildings, nor to disturb the public peace. It does mean freedom to build up and to help. We believe most earnestly in freedom of the press and freedom of speech. True, we often get into trouble with our freedom of speech and of the press. We often hear the soap-box orators inciting their hearers to the verge of treason. But how much less harmful are such men spouting like geysers on the street than plotting in cellars ? If we can create a truly democratic spirit in every schoolroom, where children practice tolerance of others and play fair with rich and poor alike, we will raise up a generation of citizens that no soap-box orator can sway. Let us repeat — Liberty in America means that we set people free — to live and grow and develop into the best for which they are intended, and free to be helpful. Happiness! This does not mean money for all the "movies" to which we want to go. It does not mean wealth or comforts. It means ability to grow. The happiness of the real teacher in the real school is to be able to reach out to freckled-faced, snub-nosed, dirty-fisted John, Dick, and Henry, and give them a chance to develop excellencies. Happiness for each child means that he shall have a right to develop his ability and win the respect of the community. It means that the children give to the son of the Italian street vender the same rights in class and on the play- ground as to the son of the doctor, lawyer, or wealthy manufacturer. The cornerstone of America was laid in the cement of religious freedom, and in the separation of Church and State. That means the separation of church and the public schools, but it does not mean the separation of God and the public schools. We sit h^re tonight representing almost as many creeds as there are individuals, but creeds are only channels thru which individual souls find God. Just as the rivers that fall on the mountain tops flow away in opposite directions, winding thru tortuous courses, yet in time all reach the infinite sea; just so, thru our amazing number of creeds, we all reach a final goal. No creed has any place in the public school, but the only teacher who ought not to be allowed in our schools is the one who does not recognize a supreme, loving, beneficent Being, or the one who has a hymn of hate in her heart for any class or race or creed. The brotherhood of man is a useless bit of talk without the Fatherhood of God. Every child has a right to be brought up in a moral and spiritual atmosphere. So, fundamentally, our Americanization problem is to put God into the public schools. With his guidance, America can work out her destiny, for the spirit of America is one of constant advance. She does not recognize impossibility in science or in invention. In all the arts she forges ahead thru any difficulty. How did the pioneers conquer 6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General these plains, facing hardship, privation, and danger in a measure that seemed to make permanent settlement impossible? Yet they moved steadily onward. What are the impossibilities to America? The things of which no one has thought. Once an idea has been conceived in the brain of a group of Americans, that instantly becomes a possibility of the future. The typical spirit of America is seen in a little quatrain called "The Song of the Panama Canal Builders. " Let us make it the song of America's children: Have you got any seas they say are uncrossable? Have you got any mountains you can't tunnel thru ? We specialize on the wholly impossible, Doing the things that no one could do. THE STRANGER WITHIN OUR GATES WALTER E. CLARK, PRESIDENT, OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA, RENO, NEV. The greatest goal for a nation is the production of the highest possible type of man or woman. Immigration is the most important of the greater public problems of this nation because the immigrant is a fundamental factor in the production of the American of tomorrow. The theme. Immigration, naturally divides into two greater divisions; that concerned with the international immigrant policy, which should control the inflow of new immigrants, and that concerned with the domestic treatment of aliens once admitted. The domestic policy has been so frequently and so fully presented to the teachers of America under the general heading of Americanization of our aliens that I beg privilege entirely to pass this great phase of the subject. I shall devote the brief quarter-hour alloted to me in outlining some of the leading reasons why complete restriction of immigration to this country should be put into effect. I have time but to suggest these leading reasons and shall present them under three main headings: Mass, Massing, and Alienness. The mere mass, the mere volume of immigrant inflow in recent years has grown so huge that it is imperiling the Repubhc. Record of the inflow of new immigrants, taken with fair accuracy since 1820, shows us that such immigrants came by the thousands until the forties of the past century. The annual number rose to one hundred thousand for the first time in the early forties, mounted nearly to half a million in the middle fifties, dropt off during the Civil War and the critical times of the seventies, and rose to its nineteenth-century peak of nearly eight hundred thousand in the year 1882. The depression years of the nineties saw the inflow reduced to little above two hundred thousand a year but after these depression years ended, the record shows us a steep continuing increase reaching a million for the first time in 1904 and mounting up to almost thirteen hundred thousand in 1907. During the decade just preceding the war, from 1905 9 Sessions] THE STRANGER WITHIN OUR GATES 6 1 to 1 9 14, inclusive, a little more than ten millions of new immigrants came into this land, an average of more than one miUion a year ! There are those who would justify the receipt of even a miUion or a million and a half of new immigrants a year on the ground that the numerical strength of the Nation is made greater and that greater numerical strength means greater martial power and more rapid industrial progress. Fair challenge may be made in the long run whether the incoming immigrants have materially increast the numerical strength of our nation. Fair ques- tion may rather be raised whether we have not substituted new ahens by the hundred thousand, aye, by the million, for unborn native Americans! The mere overwhelming mass of immigration into this land has imperiled the Republic and has retarded and to some extent has thwarted democratic solutions. Aliens have not only come to us in huge and indigestible masses but they have on arrival congested themselves. Thruout the past generation, over eighty out of every hundred of our immigrants have located in the North Atlantic and North Central States. As a second degree of their congestion, more than three quarters of this eighty out of every hundred have located in eight of our greatest industrial states. As a third degree of this congestion, these immigrants in the more congested states have thronged to the great industrial centers. In the fourth degree of their congestion they have so crowded the tenement districts of these industrial cities as to make urban tenement life the plague spot of our day. Every phase of our democracy's struggle is made more difficult by this persistent congestion of the new immigrants. The massing of the aliens during the past generation has imperiled the RepubUc. The mere alienness of the incomers is a third great factor for diffi- culty. Back of the seventies of the nineteenth century, nearly all of our immigrants came from northwestern Europe, with civihzation closely akin to our own, with high degrees of Hteracy, many of them speaking our own tongue. Since the seventies our immigration has increasingly come from southern and eastern Europe, utterly alien in history, traditions, culture, and tongue. In 1870 only one incoming immigrant out of one hundred came from Russia, Austro-Hungary, and Italy. In that ten-miUion-immigrant decade from 1905 to 19 14 nearly seventy immigrants out of every hundred came from Russia, Austro-Hungary, and Italy. This shift in geographic source multiphed into the increasing number of comers, has massed an alienness which checks our democratic progress at every step. As I have outlined this brief, it may seem a selfish one. May I make three closing suggestions in terms of world rather than national ends? First, it is in question whether permission for tens of thousands to come from some congested European nation in any wise really lessens the 62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General congestion in that nation. For a generation the little boot-state of Italy, cradle of the world, has sent out half a million of its citizens a year to permanent residence elsewhere and yet, during this same generation, the population of Italy has steadily risen. Second, I sometimes wonder whether the older world nations, whose citizens flee by thousands to this Republic on the ground that they find old-world life relatively unendurable, would not much more readily develop endurable conditions for their home peoples if their more sensitive citizenry did not find so easy and so alluring asylum in this New World. In the concrete, I cannot help wondering whether in 1904 and 1905 great Russia might not have achieved a stable constitutional monarchy if those in almost permanently successful rebellion against the more despotic govern- ment had been aided by the brain and brawn of the hundreds of thousands of discontented spirits, who in the preceding quarter of a century had fled their Russian discontent and sought easy asylum here. The third and final suggestion is that the closing of America's doors to alien immigrants is not necessarily a closing of world asylum. Rather it is narrowing the range of the asylum. The great South American lands, ChiH, Argentine, and Brazil, are today in the stage of development in which our land was in the fifties and sixties of the last century. These lands desire immigrants and are offering special inducements to them. There are, therefore, other desirable, wide, and real asylums for those who still would flee their Old World discontents, even tho America should bar her every door to all incoming immigrants. Wholly to prohibit incoming ahen laborers will not solve any of our greater American democratic problems, but it will greatly simplify the solution of every one of these problems. It will not insure the attainment of a supreme American type but it will remove an otherwise perennial stumbling-block in the way of progress toward that great goal of the nation. With more than one hundred million of people already within the Republic, with tens of thousands of its best farmers overflowing into a neighboring commonwealth because our richer pubHc lands are now all taken, with a potential army of fifteen millions to protect the Republic against any possible foreign invasion, with our rich natural resources all in full process of exploitation, our Republic has reached the time and the conditions when and under which it is wisdom to close the door against further alien incomers, at least for long enough time that we may again locate the fixt stars in democracy's heaven and regain and maintain the direct democratic course for our Ship of State. Sessions) TRAINING FOR CITIZENSHIP 63 HOW WE ARE TRAINING FOR CITIZENSHIP IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS F. B. COOPER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SEATTLE, WASH. For one to show here what is being done in any single school system, would be to reproduce what is done in many systems. What teacher, acting under the inspiration of Ufe in a great democracy is not inspired by and does not attempt to teach love of the land and all its possibiUties, of its wealth of resources, its material advantages, and of its loveliness, of admira- tion for its history, and its achievements, for its institutions, and its great men and women, for its heroic figures and splendid leaders; for its guerdon of freedom, and its gifts of opportunity ? Thru the gateways of geography, of history, of civics, and of literature we try to inspire the behef that it is a good country and a great one, and that its strength and permanence depend upon the character and ideals of those who enjoy its bounties and protection. We try to inculcate the doctrine of neighborliness, and instil respect for the obligations of neighbor- ship, "that no man can live unto himself," that each must have respect for all as well as all for each. We try to mold into the minds of our youth the sentiments that ours, not mine, is at once the most enriching and satisfying attitude. We attempt to emphasize the thought of our home, our neigh- borhood, our city, our country. We labor to induce respect for law and obedience to it. We hold up for reverence the law of the home, the law of the school, the laws of the state or town or nation. The children of the public schools participate in law making for the school. Some of this instruction is by precept. Some of it takes the form of training thru school, home, and neighborhood activities. We believe that lessons in citizenship must function somehow thru practical activities and that all that is taught should be vitalized thru experience. We hold to the view in our practice that boys and girls have a present citizenship that has duties, responsibilities, obhgations, and rewards. The individual report card that goes out quarterly to parents bears upon its face a ranking in citizenship, instead of in conduct or deportment. Good citizenship in the school stands for recognition of the rights of others, of the rights of property, for obedience, for trustworthiness, for self-control, for moral courage, and for generosity. It stands for coopera- tion and for a wiUingness to fulfil one's duties. The school ofifers singularly advantageous opportunity for the employment of cooperation. The play instinct may be used in games. Children may be trained to a sense of fair play. They should learn to follow the leader, to take turn in being the leader, to give up to one another, to "play your best," npt to cry when hurt and not to quarrel. By such natural means children will learn to tell the truth, to be fair, to show courage, and to exercise self- control. 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Children need to have some knowledge of their heritage to be proud of it, and to feel the challenge of America. This part of the work will call for some formal teaching, but the informal methods should not be cast aside. Children love to dress and act as they think their heroes drest and acted; they love to have part in pageants. The different national hohdays will give motive to such dramatic expression. The participation in a patriotic pageant or play may be made to have concrete personal value to children in the inculcation of ideals. Projects combining or coordinating handwork and the training in citizenship ought to be a constant part of school life. No other method has possibilities so vital; ommittees to work out projects with great interest and success. The use of pictures, "for knowledge is of things we see", are common; pictures of heroes, of historic scenes, of public buildings. Children ought to be trained to make collections of such pictures and to tell about them. The value of Hterature — stories and fine passages for memorizing is so generally accepted that more mention is needless. HOW ARE WE TEACHING CITIZENSHIP IN OUR SCHOOLS? L. P. BENEZET, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS^ EVANSVILLE, IND. The teaching of citizenship, like the teaching of medicine, dentistry, law, or our own profession, is fully completed only when theory is followed by practice. In the Evansville Public Schools we are trying an experiment along this line. Thruout the year 1919-20, there have been sent out to all the teachers of the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades so-called weekly lessons in citizenship. Number one, issued during the last week in October, dealt with Hallowe'en and the destruction of pubhc property. The teacher was askt to read to her pupils a Uttle story on the origin of Hallowe'en pranks. The children were also reminded of the fact that certain play- ground apparatus on the public school grounds had been destroyed on Hallowe'en with the result that it had never been replaced. The Uttle folks had been deprived of their daily fun, coasting down the slides, etc. The point was brought out that damage done to pubhc property, like schools, has to be paid out of the money of the taxpayers, and that the term "taxpayers" really means every resident of the city whether he owns property or not, for those who pay rent simply pay their taxes indirectly. The teacher was then instructed to ask her pupils questions of this sort: What are harmless Hallowe'en pranks? What are harmful pranks? Would it be fun to smash playground apparatus that your Httle brothers enjoy using? Were the school authorities right in not replacing this property which had been destroyed ? Who owns the schoolhouses ? Who Sessions] TEACHING CITIZENSHIP " 65 pays for windows that are broken in them ? What do you think of a boy who would smash all the windows in his own house ? The second lesson dealt with Armistice Day, the meaning of the war, and the necessity for hard work and thrift on the part of everybody in order to pay off the tremendous war debts. A school strike which took place in a neighboring state on Novem- ber II, furnisht the subject for the third lesson. The young strikers had demanded the same credit for a much shorter term and briefer hours spent in school. They had insisted on no home study and the dismissal of all teachers over twenty-five years of age. In the discussion of this incident, the children were made to see that no amount of medals or athletic prizes would help a boy if he had not earned them and was weak and anemic. A threatened epidemic of smallpox gave an opportunity to drive home our duty to our neighbors in reporting contagious diseases and obeying strictly the health regulations. The Boston police strike furnisht an excellent lesson on duty of pubHc servants. Some school men have said to me, "How did you dare discuss such things in so highly unionized a city as Evansville ? '* I have found that we always dare to tell the children the truth. The installation of a school banking system gave a fine chance to impress upon the pupils the lesson of thrift. Other subjects that have been dealt with include non-production, the result of the purchase of needless luxuries, gambling, amateur sport, clean streets, insurance, honesty, liberty, and license. So much for the extra textbook instruction. The eighth-grade pupils complete their work in United States history some three months before the close of the year and devote the remainder of the time to systematic instruc- tion in civics out of an excellent text. So much for the theory. The test of whether any of this instruction has taken root or not comes in the system of self-government with which we have been experimenting during the past year in the Central High School, and to a smaller extent in the other two high schools also. Four years ago, the principal of this school, John O. Chewning, instituted what was known as a Senior Honor Room. Students admitted to this room were not supervised during their study hours by any member of the faculty. They were allowed to come and go at will. However, it took the unanimous vote of the sixty-five teachers to admit a student to this room and any infraction of the rules or unsatisfactory conduct in any other part of the building, resulted in his prompt dismissal from its roll. Before long we had students registering an application to be admitted to the room and ready and eager to submit to a month's probation as a pre-requisite to being granted this privilege. Soon the Junior Class petitioned the faculty to be allowed to start an Honor Room of their own and this petition was granted. From the Honor Room came the idea of student self-government which is now spread over nearly the whole school. The entire tenth, eleventh, 66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General and twelfth grades are now included as are a part of the Freshmen. Eleven hundred pupils all told are studying without supervision other than that of student monitors elected by ballot from their own number. To begin with, when the scheme was proposed, a secret ballot of the entire fifteen hundred students was taken and only twenty-eight voters were recorded against it. Each study room elected its own monitors, one for each period in the day with an alternate to act in case the first named is absent. Over and above the monitors, there is a court of ten prefects, five boys and five girls, elected thru a secret ballot by the school. These then choose from their own number one of each sex to be head prefect. Each monitor makes a report to the principal's office every day on the order in the room during the period when he was in charge. One per cent is cut off for each act of communication, for each leaving of the room, for each pupil who is not in his seat at the beginning of the period, or for any other act of disorder. The names o£ students committing these offenses are not reported. The scores of the study halls are made public. We knock wood as we say that the plan has succeeded far beyond the bounds of our expectation. Out of thirty-eight study hall periods in the school, only six are in charge of teachers. We feel that these boys and girls have learned two valuable lessons- — more valuable even than the Pythagorean proposition or the composition of Caesar's famous bridge: first, seK-control, and second, respect for authority of their own choosing. • In too many schools our teachers and principals are fiddling away, Nero-like upon technical grammar and partial payments, while the world is burning. The school of the future will be judged by the citizenship of its product. ■ HOW CITIZENSHIP IS TAUGHT IN THE SCHOOLS OF LOS ANGELES SUSAN M. DORSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. A brief reference should be made at the outset to a work in Los Angeles in the interests of adult citizenship. The schools have taken over the education of the foreign resident for the purpose of preparing him, thru months and sometimes years, if he so elects, to assume American citizenship with an understanding of its duties and responsibihties. Upon the approval of the school, at the end of a course of varied instruction, the court bestows a certificate of citizenship. The graduation of these candidates into citizen- ship is markt by appropriate and often impressive exercises while frequent reunions serve to keep alive the patriotic impetus and ideals of their former months of study. The association of these adult students, bent upon the one object of preparmg themselves for intelligent and useful citizenship is Sessions] HOW CITIZENSHIP IS TAUGHT 67 productive of lasting good thru the interchange of opinions and the gradual transformation of their ideas into American ideals. Many who begin the quest for citizenship largely from selfish considerations are in the end initiated into lives of genuine and intelligent service to the country of their adoption. It seems strange that a thing so obvious as the necessity of preparing foreign candidates for citizenship and of testing for a time their fitness for such a high privilege should have been overlookt by educators and citizens in general until recently. Aside from this particular and culminating period of direct preparation for the final act of initiation into citizenship, many day and night schools are busy with the teaching of English to foreign men and women and with the work of leading these residents into an understanding of American ways. Thru the home teacher every variety of assistance is given. She visits the home and encourages the foreign mother to enter a day school conducted for her special benefit where every provision is made to care for the children while the mother receives instruction in English and in American home- keeping. In the regular day schools of the city there is a conscious and continuing purpose to lead the young children into a comprehension of the meaning of citizenship thru the development step by step in the course of study^ of the problems which grow out of the common needs of people and how those needs are best met thru association in groups for the purposes of protection, help and improvement. The problem may be briefly stated in these terms: "Our Needs in Common and How Those Needs are Met." The children are taught that good citizenship means giving thought to making the place where they Uve safe, healthful, and progressively better. To this end police protection, fire protection and health protection must be provided. There must be good roads and well-paved and well-kept streets as free as possible from danger. There must be the means of safe and rapid transportation. No opportunity is lost to initiate the children into actual citizen experi- ences; one illustration will suffice as an instance of how this is done. In a recent school-bond campaign, as a result of which a school-bond election for nine million five hundred thousand dollars was carried triumphantly with a vote of fourteen in favor of the bonds to one against, the children citizens in large measure did the work. In California we are handicapt by a stupid law which makes the work of a school-bond election almost impossible. The polls may be open only at eight and must close at six; no provision is made for pubUcity of any kind even to the extent of sending a sample ballot to the voter and the precincts may be combined in any unusual fashion. To secure the necessary pubHcity to carry a school-bond election the children must be taken into responsible partnership. To each child mature enough for service in the recent election there was entrusted the responsibility of interviewing the citizens on a certain street or in a 68 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [General certain section, of soliciting their interest and favorable vote and of keeping them constantly reminded of the date of the election. In each neighbor- hood the citizens were invited to a public meeting at the schoolhouse where bond songs composed by the children were sung and talks were given by the children, by citizens, and by school authorities, setting forth the needs of the city and of that particular district. In the first years of high school the teaching in citizenship is done thru the medium of English, the first two years of which are required of every student. The basic material of this English course is civic and patriotic in character. I quote from the course of study: "The experiences thru which the country has recently past have shown the importance of con- tinuing to study the best utterances of the founders of the Repubhc and to trace the civic ideals they cherisht thru their successors down to the present and to show where these ideals are functioning now and where the failure to observe their spirit and purpose has resulted in class jealousies, antipathies, and sometimes in civil tumults, all of which threaten to nullify and destroy the slow gains of the ages, to impoverish life and to restore tyranny in new forms. " A unique organization known as the Ephebian Society, membership in which is highly coveted, crowns the school life for the favored winner of a place in the honored group. Out of the graduating class each year are selected certain students good in scholarship, but pre-eminent in public spirit and service, who are elected to take upon themselves the duties and the pledge of the Epheboi of ancient Greece; in a word, to educate themselves to guard and help their city. The group is already a large one. Its June meeting, at which members who are in college or in business return for an annual reunion, is coming to be an event. The pledge taken by the Ephebians shows sufficiently the spirit and significance of this organization : We will never bring disgrace to this our city by any act of dishonesty or cowardice, nor ever desert our sujffering comrades in the ranks; we will fight for the ideals and sacred things of the city, both alone and with many; we will revere and obey the city's laws and do our best to incite a like respect in those above us who are prone to annul or set them at naught; we will strive unceasingly to quicken the public sense of civic duty. Thus, in all these ways, we will transmit this city not only not less but far greater and more beautiful than it was transmitted to us. WHAT THE WAR HAS CONTRIBUTED TOWARD TEACHING CITIZENSHIP GUY POTTER BENTON, CHAIRMAN ADVISORY COUNCIL, ASSOCIATED EDUCATORS OF AMERICA, NEW YORK, N.Y. is civilization learning the lessons of the world- war as the school children of Mertzen were learning their "First Lesson" in French that morning while the AlUed armies were hastening their emancipation? It is not Sessions] WAR AND THE TEACHING OF CITIZENSHIP 69 treason to affirm apparent failure on the part of the American people to apply the outstanding lessons which should have been taught by the greatest human conflict known to the records of Time. Admission of the truth as an indispensable preliminary to a right-about-face for a progressive march in the right direction is manifestation of the highest patriotism. How many times at the beginning of our participation in hostihties did we hear the prophecy that America had grown sordid and selfish thru prosperity and greed of larger wealth! And how often were we told that war was a purification process which would purge us of our greed and restore the spirit of unselfishness in service to all the nations of the earth 1 Is it cynicism to say that these results have not been attained ? In the presence of an orgy of extravagance, indulgence, and selfish disregard of neighborly obligations we must admit that these altruistic prophecies thus far remain unfulfilled. It was warrantable expectation that this war, which America entered without ambition for financial or territorial gain, should have taught ineffaceable lessons of the highest citizenship. By our participation in the war we did emphasize, while it was still in progress, the two great funda- mental lessons of civilization, namely, obhgations of neighborhood and duties to childhood. If we now make quick recovery from the feverish aftermath of war and apply these lessons properly in the homes and schools of the United States we shall justify our costly sacrifices by producing the highest type of citizenship the world has ever known. For centuries Christendom has been iterating and reiterating the divine command: "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself," but there is ground for fear that, in many instances, these words have been as "sounding brass or a tinkhng cymbal. " Who is your neighbor of the Christ conception ? He lives in the next dooryard; he lives down the street; he lives in the adjoining county — to be sure ; and that is as far as most people go in their conceptions of neighbor- hood. Your neighbor is every man made in the image of God regardless of race or color. Your neighborhood is not circumscribed by the narrow limits of your own community. Then, O, men and women of America, as the first and indispensable lesson of citizenship rising on a sea incarnadine, learn to love your neighbors as yourselves. We should know now, as we have never known before, that we cannot escape responsibihty for the woes of other nations. Our clear duty to the humanity of every hemisphere is to help when help is needed; to give relief when relief is required. But in learning and teaching this lesson we may go too far. Our responsibility does not extend to participation in international difficulties which are of no vital moral or physical concern to us. Our neighborly duty must not be confused with gratuitous and officious meddlesomeness. To the American of far-seeing inteUigence it must be more apparent today than ever before that Washington spoke 70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General with prescient wisdom when he warned his contemporaries and the posterity of his native land to avoid entangling alliances. The United States can well afford to maintain the dignified attitude of inspiring example to other nations in neighborly helpfulness, in lofty ideahsm, and in all things good. It can ill afford to weaken its influence by participating in the petty quarrels of peoples whom the centuries have made implacable enemies and whose posterity seem likely to cherish a heritage of hate that will impel them through an indefinite future to hurl abusive epithets and shake clenched fists across the artificial boundary Hnes which separate them. We set our good example in admirable fashion during the war. Our stalwart, up-standing soldiers commended the American type to Allies and enemies alike in other lands so that, coming away, they left behind them those who aspire to be of the same sort. Our courage, our physical fitness, our intellectual attainments, and our moral standards were, for the most part, impressive and effective. Shall we now fail to follow up these lessons acquired by our neighbors of other lands thru first-hand contact with our fighting representatives by neglect to impress childhood and youth with the conviction that we have risen above provincialism and that we must cooperate thru the impulse of righteous motives and unselfish neighborly c service with humanity in every land ? Remembering that we are no longer isolated, our duty to other nations, as to ourselves, demands that the home be developt and strengthened. The first and indispensable essential to a satisfactory home-Hfe is a decent, respectable and efficient manhood, for citizenship of the worthiest sort cannot be taught unless concretely presented through the highest quality of manhood functioning in families of the best American type. Manhood fit for the home is not complete, with and without, unless adorned and embellished by that purity of fife which is patterned after a single standard applying to men and women alike. It is such character essential to the building of the home-life that America must exemphfy in discharge of its duty to world-wide childhood and in fulfilment of its obligations of universal neighborhood. All too many men in youth, by catering to their baser natures, are taking into their blood loathesome germs of disease that will never leave them and that will be transplanted in children and carried to children's children, but, these same leprous scoundrels, according to the modern social code, may wash their faces, put on clean collars and come with perfect pro- priety to claim as their wives the loveliest daughters of the best homes. Thfe great law of God recognizes no double standard — one for men and another for women. It requires of both lives of purity. America has made a beginning in clearing the way for the exemplary home-life by taking away the bottle of the saloon man from his neighbor's lips — for the mightiest triumph civiHzation has known in our day found Sessions] WAR AND THE TEACHING OF CITIZENSHIP 71 expression on the seventh of June this year of our Lord, 1920, when Justice Van Dovanter announced that the greatest judicial tribunal on earth had found the traffic in intoxicating liquors an outlaw by approving as con- stitutional the mandate of the American people expressed through the Eighteenth Amendment. The next essential step in perfecting the example of ideal home-life in America, thru that respect which comes only irom conscious equaUty of manhood and womanhood in all noble coopera- tion, awaits the action of one more sovereign Commonwealth in the Ameri- can Republic, and, pray God, for the sake of national self-respect and the discharge of highest neighborly example to other nations, some fearless state may soon seize for itself this distinguisht honor. The public school is peculiarly an American institution. A few weeks ago a great metropolitan preacher declared from his pulpit that those who would influence the civilization of tomorrow must not shout in the air but speak thru the transmitters. His emphasis was placed upon the fact that the childhood and youth of today are the transmitters thru which it is the inescapable duty of fathers and mothers, first of all, to speak the message of lofty idealism. This parental responsibihty cannot be shifted from the home to the school. It must, however, be shared by teachers whose duty it is to relay the parental messages of ideal citizenship thru the transmitters in the schoolrooms of the land. With the advantage gained from war experiences we are ready to go on to larger achievements by employing methods which have worked out in the practical teaching of citizenship. This does not mean surrender of disciplinary and cultural studies. These important branches will be included in the new program of constructive educational statesmanship but instead of standing out like sore thumbs, childhood and youth will be taught to see clearly, to reason accurately, and to acquire a taste for the fine things in art, in literature, and history as they vividly recognize that all fundamentals are warp and woof of the essential citizenship which makes for universal neighborhood. The narrowing, depressing, blighting effect of the teaching of the specialized college professor in this country can hardly be exaggerated. Out of the encouragement afforded by large and successful war work drives, we have seen, within the year, enthusiastic campaigns conducted for the increase of university endowments in order that faculty members might be better paid. All of us have been in hearty sympathy with this great purpose to make more satisfactory provision for college professors and their families, but the real reason of failure in late years to give them adequate compensation has not been well thought out in advance of these recent fkiancial campaigns. Hundreds of college teachers in America, thru false professional ideals, have been insisting that they should be limited to ten or fifteen hours of teaching per week on .the theory that much of their time outside of the classroom must necessarily be devoted to 72 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General research, investigation, and authorship. It is a theory that does not work out in actual practice. Too many speciaUsts attempting to do a Uttle investigation and a Uttle instruction have developt a burdensome overhead expense for all colleges in the United States and the net result has been much indifferent teaching, a limited output of satisfactory results from research, and a pitiful compensation. A Christian church with all its possibihties constitutes the mightiest challenge to America for the improvement of world conditions. Teachers who believe in its mission and seek to exemphfy its principles in their own lives, while striving to accentuate its usefulness, will impart the highest ideals of Christian citizenship to their own pupils who, in turn, will illustrate to all the nations of the world the Christian conception of inter-racial brotherhood that follows in natural sequence when forms and personalities are subordinated and the Central Figure of the Ages is exalted before men to the fullest possible extent. Men learned reverence for God in this war as they never knew it before. Many of them now know that the Galilean Pilgrim with his flawless life is the only safe model for men. The influence of the Carpenter's Son is greater today than ever before. When it is universal, peace, harmony, and love will reign supreme "from the Rivers even unto the ends of the earth. " Men may evolve economic and social theories that can alleviate but that can never cure the ills of bodies pohtical and social. Arbitration Boards are of some value to the conflicting elements of Earth, but the perfect solution — the only one that will bring world-wide satisfaction, lies in accepting the dictum of Christ, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart and with all thy soul and with all thy mind and thy neighbor as thyself." When that glad day shall come, there will be no more warring of industrial forces. Labor and capital will then join hands in perpetual brotherhood. The war contributed this great lesson of citizenship, namely, that Christ, the ideal economist, the perfect sociologist must be accepted by all students of economics and sociology before they shall be able to enunciate theories that will prove panaceas for present ills and that will give promise of permanent manumission. When the reign of Christ reaches out over all seas to all lands, and when His throne is set up in the heart of every man, capital will not oppress labor and labor will not be overexacting of capital. Surely the teachers of today and tomorrow have the challenge of the most glorious opportunity that has ever come to any profession. It is ours to apply the lesson of the Great War for the training of citizenship by inspiring the oncoming generations with the lofty resolve to live so that tomorrow and the day after, the home, the school and the church may be exalted in neighborhood service the world around. Sessions] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 73 ARE WE GETTING PROPER RETURNS FROM INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION TN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS? JOHN N. GREER, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Are we getting proper returns from industrial education in our public schools ? Generally speaking we are not. The reasons are as follows: The present high school is an outgrowth of the academic college. The ideas and ideals of the high school are saturated with college requirement rules and standards. The high school is molded and shaped in order that it might supply academic material for the academic college. Pursuant to this purpose no one may be a principal or a teacher therein unless he possesses one or more of the coveted academic degrees. There- fore, the principal and teachers, trained in academic lore and possessing only the academic viewpoint, operate the school by the methods in which and thru which they have been trained. The English, history, mathematics, and science taught in the high school all partake of the method and atmosphere of the college classroom, in order that college entrance examinations and other college entrance requirements may be satisfactorily met. This tradition which has hitherto held the high school in its grasp has so limited its work that it reaches only a small percentage of the students of its district. Many a high-school administrator has consequently been greatly disturbed by the high mortality in his enrolment due to this cause. The Great War came along and gave us a tremendous jolt. Millions of our youth found, upon being called upon to function in the army job, that they must know how to do things as well as how to memorize and to think things. These young men now strongly support industrial education for all youth feeling that they had mist something vital in their school training. Thru the Students Army Training Corps, schools and colleges of all types were quickly shown that industrial education was a real educational problem, and nothing else. This experience has broken down many academic walls, and is opening up new interests in industrial training and establishing new viewpoints among academic administrators. The Smith-Hughes act has compelled all the states to take up and test out particular phases of industrial education. This act has in many instances acted as a high explosive shell, tearing down the ramparts of academic exclusiveness. The business colleges have developt a new t3rpe of teacher, who without academic inoculation, has been gradually breaking into the academic high school, and demonstrating that he has a real contribution to make in 74 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General secondary education, and is enlarging the average attendance, and extending school service, by his presence and splendid work. The old style manual training started out to break into the academic type of work only to find itself surrounded and finally fitted out in academic costume, and accomplisht nothing more than to become an excellent college preparatory school for the colleges of engineering. Home economic courses and a few courses in agriculture have met the same fate. The academic ideal in education has been hitherto "intellectual discipline." Industrial education makes of education a " social process," a process that functions at once in the life of the community. There is little hope of proper returns either in general or industrial education being made until these two ideals are coordinated and recognized as of equal value. Today education is being given the acid test. I venture to prophesy that the more we make education a social process and at the same time maintain, in all the teaching, standards of intellectual discipline, the sooner we will win the approval and the hearty cooperation of the public whose servants we are and whom we must obey. The slogan ''equal opportunity for each child" can be met only by the public school becoming of such a comprehensive type that it shall perform all the educational work required of it by its community and perform each task equally well. All children in leaving the public school enter one of five occupations: I. They enter the field of higher education. II. They enter the field of business. III. They enter the field of industry. IV. They enter the field of agriculture. V. They enter the field of home-making. The public school, to properly function and make ''proper returns" must shape its courses to provide standard training in all these lines. This cannot be accomplisht altogether by the special industrial school organized and equipped for the training of special groups. These special schools may be very successful for a time. Separated, however, from general education and coming up annually before boards of estimates and taxation for special appropriation, they soon receive their death thrust and pass to their reward however good or bad that may be. The special school in order to be permanent must be tied up as an integral part of the whole system of education. Wherever separation exists administrative problems sooner or later prevent progress. The only way industrial education can be permanently establisht is to so departmentalize the comprehensive high school as to compel it to function with equal force in all these fields of knowledge. This can be done only by having a broader trained and better paid type of high-school principal who shall be assisted by coordinators within the school, directing Sessions] THE FARM WOMAN'S PROBLEMS 75 the organization, classification, and outlining the study content of each department, with authority to secure the teachers who possess not only the technique of teaching but also the "particular trade experience" that the subject-matter requires. Then on top of this the comprehensive high school embodying all these departments, should be interlockt as a whole by means of its music, its social life, its gymnasiums, and its athletics into such a harmonious com- munity unil that it becomes in fact a ''peoples college" implanting in the character and conduct of each of its children the fundamental and vital facts of pure democracy. THE FARM WOMAN'S PROBLEMS FLORENCE E. WARD, CHIEF OF HOME DEMONSTRATION WORK, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D.C. The Department of Agriculture, in its desire to extend to farm women the most practical and acceptable assistance possible, undertook in co- operation with the state agricultural colleges and farm bureaus to learn from farm women themselves what were their real problems so that the cooperative extension service might be guided in doing its part toward the solving of these problems. The survey indicates that much loss to family and community thru waste of woman power could be prevented by a reasonable amount of planning and well directed investment in modern equipment. SOME FACTS FROM THE SURVEY A walkout might be foreshadowed in some industries where love and service were not the ruling motives by conditions brought out in Table I, TABLE I Length of the Working Day and Vacation of Farm Women Section of Country Summer Winter Women Having Vacation Hours of Work Hours of Rest Hours of Work Hours of Rest Per- centage Length in Days Eastern States 13.0 13.2 130 1.6 I-S 1.8 10.7 10.5 10.2 2.4 2-3 2.4 13 12 13 12.4 Central States 10.8 Western States 16.4 Average 13- 1 9530 1.6 8360 10.5 9164 2.4 8164 13 8773 II. 5 1 241 No. Records which shows that the average working day, summer and winter, for over 9,000 farm women is 11. 3 hours, and that 87 per cent of 8773 women report no regular vacation during the year. 76 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Table II shows the amount of time spent in household tasks. Some of these might be eliminated if the principles of modern business were appUed, and labor and time spent on others might be lessened if the farm house were as well equipped as the up-to-date barn, the appUances of which the farmer looks upon as so much currency with which to buy efficiency. TABLE II Farm Women's Household Duties Section of Country 2^ w W iZ O ^ '" W g « S S 5 w < Water to Carry Percent- age Feet fc; « H S o < 005 pa §11 Eastern States.. . Central States. . , Western States. . Average No. Records 9-7 7.7 5-3 1.3 1-3 I.I 81 79 74 54 68 57 23 41 65 94 97 97 86 94 95 7.8 9871 1.2 9210 79 9830 61 6511 39 6708 96 9767 92 9724 .6 8001 89 97 97 94 9614 TABLE III Percentage of Equipment in Farm Homes Surveyed Section of Country II .si 1^ II P 1 p J3 2 1 Eastern States Central States Western States 38 24 36 8 22 12 85 60 45 46 144 38 58 46 29 94 95 95 95 98 91 79 89 86 18 19 25 80 52 44 Average 32 9374 9080 65 9374 44 9580 47 9513 95 9560 96 9667 8S 9580 20 9679 60 No. Records 9324 TABLE IV Percentage of Women Helping in Outdoor Work and Keeping Accounts Section of Country Help with Livestock Help in Field No. Weeks per Year Caring for Gardens Help Keep Farm Accounts Keeping Home Accounts Eastern States 24 26 27 27 22 23 8.5 4.9 6.7 41 67 57 28 34 33 23 Central States 33 Western States 34 Average 25 9365 24 9179 6.7 . 2196 9526 32 8730 30 No. Records 8750 Outdoor work. — In addition to her various duties in the house the farm woman is a productive worker on the farm, as evidenst by the figures shown in Tables IV, V, and VI; 36 per cent of the women reporting, help with the milking of the family herd ; 56 per cent take most of the care of the garden; 81 per cent care for the chickens; 25 per cent help with the Sessions] THE FARM WOMAN'S PROBLEMS 11 live stock and 24 per cent help in the field an average of 6 . 7 weeks during the year. Table VII, (Table VI omitted) , indicating an average distance of 5 . 9 miles to the nearest high school, 2.9 miles to the nearest church, and 4.8 miles to the nearest market, shows that country people are far enough from the center of trade, social, and religious activities to tempt the spirit of individualism and to put their neighborliness and piety to the test. It points to the importance of pooling individual interest in common com- munity enterprises such as canning kitchens, buying centers, markets, TABLE VII Distances, Automobiles, and Telephones Section o? Country ill 28 .5i ^1 IS 2 pi III Miles to Nearest Trained Nurse it Eastern States Central States Western States 1-7 4-3 11 1.9 2.6 51 ^6 7-7 3-5 4-9 10.4 12.8 12.7 17.7 9.9 II. 8 48 73 62 67 8s 56 Average 9627 S-9 9767 2.9 9726 4.8 9708 5-7 9837 139 9605 II. 9 9463 62 9545 72 No. Records 9748 laundries, salvage shops, and sewing rooms as well as social centers for lectures, community sings, dramatics arid games, which, if properly handled, break down the isolation of country homes and make possible the accom- plishment of many otherwise difficult tasks with a saving of time and labor for the housewife, and often an opportunity for increast income as well as recreation for the entire family. The five outstanding problems which the survey would indicate call for special consideration are: 1. To shorten the working day of the average farm woman. 2. To lessen the amount of heavy manual labor she now performs. 3. To bring about higher standards of comfort and beauty for the farm home. 4. To safeguard the health of the farm family, and especially the health of the mother and growing child. 5. To develop and introduce money-yielding home industries where necessary, in order to make needed home improvements. These changes may most speedily be brought about by: a) Introducing (i) improved home equipment, principal among which are running water and power machinery, and (2) more efficient methods of household management, including the rearrangement of the incon- venient kitchen and the instalment of a modern heating system for the whole house. 78 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General b) Helping farm people to understand and apply the laws of nutrition and hygiene, thru home demonstrations in (i) child care and feeding; (2) food selection for the family; (3) training in the essentials of home nursing; (4) the installation of sanitary improvements. c) Cultivating the idea that investment in the comfort, beauty, health, and eiSiciency of the farm home and community is a wise and legitimate expenditure, and perhaps the only means of stopping the drift of young people to the city. Women are welcoming the services of the home-demonstration agent everywhere much as farmers welcome the agricultural county agent. This trained home-economics worker, employed on federal, state, and local funds and devoting all her time to the advancement of home efficiency is studying with home-makers the needs of individual homes and com- munities and is thus able, by linking her technical skill with the practical knowledge and experience of the housewives, to cooperate in the accom- plishment of large results by providing a channel thru which the state agricultural college and the Department of Agriculture can deal directly with rural home-makers. Closely associated with the home-demonstration agent and preceding her as a pioneer is the home-economics extension worker who goes out from the college to conduct extension schools, to train local leaders, and in various other ways to bring to housewives the best methods and processes resulting from laboratory experimentation. Typifying this is the work of the Massachusetts clothing efficiency specialist who personally trained 268 local leaders in courses of clothing efficiency. These women past on these courses to over 4,000 of their neighbors and acquaintances. As a result 4,320 garments were made and 9,802 remodeled with an estimated saving of $56,998. This work, done in cooperation with home demonstra- tion agents, is looked upon, in Massachusetts, as the beginning of a state- wide drive for clothing efficiency which will meet the needs of every rural woman of moderate income who wishes to make part or all of her own simpler garments or those of her family. Community working and trading centers mean much to rural women, not only from the standpoint of economy, time, money, and effort, but as a means of persuading the stay-at-home to walk thru her gate and down the road to join her neighbors in some task which is made lighter thru cooperation and from which she returns refresht and encouraged with new ideas and plans not only for her own housekeeping but for the larger house- keeping of her neighborhood. No amount of sociaHzed work, however, takes the place of real recreation, as it looks too earnestly toward a finisht result. Carefree recreation for the delight of the moment, eases nervous tension, promotes good fellowship, and is as necessary for the mental and physical poise of men and women as it is for boys and girls. Home- demonstration agents are, where no other agency is meeting this need. Sessions] NATION'S DUTY TO CHILDREN 79 cooperating with farm families in home and community recreation which includes games, chorus singing, dramatization, and pageants. The extension department of Montana State College, realizing the importance of this, employs a recreation specialist whose work is stimulating a fine social community spirit in many localities in that state where homes are so far apart. Montana is thus putting into practice a conviction that is growing in the minds of extension workers everywhere that, while it is their first business to promote efficiency, this should be lookt upon as a means of stimulating a richer and more satisfying rural life by freeing the home-maker's time and energy so that she may give attention to the attractiveness and comfort of her home, the training and companionship^ of her children, the enjoyment of books and neighbors, and the building up of recreational, social, and educational life of her community. This will increase the percentage of active thinking women of service to society and reduce the percentage of passive slaves of routine whose tasks cease only to begin again with a new day. It is believed that the survey just completed by farm women them- selves in cooperation with home-demonstration agents is but the first of a series of intensive studies which will from time to time be made, not only to show the needs but to mark the advancement that is sure to come as the government, colleges, and farming people work together on a common program for better agriculture and a richer rural life. * THE NATION'S DUTY TO THE HEALTH OF THE SCHOOL CHILDREN THOMAS D. WOOD, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. The Great War has enhanst the worth of education and of health in the minds of the people of this nation. A great political party has, within a month, given striking recognition to both of these vital values as essential to national reconstruction and progress. The most vital item in the resources of any country is the welfare and health of the children. No country is really civilized which does not possess a national intelligence and sense of obligation relative to the health of the children, and an effective, complete, practical program of health care for all the children of the nation. If the potential value of child health, unappreciated, neglected, wasted, left undevelopt in this greatest of nations could be accurately and convincingly appraised, the country and hiunan effort would be galvanized into such a national campaign for child health as the world has never seen. Our schools are wasting enormous sums in educating or trying to edu- cate the children who are handicapt by ill health when the expenditure of 8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General much smaller amounts in a judicious, comprehensive, health program would produce an extraordinary saving in economy and efficiency. A dollar spent promptly in a timely, preventive, constructive campaign to conserve a child's health and physical fitness will often be more fruitful for the child and for human society than will be a thousand dollars applied twenty years later. The nation has been aroused by the revelations of the war relative to the health deficiencies of the country's manhood, and, while the magnitude of this item of national weakness defies over-emphasis, yet the health deficiencies of the children are even more impressive and menacing to the understanding and patriotic mind. What about the basic needs of the great draft army of the nation's children who must supply the human units of the citizenry of the next generation, who must bear the burden of civilization in peace and in war ? What shall we do about the neglect of the children who hold the future of civilization in their immature lives ? Is it necessary to urge that in all of the school children of the country these health defects should be recog- nized and that all of the defects which demand remediable attention should be promptly corrected ? It is lamentably true that in only a small percent- age of the entire school population are the defects studied and recognized, while in only a small fraction of these even are the detrimental defects corrected in an effective manner. The business of keeping the school children of this country in good physical repair is, as now conducted, a disgrace to the nation. The great majority of people (many of them generally intelHgent) fail to appreciate the significance of these defects. This fact, however, does not lessen in any way the injury to the children of the neglected health defects. The real danger to the children, of the land, as a matter of fact, lies in the igno- rance, irresponsibility of, and neglect by the adults intrusted with, and supposed to be equal to the most important task of the adults of any species: namely, the care and training of the young. The children of our country deserve as effective physical care as the live stock. The children are entitled to as careful attention and cultivation as the crops. Shall not the children drafted by compulsory education into our schools, be assT^red of as skilful and satisfactory care as the soldiers in camp and trench? If health and physical efficiency are then, so important for the country as a whole, all of the necessary forces, both governmental and voluntary, must be marshaled for the task of protecting and developing the physical fitness of the young. The principle of universal training must, in a manner consonant with the spirit and methods of democracy, be interpreted and applied in the universal, compulsory health and physical care, and training of all the children. Sessionsl HEALTH EDUCATION 8i In a nation with compulsory education and free schools, the possibilities of a health program are extraordinarily impressive. The acceptance of the rapidly widening social scope of education, in preparing the young for all the privileges and responsibilities of life, carries inevitably with it the opportunity and obligation that the school shall undertake the most important part in the entire continuous program of health education. Much of the actual health care of the children must be accompUsht by the home, by health boards, and by other organizations both govern- mental and voluntary. However, the school in the United States is the universal, the officially credited, and the strategic agency to lead in the educational program of health; to standardize the principles involved; and to organize and supervise the special program for the care of the children's health. The possibilities of vital accomplishment in a national program of physical education seem not only fundamental for national safety, but Hmitless for national progress. The significance and necessity of the work to be done makes the demand for constructive advancement imperative. No factor relating to essentials in public education or promotion of national welfare seems more important or more promising. HEALTH EDUCATION SALLY LUCAS JEAN, DIRECTOR, CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. Two years ago we scarcely realized that the school children were below par physically, and that monthly weighing and measuring could be used as a test. Today scales are recognized as indispensable in school equip- ment, thousands of children are being weighed, and their weight is being sent home on the monthly report card. The schools, once convinst of the health needs of the children, began working out definite methods of getting over health facts and of interesting children in the practice of health habits. It has been the privilege of the Child Health Organization to assist in this process by suggesting modern methods of interesting children in the establishment of health habits as outlined in their health pamphlets and in those which they have prepared for the United States Bureau of Edu- cation. The creation by this organization, of the Health Clown, Cho Cho; the Health Cartoonist, the Picture Man; and the Health Fairy, has demon- strated the value of the dramatic appeal in teaching health. The awakening of the country to the health needs of school children has resulted in active participation by groups of all kinds: Women's Clubs, Men's Clubs, Red Cross groups. Chambers of Commerce, etc. These groups are now holding up the hands of the teachers as never before. This 82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General cooperation, by bringing the home and the school nearer together, is estabhshing more vital relations between the children and the teachers. The teacher who becomes interested in presenting health facts is a more valuable classroom instructor for the three R's. No school child is too young for the ABC's of health if the method of teaching is properly adapted. The essentials of healthy daily living are as simple as they are important. Plenty of fresh air, plenty of sleep, cleanliness of teeth and body, proper food, and regular habits are vital and can by systematic insistence be instilled into the child. Daily habits can be formed and exercised in the school and a taste for proper foods cultivated by a well organized hot school lunch. "How can I find time for such work?" says the busy teacher. The answer is: "Use the time given to the relatively unimportant teaching of physiology and hygiene, and to physical education — too often inefficiently taught; also correlate health with other subjects." Thoro physical examinations by a physician are not always possible, tho most desirable, at least once every year. But this is not enough. We have strest defects in the past. We know now that presenting the goal of health to the child is the way to secure his cooperation and interest. Teachers all over the country, pioneers in th€ task of securing results in health teaching have found that they could arouse the child's enthusiasm thru competition, dramatization, drawing and story-telUng. The fairy story and other appeals to the child's imagination have met with remarkable success. The nutrition class for underweight children has been made a pleasurable lesson not only to the individual child but to the whole school. Make health a game, and the essential health habits "the rules of the game." Beginning with the kindergarten, health teaching should be progressive and the methods by which habits are formed in the lower classes should be continued thru the upper grades. The success of the teaching can be measured only by the health habits of the individual child. Oh, men and women — ^members of the National Education Association — make it your business to create an enthusiasm for health in every child under your jurisdiction. There is no one way of doing this, but it can be done if you think it is worth while. No one but the educators can accom- plish this task. The goal will have been won when every boy and girl in the land has a consciousness of the desirability of health and the knowledge of how to attain it. Sessions] SPORTS TO BUILD BODIES 83 SPORTS TO BUILD BODIES C. G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The army examining surgeons showed us that one-third of our young men of ages from twenty-one to thirty-one, were not fit for full military service; if our young women, from twenty-one to thirty-one, had been examined with similar thoroness, who doubts that a similar physical unfit- ness would have been revealed. A reported recent test of one thousand office workers in the New York financial district showed 70 per cent with seriously defective heart, lungs, digestive system, nerves, bodily framework. With a constantly increasing percentage of our people flocking into the cities, what shall we do to preserve American physical soundness and stamina, and prevent national physical inferiority ? Our forefathers who felled trees and built houses, cared for their stock and did the hard physical work of the farm, took their fishing boats to the "banks" and manned their dories and brought their catches to port, breasted in their canoes the swift rivers of the wilderness or threaded the forest aisles and mountain passes with their furs, or their traps, or their supplies on their backs, developt sinews of brass and hearts and lungs and a digestion and nerves that met all physical vicissitudes calmly and dealt with them successfully to the four score or the century mark. And their wives and daughters who did the hard work of the pioneer household and farm, spun and wove the flax and wool, rode the horses and milkt the cows, planted and cultivated the garden, and on occasion workt in the fields, were worthy physical mates to their men. They were real "helpmeets" who pulled their weight in the boat and carried splendidly the burden of bearing and rearing the children, nine and ten, that we miss from too many of the homes of today. The conditions under which they lived bred such men and women. Living conditions, especially in our cities, handicap us. Their daily employments will never give to our men the torso and arms of the "bank" fisherman, developt in his fight with the waves and the storm; none of our employments will give to our women the royal carriage, the backs and shoulders, and the springing muscles, of those magnificent creatures about the Mediterranean and in the Orient, who walk the mountain sides bearing burdens on their heads. Our street cars and autos, our overheated and underventilated rooms, our rich and overabundant food, our exciting and unwholesome night life — these crowd us down the road toward a shameful national physical inferiority. What, then, shall we do to be saved ? We shall, of course, do all the negative things. We shall inform the people, parents and children, of the laws of health, food, drink, sleep, pure air, exercise; we shall, of course, medically examine, diagnose, point out required medical or surgical treatment; we shall inspect, coach, follow up 84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General thru the educational nurse; we shall attend to general public hygiene. But all these merely prevent or remove sickness — keep people, the weak and futile, as well as the strong, from dying off; these measures do not breed a virile race. Virile men and women imply self -activity to develop physical power and energy; and, since our way of life is not developing such a race, what shall we do ? The American public educational system has before it, in addition to its other responsibihties in health teaching, the task, vast and vital, of developing a system of exercises and athletic sports and games that shall interest and entice our people into the open and fix in them the habit of vigorous outdoor exercise. Formal, systematic exercises will not do this tho they will have a part; athletic sports and games must be developt in such variety that they will supply this need, from Maine to California, from Duluth to Mobile, in winter and in summer. There must be sports and outdoor contests and "meets. " Our boys and girls, as a part of their school training, must get instruction and practice in these sports and exercises. If this is well done, most of them will develop skill — proficiency — in one or more of these sports and the liking for them. The pleasure the sport gives the player will be the chief influence to insure that he will keep up the exercise after he leaves school. Training to "hike" — to walk, and to find satisfaction in walking — will also find a place. The school system that first realizes the possibiUties of the plan here sketcht, will do its students, and other systems that will look to it for example, a favor of high value. It will be the pioneer on a path to which many schools and school systems are seeking to find entrance. HEALTH EDUCATION IN UTAH E. G. GO WANS, STATE DIRECTOR OF HEALTH EDUCATION, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH For years we have hstened to the doctrine that health and physical fitness are fundamental aims of education. Here, however, as elsewhere, the chasm between our knowing and our doing is a wide one. Our nation does not need conversion to the value of health education. Its schools need immediate help in the inauguration of a program of essentials that will be generally, if not universally, achievable. Here in Utah we are actually going forward on what we conceive to be such a program. The essentials are: First. — ^An examination of every school child at least once a year with special emphasis upon the examination which precedes the child's first entrance into school. This examination consists of a preHminary exami- nation early in the year by the teacher, followed by a more technical examination by the health supervisor who is a physician, a trained physical director, or a trained nurse. Hoag asserts that 90 per cent of remediable Sessions] HEALTH CRUSADE WORK IN WYOMING 85 defects can be determined by the examination which teachers can be easily trained to give. Second. — An effective follow-up which has for its purpose the cor- rection of the remediable defects revealed by the annual examinations. Third. — The inspection of buildings and grounds and the maintenance of sanitary and hygienic conditions. Fourth. — The protection of the school population, and incidentally the community, from contagious diseases by daily inspection of pupils and exclusion of incipient cases. This is of vast importance and makes neces- sary the training of teachers to recognize the very beginnings of acute health disorder, and the creation of a sentiment among parents that will make for willingness to cooperate in the exclusion for a few days of an acutely sick child from school under the assumption that it may in all probability be an acute contagious sickness. To await the time when an accurate diagnosis can be made is to make the exclusion ineffectual. Fifth. — Better training in personal, household, and public hygiene. This means, in addition to the acquisition of some knowledge, the actual inculcation of health habits — the substitution for what we have heretofore had of this concrete objective as the best means of training in the art of health, and the actual introduction of the young into the activities of life which make for efficient household and public sanitation. Sixth. — Systematic physical training as a means of promoting normal physical growth. There has developt in the minds of a number of active workers a more or less definite conviction that health education, viewed broadly, is not only an essential part of, but probably the most valuable vehicle for, moral training. It is clearer to us all today than ever before that it is the business of the elementary as well as the secondary schpol to train the young how to live. This means habits of daily life an integral part of which are the health habits. Health and citizenship are so closely hnkt together that a training in one cannot be given separate and apart from a training in the other. The civics and health clubs for junior high schools are our answer to this demand for rational school practice in this field. HEALTH CRUSADE WORK IN WYOMING A. A. SLADE, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, CHEYENNE, WYO. In 1 91 9 the National Education Association past a resolution recom- mending the adoption by the elementary schools of such a system of health instruction as the Modern Health Crusade. In the past three years it is estimated that 4,000,000 American children have been enrolled in health work with this organization which is directed by the National Tuberculosis Association. In our state we believe that this is one of the very best means of teaching, as well as putting into practice the principles of hygiene. For 86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General that reason I shall use the few minutes which are at my disposal for a discussion of Modern Health Crusade work with special reference to its adoption in Wyoming. Opportunity to belong to a national crusade appeals strongly to the child. He finds an outlet for patriotic aspirations. He has incentive to do his part to assure the country that in another draft for war one person out of those shall not be rejected for physical defects due to bad health habits. Others on this program have called your attention to the fact that it does little good to teach only the underlying principles of hygiene. Results come when we succeed in getting the individual to put into practice the hyjgienic facts which he has learned. This means real work for the teacher, the school nurse, and the parent. Any device which will assist all con- cerned in organizing children for this work should be welcomed. Pub- licity has been given the fact that the work of the Modern Health Crusade has been included in the course of study for the Wyoming public schools and that it is one of the requirements in a Wyoming standard school. This step was not taken until the work had been tried out and found successful. For the last two years the work has been carried on in a great many of the . schools of the state, and wherever teachers and others have taken hold of it in the right spirit excellent results have been attained. Our teachers have found that Health Crusade work may be easily correlated with hygiene, language, drawing, community civics, and reading, adding vitality to teach; that it appeals strongly to all children, especially in the grades below the high school and that it is pedagogically and scien- tifically correct. Every teacher and parent knows that health chores of themselves contain no attraction for the average child. When the per- formance of these chores connects the child with national, state, and local organizations and makes an appeal to so many motives which are upper- most in the child's life at a given age, we are certain to get results. If it be askt why Wyoming is taking the lead in the adoption of health work in cooperation with the National Tuberculosis Association we have only to answer that our state has always taken unusual interest in this work. For the two years 19 17 and 19 18 Wyoming led in the sale of Red Cross Christmas seals. Last year it led the states of the northwest Rocky Mountain division. Altho no state has a more healthful climate, we beUeve in putting into practice all sorts of preventive measures. Very soon we expect to have no community where a community nurse is not accessible. The Wyoming Public Health Association is a live organization, and its secretary, Miss Etta Dobbin, is always on the job ready to cooperate with the schools in every possible way. As a result of this combination of healthful cHmate and the emphasis placed upon hygienic measures, our state led the United States in having the highest per cent of young men who were able to pass the physical examinations in the selective drafts. Sessions! HEALTH EDUCATION ' 87 HEALTH EDUCATION MARGARET S. MCNAUGHT, STATE COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. The functions of physical education are placed under three broad headings in "The California Manual in Physical Education," by Clark W. Hetherington: 1. Constructive educational aims. 2. Control of growth handicaps. 3. Teaching efficient living. The health habits of the child, including food, sleep, and cleanliness, as well as his physical environment and his defects, are listed under the heading ''Control of Growth Handicaps." ''Efficient living" results naturally from self-control of growth handi- caps and from observance of constructive educational aims, for the child lives most efficiently when he no longer has to look to the teacher for guidance but has become himself self-directing. The functions of the big muscle activities are all important, for upon them depend organic development. So often in California is the term on the end of our tongues or pens that "Big Muscle Activities" has come to be with us in the Far West a slogan. Vigorous activities, calling into play the action of the heart and lungs, stimulating the action of the digestive system, and regulating the heart mechanism and the nutritive processes, are requisite to the full development and growth of the child. If the child is deprived of them at any period of life, they cannot be "made up." Therefore we are not only advocating, but are employing, a directed and supervised play program, definitely planned and vigorously enforst, with "big muscle activity" as the end in view. Strong hearts and lungs and digestive organs are necessary not only for normal development during the period of childhood but to store up vitality and safeguard the future man or woman. Play, then (running, jumping, throwing, catching, swimming, dodging, vaulting, climbing), play that makes the heart throb, quickens the respira- tion and sends the blood coursing thru the veins, is not an idle pastime, nor a mere recreation, but a process of creation, a requisite basis of all education, of all health, and of life itself. Moreover by "big muscle activities" the nervous system is developt and every developt nerve center means increased will power and capacity to endure. Courage, perseverance, quickness of thouglit, leadership, team work, fair play, all of which are social qualities well worth fostering? are results of the playground. Other functions of physical education are corrective, but organic development is constructive; therefore, since each age has its own special portion of time and special fitness for such development, we feel it would be little short of criminal to deprive a child at any period of life of his 88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General requisite share of good hard play, and to that end we have set ourselves the task of educating not only the children but all of the people of Califor- nia in the appreciation of play as a prime factor in all life. THE SCHOOL BOARD'S PLACE IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM I. G. A. IVERSON, VICE-PRESIDENT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH The relationship of the school board to the educational system is so close as to be an inseparable part of it. It fits into the scheme devised for the promotion of education in the community. Removed, perhaps, from intimate contact with the daily activities of the school, it nevertheless functions as an important factor in the system which has for its chief purpose the building of human character and the stimulating of the mental and soul processes essential to the attainment of the highest standards and types of citizenship. True, this is not brought about by the board directly, but it is accomplisht by means of agencies and instrumentalities of its creation. Its position is a humble one — that of service to the com- munity— yet it calls for unselfish devotion and the adoption of wise, dis- criminating, and forward looking plans and policies. School boards are creatures of statute. They operate within limitations prescribed by law and can exercise only such powers as are directly con- ferred by the Legislature or as arise from necessary implication. Public bodies, exercising neither judicial nor legislative functions, they are called into being for the purpose of translating the mandates of the lawmaker into administrative action to the end that communities may prosper and the state enjoy the glory of a higher and better citizenship. They furnish the initial energy which sets in motion the machinery of the educational system within their several jurisdictions. Usually there are delegated to them both general and special powers, the first permitting the exercise of a broad and comprehensive discretion in which the spirit and genius of the system find expression, the second carrying such limitations and restrictions as the legislative mind conceived to be necessary checks upon what might otherwise be construed to be unlimited authority. The special powers usually relate to the establish- ment of the physical plant, with particular reference to the setting up of schools, the purchase and sale of property for school purposes, and the providing of revenues for the operation and maintenance of the system. Ordinarily such powers are specific. Unfortunately, however, such is not the universal rule and the exception is frequently responsible for much mischief. When brickbats are aimed by the taxpayer at the devoted heads of board members under the charge of wanton extravagance and by others (whose names I will not mention in this presence, nor even indicate by the remotest reference) for downright stinginess and parsimony, the board takes refuge behind the statute whose meaning is challenged and from the Sessions] SCHOOL BOARD'S PLACE IN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 89 precarious security of such a vantage point usually carries the day, while there comes to them from "over there" the fulsome eulogy that they are a fine type of men, the cream of the vicinage, but misguided wanderers in the dark. It is evident that under limitations such as these the board is called upon, as occasion demands, to stand as a buffer, a stabilizer of the system, with the tranquilizing mandates of the law behind it. But there is danger in taking these limitations too seriously and the board will fail utterly in its mission of doing all things needful for the ''maintenance, prosperity, and success of the schools and the promotion of education" if it yields to the temptation of becoming reactionary and non-progressive. Limitations which encourage such a tendency should, with as little delay as possible, be eliminated from the statute books and in that behalf no agency can speak with more potency to the legislature than the school board. To give courage and inspiration to the teachers within the system, to provide for them all necessary comforts, facilities, conveniences, and such compensation as is commensurate with the high character of the work at hand is the fulfilment of duty to the community; less than this is failure. And, in this respect, if there is need of awaking public conscience the board should take its place conspicuously in the march of progress toward better conditions. Does the cry for adequate salaries and better working con- ditions go unheeded ? If so, the board has lost, if it ever possest, the true sense of proportion and a proper conception of its relationship to the educational system. It may require time and patience to change existing conditions, but it is the duty of the board "to find a way or make one." II. MRS. v. H. MILLER, CHAIRMAN SCHOOL BOARD SECTION I.E.T.A., TACOMA, WASH. No structure is more secure than the weakest spot in its foundation. Our educational structure of necessity rests upon a financial foundation which at one time may have been adequate, but which in late years has proved entirely inadequate to support the now topheavy superstructure. The public, and even boards of education themselves have been slow to recognize present conditions and the woeful weakness of our educational foundations is due largely to apathy and ignorance of conditions on the part of the public. It would seem that school boards, as such, must take a more active personal interest in legislation for the betterment of the whole scheme of school finance. A western board member said not long ago, "A school board is not to save money, but to spend money wisely. " But we need to go farther and say they are also to financially meet the educational needs of their state and community with the thought ever uppermost of an equal educational opportunity for every child regardless of his place of residence, status in life, and regardless of his physical condition or mental equipment. go NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The school board's duty is not to look after the financial interests of its community, but to look after the financial interest of that community's schools. No man who first considers its effect upon business before deciding a school policy has any right to a place on a school board. He is not a school man advancing the school interest, he is a business man impeding the progress of his schools in order that the expense of the schools may not hamper his business or that of his community. Not that schools should be in competition with business, but that school needs should never be made secondary to business needs. The greatest step toward the ideal will be taken when school boards and public alik^ realize that the making of citizens is of vastly more import to their community than the making of dollars and that true economy is not necessarily the saving of money. WHAT SHOULD BE DONE TO KEEP HIGH-CLASS SUPER-INTENDENTS IN THE SCHOOLS? I. MARY D. BRADFORD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KENOSHA, WIS. Since the conclusions reacht by the Commission on the Emergency in Education are that the present educational emergency is traceable, in practically all of its aspects, to the insufficient salaries paid thruout the country to those engaged in educational work, it seems clear that the first thing to be done is to campaign for better salaries all along the line. This conclusion is also exprest in the report of the School Master's Club of Cincinnati, which report was issued at the National Citizen's Conference on Education held in Washington in May. The elimination of able men from educational work as a profession, will, to a large measure, cease when they can see the same opportunities for reward in the educational field as in the industrial, commercial, or other professional fields. But the elimination will not entirely cease until other conditions are changed also. Men of independent spirit are sometimes deterred from entering upon the work of superintendents, or leave after trial of it, because the con- ditions, imposed by boards of education, are unbearable, or because they refuse to attempt to hold positions thru influences that are non-professional. Large boards or freqiiently changing boards, or boards where both these conditions exist, must sometimes be dealt with; for example, a board of eighteen members, half of whom are new or begin new terms each succeed- ing April. Under such circumstances a continuity of school policy is about impossible. The only element making for continuity in such a situation is the superintendent, and the stronger the superintendent is for consistent and really progressive continuity, the less likely is there to be a continuity in the superintendency. Then the second thing that should be done is to work for improved administrative conditions: for the small school board, Sessions] KEEPING SUPERINTENDENTS IN THE SCHOOLS 91 of liberal tenure, elected at large, and at an election apart from the regular municipal election. A third remedy is the establishment of a pension system that is national in its character and operation. There is a fourth important thing to be done. The first, second, and third I have mentioned involve the education of the pubhc; the fourth involves the education of the high-class people we need in superin tendencies. Some young men disdainfully reject the idea of the school job because they want a life work that will utilize the potential militancy and leadership of which they feel themselves possest. Such need to be shown that a superintendency offers the best sort of an opportunity for the fearless leader; there he can attain self-realization as well as in war; he can risk his professional life going "over the top" for a local educational cause; for a needed school bond issue, he can bravely face "shell shock" from city hall and "gassing" from the local press. School superin tendencies are jobs for fighting spirits, and the cause of education needs just such. Other young men reject teaching as a profession because they feel themselves especially fitted for salesmanship. These must be shown that the superintendency furnishes the best opportunity in the world for the exercise of such ability. It is the chief business of the superintendent to sell education to an indifferent general public. The possession of good salesmanship will be a distinct advantage, in that a good salesman knows that a demonstration is worth more than a mere line of talk, and that after the demonstration he can well give considerable time telling the public its significance. The cause of education; needs salesmen of high ability, who believe in the commodity they are carrying. And those high-class young men, who especially feel the urge to social service, must be brought to realize that to the shaper of lives there comes^ from this service a satisfaction that is not known to the shaper of iron, even tho the latter may be better compensated. So my fourth suggestion is to exalt the work of the superintendent and cause it to challenge the interest of the high-class man. II. WILLIAM F. GEIGER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TACOMA, WASH. To determine what should be done to keep high-class superintendents in the schools, it is only necessary to consider what is done to keep any high-class worker on the job. We first find out what he desires and then, if the need of him is great enough, give him what he desires. What then does the superintendent desire? He desires that which, more than anything else, encourages and inspires the slowest pupil in the school, the most diffident teacher in the corps, the humblest worker in the shop, the most faithful housewife, the greatest captain of industry, and 92 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General even the president of his country, namely, appreciation. It is consciousness of appreciation that, like the stimulating altitude and the cordial atmosphere of this beautiful city, tones up all of us and makes us enjoy the work we are doing and eager to stay in it. However that appreciation may be exprest, if we feel that it is genuine, we devote our best efforts to our tasks and are content. This appreciation so highly prized by the superintendent finds expression in — salary, permanency of position, business, civic and social standing, freedom from exactions, the attitude of parents, the conduct of the children, the spirit of the teaching corps, public opinion, the school board's treatment of him. The salary should be sufficient, not only to enable the superintendent to meet the obligations and maintain the position in the community expected of him and his family, but also large* enough to compensate for the loss of opportunities for making money which sometimes come to him thru his association with leaders in his city, but which he must pass up because he has not the time to follow them thru to success unless he neglects his school work. There should be a permanency of position that will continue with satisfactory service. No executive can be satisfied with a position in which the tenure is uncertain and constantly endangered by reason of the changing personnel of school boards. The dread of being compelled to look for another field, the injury to his pride in seeing some great work of his inter- rupted, and his affection for the schools he has been serving cannot help make a superintendent anxious when the permanency of his position is in question. If his personal qualities warrant it, the high-class superintendent should be accorded the same place in the business, civic, and social organi- zations of his community that is held by other men of high standing. His opinions should not be discounted merely because he is a teacher and, therefore, supposed not to know anything about affairs outside the school realm. Exactions are often imposed upon a superintendent that would not be tolerated by other men. His manner of dress, his personal habits and amusements, his home life, and church- affiliation, too often, are subjected to the critical test of narrow-minded and intolerant people when all he asks is to be permitted to act like any respectable male man. The attitude of parents can have much to do in making the position of superintendent desirable. When parents believe in his fairness, respect his abihty, value his judgment, and accept his decisions, his joy in the profession is great and he will want to stay in it. Children who come from homes where they are encouraged to respect authority, to honor their parents and teachers, and to love their country, make his work with them and for them a constant inspiration. Sessions] THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 93 Teachers who are contented and cooperative contribute more to a superintendent's success and to his enjoyment of his position than does anything else. If they are happy in their work and beHeve in him, they stimulate him into giving the best he has. It sometimes happens that a school board will give a superintendent everything he requests except a large enough salary schedule to enable him to keep contented and happy the teachers who remain and to hire well-qualified teachers to take the places of those who leave. A public opinion that looks upon the office of superintendent as one of the greatest service and responsibility and places the importance of the schools above everything else will do much to keep high-class men in the schools. All the things I have mentioned are important as expressions of that appreciation which superintendents desire, but none of them is as strong a factor in keeping high-class men in the schools as is the treatment of the superintendent by the school board. Important as is the salary, especially in this time of great need, it is less often a question of money that sends the highly trained superintendent out from the school into other fields than it is the lack of appreciation the members of the school board show in their treatment of him. It is not so much the form of its expression, but the depth of the feeling of appreciation, that will make a superintendent want to give every bit of energy there is in him to the service of the school board and the schools, and will keep him in the work even when other fields are alluring. When he knows that his board, his teachers, his pupils, and the public value him and are with him, a superintendent asks nothing better and cannot be induced to abandon the greatest calling there is. So if you wish to keep high-class superintendents in the schools, give even them appreciation. THE FART THE TEACHER SHOULD FLAY IN THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION M. G. CLARK, CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SIOUX CITY, IOWA It would appear that perhaps the most important thing at this moment for the welfare of both teacher and administration is the removal of the idea which has been promulgated so generally during the past few months that boards of education, administrators, and supervisors are necessarily antagonistic or anti-sympathetic in their spirit and ideas to the spirit and needs of the teacher. An idea seems to have been fostered and to have become somewhat general that their interests lie in different directions. This is a false doctrine that must in some way be eradicated. So long as class antagonisms exist the child will suffer thereby. So long as antagonisms are created, fostered, cultured, the •schools will be 94 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Stultified. The great present problem is how to build a harmonious, cooperative, constructive school organization — an organization of co- workers sans class-consciousness. The organization of the American school system has been along lines of true school economy. There is no time for argumentation upon this statement. The statement implies, however, that each factor entering into the establisht school organization has a rightful place in the system and an economic function to perform. This place and function then should be recognized and accepted as authoritative by the public on the one hand and by each and every con- tributing school factor on the other. These functions are defined as follows: a) Boards of education. — It should be establisht and accepted that boards of education are elected by the people for school legislative purposes. School legislation and the general policies of the school organization function in and thru the board of education. h) Administrators. — Administrators are appointed or elected by the board of education as their administrative agents. They must put into effect the legislation of the board of education whether it be general or specific. They are appointed to organize in harmony with that legislation the general school machinery and school policies. They and they alone can be held responsible by the board of education for the performance of that work. c) Supervisors and principals. — Supervisors and principals are, or should be, selected by the administration and elected by the board of education as proven expert teachers of children and as competent admin- istrators or interpreters of the course of study. It is their business to apply these, functions to the different localities of the school system in such a way as to meet the needs of each particular locality and yet maintain the unity of the system. d) Teachers. — Teachers are selected thru the cooperative efforts of supervisors and administrators and are then elected by the board of education as the tactile factor of the school organization. It is their primary business to touch the individual problem and to know specifically the educational needs of the community they serve. It is, therefore, their business primarily: 1. To function as child leaders thru the school curriculum, thru the school organization, and thru their social contact with the children and their parents. 2. To function in needed school organization and curriculum adjust- ments thru their frank discussions with their principals, supervisors, and administrators of seeming school needs or school weaknesses to the end that the school may not become a great machine, but that the needs of the individual child may always be supreme; that rooms, schools, or locaHties Sessions! CLASSROOM TEACHERS AND SCHOOL AFFAIRS 95 shall possess their individuality, but always in harmony with the general community good. 3. To function in the community as something more than classroom teachers; to magnify the purposes of the teacher; to elucidate and magnify the work of the school and the influence of the school thruout the community. School clubs or organizations that magnify class as class are an abomination. School clubs or organizations that as a whole or thru committees study the school needs for the purpose of bringing all school factors to a common understanding are of inestimable value to all parties. It is all in the attitude and purpose of the organization. Cooperative committees working harmoniously for a common good, respecting each other's work and each other's responsibilities, would magnify immeasurably the ^fiSciency and standing of any school system. Such work would establish the faith of the teacher in supervision and administration and would establish the faith of the administration and supervision in the teacher. Such work and attitude would establish the faith of boards of education in all their elected or appointed servants. May such organizations come, grow, and multiply. THE PLACE OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS LN THE ADMLNLSTRATLON OF SCHOOL AFFALRS JESSIE SKINNER, TEACHER, JEFFERSON HIGH SCHOOL, PORTLAND, ORE. The teachers who have taught the growth of democracy in national and international affairs, who have felt the rising power of labor in the industrial world, have grown into the feeling that they who teach and discipline, who train and develop should have a larger part in saying how these things should be done. I know of no more stultifying influence than to be told to do something and then given all instructions how to do that thing. The demand is for teachers with personality, leadership, and initiative; yet too much super- vision and too little self-expression kill these characteristics, and they also kill the joy and enthusiasm of the teacher. A teacher will grow only as she has opportunity for the expression of her capabilities. I would not do away with leadership; but I would do away with the so-called leadership which is only a delegated authority. The principal or superintendent who thinks he has a "corner" on all the good ideas of administration, who is too small to receive suggestions from those who work with him, who is too jealous of his own name and fame to give the teacher her share of responsibility and recognition must abdicate or he will be overthrown. In each school, superintendent and principal and teachers should understand conditions and together work out a policy and a program to 96 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General fit the conditions. Just what shall be the plan by which this is accom- plisht, whether by cooperative committees, advisory councils, or what not, I shall not say; but there are three things necessary for its success: con- ference, cooperation, and loyalty. And this democratic system of admin- istration will succeed better if the superintendents and principals take the initiative than if, by their attitude, they compel the teachers to do so. Some phases of administration in which the teachers should have a part are discipline, kind and form of reports, number of classes, number in classes, and the like. Much energy and enthusiasm are lost in making out useless reports; and a teacher's ability is too often judged not by enthusiastic and efficient teaching but by accurate reports neatly copied and promptly delivered. Two men met on the road to swap horses and one said to the other, "Is your horse a good traveler?" ''A good traveler," said the other, *'Why I can drive that horse so far in a day that you can't get him back in three. " I know one report card which because of the number of subjects printed thereon (140), the smallness of the spacing and the notation of the subjects, causes eye strain and loss of nervous energy that cannot be estimated. It takes twice as long for a teacher to make out one of those cards as it should; so that one card loses for its school district at least 16 J eight-hour days each year. Had teachers that make out that card been on that committee of records and reports, they would have devised a better one. In regard to number of classes and number in classes, who can judge better how much work can be well done, those who do the work or those who look on ? Again, I say, superintendents and principals, confer with your teachers. Work for intelligent, efficient, and sympathetic cooperation, for a bigger and better school, and you will get it. Be a slave-driver demanding a fixt daily routine of so much work covered, so many papers graded and handed in, so many reports made out, and you will get that, but you will get little else. TEE PART THE TEACHER SHOULD PLAY IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM I. STELLA HERRON, NORMAL SCHOOL, NEW ORLEANS, LA. Undoubtedly the nation is awake to the need for better salaries that there may be more and better teachers, but it has not yet realized that the present lack of teachers is due not alone to the small salaries. Surely the inadequate reward of teaching is no new thing. It was as well known by the youth of twenty years ago as by the youth of today. Yet, in the past, undeterred by the certainty of small gain, many chose this profession in order that they might do the work they loved. Sessions] THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL SYSTEM 97 It must be clearly understood that any suggestion from a teacher for a readjustment of the present organization of the school system can be justified only if such suggestion is based upon the principle that this reorgani- zation would make possible better work on the teacher's part. It could never be offered for the purpose of securing ends desirable for the teacher's good only. Now to the teacher whose chief concern is to make her work yield richer and more genuine returns and who sincerely believes that administrators and teachers alike need the mutual knowledge, understanding, and sym- pathy which result from genuine cooperation in solving complex problems such as courses of study, selection of textbooks, and of grade-room equip- ment, several obstacles to obtaining successful cooperation loom large. The administrator who asks teachers to serve on a committee and then revises largely or ignores the report of the committee; who asks for sug- gestions and tables them; or who makes committee appointments for other reasons than professional qualifications does much to destroy interest in cooperative projects. On the other hand it is equally deplorable in effect if the teachers' councils or committees come under the control of the radical teaching members who sometimes neglect their duties in a struggle for their rights or fancied rights. Because these unworthy conditions have sometimes prevailed it is now unfortunately true that a large number of the teachers most truly interested in their work avoid all participation in the efforts to secure representation. Therefore great care has to be taken in organizing any movement to further cooperation in a manner which will overcome this prejudice and appeal to all t3^es of teachers as well as to the supervisory officers and administrators. The report offered in 19 19 by Mr. Updegraff is so rich in suggestion as to how school administration can be, and is being made, increasingly democratic that little need be added. Chief, however, among the many advantages resulting from the cooperative undertakings described therein is the enthusiasm for education awakened in the teachers participating. For the proper maintenance of the public schools it is necessary to secure and hold the interest and support of the community. The teacher is the representative of the school that comes in direct contact with the individual father and mother. She must be the bearer of the torch guiding all men to such a knowledge of, and faith in, the power of education to make certain " that government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth" that they shall willingly and generously pay for it. II. AGNES S. WINN, PRESIDENT, SEATTLE GRADE TEACHERS CLUB. SEATTLE, WASH. Seattle does not gracefully relinquish her leadership in anything, and yet, as I have listened to the splendid plans and achievements brought 98 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General forth by my colleagues and have surveyed the accompUshments of other American cities in the great movement for democracy in education, I am convinst of the necessity for taking back to our Seattle teachers a new incentive to shoulder their part of the responsibility in the great national program for widening the vision and increasing the efficiency of the classroom teacher. Even as a phrase, "Democracy in Education" has a splendid ring, but when put into active operation, it opens up a new world alike to teachers and school officials. Altho there has been a growing unrest among teachers during the past ten years due, no doubt, to a longing deep down in their hearts to express themselves on school problems, it maybe doubtful whether, up to the present time, many of them have sought or cared for an active participation in the shaping of school policies, or, perhaps, were even prepared to exercise such a privilege, but it is doubtful now, with every teacher a trained and valuable part of the great educational system, with every teacher gaining daily in breadth of outlook and capability of judg- ment, that she can long be withheld from active cooperation in the adjust- ment of problems' of which she has first-hand working knowledge. In communities that have made the greatest progress according to a recent National Education Association report by the Commission on the Emergency in Education, boards of education and superintendents have requested teachers' organizations to make specific recommendations on courses of study, adoption of textbooks, types of buildings and equipment, organization of special classes, and formulation of budgets, always keeping in mind that the ultimate aim should be the development of the highest type of citizenship. We know, the report continues, that nothing will do more to raise the status of the profession and make its service attractive to the kind of men and women that the schoolroom needs, than the adoption of a policy that will lift the classroom teacher above the level of the mere routine worker, carrying out, in a mechanical fashion, plans and poHcies that are handed down from above. We hear much of teachers' councils, but it is a far western city that has struck the highest note in this new phase of education. In Oakland, California, a classroom teacher sits with full power of discussion and suffrage in the Superintendent's Council. In closing I wish to leave with you two points very clearly set forth by a well-known educator in a message to teachers contributed to the June number of the Seattle Grade Club Magazine: Teachers should insist upon ridding the school system of rubbish, lost motion, red tape, and autocratic methods, and exert their influence to introduce simple, direct methods in teaching the big, useful things of life. They should everywhere maintain broad liberal standards of recreation and out-oif-school activities, and should face their respective communities as red-blooded, full-grown humans who dare live abundantly and love little children. With a shoulder-to-shoulder stand for these big things, the classroom teachers of America may continue to form the inspiring soul of the system as they seek advancement thru definite contributions to public welfare. Sessions] THE TEACHER IN ADMINISTRATION 99 THE TEACHER IN ADMINISTRATION CORNELIA S. ADAIR, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL LEAGUE OF TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS, RICHMOND, VA. For many years the classroom teacher has felt that she was not giving to the cause of education the best that was in her to give. Altho the teacher of the children of a free people, she herself had little share in molding the educational policies which she endeavored to carry out. This question was recently askt the teachers of a certain state: ''To what reason other than salary do you attribute the unrest among teachers ? " Three hundred and fifty-three replied that it was caused by a lack of sympathy and cooperation between the teachers and the administration. Closer cooperation and a better acquaintance was the universal remedy. That this (^esire for a closer cooperation between the classroom teacher and the administration is general is evidenst by the remarkable growth of the Advisory Council idea. The purpose of these councils is to utilize the experience, judgment, and initiative of the men and women in direct daily contact with the children and problems of the school. All questions — administrative as well as educational — affecting the welfare of the teachers, the children, and the schools, should be recognized as proper subjects for discussion and findings by these councils. All recommendations of the councils should be made a matter of official record. The judgment of the teacher should be utilized in the formulation of school policy, not only for the sake of the policy, but also for the sense of responsibility engendered in the teacher by her share in determining that policy. In certain cities where there is no formally instituted Advisory Council, the open forum plan has been adopted. Once in three months the teachers are invited by the board to come and talk over matters in which they are interested. Business may originate with the teacher, superintendent, or board. Much benefit has resulted from these meetings, not only from the practical solution of problems, but also from the friendly knowledge of each other gained by the teachers and the board. This is the heart of the teaching as well as the industrial problem. Establish free and natural communication between the men and women engaged in a particular enterprise and you will have gone about as far as method or system can go in preventing misunderstandings and in arriving at decisions which will be for the good of all. lOO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General DEFINITE OBJECTIVES IN EDUCATION EDWARD O. SISSON, PRESIDENT, STATE UNIVERSITY, MISSOULA, MONT. First let there be no more apologizing for the profession. As Walt Whitman somewhere says, "there has been about ducking and deprecating enough." The teacher has been condescended to quite enough, and has long enough acquiest in his own social as well as economic inferiority. Let us change it all; without the slightest personal conceit we must stand firm for the absolute pre-eminence of the profession; we may be individually more worthy or less worthy, but our craft is supreme. Let us resolutely* look our fellow men in the eye, bankers, lawyers, physicians, and the whole heterogeneous mass of the high caste of America, the ''business men," and tell them that our business is more important than theirs, and they know it; that they are handling less valuable things than we handle; that both their raw material, and their finisht results, even when most costly, are infinitely less precious than the material that comes to our shop, and the product we turn out. Fellow teachers, I am glad to tell you, from some considerable actual experiment, that your fellow citizens know these things are true, and they really like to hear them. The message hits with the spirit of the times; it is part and parcel of the great awakening, against which the forces of materialism and reaction are making a desperate but hopeless stand. Be not conceited in yourself, but be proud and glad in your profession; the world is today just opening its wondering eyes to the truth announst twenty-five centuries ago by Plato — that education is the principal business of society and the state: the educator is the leading business man, from now on. The educator's problem is the most difficult problem of all. This comes decidedly as news to many in the profession as well as outside. We have thought of the engineer and the lawyer and the physician and the financier as experts, possest of a unique and almost mysterious cunning and power; the fact is that the intellectual task involved in solving the education of a single child far transcends in complexity and magnitude the building of the Panama Canal, the pleading of a case in international law, the diagnosis and treatment of the most baffling disease. The educator is called upon to guide the growing brains and hearts that will solve all these, and the more difficult tasks that man's evolving destiny will bring. The stupidity and tragedy of penurious salaries for teachers lies not in the hardships inflicted on the teachers, but in the failure to command for the task the highest powered brains and the finest capacities the human market affords. The mind of mankind is open today to the new comprehension of the magnitude of our profession. Let us meet the opportunity by declaring without fear or faltering the whole great new truth. The business of I Sessions! DEFINITE OBJECTIVES IN EDUCATION loi education is the most difficult, the most indispensable, the most honorable of all the affairs of society, bar none. Let every teacher become an apostle of this gospel and magnify his calling. We must renew our devotion to the ideals of the original charter of our nation, that immortal document, the Declaration of Independence. Our children must get into their hearts as well as their intellect, the faith and principles of that Declaration: note, fellow teachers, that the Declaration in contrast with laws or even Constitution, is not subject to amendment, but only to fulfilment; it is the sublime prophecy of the world that is to be; it is the New Jerusalem of freedom and humanity. Our long devotion to the idol of individual success is bringing us to the brink of ruin. Whether by accident or intent we have bred a citizenry who have in the mass refused to let politics interfere with business. We must breed a race who will understand that politics, the business of all, is supreme over all other mundane affairs. America has been a place where poor boys became millionaires and presidents; and the millionaires, being more numerous and less modest than the presidents, have got more attention from the rising generation, and have sadly distorted their view of life. A true vision of America — this is the one supreme and paramount objective of the American school. The building of the Republic has barely begun; we are just emerging from our historical infancy and standing on the threshold of mature life; we have broken finally with our old isola- tion, all voices to the contrary notwithstanding; we now know what our prophets have always told us, that we belong to the world; that, in the words of Lincoln, in saving American freedom, we save "the last, best hope of man. " I found a high-school class discussing a certain Herodes Atticus; I hstened with curious attention and some admiration, for the class showed uncommon scholarship. Being invited to talk to the class, I askt per- mission instead to put one or two questions, and discovered that not one of the twenty knew whether Abraham Lincoln had ever been in Congress, who Colonel Robert Gould Shaw was, or a single one of the eleven points in Washington's Farewell Address. Fellow teachers and fellow citizens, time fails to study all things; let us first learn things that belong to our national peace, and let Herodes Atticus, and not a few other pages of our syllabus, wait until a more convenient season. The acid test of all our patriotism is when self-interest conflicts with it. The true lover of freedom must rejoice to see men all about him free; even tho those men are his employees and their greater freedom makes lesser profits for him, or lessens the completeness of his own control over what he calls his business. It is easy to approve of people being free to do things we approve of, but the test comes when they use their lawful freedom to do what we condemn. It is a poor freedom of speech which permits people to say only what is acceptable to certain groups of the people, IOJ2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General yet that is the kind of freedom that many communities have been having for two or three years back. The fact is that Americanism is so near akin to the teachings of Jesus that for my part I am ready to see the American public school without further hesitation take those supreme principles of human life bodily into its curriculum, eliminating all theological or historical occasions of dissen- sion. It has got to be an open secret on the street, in the office and shop, even in the halls of legislation, that those teachings, embodied most con- cisely in the Golden Rule, are the only hope of a bewildered and tortured world. Why not put down as an indispensable element in the education of the American citizen, the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the Declaration of Independence, and the life of Abraham Lincoln? And see to it that neither Herodes Atticus nor the objective complement should crowd them out of the pupil's heart. ' • This leads to another great definite objective — the elevation of the spiritual over the material. The- savage is slave to the barest necessities of subsistence — food and shelter and protection from cold; what time he has to spare from these he spends in war. Civilized man is in peril of slavery to the things he has made, and the factitious needs stimulated by these things. As the savage measures his manhood by many beads or scalps or captured heads, so modern man is in danger of measuring his manhood by the things he has acquired, and of these he has one universal measure, money. What cynical absurdities we permit ourselves; one may be proud of having had a poor grandfather, but dare not be poor himself. Sooner or later — who can say when — religion, purified to its golden essence, must come back into the American public school. It will not be Protestant (certainly not protestant), nor Catholic (except in the simple original meaning of that noble word), nor Jewish, nor any other special and particular name. It must not be divisive, as, alas, religions seem so apt to be, but it must bind together all who love and would serve. It will know much about man — his lowly origin and marvelous history, his stum- bling steps, and his boundless aspiration and unquenchable hopes, his sins and weaknesses, and his love and virtues. It will also foster the bright effulgence of Man's highest hopes — the vision of God. Happily even now religion enters, unforbidden and beneficent in the strength and gentleness, the discipline and the love, the clear thinking and true humanity of the teacher.' Also in certain figures of history, who having been potently religious themselves, cannot leave religion behind them even when they enter the school curriculum: of these the greatest in our history, and the greatest but one in all history, is, of course, Abraham Lincoln, who loved mercy and did justice and walked humbly before his God. Lest there should be any misunderstanding let me confess to the conviction that the American pubKc school is a truly religious force, perhaps Sessions] EDUCATION: THE DEFENSE OF THE HOME 103 the greatest in the world today : it receives with open arms all the children of all the people, it ministers to them an even justice and an all-embracing love, which must rejoice Him who said '^ Suffer the children to come unto me, for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven. " Within the school, vitality is the all-important objective. In spite of all the prophets from Plato to Milton and from Rousseau to the clearest visioned of all, our own John Dewey, we are still in the doldrums 01 ver- bahsm, remoteness, useless complexities, ablative absolutes, compound fractions, historical fossils instead of immortal, the ancient life, and so on ad nauseam et ad infinitum. One sees a score of dead lessons on "board measure" from a book, then one lesson, thrilHng with eager life, because the teacher-boy had stopt at the lumberyard and brought over a really truly board foot and some ends of two by four and four-inch strips for the children to see and handle. Little boys and girls live in the very midst of the wonderful earth, with its mountains and valleys, plains and rivers, lakes and seas, and yet geography to them is a book in which their inquisitive noses are kept, to cure them from being so inquiring. Happily we are moving, and not so slowly. The primary school has really arrived; it is truly a kindergarten, a place for children to grow. It is a place of joyful activity, of happy cooperation, of growth into life and knowledge and love. And at the far other end of the educational scale, in the graduate school, the true vital method of self-directed and self- chosen intellectual action is dominant. Let us hasten to bring up the great body of the elementary school, the high school, and the colleges, that lie between these two happy extremes. Classroom teachers, here you are almost supreme: maugre cast-iron curricula, and regulations and redtape, you can do much; the new life generated by true method will carry pupils along at a new speed and with new power of acquisition. How they will thank you for living hours in the schoolroom. EDUCATION: THE DEFENSE OF THE AMERICAN HOME SARAH LOUISE ARNOLD, DEAN OF SIMMONS COLLEGE, BOSTON, MASS. Many of the dearest traditions and ideals of America had their origin in the home. Family life developt the art of living together, and the power of working together. Sharing in common responsibiUties, performing, daily tasks essential to the common good, following a routine until the necessary work was accomplisht in spite of weariness and the attraction of play, considering the welfare of others in the family group, sacrificing even a necessity in order that some member of the group might profit; all these came out of the family life in the separate home of our fathers. The home was likewise a workshop and the farm a constant discipline. Every member I04 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of the family learned how to do things, how to make things do, and how to do without. How are we defending the homes of America? How must they be defended ? The thoughtful observer sees cause for anxiety in three con- ditions which are apparent today: the abandonment of the separate home in both city and country; the acceptance of the apartment as a substitute for the separate home, a condition which attends the inrush of population to the cities; and the tide of immigration which fills our cities and manu- facturing towns with groups residing in close communities, speaking an alien tongue, crowded in tenements, and isolated to a markt degree from the traditions of the community and all problems of community administration. No thoughtful mind can measure the present situation without grave anxiety. The teachers of America should give it their most earnest con- sideration. They should not rest until a remedy has been discovered and applied. In applying it, however, let us not rest in the hope that the challenge of the present day can be met by a change in the schools alone. A democ- racy, in order to survive, must be supported by constant education. The citizen unit must be always and forever at school. He grows in under- standing of the rights, privileges, and powers of the people as in the course of his evolution he participates in the care of his community and maintains, with a full sense of responsibility, the family dependent upon him. That he should grow in understanding and power as the years go on is not only good for him, but it is essential to the good of the community, and that greater community, the nation. The school, therefore, does not provide even the end of schooling, not to say education. The responsibility must be maintained by the community. Opportunities for adults to gain instruction at that marvelously critical period, when they "want to know," must be provided by the community, for the good of the whole; for edu- cation of the one profits us all. We learn in order that we may share. Let not the school, therefore, center in itself alone either the responsibility or the cure for this entire problem. But let it squarely assume its share of fault or blame and correct by movement in the right direction. We have on our school programs a more or less mysterious subject of study, entitled Home Economics. It appeared there because the people of America believed it necessary to re-enforce the American home in order to maintain in American citizenship the ideals of the American home. They permit girls as may "elect" to take a bit of home economics in our high schools, but rarely without discredit in the shape of classification and against the advice of teachers looking toward the college course. In many colleges the subject is frankly discredited, the subject which challenges the attention of the federal government not being considered of college grade. If we count honestly, how many girls in America are taking such Sessions] EDUCATION: THE DEFENSE OF THE HOME 105 courses in our pubKc schools and colleges as will enable them to maintain a family with a clear perception of the essential needs and ability to meet these needs? Yet, this knowledge belongs, or should belong to all the daughters of all the people. And, to go farther, everything which concerns family responsibiUties, sanitation in home and community, the great problem of food and its uses, the interests of child life, the adjustment of income to family necessities, belongs to men and women alike. More and more the separate individual is needing this knowledge, not having access at all times to the family store of understanding. Is it not time, then, for us to require, rather than merely to allow, adequate instruction in such matters in our system of education? Let the school do what it can to the children passing thru, but let us not ignore those who are beyond our present school age but are, nevertheless, totally ignorant. The young girl about to be married ; the young mother, ignorant of what is required in feeding her children; the young husband and father trying to cover thi family expenses without a budget yet with the dim hope of sending a boy to college; the intelligent mothers of the community whose knowledge has come from inheritance alone and from the haphazard suggestions of neighbors; all these are to be taught. Is it not possible to frame a suitable consideration of these essential subjects for school and college both, with proper adjustment to popular instruction in community centers as well ? Can we not frankly make the maintenance of the homes of America, not only a subject worthy of discussion, but one which we love to discuss ? This matter calls for a careful analysis of the work now being done in schools; it challenges the attention of colleges. Does the present provision of instruction sufficiently reach the urban groups, or is it given chiefly to the farmer's wife and to the woman in industry ? Are the higher-priced apartments ministering to the ideals of America to a greater degree than the tenements ? Has the maintenance of the separate home any relation to the development of American citizenship ? Does the subject called Home Economics belong outside the pale? Should it be rechristened, and admitted to civics, to philosophy, to the ethics of daily Uving-affairs, to economics, to the science of government ? Can a name be devised which will make plain that the interests now gathered under this name are Vital to all the citizens of America ? If this can be done we may in the end secure a type of education which will be adequate for the defense of the American home. THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION I SECRETARY'S MINUTES SALT LAKE CITY MEETING OFFICERS President — Homer H. Seerley, president State Teachers' College Cedar Falls, Iowa Vice-President — ^Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent public instruction Olympia, Wash. Secretary — Adelaide Steele Baylor, federal agent for home economics Washington, D.C. FIRST SESSION— Monday Forenoon, July s, 1920 The National Council of Education of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Monday forenoon, July 5, 9:00 o'clock, in the Methodist Church, Salt Lake City, Utah. The meeting was called to order by the president. Following the roll call to record the attendance of members, Robert J. Aley moved that Article I of the Constitution as it relates to membership attendance on meetings be interpreted to mean attendance on at least one session of the Council. This motion was carried unanimously. The president gave a brief report on the future of the Council as embodied in the present policy of meetings and work, emphasizing the duties and responsibilities of members as to attendance and participation in programs. The Report of the Temporary Committee on Progress was then presented as follows : "City Systems" — H. B. Wilson, -superintendent of schools, Berkeley, Cal. "Rural Systems" — J. F. Sims, president state normal school, Stevens Point, Wis. "State Systems" — Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo. The general session was then adjourned for the round tables in open forum, for special consideration of particular lines of progress. These round tables met in different rooms in the church and dealt with the following topics : "Thrift Education with Actual Results" — A. H. Chamberlain, chairman. Secretary California State Teachers' Association, San Francisco, Cal. "Extension System of Improving Teachers in Service" — L. H. Minkel, chairman, superintendent of schools. Fort Dodge, Iowa. " Teacher Progress by Collective Organization " — Olive M. Jones, chairman, principal School No. 120, New York, N.Y. SECOND SESSION— Monday Afternoon, July 5, 1920 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2 : 00 o'clock, in the Methodist Church. The secretary gave the following report of the meeting of the Committee on Membership in the Council, held immediately before the morning session of the Council: The Committee on Membership in the Council met at 9:00 a.m., in the Methodist Church. Before supplying the vacancies in the membership and offices of the Council, the following motions carried unanimously: 1. That failure to accept within a limited space of time, election to membership in the Council, would be equivalent to non-acceptance and a substitute name would be chosen from a list of eligibles already determined upon by the Membership Committee. 2. That such eligibles for substitution be listed at this time. 107 io8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National 3. That the proper authorities in the National Education Association be notified of this action by the Membership Committee of the Council and askt to follow the same procedure. 4. That the honorary membership list be divided into two groups, i.e., honorary members and active honorary members. Vacancies in the membership of the Council were supplied as follows: Class of 1920 — Terms expiring in 1924. William M. Davidson, Pittsburgh, Pa., to succeed himself. Edward Buchner, Baltimore, Md., to succeed George H. Lynch (membership lapst). P. P. Claxton, commissioner of education, Washington, D.C., to succeed himself. Harlan Updegraff, Philadelphia, Pa., to succeed himself. Cora Wilson Stewart, Frankfort, Ky., to succeed herself. Katherine D. Blake, New York, N.Y., to succeed herself. Olive Jones, New York, N.Y., to succeed herself. Caroline Woodruff, St. Johnsburg, Vt., to succeed Frank Strong (membership lapst) . C. P. Carey, Madison, Wis., to succeed himself. H. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa, to succeed himself. Class of 19 1 5 — Term expiring 192 1. May Trumper, Helena, Mont, to succeed Samuel Avery (membership lapst). D. B. Waldo, Kalamazoo, Mich., to succeed Guy P. Benton (membership lapst). J. I. Cammack, Kansas City, Mo., to succeed G. M. Phillips (deceased). Anna Webb Blanton, Austin, Tex., to succeed Ernest E. Balcombe (membership lapst). Class of 19 1 6 — Terms expiring in 1922. W. A. Jessup, Iowa City, to succeed C. D. Hine (membership lapst). E. M. Bainter, Kansas City, to succeed David Snedden (membership lapst). Class of 19 1 7 — Terms expiring in 1923. Ada Van Stone Harris, Pittsburgh, Pa., to succeed W. J. Kerr (membership lapst). T. E. Johnson, Lansing, Mich., to succeed F. B. Dressier (membership lapst). Susan M. Dorsey, Los Angeles, Calif., to succeed herself. Class of 19 18 — Terms expiring in 1924. J. W. K. Dwyer, Richmond, Va., to succeed C. C. Shultz (membership lapst). List of eligibles, in the order named, to supply vacancies caused by non-acceptance of newly elected members, or by resignation or other causes, before the next annual meeting of the Council: David B. Corson, Newark, N.J. Minnie Nielson, Bismarck, N.Dak. P. E. McClennahan, Des Moines, Iowa. Frank B. Gilbert, Albany, N.Y. J. H. Ames, River Falls, Wis. Office vacancies in the Council were supplied by the nomination of: Adelaide S. Baylor, Washington, D.C., to succeed herself as secretary with term of office expiring in 1923. A. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz., to succeed himself as a member of the Executive Committee with term expiring in 1923. Anna Laura Force, Denv^er, Colo., as chairman of the Executive Committee. John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo., to succeed himself as a member of the Committee on Membership with term expiring in 1923. Wm. B. Owen, Chicago, 111., to succeed James Y. Joyner, on the Membership Com- mittee with term expiring in 1923. The recommendations of the Committee were unanimously approved by the Council. Report of Executive Committee on Committees : 1. Committee on Rural Education— J. Y. Joyner, ex-superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N.C., honorary chairman. J. F. Sims, president State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis., chairman. This Committee, authorized at the New York meeting, to be continued to make a preliminary report at Atlantic City, in February, 192 1, and a final report in July, 192 1. 2. Committee on Military Instruction and Education — ^John R. Kirk, president. State Teachers' College, Kirksville, Mo., chairman. This Temporary Committee, authorized and organized at the Cleveland, 1920, meeting, to meet an emergency, to be discontinued. Council] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 109 3. Committee on Salaries, Pensions, and Tenure — ^Joseph Swain, president, Swarth- more College, Swarthmore, Pa., chairman. Recommended this Committee, appointed by the National Education Association at San Francisco in 19 11, be continued. 4. Committee on Democracy Applied to Education — This Committee, authorized at the Cleveland meeting, 1920, but not organized until the Salt Lake City meeting, to be constituted as follows: A. Duncan Yocum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa., chairman; Sarah Louise Arnold, Boston, Mass.; Fanny Fern Andrews, Boston, Mass.; Walter S. Athearn, Boston University, Boston, Mass.; W. C. Bagley, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.; Arthur H. Chamberlain, San Francisco, Cal.; Olive Jones, New York, N.Y. 5. Committee on Health Problems — Present assignment: "The School Child and the Necessity for Scientific Ventilation, Heating, and Lighting of School Houses. " Thomas D. Wood, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., chairman, reported at Cleveland in February, 1920. The Committee cooperates with the American Medical Association. This Committee, authorized at the San Francisco meeting, 191 1, to be continued. 6. Committee on Participation of Teachers in the Management of Schools — This Committee, authorized at the Cleveland meeting, 1920, but not organized imtil the Salt Lake City meeting, to be constituted as follows: Harlan D. Updegraff, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa., chairman; Susan Dorsey, Los Angeles, Cal.; P. W. Horn, Houston, Tex.; W. M. Davidson, Pitts- burgh, Pa.; Anna Laura Force, Denver, Colo.; Stella Herron, City Normal, New Orleans, La.; Cornelia Adair, Richmond, Va. 7. Committee on Art Education — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111., chairman. This Committee cooperates with the National Association of Fine Arts as soon as the organization is completed. This Committee, reauthorized at the Cleveland meeting in 1920, to be continued. 8. Committee on Thrift Education — Arthur Chamberlain, editor Sierra News, San Francisco, Cal., chairman. This Committee, authorized by the National Education Association at Oakland, to be continued. 9. Committee on Racial Weil-Being — Helen C. Putnam, Providence, R.L, chairman. This Committee, authorized at the Detroit meeting, to be continued and may report in 1922. 10. Committee on Reorganization of Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Grades — This Committee, authorized at the Cleveland meeting, 1920, but not organized until the Salt Lake City meeting, to be constituted as follows: ^ Charles H. Judd, dean of School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111., chairman; James M. Glass, Rochester, N.Y.; J. H. Bentley, Richmond, Ind.; Arthur Gould, Los Angeles, Cal.; Charles E. Chadsey, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.; J. M. Gwinn, Los Angeles, Cal., was the principal speaker. Dr. Kandel's report on tenure stated that only four states — California, Massachusetts, Montana and New Jersey — recog- nized by law. New Orleans, La.; J. W. Withers, St. Louis, Mo.; Katherine D. Blake, New York, N.Y.; Ella G. Switzer, Denver, Colo; Annie Webb Blanton, Austin, Tex.; Josephine Corliss Preston, Olympia, Wash. John R. Kirk, president of the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo., gave the final report of the Cornmittee on Military Instruction in Educational Institutions, as a system of training for the army and navy. As Adelaide S. Baylor, because of other duties, could no longer continue her work as a member of the Race Betterment Committee, Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal., was appointed in her place, on recommendation of Helen Putman, chairman of the Committee. The General Session of the Council then adjourned for the conferences, which met in different rooms of the church and were conducted as follows: "Conference on School Consolidation as a Solution of Rural Conditions" — ^John F. Sims, chairman, president State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis. no NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National "Conferences on the Changes Needed in the Elementary School Course. New Subjects to Be Added. Old Subjects to Be Omitted. " — Katherine D. Blake, chairman, principal of School No. 6, Borough of Manhattan, New York, N.Y. "Conference on the Conditions that Progress in Legislature and in Standards Have Produced in Diminishing the Teacher Supply" — Mary D. Bradford, chairman, super- intendent of schools, Kenosha, Wis. As Mrs. Bradford could not be present because of other conflicting engagements, Annie Webb Blanton, state superintendent of public instruction, Austin, Tex., presided at the conference. Each chairman was asktto conduct the Round Table and furnish a report of the proceedings to the secretary of the Council. THIRD SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1920 The meeting was called to order by the president at 9:00 o'clock, in the Methodist Church. Robert J. Aley, president of the University of Maine and former president of the Council, read a paper on "Forty Years of the National Council. " In this connection the following letter from Thomas A. Bicknell, the first president of the National Council, in the year 1880, was read: Dr. Homer H. Seerley, President, National Council of Education Providence, R.I. June 26, 1920 Dear Dr. Seerley: The fortieth anniversary and the forty-first meeting of The National Council of Education call for many congratulations to the President and members of this distinguisht body for the valuable contributions made and in the making for the advance of philosophical methods in American Education. I have in mind a meeting of the Department of Superintendence at Washington, D.C., in February, 1880, when I read a paper before that body, proposing the formation of such a council, offering reasons for it and some of the ends attainable. A very cordial reception was given to the project by U.S. Commissioner, General John Eaton, Dr. W. T. Harris, Dr. E. E. White, Hon. John Hancock, Dr. John D. Philbrick, Hon. Henry Barnard, and many others, and a committee was chosen, of which I was chairman, to propose a constitution and plans of organization to be submitted to the National Education Association, at its July meeting in 1880. The National Council came into real being, at Chautauqua, N.Y., July, 1880, with principles and purposes substantially as exprest in the present constitution. It was the unanimous opinion of the National Education Association that the Council could be made an efficient instrument of good foundation work thru philosophical studies and "Round Table" debate and conclusions. /By the unanimous choice of the members, I held the Presidency for three years, resigning in 1883 to accept the Presidency of the National Education Association for 1884, with the first great meeting in 1884 at Madison, Wis. Our first annual meeting of the Council was held at the hotel on Lookout Mountain, Tennessee, in July, 1881. Our sessions occupied three days, members only being present. At the outset, we believed that cabinet debate on well-digested committee studies and conclusions was the only way for arriving at the most valuable results. The general body of educational people was not invited and for fostering the philosophical type of thought was not wanted. We felt that our work would be hindered rather than helpt by an audience. We had giants in those days, like Dr. McCosh, Dr. Harris, Gen. Eaton, Dr. Philbrick, Dr. Hagor, Dr. Pickard, Dr. Smart, Prof. Soldan, Dr. Barnard, Prof. S. S. Greene, Supt. Richoff, and others of great ability. No one believed an audience essential to the best council work. All of the early members insisted on unhampered, scholarly, round table work. I well remember the meeting of the National Council at Boston, in 1903. My surprise was great to note that the meetings were open to all comers, and I felt called upon to remind the members that they had departed from what I believed was the wiser method for the first twenty years. The Survival of the Council for forty years and its good standing in educational circles is fair evidence of its value in accomplishment. Evaluation, however difficult, is of great importance at the present juncture in educational concerns. " What has the Council done ? " " What has it to do ? " are questions answerable and demanding answer. It would be well worth while to ask: a) Has the Council followed a truly philosophical method in its work ? .... b) Has it developt a strong philosophical spirit in the National Education Association ? c) Has it establisht sound pedagogic principles of practical value ? d) Has it effectually opposed false theories and doctrines ? e) Is its present program suited to national conditions and needs ? /) Is its propaganda commensurate with the value of its educational product ? It seems to me that it is well worth while to take an account of stock on this fortieth anniversary. The fiftieth anniversary volume for the National Education Association contains material for such a review and valuation to 1905. Fifteen years have elapst since then. All should be subjected to a searching analysis to determine what has been done that is worth while and the best conditions for the best work for the future. Thomas W. Bicknell Founder and First President of The National Council of Education Council] SECRETARY'S MINUTES III A motion by Mr. Aley that the secretary write thanking Dr. Bicknell for his letters and extending to him the congratulations of the Council on his service to the organization and to the cause of education was unanimously endorst. The secretary of the Council was authorized to request the secretary of the National Education Association to include Dr. Bicknell's letter in the volume of proceedings. Following the reading of Mr. Swain's letter of transmission accompanying the report on tenure, Arthur H. Chamberlain presented the subject of salaries. Josephine Corliss Preston gave an address on "The Call To Arms in 1920." The secretary then read the report on tenure, prepared by Dr. Kandel and accom- panying Dr. Swain's letter of transmission. The discussion on tenure was led by Margaret Haley, Federation of Teachers, Chicago, 111., and James Ferguson, Riverside County Schools, Coachella, Cal. Some general. discussion followed in which Susan M. Dorsey, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal., was the principal speaker. Dr. Kandel's report on tenure stated that four states — California, Massachusetts, Montana, and New Jersey — recognized by law the principle of permanent tenure for teachers. The meeting adjourned. Adelaide Steele Baylor, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE NATIONAL COUNCIUS FUTURE HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA Any organization needs to be active to maintain an effective service. When the organization is a delegate body with its membership limited by special appointment, this activity is more definitely important. It is the plan of the Executive Committee to so manage the National Council of Education as to have every member engaged upon some productive study by being placed upon some authorized committee. The success of this plan depends upon the cooperation of the members more than it does upon the disposition and the determination of the Executive Committee. It is assumed that every individual selected for membership is of such capability and experience as to enable him or her to be an actual contributor without urgency, as the selection suggests that there is important work to do and that these appointees are the persons to do it. The mere fact that some members have been unidentified with any productive work for some time makes the Executive Committee more anxious to so complete the organi- zation for the coming year as to put into service every member that is so situated as to do real effective work. To do this requires that members cooperate by informing the Executive Committee what they can individually do to the best advantage (i) by proposing prominent educational problems that can be and should be solved by investigation and by conference for the purpose of formulating reports, and (2) by indicating what duties they are willing to accept as their part of the service to be rendered. 112 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National In this reorganization it should be recognized that all effective honorary members are able to be considered as working representatives of the National Council of Education, thus increasing the 120 active members to some extent as a working organization. This interpretation of the province of honorary membership relieves another situation in that retiring from active membership does not necessarily drop the service of such educators to the Council, except in the one respect of being an authorized voter in business meetings. Since this function is rarely exercised by even the active members it has but little importance as a service factor. Once a mem- ber of the Council, always a member of the Council, is a theory on which the founders establisht this delegate organization. This condition permits honorary members to continue as working committee members after they leave the active list and permits them to help formulate reports and to take part in the presenting of the reports, the same as that granted active members, thus enabling the Council to possess all the serviceability of all its members, both active and honorary, for an indefinite period of time. If for any reason an active member cannot attend the meetings and does not for good reasons contribute to the services expected of active members, it is still possible to be equally as useful by accepting the relation of honorary membership and assuming the prerogatives of that permanent situation. It is assumed by the constitution that active members during their holding such relation to the Council will attend the annual meetings or have an acceptable reason that should excuse this absence without possible objection, the management having charge dealing fairly with every case. This is no hardship nor over-demand because the relation of honorary membership, without compulsory attendence or organized discipline, is always obtainable. This requirement for attention to business on the part of active members should be recognized by the management and, when new members are elected, they should be requested to formally accept the privileges and responsibilities offered them. They should not nominally enter membership as if the conferring such appointment was simply a recognition as an honor, but as a call to duty to help do a work that will require time, attention, and sacrifice to a positive extent. Any other policy of membership and any other theory of acceptance of such responsibility would rank the service as a compliment rather than a strenu- ous business and would deprive the working body of the power and effect- iveness that the intention of the organization implies. It seems to your president that some plan should be approved whereby the executive officers can proceed to build up the spirit and the service of the Council by securing better discipline and better recognized cooperation as a part of the responsibility of active membership. The founders who organized the Council forty years ago desired for it a different province to that of the General Association. They considered it a dcKberative body by which opinions could be formulated and the General I CouncflJ CITY SYSTEMS 113 Association's transactions from year to year conserved and reported in a more workable form. They recognized that the permanent influence of the National Education Association depended upon the proper salvage of the best and most important of its undertakings and they also realized that construction could not be certainly accomplisht by the mass convention. These forty years have justified these early opinions and expectations in so far as the real ideals were applied, and have failed only when the Council undertook a similar province to that occupied by the General Association. To this end the present officers are hopeful of restoring in large measure the greater function of the Council and they insist that its undertakings be constructive and deliberative and generative, rather than oratorical, political, and social; the handmaid of the Association, cooperating in every way possible to give the National Education Association a hearing by the public that the convention method can never realize. These suggestions imply that the National Council of Education can be and should be a body of workers that is to have notable results for its efforts rather than discussion and disagreement. It should push to a conclusion its deliberations and should, within a limited time, complete its studies and render its decisions in order that they may be helpful to educators, to school officers, and to the people. The future can be made as prominent and as distinguisht as the services of the present give oppor- tunity and development. The enterprise of public education has so many situations, variations, objects, and functions that the work of improving, developing, and constructing its undertakings will be as continuous as civilization itself while such organized effort as this Council represents must be of this energetic, sincere, thorogoing kind, which will help organized society to realize its best outcome and its greatest benefits within the least time and with the least expenditure. For these great and yet possible service-results your Executive Committee invites all the membership to cooperate with earnestness and sincerity. CITY SYSTEMS H. B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BERKELEY, CALIF. The greatest development and progress which have come to the public education in the cities of the United States within our memory is on at this time. It has been evidencing itself in many ways. As all of you know, it began within a few weeks following the signing of the armistice. It is, doubtless, due to many things. During the war many types of progress were retarded because our energy and attention were going in another direction. The government practically stopt building during the period of the war. The economic conditions which asserted themselves prevented extensions requiring large expenditures. Other types of progress 114 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National are due to the lessons and experiences of the war. Further, the general spirit of reconstruction which is affecting every other institution and enterprise has, Hkewise, affected and stimulated constructive thinking and development in public education. First, we are now in the midst of the greatest physical improvement program which the pubHc schools have experienst. It was impossible to gather any data showing just how extensive it is, but the pubUc press and educational magazines have been reporting successful school-bond elections regularly since March, following the signing of the armistice. These issues rank in amounts all the way from ten million in some of our larger cities, down to one and two hundred thousand dollar issues in some of our smaller cities. Despite the high cost of labor and building materials and despite the difficult bond market, improvements are going right forward. Second, the day of better salaries for teachers has also arrived. During the war, the public came to a realization of the excellent work which pubUc education was doing and had been doing. Not only was our man power admired by the entire world on the field of battle, but, likewise, in all the efforts in commerce, industry, and finance which made the battle line possible. It was, of course, felt that the schools had had much to do with the provision of this efficiency in our citizenship. Not only so, but the schools themselves were large factors in two important respects in the win- ning of the war. They were an effective means of publicity. Thru the children in the schools the ilHterate and non-English speaking peoples and often the un-American were reached. Not only were they informed, but they were infiuenst to right attitudes and actions. At the same time the children did important work which contributed to the prosecution of the war. The Thrift and Red Cross work done by the children in the public schools was no small factor in the speedy prosecution of the war. With the schools before the pubUc in this favorable light and with the cost of all commodities going out of sight, the conditions were present to enable teachers successfully to ask for better salaries. Accordingly at the close of the school year in 19 19, worth-while increases in salaries began to be provided. These increases varied all the way from three to five hundred dollars, and in exceptional cases exceeded that. Since the middle of the present year additional advances have been made, looking to the more just and adequate compensation of teachers during the school year just ahead of us. Third, a by-product of no small consequence which has become evident, as teachers have workt for better salaries, is the conviction that results are achieved thru unity of effort. It is only within the very last years that teachers have organized and stood together for the achievement of ends. Educational programs have always evidenst progress in the topics announst and in the discussions presented, elaborating these topics. Until recently, however, we have very largely stopt with talk. We have not i Council] CITY SYSTEMS 115 unified our efiforts thru the estabhshment of organizations with power to carry our ideas and plans to completion. The teaching profession had no more important lesson than this to learn. Programs of any kind which should be put into operation depend for their success upon unified, uncom- promising, unswerving unity on the part of the teaching profession. Fourth, it is a fine tribute to the great body of American teachers to be able truthfully to point to the fact that in the midst of campaigns for the securing of better salaries aiid of establishing organizations for effective effort, there has been just as great progress in the professional growth and development of teachers. The summer schools never were as crowded as now with experienst teachers who are seeking improvement and better preparation for work. The rank and file of teachers thruout the country never were doing so much for the improvement of the courses of study and the methods of teaching where they work, as during these last years. Along with the realization on the part of the pubhc of the great place played by education has come an increast pride on the part of teachers and school administrators in the thoroness and adequate equipment of everybody concerned in the work of public education. If time permitted it would be easy to illustrate, from the study courses in operation in various school systems, the large amount of professional improvement of teachers in service which is constantly under way thruout the public schools of the United States. Fifth, there is an increasing use of the scientific attack in the develop- ment of all the detailed procedures affecting school-room practice and the technique of teaching. This is evidenst in the scientific way in which pupils are now classified and organized into groups, in the procedures employed in the development and improvement of curricula, and in the originality and independence of teachers in their methods of instruction. The most progressive courses of study, and as yet their number is all too few, bear evidence of efforts to analyze concretely the social objective of pubhc education and to develop all details of content in each subject of study in such a way as to minister to the realization of the social objectives of the school. Instead of assigning the work to be covered in the various subjects in terms of pages or chapters in the adopted textbook, the content is developt relationally in light of the objectives of the school. There is not just one textbook, but many, and all of them are used as a means to an end rather than allowed to dictate and prescribe the content of the course of study. The most hopeful sign in the interest of real education for children is to be found in the originality and independence which is manifesting itself in a larger percentage of our teachers in their methods of teaching. A definite attitude of trying to understand how methods of teaching are related to the attainment of the social objectives of education and of experimenting and investigating to determine the best ways of achieving 1 1 6 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [National them is gradually establishing itself. Teachers are not working by rule of thumb and under prescribed orders, but they are striving to interpret children's abilities and interests and to supply them such educational advantages and participation opportunities as will be helpful in providing their gradual yet effective socialization. In all of these types of progress the rank and file of the teaching staff are taking a larger place. The procedure thruout is a cooperative one. Those salary campaigns and those efforts of other sorts which have been effective have been successful not nierely because the teacher was recog- nized and given an opportunity by executives and administrators, but because they actually took charge, analyzed situations, faced their responsi- bilities, and effectively put their programs over. They have carried similar responsibilities in building, planning curriculum improvement, and in the development of more effective methods of teaching. The cooperative, democratic attack is not only coming to be employed more and more in city school systems but the fortunate thing is that administrators are ceasing to consider, when they use this procedure, that they have made a concession. They realize that any othe^ procedure is undemocratic. Not to follow this procedure evidences that they neither believe in nor practice democracy. What is done in a democratic form of procedure is sooner or later the result of the combined thinking of all who sustain any relation to or take any responsibility for what is going on. Boards of edu- cation and school administrators are coming to see that such democratic procedure is the only sensible, effective method of working. It develops larger ability thruout the teaching staff and insures totally greater results in every direction. RURAL SCHOOLS JOHN r. SIMS, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, STEVENS POINT, WIS. No problem in the whole field of twentieth-century educational activity is of larger magnitude, of higher importance, or of more difficult solution than that of rural education. The almost insuperable obstacle in the way of already tried efforts as well as of proposed efforts at regeneration is to be found in the isolation of the rural school, making for indifference on the part of the rural-school public. The remedy is to substitute for this indifference and apathy the spirit of pride in, and loyalty to, the rural school. The point of leverage is to be found not only in the furnishing of addi- tional means for improvement, but in the stimulation and cultivation of a willingness to use the means at hand in such full measure that the inade- quacy of those means will reveal the imperative necessity of others to be supplied. Council] THRIFT READJUSTMENT AND PROGRESS 117 We hold allegiance to the doctrine of equality of educational oppor- tunity in this great land. Our government is pledged to its full, circling realization. So far as the rural schools are concerned it does not obtain. We applaud the slogan that every boy and girl in America is entitled, as a sacred heritage, to a high-school education, but indulge the fond delusion that democracy will win this noblest victory without sustained enthusiastic and well-directed effort. The demand for betterment in ways of highly competent, well remun- erated, and permanently employed teaching force, of consolidated and rural high schools of a curriculum that will meet the needs of country life, must come from local communities. Hence, a nation-wide campaign must be undertaken to arouse this demand for better educational facilities and this is our present task. State and national funds must flow into localities which need the best efforts of leaders to elevate standards, therefore the areas of administrative and taxing units must be enlarged. By challenging, molding, and directing the all-conquering power of public opinion, the efficient weapon of democracy, we shall secure state and national approval as well as action in securing appropriations of such magnitude that we shall be successful in bringing men and women of energy and enthusiasm, who have a deep, living, and loving faith in the power of education and whose whole being is inspired with an unquenchable desire to bring it to bear upon those who are entrusted to their care. THRIFT READJUSTMENT AND PROGRESS ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE ON THRIFT EDUCATION, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President Homer H. Seerley of the National Council of Education wrote the Chairman of the Thrift Committee on March 15 last as follows: Can not a program made up of experts have a round table during July 5 and 6 at Salt Lake City, at which time actual thrift transactions will be reported to the National Council ? What it seems to me should be given is detailed facts of what is being accom- plisht in the country around Salt Lake City and the territory represented at the National Education Association, in July. I should think you could organize for that meeting a program of decided attractiveness. The committees of the National Council have, for the most part during past years, been presenting reports thru the various committee chairmen. So far as our Thrift Committee is concerned, with the exception of the Cleveland meeting in February, 19 19, when the report was made thru the chairman, the various committee members have each contributed directly. Each member of the Thrift Committee has had, as his problem, a certain phase of the special thrift topic under consideration at that particular Ii8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National meeting. This method has led to a broad, many-sided viewpoint. It has at the same time secured the active cooperation of all members of the committee. It has, as well, made for definiteness and concreteness, as opposed to generalization and diffuseness. This has resulted in some actual accomplishments under conditions particularly trying. From the very beginning there has been clearly in the minds of the committee that thrift, to be effective, must find its way to the very heart of the school curriculum. How difficult it is to secure lodgement for any so-called "new" subject is apparent to all. The tried and honored tradi- tional subjects have for years been intrencht. With an overcrowded course of study, teachers look with dismay at any new candidate for admission into the program of studies. Drawing and music and physical education and industrial lines and home economics and a long list besides, all had to contest the way, step by step. That thrift teaching in the schools has, during the past five years, ad vans t to its present position is a matter, not merely for congratulation, but for comment. The chairman of the Thrift Committee cannot at this time refrain from expressing to the members of the committee his appreciation for their cooperation and assistance, their careful and painstaking study of this important problem, their loyalty to the cause and their personal efforts in putting into actual practice in their own fields of endeavor, the sound principles of thrift. This Council of Education, also, in its stand for the practice of thrift in the lives of our people, has inspired confidence on the part of thousands of teachers and of fathers and mothers thruoxit the land. These are actually attempting constructive work in the school and in the home. The example and leadership of Mr. S. W. Straus, and his unselfish devotion to the cause, have been among the chief factors in the success of the thrift movement from the beginning. There is widespread recogni- tion of his oft-repeated admonition, based on clear vision and experience, that only thru the school can the coming generations be properly and effectively reacht. The chief obstacles encountered to a general acceptance of the necessity for thrift teaching have been found, and are still found, in an utter mis- conception of the underlying principles of thrift. This was given emphasis when, three or four years ago, we endeavored to interest some of the larger universities of the country to introduce into their summer sessions, courses in thrift education. In attitude they were friendly. They wisht to serve the people. But the obstacles! Did not thrift have to do with money and investments and had not the University for years offered courses in economics, covering all known and necessary knowledge in this line? Even if there were broader implications in thrift than those com- prehended in the dollar sign, are not all phases covered in one Or another department ? Health and physical development and sanitation are taken r Council] THRIFT READJUSTMENT AND PROGRESS 1 19 care of in their respective departments. And there are the divisions of accounting and insurance and forestry and irrigation, etc. With this and Hke objections answered, came that philosophic, insurmountable hurdle, that thrift, in its larger, more comprehensive aspects had never been' taught in the schools. How could the universities introduce courses that had not, by divine right, been part of the musty college curriculum! And finally, we found that to introduce such courses would be impossible as there were no teachers prepared for the work. USE WITHOUT WASTE A VIRTUE But the larger meaning of thrift is spreading. The universities are ready and anxious to offer courses when teachers prepared for the work can be found. There must be reaffirmed the need for proper use of time and talents. The Great War demonstrated, as never before, necessity for strong bodies and vigorous health. That it is the duty of every true citizen to produce and to conserve is a truism accepted by every thinking person. All should earn and all should save. Teachers the land over are seeking ways and means, not of preaching about thrift, but of having their pupils actually practice thrift. To use without waste is to practice one of the most fundamental virtues. It was a most timely suggestion by President Sedrley that a round table, or open forum, be organized. Especially appropriate is it to hold in Utah such an "experience meeting" on what is actually being done. Some of ^ the most advanst educational legislation ever written upon the statute books of any state is now a part of the law of Utah. In its recent laws the state has recognized the benefits and wisdom of teaching thrift to every boy and girl in the commonwealth. Never has a discussion of thrift been held under more favorable or significant circumstances. Never, indeed, has there been brought together a group of persons better prepared to contribute to our problem; to offer suggestions on ways and means of tying thrift to the other work of the school, of creating thrift habits that shall last, and of making the practice of thrift habits function in the indi- vidual, the home, the community, the state, the nation. We have from a number of men and women unable to be present today, and who are practicing thrift in the school, valuable contributions. As indicating the advance in some quarters in thrift teaching, we quote from a report by Miss Lillian E. Tingle, Head of the Department of Household Arts, University of Oregon, and a member of the Thrift Committee: Some very good practical results have been obtained from my class in household budget-making this spring, in which, of course, the thrift idea was strongly infused and thrift literature was used. Next year we expect to strengthen this course with the coopera- tion of the business department. I hope eventually to be able to organize a class on the business of the household to include both men and women, which, if we can achieve it should prove a valuable part of thrift education among the students here. 120 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National I have given a number of talks on thrift topics before different organizations during the past year, including the Oregon Home Economics Association, the Oregon Council of Executive Women in Education, the Daughters of the Revolution, the ICiwanis Club, and others. In several cases the thrift idea was not included in the title of the talk, but formed a large part of the content. An extension class in textile study, the students in which were drawn almost entirely from the large department stores in Portland, offered another opportunity for emphasizing the thrift idea for both the seller and the consumer. This gave me a very strong impression of the need for such teaching for business girls. I was also greatly interested in the response obtained when the ideas were attractively presented without the slur of stinginess which is so often associated with the idea of thrift in the minds of such girls. A report from Superintendent L. L. Caldwell, Monmouth, 111., shows some suggestive figures. Of 736 pupils in elementary schools, their savings accounts total $8,367. Two hundred and twenty-five junior high school pupils have $4,145 in savings accounts, and 410 high-school pupils have $16,647 to their credit. Of the entire number of pupils (1,371) 33 per cent earn money regularly; 13 per cent keep account of earnings and spendings; 50 per cent engage in profitable vacation work in the summer; 40 per cent of the pupils carry life insurance, a total of $175,450. These figures may be compared with those from Anderson, Ind., where Superintendent W. A. Denny recently made his "thrift survey." Of 4,361 pupils attending school on a certain day, 2,776, or 63 per cent, carried life insurance and 1,922, or 44 per cent, earned money regularly. THE FOUNDATION OF GOOD CITIZENSHIP No one element makes for good citizenship more than does the proper practice of thrift. No Americanization program can be complete without due consideration to this all-important matter. In our recent state-wide y educational campaigns in South Dakota and Utah we found the people everywhere ready to cooperate. And particularly in the rural districts did we find waste and carelessness. If the children of the city spend lavishly and exhibit extravagance in dress and amusements, the children of the country have constantly before them examples of wanton waste in poorly tilled fields, machinery unhoused, the casting aside of raw materials, inattention to health and sanitary measures, and lost motion and time destruction, owing to poor arrangements and lack of labor-saving devices in the home and on the farm. In this period of readjustment, when attention in some quarters seems to be directed toward personal profiteering, rather than toward thrift and conservation, every effort should be made to produce abundantly, to use prudently, to save sanely, to invest wisely. The thrift habit, learned so as to be apphed, will be of more lasting benefit in adding to the permanent satisfactions of Ufe, than will much of the book knowledge, learned only to be forgotten. CouncU] THRIFT READJUSTMENT AND PROGRESS I2I A PROGRAM IN THRIFT EDUCATION D. C. Jensen, Superintendent of Schools, Jordan District, Sandy, Utah: Mr. S. W, Straus, President of the American Society for Thrift, defines thrift as follows : Laying aside a few dollars each week does not necessarily make one a thrifty person. Thrift means so much more than merely money — it means personal eflficiency — it means plans — it means foresight — it means prudence — it means sane and legitimate self-control — it means all that makes for character. It is as much removed from miserliness on the one hand as it is from extravagance on the other. As we build the ideals of thrift, we build character. This seems to us to be a safe conception of thrift — a platform upon which we may safely build our superstructure for thrift education. A mere course of classroom instruc- tion— ^a set of formal lessons in thrift — while valuable as assisting to establish thrift concepts or ideals, will, if pursued no farther, get us practically nowhere. Thrift is a habit of life. It enters into the very detail of one's mode of living. It is a characteristic life attitude of conservation affecting health, energy, time, and wealth. Utah has recently placed upon its statute books some laws which will assist the school and the home very materially in this matter of thrift education taken in its broad sense, and I shall attempt to indicate very briefly some of the results of these new laws in operation or, rather, as they are beginning to function in Jordan District. HEALTH AND PHYSICAL FITNESS First, in the matter of health, we take the position that no person is genuinely thrifty who does not, first, develop as strong and vigorous a body as he can with consistent effort and proper care, and second, who does not remove remediable physical defects which hamper his efficiency in life's work. Utah's law provides that both these aspects of health may be taken care of. In Jordan District, a constructive program for the conservation and promotion of health is in operation. But it is difl&cult to measure just how much the health of a com- munity has improved as a result of such a program because we have no definite standards of measurement. We may determine, however, in a way, whether or not the home is responding to our program by the response made to our appeals for the removal of physical defects. We first undertook the "nose and throat" problem. At the end of the first year, 234, and at the end of the second year, 769 pupils had had their tonsils and adenoids removed. Three hundred and thirteen additional cases have signified their intention to have them removed during this present summer. This will practically clear up the nose and throat trouble except as new cases move into the district or as younger children enter school. We next undertook the problem of defective tefeth. This seemed almost insuperable as 90 per cent of the pupils needed attention and only four of our seventeen communities had local practicing dentists. The exhibition by our supervisors of a good health film, "Come Clean," a film depicting the results of decayed teeth, in thirteen communities produced an immediate response on the part of patrons. But how was service to be had ? We began by fitting up a modern, up-to-date dental office in the Jordan High School. This served pupils from twelve towns and demands for similar service soon began to come in from each local community. Up to date, offices have been equipt in grade schools at West Jordan, Draper, and Union; and local dentists are cooperating with us at Riverton and Bingham. All our dentists were booked for from two to three weeks ahead during the time scho6ls were in session, and at Union, Riverton, and Draper we are continuing the work through the summer. We purpose to extend the service until we shall reach every community in the district. 122 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National The care of defective eyes will likely be our next problem, as already we have been assured the hearty cooperation of the most eminent specialists in the state. One additional point might be mentioned here. Utah's new law provides for all- year-round supervision in health, vocation, and social and civic activities. During the summer our supervisors, who visit the homes of pupils, check up the following list of health habits for which each student is registered twelve months in the year: care of teeth, hair, nails; regular baths; proper ventilation of bed and living rooms; proper amount of sleep; loose, porous clothing; proper recreation; proper exercise; regular meals; plain food; abstinence from use of narcotics and stimulants; practice of cheer- fulness. In this work parents are happy to be clast as teachers and cheerfully assist the supervisors in establishing and maintaining these habits. This work appears to have wonderful possibilities. CONSERVATION OF TIME AND ENERGY Another important factor in thrift education is the conservation of time and energy. Utah's new law provides that children shall attend school 30 weeks each year up to eighteen years of age. Pupils from sixteen to eighteen may be excused to work under proper conditions, but must still attend school 144 hours per year. So effectively has this law operated this last year that idleness has practically been eliminated, and the working conditions of pupils have been made almost ideal. Every pupil must either work or attend school. Attendance at regular, full-time schools in junior and senior high schools, increast from 1490 students last year to 192 1 students this year — an actual increase of 431 students or 30 per cent, although the school population of the district decreased 381. In the senior high school alone the enrolment increased from 448 students last year, to 673 this year, a total of 225 students or 50 per cent increase. It is probably needless to say that the energy and time of these students were conserved by attending school, and they will ever be more efficient than they would otherwise have been. Only 43 students were given permanent working certificates and about 20 boys in Bingham attended part-time school. All the others, except those who moved out of the district and two unaccounted for, attended full-time day schools. These students are all registered for definite vocational projects running through the summer months, and are under the immediate supervision of parents or employers and are visited frequently by our summer supervisors who cooperate with the home in the elimination of idleness and the promotion of wholesome thrift activities. Another example of thrift training in cooperation with the community is found in our annual autumn beet harvest vacation. The high schools and upper grades of the elementary schools in all beet sections are given a three weeks' vacation in late October and early November. During that vacation, practically the entire beet crop is harvested with the assistance of the boys and girls. CIVIC AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES Another important factor in thrift training is the matter of the civic and social activities of young people. Civic pride, active interest in the town beautiful, and in the town sanitary, are wonderful assets to the town prosperous. When these interests are carried to each home their value is almost inestimable. Also in the matter of social activities and recreation, so necessary to the wholesome normal life, there can be little doubt as to their importance in the thrift habits of a com- munity. Too many young people dissipate their energies and squander their earnings in unguided, social activities. In Jordan District, most of the communities own their own amusement halls, thus eliminating the element of private ownership, and consequently of private gain. Moving pictures, home dramatics, and concerts, dancing parties, public Council] THRIFT READJUSTMENT AND PROGRESS 123 debates, and other forms of social amusement are provided at nominal expense and all are carefully supervised. Jordan District also has a major baseball league of nine teams, and the schedule provides lovers of the great American game a period of relaxation every Wednesday afternoon through the summer. Numerous junior teams are organized and furnish wholesome recreation for those who are inclined to this form of sport. Included among the activities for which our summer supervisors give credit, are such as the boy scouts, campfire girls, Epworth leagues, mutuals and Sunday schools, orchestras, bands, glee clubs, debating teams, dramatics, choirs, etc. Our attendance officer has discovered that practically every case of delinquency coming under his observation began when the child lost contact both with the home and the school, during the summer months. No field of endeavor holds out a promise of greater returns than does summer supervision in keeping the school, the home, and the child from losing contact with each other. Physically, morally, socially, and intellectually this generation must improve upon the past. We must not be the prodigals, and waste the splendid heritage given us by our fathers. This would make us unworthy of the trust given into our hands and would defraud the coming generations. Rather must we seek to build, bit by bit, the positive in life and thus become co-workers with the Creator. THRIFT IN CHILDHOOD Miss Katherine Devereaux Blake, Principal Public School No. 6, Manhattan, N.Y.: Very wonderful things have been accomplisht in the way of thrift. I have been very proud that my school, altho it was the smallest, won the prize for the district on thrift stamps. But this I want to put before you with intensity. We must, above everything else, have thrift in childhood. That is the one thing in which this nation is most wasteful. I wish the thought of this nation could be turned from dollars and cents to children. The war has done what war always does — caused more destruction to children, and the home", than to anything else. Twice as many babies have died as have men at the front. The children have been robbed of education; they have been robbed of food; they have been robbed of many things they should have had, and they have been given all kinds of things they should not have had. It is time for us, with the war over, to start a big campaign for thrift in childhood. Thrift means everything for healthy growth. It does not mean saving half as much as it means everything for healthy growth. We in New York City, you in the country, you in the smaller towns, you in the large cities, are, all of you, at one time or another in your week's work, standing in front of classes of children that have not had enough to eat. Thrift in childhood means great expenditure of the dollars that we have been saving. There must be a great campaign for expenditure of those dollars. We must see that the children have food. I hope to see the day when the teachers of this country will rebel and say they will not teach the children until they have enough to eat. Children must play and rest. We must not try to hammer arithmetic into a head that tops an empty stomach. ' In the schools of New York City we have to feed our children. We are making a big campaign for school lunches. The trouble is, lunches are so abominably expensive, and we think of dollars. At any rate our overlords think of dollars; and they think only in terms of their own children when it comes to children. They do not think of the wonderful beings children are. We are stupid alongside of them, we grown-ups. They are the most wonderful things in the world, and we do not feed them; we do abuse them; we do bully them; we make them sit 50 in a class and we make them do many other ridiculous things. Now, let's have thrift in childhood. 124 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National WHAT SUPERVISION ACCOMPLISHES L. J. Muir, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah: We have, in Utah, twelve months' supervision, and that very fact gives us the instrumentality for thrift development that we would otherwise never have had. Thrift, like nature itself, follows the summer months. Nature gives us the summer months and the exercise of thrift is required then in the ordinary sense. For instance, a lad came to school a year ago, a ninth-grade student, and signed his check for his transportation fee. We exact a $io transportation fee in that school district for all who enter high school, so as to equalize the burden of transportation. Our district should have paid that $io fee for every student, " but was not able to do so. This student drew his own check for $io. I said, " How much money have you got, Tom ? " He replied, " I have more than $i,ooo in the bank, summer earnings." It was the trial of my life to save Tom last winter, to keep him from spending, wasting his money, and he did waste it. He and another lad jointly bought a Ford car and they toured at their leisure, and their folks thought they should have the privilege, inasmuch as they had earned the money. Our summer plan, in some six or eight counties where it has been adopted, provides for the accounting of all money received and the money expended. I think it was Herbert Kaufman who once said, "An unearned dollar is a fool maker. '* And equally so is the dollar for which no accounting is required. In fact, that is, I think, the greater of the two evils. The spending of a dollar, or the permitting of the child or the youth to spend it without an accounting, is a far more disastrous thing to his character than the giving to him of an unearned dollar. In addition to the requiring of an accounting for receipts and expenditures, in these summer carry-over plans, we check on the recrea- tions of our boys and girls, ask pointed questions as to times they have attended places of pleasure or recreation, the names of the places of pleasure, the latest hour of returning, whether their associates have been young men and young women of good character, etc. That is striking at what I think to be thrift in adolescence. THRIFT IN ADOLESCENCE The point raised by Miss Blake is a very fine contribution to our meeting here, but thrift in adolescence concerns not food alone. An adolescent boy can, I believe, take care of himself in that regard. But what of the thought food ? What of the character of food he is getting ? There is the problem. Who are his associates ? Where is he spend- ing his time ? What is the nature of his employment ? Is he learning the straightforward habits of industry ? Does he value his dollar ? Because after all it is a mighty fine lesson and one that the schools cannot overlook, to implant in the hearts of young men and yoimg women an estimate of the value of money. We need a little economy in all things. While we are talking in millions and hundreds of millions, let's not forget that after all the individual succeeds in large part by reason of his ability to handle the money that comes to him. So, we are, therefore, attempting to teach him to handle it. We want every boy and girl to acquire the bank habit. I believe that if the boy at the age of twelve is inspired to put his money in a bank and make an accounting of it which must be inspected by his teacher, and is askt the question at the end of each month, "Has your balance in the bank increast or diminisht?" — I believe that young boy will, when he gets to the age of sixteen, or eighteen, or twenty, have such pride in that growing account and in the potentiality which it brings to him in his life that he will not squander any of it on cigarettes. I have often said, " Teach every boy the banking habit at twelve, and, if you teach it to him right, you need not worry about the cigarette question." That is in the main our concept in Utah. We have gone through the performance, in our schools, as you no doubt have, of attempting to sell thrift stamps and so on, and perhaps have done our quota. Back of that, of course, is the establishment of habit. That is one of the fimdamental phases of our work. If we build into our boys and girls I Council] . THRIFT READJUSTMENT AND PROGRESS 125 the right habits, are we doing it by the right kind of watchfulness ? We are staking our hopes upon our summer program, and the year-around supervision. • CHECKING AND EARNING In Jordan District, students are inspected; they are visited at their work and their accounts are examined once every two weeks. In Salt Lake City, approximately the same plan is in force. In Davis County, two or three visits are made during the summer. In Weber County, there are eleven school principals kept over for twelve months and they visit and check up on the students. It is the personal touch with the boys and girls that counts with us. This is not a part of the Smith-Hughes work. Still we think the time is not far distant when we wUl amalgamate these two. Right now the Smith- Hughes workers are taking over part of this work. Our students earn money by picking fruit, cultivating the crops, thinning the beets, irrigating. In the rural districts the work is practically all along the agricultural lines. In Salt Lake City there are the shops. Girls are working, as well as boys. Our girls pick strawberries. In Alpine school district the other day we found about 50 young ladies picking strawberries. We saw another group of 25 or 30 in a strawberry factory where they are canning the syrup which is used at the soda fountains. They are engaged in every variety of agricultural work and work growing out of agriculture. SUPERVISION OF STUDENTS As to supervision, we have all the students registered. Every student will be visited. The law requires every student must register. We are working, in the summer particu- larly, in the junior and senior high schools. Except in one or two districts, we are not going below the seventh grade. There are some who are handling the fifth and sixth grades. There are limitations as to age, but when the children work at their homes for their fathers and mothers or for their neighbors, their hours are short. They work in the mornings, perhaps, but do not in the afternoons, except when the rush is on. We are very much undermanned, as regards teachers. They are specially paid for this work. Attention is given to budget-making among the older children, and financial reports are required. Before their summer activity we don't say that a certain amount only should be spent for clothing, for example. That, no doubt, will be an outgrowth of our system. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE fflGH SCHOOL YEARS Dr. A. E. Wins hip, Editor, '^Journal of Education," Boston, Mass.: Utah is the only state in the Union that has ever attempted to register every child from twelve to eighteen years of age. Just as we registered them for the war, so they register them in Utah. In most of the communities, 96 to 98 per cent of all the children are registered, using the census report as the foundation. The high-school principal or the grammar-school principal is held responsible for knowing about these children and where they are. Once registered, it is an easy matter to follow them up. Utah looks after the children and there are four schemes of reporting. The children report on their physical condition and you can know whether the children sleep with their windows open and take baths, and otherwise observe proper health regulations. You can know because they have to report on their physical condition up to eighteen years of age. It has wiped out loafing, and the loafing of our adolescent boy and girl is the greatest curse of America today. If a boy says he is going on a vacation to spend a month with his cousin, he must do what he says he is going to do. With the civic life, the financial life, the social life of these boys and girls, they cannot interfere, but they say to the boy: "Do you belong to the Ep worth League, or the Improvement Society, or the Boy Scouts ? Do you attend their meetings ? Do you go to Sunday School?" He reports. The Simday school attendance almost doubled in 126 ■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION • [National some sections of Utah when the first report went in. The parents are going to know what these boys and girls are doing, and of their associations. Are these associations beneficial? Do they smoke? Do they use tobacco? In two sections I know of in Utah the boys took the thing up themselves and carried on a campaign against the men using tobacco. They went to the Mayor and asked him to let them have a public meeting to tell the men what they thought about it. The boys stated quite plainly that not a boy would ever use tobacco if some man did not sell it to him or let him have it. "What do you think of the man who will let a boy have tobacco ? " said the boys. And the Mayor finally came and presided over the meeting and they got the support of loo pet cent of that community. We must endorse all that Miss Blake said. But we must carry it a good deal farther than she advanst the idea. We must carry it to every avenue of life of every boy and girl until he or she is eighteen years of age. COOPERATION OF SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY Elizabeth Sherman, Principal of Jefferson School, Oakland, Calif.: The words of Miss Blake cut very deeply to the heart of a Californian. • They cut by contrast. You know Calif ornians never brag; you know when we say that we have a wonderful climate, that we produce everything with an over-lavish hand, we are speaking the truth. Such conditions are not good for our boys and girls, and where you in New York City or other states in the Union have to look out for thrift, we in California have to do it in a double sense. The homes do not teach it. Everything has come easily. In the rural districts we pick and we eat without any question of pay. In the cities there is a lavish strain, but we in the schools know that the children come, as Miss Blake says, underfed. We are doing what we can. We have in Oakland three neighborhood schools. These are the schools with foreign population, near our water front. Those are the children who need feeding, not alone the breakfast but also the lunch. Our mothers' clubs have helped take up that question with us. They have, with the cooperation of the Board of Education, placed nurseries in those schools, and we have 40, 50, 60 little children in our nurseries because the mothers are working in our factories; otherwise the older children would be taken out of school and they would lose those hours. In the nurseries the younger children are fed breakfasts that are furnisht through cafeterias that are carried on by the Mothers' Club and by our Board of Education. In our other schools, the feeding of the individual cases is taken care of by the teachers and by the friends and by the Mothers' Club, in quiet, unobtrusive ways, because we cannot draw the line between the nine children who are overfed and the one who is under- fed. The little underfed one must be cared for and no one must know. The right hand must not know what the left hand is doing. In regard to our banking work and our thrift work, we have carried these thru the schools and thru our banks. After the war, the deposits dropt, the school savings dropt, the war savings dropt for the first six months. These are now picking up. THRIFT THRU THE RED CROSS Oakland has done its biggest piece of thrift work through the Red Cross. We have had our Red Cross shop carried almost entirely thru the war by our individual workers. Last August the school cooperated, and the Red Cross shop was announst for one year as our school project. We had a big sale. We knew for a year what was to be done. Our manual-training people, our home-economics people, our gardert people, all super- vising ofl&cers workt forward to that Red Cross sale, and thousands and thousands of exhibits were placed there. The public was notified days in advance of this sale, lasting for three days. Many Christmas presents were on sale. Hundreds and thousands of dollars went into the Red Cross and the homes saved thousands of dollars. I Council] THRIFT READJUSTMENT AND PROGRESS 127 Your first question is: What did your merchants say? We were fair with the merchants. This thing could not go on indefinitely; we would not take from the mer- chants year after year. With their cooperation they granted us this shop one year. They aided us in every possible way. Everything that the children produced, everything that was produced through the schools, was taken, so that each child felt that his own work absolutely went into the Red Cross sale. Was everything placed on sale ? Of course not. Certain things, with the best that the child could do, were not worth selling. Those things were quietly put aside by the committee and were sent to our homes thruout Alameda County. The different homes received these goods that were not worth selling, and to the children in those homes they were a blessing and they added to many a Christmas tree. Everything that every child made that was accepted by the supervisors, was used in some way, either for pleasure or for profit. In January, the ladies who had carried so wonderfully in a philanthropic way the Red Cross shop, turned it over entirely to the school. All money that came from that Red Cross shop went into the school budget. For what purpose ? It was divided up by committees, and I cannot tell you how many eyes have been treated, how many glasses for the eyes have been provided, how many ears have been helpt, how many lame or delicate children have been cared for by the money that has come from our Red Cross shop. The first three months saw three or four thousand dollars clear gain. Where did we get the goods to sell ? The things were furnisht by the homes, and brought to school by the children. It was not the useless and worn-out things, but those things that could be sold and used by someone. RENOVATION AND REPAIR What the children bring in the way of clothes, the Mothers' Club repairs. The Mothers' Club, thru money granted by the Red Cross shop, has also placed in some of our schools, shoe-making and shoe-repairing outfits. All kinds of shoes are sent in. The poorest things are repaired by money furnisht from the Red Cross shop. Our own children are not ashamed to bring to school good things as well as poor things. They are bringing games, they are bringing toys, they are bringing hundreds of water pistols, dear to the boy's heart. I wish you could see the women who go to these shops early Monday morning. They are buying anything and everything. We are now reaching a different class. We advertised another sale and we put in the galleries things made by students of the high schools and upper grades — fine quality things that you or I would be glad to have — waists, underwear, hand-made goods, and we would get them at a price a little below the cost in the shops. We hope in that way, the coming year, to reach thru the shops, not alone the wife of the working man who has not time to sew. We want to reach all classes. THE HOME MUST BE REACHT In these ways we are teaching thrift. The boys and girls are learning to apply thrift, and not to destroy and waste, but to save. Of course, we cannot combat the evil tendency in the home of giving the boy money to buy ice-cream cones or candy or chewing gum. I don't know how we are going to reach that problem of the over-lavish expenditure of money on the part of the father or mother. In some cases the mother is too busy to prepare a proper luncheon for the child; she hands out money and the money is not spent for luncheon but is spent for cones and candy. That problem is yet to be solved. ESTABLISHING A COURSE IN THRIET / H. R. Adams, Principal of South Cache High School, Hyrum, Utah: Little can be accomplisht in a thrift program or any other kind of program with no constructive means 128 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National to reach the desired end. We have preacht thrift, savings, war-savings stamps, and countless other things with some success, but seldom have we reached the majority of the boys and girls. The faculty of the South Cache High School feel that in order to accomplish the desired end, there must be establisht a definite course to be required of all students, and to have as a point of view, the promotion of thrift by keeping constantly before the students a definite procedure of accounting with themselves for their entire school life. In this way we hope to establish the habit of personal accounting which will be carried beyond the school into their every-day lives. We feel that thrift is impossible if spending is not properly done, and unless one knows where his money is spent, curtailing of improper expenditure is impossible. PERSONAL ACCOUNTING With this thought in view a course is given, called Personal Accounting, and is required of all students in the school. The outline of the course is as follows: At the time of registration each student purchases a particular book, in which his accounts are kept. These books are printed and kept on hand at the school. The book contains general information for the student, such as the daily program of the school, rules of the school, and blank space for the student's daily program. The important part, as far as this course is concerned, is that part given to the classification of the student's personal account. During the summer vacation the work is supervised by the summer workers and during the school year by the advisor of the student. The account is classified under columns properly ruled and headed for each of the following items and in the order given : Date, explanation, receipts, savings, home, clothes, educational, health, pleasure, miscellaneous, and two blank columns for items that could not be classified under the other headings. By the term "explanation," we mean the name of the article purcliast, or the source of the money listed under receipts, or the nature of the savings. By the term "receipts," we mean any money held by the student regardless of the source. By the term "health, " we mean money spent for dentist, doctor, or other health work. ' The other items are self-explanatory. At the end of each month the totals are compiled and at the end of the year a ^neral recapitulation is completed. THE ADVISORY SYSTEM In order to have the necessary machinery to carry on this work and other work relating to student welfare, we have adopted what is known as the "Advisory System." The student chooses an advisor from the faculty and in case of failure to choose an advisor, one is appointed by the faculty for the student. Each member of the faculty has about 25 students to be personally responsible for. Each advisor will meet his or her advisory for one 45 -minute period each week. At this time the accounts of each student may be examined, suggestions given on the .keeping of the account, or a better use of his money. The head of the commercial department will outline problems for discussion at these classes. The problems outlined will be of an economic nature such as: investment, stocks, bonds, savings accounts, interest, insurance. These outlines will be given to the advisor who will in turn present them to the students. The work will be graded as in any other class, and a school credit of \ unit for each year will be allowed. The work beyond the first year of the course is not yet outlined. During last year we experimented on the problem, altho a definite course was not given. We foimd that the students were glad to cooperate and were always willing to present their account books for inspection. The main difficulty we encountered was due to the fact that the books were not uniform and the student did not know just what was wanted, having never had work of this nature. We are sure that if the work is entered upon with the proper spirit, great good can be accomplisht. Council] THRIFT READJUSTMENT AND PROGRESS 129 THE IMPORTANCE OF A BANK ACCOUNT /. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, New Orleans, La.: The important thing we are setting up before the child is to have a bank account. Let me call your attention to a part only of our thrift program. Our goal is, every child in each school to have a bank account. We call that a 100 per cent school where each child is a depositor in a bank, has gone to a bank and made a deposit. The Associated Banks of New Orleans are cooperating in this. Two years ago they put into 13 of our schools those little banks that sell stamps that you take out and deposit again and put in books. There was nobody appointed to have this in charge. It workt so well that last year the Associated Banks employed a man, a banker, who devotes all his time to inculcating these ideas of thrift, of saving money and getting a bank account. They issued to us eleven more banks, making 25 of our schools with banks in them and with about 500 children each. The slogan is to reach 100 per cent. We have this year seven schools in our city, including the kindergarten, and from the first grade to the eighth grade, where every child in the school has a bank account. We call these 100 per cent schools. There was collected from these 25 banks, 1,200,000 different coins; the amount is not so great, totaling $60,000, but the idea is to save the money. We have not been emphasizing so much the spending of money as the building up of a bank account. A record is kept, not only of the first deposit, but of the repeat deposits, and the city newspapers print big headlines when a school has reached 100 per cent. The first teacher with 42 children in her room where every child was a bank depositor, was given a headline. The children were praised. The spirit was such that when a new child was admitted to the room the boys and girls would say, " You can't stay here unless you get a bank account," and they got the bank account. It was no problem at all for the children of the rich to get the money, but it was a great problem for the children of the poor. So the cooperative spirit was called out and many a newsboy who was making some money gave a temporary loan to the boy without funds, that he might have a bank account, but this loan was repaid by money earned thru work, or the sale of vegetables that were raised. BANKS AND SCHOOLS COOPERATE Our bankers are very enthusiastic over the result. They believe that the education that these thousands of children have received is ultimately going to mean very much for them. They are not selfish in it; perhaps it costs them more now than they get out of it, because they pay for this man's time, they furnish the banks free to the schools. The principals and teachers cooperate, of course. Once a week the coins are collected and the banks refurnisht with stamps. Altogether we had over 7,000 new bank accounts estab- lisht by the children in these 25 schools, involving some 18,000 children. Perhaps one- third of the children have bank accounts of their own and the spirit is so fine there now that the banks would not think of discontinuing the work nor would the schools. The spirit to be in that 100 per cent class is so strong that we shaU no doubt next year have double or three times as many schools. One school that received a bank this year in May was able by the eleventh of June, when our schools closed, to have every child in that school a depositor in the bank. So our inmiediate motive — I think the more immedi- ate the motive the more compelling it is to the child — is to get a bank account, help every school to be in the 100 per cent class. / ATTITUDE OF THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT Orrin Lester, Associate Directory Savings Division, Treasury Department, Washington^ D.C.: I came to Salt Lake City not to seek the cooperation of the American school system in the conduct of the treasury savings movement, but to find out how the treasury depart- ment can cooperate with the American school, which is the only institution in America I30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA TION [National that can discover the motive, devise the plans and the facilities for the conduct of the proper kind of thrift education in America. We have had, I think, a very broad and intelligent experience in this thing. I am not here to promote the sale of Government securities. We sold this year perhaps an average of $6,000,000 of Government securities; last year an average of $6,000,000 a month. I was in New York in February, when they put out one of the issues of the certificates of indebtedness and they sold from 10 o'clock in the morning, in the Second Federal Reserve Bank, until 4 o'clock in the afternoon, $288,000,000 worth of Govern- ment securities. If the Government was interested in merely selling Government securi- ties, it would not do it this way. So I want you to realize that I am interested in the broad phases of this thing. I want to say that if thrift is to find its motive, is to find its proper place, the proper time and proper facilities for its development in the school, it must be done by the same process of educational thought by which all the other subjects of the school have been developt. We will teach thrift as well as we teach arithmetic when we get down to the few basic economic principles. The weakness in the American school is that the American school teacher does not herself know the basic economic principles which must be applied to every-day life in order to succeed financially and otherwise, and these principles can not be taught, should not be taught, in the American school unless they are taught right. We cannot afford to have false economic knowledge taught. In other words, our economic facts must be sound. I want to state what I think the relationship of the Treasury savings movement is to the American school. I don't believe that any institution is better prepared to know and to command the experts of the nation in setting down the economic principles, so far as they pertain to the value and the use of spending and investment of money is concerned, than the department of the federal government that stands for the finances of the nation. BASIC ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES OUTLINED The Treasury Department ought, I think, to be able to give to the schools some help along that line. It ought to be able to work out some outlines that will help you to develop courses of study and include in that broad thrift program the thing for which the Treasury Department everywhere stands in the nation, that is, a larger knowledge of the value and the use of money, how to save it, how to spend it, how to invest it, and above all, how to use it in all its aspects. I have just prepared an outline covering some of these basic economic principles. One outline covers the work from the first to the sixth grades. A second is an outline from the seventh grade thru the high school. I shall try to get it into the hands of every superintendent, of every county, state, and city. This outline, the Treasury Department believes, will help superintendents to work out a course of study in the local community to suit the conditions there existing. The Treasury Department wants to know the place of thrift and war-savings stamps in this scheme of thrift education. We want this whole movement laid on the table to see what place it has in the American school. This thrift education will never amount to a row of pins so long as it is tried to be superimposed upon the school or any institution by any outside organization. It must be workt out in the schools by you. If we are a factor in it, we want to continue to be that factor, to help you work out methods by which stamps can be handled in a better and easier way. Count on us to cooperate with you, but not super- impose upon you a movement such that you teachers thruout the country will feel you are rendering a service as a duty to the government. It is not a duty to the government. Either it is an opportunity to the school, or it is not worth existing. SEEKING THE MOTIVE IN THRIFT TEACHING Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Cal.: I am confused on the whole issue, in the first place because we seem not to have a distinct definition of what we mean by thrift. I am confused in the second place because we don't appear to Council] THRIFT READJUSTMENT AND PROGRESS 131 know why we are asking people to save. We have not a distinct and definite purpose for saving. I am confused in the third place because I don't see any saving anywhere. Altogether I am in a most confused state of mind. The gentleman from Utah has appealed to me in his discussion this morning. I see a little light and yet this is the trouble. We have a condition of things the country over that is simply appalling. We have a condition in which things are costing such sums of money that we are saying we cannot live. We are saying we don't know what to do. We are saying this condition cannot keep up, and yet the thing is going right on. Every- body is spending all the money he can get his hands on, apparently without the slightest conception of saving any of it. This is the worst sort of example imaginable for our children. Just at a time when, at all times in the world, we needed to continue the propaganda for thrift and to have our thrift stamps most easily secured in order that we might encourage our children to save, just at that time, unfortunately, the government seemed to put every obstacle in the way of our getting hold of thrift stamps to sell these children. At least that was our experience in Los Angeles. We find the postman no longer will deliver stamps to the schools, and by the time the principal of the school has secured the stamps, the child has spent the money for something else. In other words, we found that when we really, of all times in the wide world, needed to encourage the saving of money and the saving of effort and the saving of energy of every kind, just at that time there did not seem to be the necessary impetus for that sort of thing and the necessary motive. Now of all times in the world when we ought to be encouraging our children in school- garden work, when every vacant lot in every city ought to be cultivated, this is the sort' of comment I hear on every side: "Oh, well, it is not worth while going to the bother of planting the lot next door to you. No use in growing vegetables. You can buy them cheaper than you can raise them. " I confess to a sense of discouragement if it is really true we can buy vegetables more cheaply than we can raise them. Naturally, one asks the question, " Wliy not buy them and save money ? " We really have not put before us yet a sufficient motive for saving. The reason why we are not saving is because somehow or other we have not gotten into our own consciousness, we are not able to get into the conciousness of children and other people, a sufficiently impelling motive for saving. The children see everybody spending all the money for all the good times and all the fine clothes imaginable. Of course, the children think they are justified in spending. Some- how or other it seems to me that we are failing just at this important point. There must be an ulterior motive; there must be some way in which we can get into the minds of children a really impelling motive other than just for a bank account, for saving. I think it is that ulterior motive, that last impelling thing that somehow or other we are failing to get. We have a good deal of enthusiasm; we are doing a good deal of work in Los Angeles; we are establishing some bank accounts, but I don't feel satisfied because I see the older people so grossly extravagant. THRIFT MORE THAN MONEY SAVING One lady said to me the other day: "I wish you would stop talking about thrift in the schools; it is all a hollow mockery. You mean," said she, "that those poor little things down there on the river bottom should get along without the things they absolutely need in order to save money. " If this woman was right, if that is what we mean, I think we had better stop talking about thrift, but that is not what we mean. This lady con- tinued: "All the people in the city are spending all the money they can get their hands on for all the good times and all the rich clothes and all the silk shirts and silk stockings and all the high-heeled shoes and everything that they want. What you are doing is going around in the schools with propaganda of saving but it is the poor child you want to save, not the rich child that you are appealing to save; he is buying all the ice cream and joy rides he wants; the poor child is doing all the saving. And he ought not to be saving, he should be spending in order to get food. " 132 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Of course, that was a very extravagant way of putting the thing, but it set me to thinking. I began to question whether that is what we have been doing in the schools. Of course, we have not been doing that. We have been trying really and seriously in the midst of the most terrible extravagance that any of us has ever seen, we have been trying chiefly to lift our voices and to urge our children to save and save because it was a good thing to save, but that ulterior motive is the thing I am himting for. How can we get our children to understand that there is a final and a better reason for saving than merely to have a bank account or merely to have some pennies in a bank at home, or to have an envelope with some thrift stamps on it? There is a better reason than that. That is what I hope we shall evolve. EARNING THROUGH SERVICE DEVELOPS THRIFT But there are some ways in which we have developt some rather unusual work. We have several places in our schools where our children cobble their own shoes and the shoes of the family and the neighborhood. It is serving a fine purpose and it is really keeping them saving. We have many schools in which the better of the cast-off clothing is being converted into garments. The young girls are being taught to darn and dye and to make old clothes over in a very practical and fine way. We have many children come to school hungry and we try to teach them how to earn enough and to save enough in various ways in order not to be hungry. Much good clothing is brought to many of the schools; it is sold for a small price to those who need it, because we do not believe in pauperizing anybody. We do not wish anyone in any school to be given anything. Unless the child is sick, we find in the school itself some little ways in which he may render service and earn a pair of shoes, a hat, a pair of pants, a coat, whatever it may be. We think that is teaching thrift really and genuinely. It is at least teaching self-respect; at least it is teaching these children that they can hold their heads as high as can anyone because they are nc^t wearing somebody else's clothes; they are wearing clothes they bought and paid for by their own efforts. I think that is a good thing to do. But, if we could determine what the ulterior motive, what the final splendid idealistic thing is that would appeal to the emotion and the imagination of every child and make him desire above all things in this world not to waste; make him feel that it is a crime to waste his time or to waste his efforts or to waste his money, or anybody else's time or effort or money, I should feel that we have pretty nearly solved the problem of thrift. THRIFT THROUGH PARTICIPATION Orson Ryan, Agricultural Extension Department, International Harvester Company, Chicago, III.: A definition of thrift was askt for. Our chairman, Mr. Chamberlain, is responsible for the following definition of thrift: "Thrift is use without waste." What I have to say is not tending toward saving, but tending toward spending, and it is a little experiment in developing thrift habits by doing the common things of every-day life. When I went to Carbon County I found we had a so-called county high school which was not a high school because it had students from only the local place. So we set about to get into the high school the students from without Carbon County. We could not transport them, because the distances were impossible. Therefore, something had to be done and we decided that a place for the students to live would have to be establisht, and we establisht there a high school dormitory, and the idea upon which that is based is the idea of thrift. One of the basic ideas was the point brought out by Miss Blake, as regards the proper feeding of boys and girls. We do not stint at all on the things that are fumisht them to eat; we don't buy cheap things; we don't buy the same things every day. We establisht a dormitory where the boys and girls of the adolescent period, or high school age, are fed the things they ought to eat in a wholesome way. In fact, I will confess the dormitory was built around the cook and it still revolves around the cook. The cook is Council] THRIFT READJUSTMENT AND PROGRESS 133 the biggest and best woman in the dormitory. No ordinary cook would do. We had to break up a home, take a woman from her home and place her in there in order to cook. No chef you could find anywhere could do the kind of cooking that "Mother" does. That is the kind of cooking we must have there. Board and room and heat and light are furnisht to these high school boys and girls for $4.00 a week. You may say you cannot give them very much. We spend all that money for board. The boys and girls do all the work there. The boys clean their windows, wash out their own bath tubs, take care of their lavatories, their own wash bowls, sweep up their floors, take care of the furnaces, carry all the coal. The girls wash the dishes, set the table, scrub the floors in their building. We believe we are developing thrift habits by doing the common things of every-day life. We have had parents come to us and say they did not wish their girls to wash dishes. They preferred to pay $8.00 a week. We have said that the dormitory is not a hotel, it is a home, and a home is only a home where every individual does his part and then some, and it is the "then some" that counts in the home. Our plan is establisht upon the idea of thrift. Every boy and every girl does his part and then some, and we believe that is thrift. THRIFT IMPULSES AND CONDUCT THRU MOTION PICTURES C. A . Stebbins, Educational Editor, F. S. Wythe's Pictures Corporation: Without doubt a test of teaching is conduct. No teacher of thrift or of honesty or of civics or of any subject whatever can be proud of his work unless the children are practicing thrift honestly. One may talk thrift however eloquently to boys and girls and they may get few impulses and probably not much else than words. On the other hand, if one can put into narrative form thrift, civics, or what not, and can create personalities on the screen and have these personalities do and act as the author of the film text may desire, the children will get impulses and these impulses may lead into conduct. This is the particu- lar nature of the film which has been produced on thrift, edited by Arthur H. Chamber- lain, Chairman National Committee on Thrift Education. This film was written to meet classroom needs and was demonstrated at Salt Lake City during the sessions of the National Education Association. Every boy and girl who sees this motion picture, "Thrift," will get impulses which will result in the daily practice of thrift. What more can a teacher of thrift desire? While motion arbitrarily snatches the attention, this picture stands on more than motion. All the teaching power of superior personalities; wholesome environment; dramatic, social, and intellectual interest are brought to bear on boys and girls. STORY OF THE THRIFT FILM The story opens on the back porch of a workman's cottage. Emile, a happy-go- lucky boy of fourteen years of age, is putting on his roller skates. His mother comes from the cellar in time to admonish him not to forget the chickens. Emile somewhat angrily makes his way to the chicken yard, throws a handful of seed to the chickens, casts the sack aside, kicks over a pan of water and skates away. The chickens, not slow to accept the opportunity, thriftily apply themselves to the feast. Emile, having no particular destination in view, skates to the home of his friend. Ned, working in his garden, refuses to accompany Emile. Emile disdainfully skates away. At home in the evening as mother knits, father reads, and sister Louise studies designs for a new dress, Emile spends thrilling, intense moments with a third-rate detective novel. His father rises, takes Emile's book, censures him for wasting time and suggests that he read Poor Richard's Almanac, a copy of which he gives his son. Emile's interest is secured by the apt sayings of Poor Richard. He draws Louise's attention, as she studies dress designs, to one of the sayings which reads, " Silks and satins put out the kitchen fire. " 134 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National A little later, the father noting the rather late hour, suggests that it is bedtime. Emile, now deeply interested in Poor Richard, continues to read. In passing, Emile's father points to a statement in the open book, "Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." Emile left alone falls asleep at the table. As he dreams he is partly roused by ghost- like thumps on the door, but continues to drowse. Slowly the door opens and Benjamin Franklin fades in. Emile is awakened by light fingers on his shoulders. He turns and discovers Poor Richard. Poor Richard allays Emile's fear. Together they go to the garden. Poor Richard censures Emile for the illy kept garden and uncared-for tools. Emile taking Poor Richard by the arm says, "Sis wastes as much as I." Together they visit the sister. The lesson in thrift is so well taught Louise that she decides to make over the old dress rather than to buy a new one. In an effort to build a bank reserve the mother's health has been broken. Poor Richard finding her in the kitchen worn out with her duties does not hesitate to tell her and her husband that there may be "foolish saving as well as foolish spending." In answer to a question the father states that he carries no life insurance and in order to justify himself refers to the said bank account. Remarking that he has to visit many other homes, Poor Richard fades from view. THE DREAM MADE PRACTICAL Emile awakens to, find that he has slept all night. Recalling his dream he hurries to the garden, pulls weeds and cultivates the rows. While Emile is at work Poor Richard can be seen dimly rejoicing over the results of his visit. The father, an early riser, dis- covers his son at work. The mother is called to wonder at what is taking place. The picture fades out with Emile at work. The film lesson on "Thrift" is one of a series of 30 lessons on better citizenship, covering the whole range of civics from practice in the home, thru school, community, nation, to world civics. Each lesson is a unit by itself but in the sequence bears a close relation to the whole series. Twenty of the lessons are prepared primarily for boys and girls of grammar-school age. The other lessons have been produced for use in extension work such as participated in by community centers, secondary schools, etc. These lessons are edited by authorities in the several fields picturized. Each film lesson is from 400 to 600 feet in length and takes from six to ten minutes to nm. Thus the film text is but a part of the classroom lesson. Its business is not to entertain and to instruct alone but to motivate instruction and to direct the conduct of the boys and girls. The film part of the lesson acts as the backbone for the day's dis- cussion and action, besides suggesting subject-matter for the week's work. Thirty film lessons, one to be given each week, constitute the civics course. To insure direction of the impulses which are generated by each film lesson, besides the systematic weekly presentation, each lesson is accompanied by a carefully worked out typical lesson plan, very suggestive and helpful to teachers. MOTIVE AND RESULT MUST ACCOMPANY INTEREST The ultimate end of school work is superior men and women — civic-minded. Civic- mindedness is a type of mind which cannot be obtained overnight. One, whether he be foreigner or citizen, who has not participated previously in the civic life of his home and community, cannot be made civic-minded in 24 hours or in as many months even. Civic- mindedness comes from making the Golden Rule a habit of living. Thus the school must concern itself with conduct. In fact the test of teaching is conduct. The same may be said of learning. It matters not so much what one knows as the way one conducts himself. The school may take pride in much of its work yet cannot be too proud so long as bolshevistic tendencies continue to generate in the minds of boys and girls; so long as life values continue to be measured by bank accounts and the I Council] EXTENSION SYSTEMS FOR IMPROVING TEACHERS 135 selfish ends thus satisfied; so long as the majority of our boys and girls graduate from the grammar schools physically defective; and so long as ten million children physically and mentally fit, produce practically nothing, yet consume at least one-seventh of the foodstuff of this land. On the basis of conduct no teacher of civics, gardening, thrift, or what not can be satisfied with her work unless the boys and girls practice civics, gardening, thrift. Talk civics and thrift to children however eloquently and the pupils get words. On the other hand put such scholastic subjects into a narrative, create personalities and wholesome optimistic environments and the observer gets impulses; and these impulses may be led into conduct. Professor Thorndike has said, "Among the most numerous and the most important causes of the ideas producing action in a human being are the acts of other human beings." Thru imitation, also, each succeeding generation inherits the great content of civilization from preceding generations. To the film-text author comes the great opportunity and the corresponding burden of great responsibility to create personalities for the classroom which do and say as he directs; to create environments which give play to wholesome, optimistic thought. The average daily attendance at the twenty thousand motion picture houses in this country is at least five million people. Every day five million men, women, and children cry and laugh and participate in screen action. The motion picture industry stands fifth in the list of industries in the United States. A boy will pawn his skates for a motion picture ticket. All of which is prima facie evidence of appealing, vitalizing forces in motion pictures. The school has been slow to accept its educational opportunity in the motion picture. Shall we not analyze the commercial screen, determine its vitalizing elements, and adjust them to classroom procedure ? Classroom film lessons must be devised for and adapted to classroom conditions. So-called educational film, which is being more or less exhibited in the schools, is not far-reaching in its results. An attempt has been made to fit classroom conditions to the film rather than the film to classroom needs. There is a rich field awaiting the film text written by practical school men, prepared to meet schoolroom needs, and foundationed upon fundamental psychological principles. This film civics text as portrayed above, of which "Thrift" is a part, is a pioneer effort to adapt moving pictures to the classroom. In the use of this film the school pro- gram is not upset since the classroom becomes the assembly, the teacher or a pupil is the operator, and the projection outfit is portable. The motivation of the picture is not lost, the interest does not wane, because each picture becomes the backbone of the day's and of the following week's discussion. The impulse obtained from the picture is sustained therefore and led into conduct. EXTENSION SYSTEMS FOR IMPROVING TEACHERS IN THE SERVICE L. H. MINKEL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, FORT DODGE, IOWA The chairman in calling the round table to order stated that this con- ference would be entirely informal, that no set speechels had been prepared, and that all would be at liberty to take part or ask questions at any time. The following were outstanding points brought out in the various discussions. The shortage of teachers will almost certainly result in a lowering of standards among the teachers of the United States. Already normal schools have fallen off in attendance to an alarming degree. In order to 136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National make up in a measure for the lack of preparation on the part of teachers coming into the service, it will be necessary to resort to new devices for training teachers who are already in the service. However, requirements along this line must be so made that they will throw no further burden upon the teachers that will result in driving them out of the pro- fession. Many cities in the Middle West are now paying their teachers for ten months and requiring them to teach only nine and one-half; the other two weeks being spent in a series of conferences with supervisors and inspirational leaders. Some cities are paying their teachers for their time spent on Saturday forenoons to take extension courses under the direction of competent instructors sent out from normal schools or colleges. The time spent by the teachers in making preparation should not be taken off from the children's time in the regular school day if this can possibly be avoided. Some schools are offering a bonus to their teachers for attending summer school. One superintendent reported that his teachers are called together once a month to witness a demonstration lesson given by one of their own number. In another city these demonstration lessons are given on Saturday morning and the superintendent conducts a class in school management for beginning teachers. In the state of Utah any club of ten people wishing to take extension work along any line can secure an instructor from the university to conduct such a course. The president of a teachers' club reported that in her city the teachers themselves organized night classes in drawing, citizenship, and parliamen- tary practice which were largely attended. The state of Wyoming pays rural school teachers a bonus of $100 for attending summer school. At the close of the conference a resolution was introduced and unani- mously carried requesting the President of the Council to appoint a com- mittee to make a thoro investigation of extension systems for improving teachers in the service, the report to be made at some subsequent meeting of the Council. WHAT IS NEW IN OUR POINT OF VIEW? WILLIAM T. MCCOY, DIRECTOR OF BETTER SCHOOLS SERVICE, AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS, CHICAGO, ILL. In theory boards of education are the agents of the people in con- structing and keeping up to date a good system of pubhc education. In fact these boards are greatly under the control of small groups who, in the absence of wide and accurate knowledge about the schools in the minds of the general pubhc, have been able to dictate just about what sums shall be expended for the schools. We have been derehct in not seeing to it that the pubhc knew its schools and in not making the pubhc an interested party to the settlement whenever school interests were at stake. Council] WHAT IS NEW IN OUR POINT OF VIEW? 137 The most vital new thing that we in Chicago have learned in the recent campaign is this, the necessity of publicity about the schools. A necessary corollary of this is that the local press must be inspired to do its full duty as the organ of pubhcity. We had always found the press indifferent or hostile to our efforts to secure school betterment. We had accused it of being controlled by various interests unfriendly to these efforts. We are now convinst that the indifference was due to ignorance and not to malice or subsidy. We found it entirely possible, if not easy, to change the indifference to interest and sometimes to a warm championship of our cause. Pubhcity does not take the place of legislative work or salary drives but lays the foundation of public approval on which to work. While increast pay for teachers is fundamental to better schools, no appeal to the public should be made to emphasize the teachers' need. The emphasis should be upon the growing deterioration of the schools. The campaign to educate the pubUc cannot be a brief advertising campaign tho that may well be made one important feature. It is the persistent day after day hammering thru news columns and editorial comment (which is sure to come if the news keeps on and is vital) that educates the people. Publicity about the schools should be continuous. If the only time the pubUc hears from teachers about schools is when they want more money, it is hard for the public to beheve that the pleas are based on any other motive than self-interest. By keeping up our campaign thru the year we have secured more than seventy pages of unpaid pubhcity in the Chicago dailies. Some personal approach to men of power and importance in the com- munity must be made to secure their interest and attention. We did not rely on our newspaper publicity for this, but secured personal interviews in which we explained the situation to these men and showed them how it concerned them as business men as well as in their capacity as citizens. We are converts to the idea that well-organized and effective publicity can be secured only thru the handling of our cause by experts in publicity. We have, therefore, used the services of a publicity firm thruout our cam- paign. We have not allowed them to determine our policies nor even to prepare our material. That can be done convincingly only by teachers. The work of the publicity people is to shape our propaganda and to connect it with the elements of timehness and interest — to make it news so that the papers will want it and use it. The most effective publicity is that which does not appear to be connected with any organized drive. We began very early in our campaign to try out some means of using the moving-picture theaters for propaganda. We finally settled upon the fol- lowing plan which we believe is the best at our command without the use of unlimited funds: We arrange with the principal of a school that, with the consent of the superintendent, pictures shall be taken in and about his school of such 138 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National phases of the school activities as can be pictured. The pictures are then taken by expert camera men hired by the day and are developt at com- mittee expense. This makes a thousand-foot reel cost about $350. This expense is nearly balanced by an arrangement with the local theater by which the committee shares in the returns from sale of tickets. Of course no fair discussion of our campaign can leave out a new element in the school situation which has been very powerful in making agitation by teachers effective in bettering conditions all over the country. That element is the new economic position of the teachers caused by the fact that 150,000 of them have taken the road out into all sorts of occupations which were more attractive to them solely because they offered better pay. This has left an enormous shortage of experienst teachers. This shortage and its effect on the children constitute the strongest argument and appeal whether to school boards or to the general public. It is unanswerable. It is the only proof that the people need that their teachers are underpaid and that while wages in all other callings have gone up 'teachers' pay has fallen far below a standard which was always too low. THE NEXT STEP IN THE STUDY OF CONSOLIDATION ADELAIDE STEELE BAYLOR, FEDERAL AGENT FOR HOME ECONOMICS, WASHINGTON, D.C. In the preliminary report on consolidation made at the July, 1919, meeting of the National Council of Education, I stated that it was the purpose of the sub-committee, in its study of consohdation, to confer with those who had made or were making special investigations on consolidation of schools, to ascertain what, in their opinion, was the next step in such study, in order not to develop work already done, but if possible to supplement it. It may be of interest to know the recommendations as to the next step in the study of consolidation, offered by two men who have done or are doing most worth-while study on problems of consolidation of schools. One of these men, A. C. Monahan, formerly in the United States Bureau of Education, who compiled a bulletin a few years ago on the status of consohdation^ of rural schools, suggests that: "The next step to be taken in the study of consohdation di rural schools is an efficiency study of the progress made by pupils, " in order "to prove as definitely as possible whether or not ckildren make more rapid progress and attain higher standards in consoHdated schools. " A step has been taken by the sub- committee in this direction by getting in touch with some of the superin- tendents of Indiana, where such work has been started. The second man, H. W. Foght, chairman of the committee appointed by the Department of Superintendence at Kajisas City to work on consoli- Council] NEXT STEP IN STUDY OF CONSOLIDATION 139 dation of rural schools, who, with his committee, is making a careful, exhaustive study of this subject, states that "altho we have somewhere near 13,000 pretty well-establisht consolidated schools in the United States, they vary so much in organization and needs that it is scarcely fair to say that even the first stage of organization of this type of school has been past." He is "inchned to think that the particular phase of school consolidation that must be workt at the hardest, should be the course of study for these schools. Out of it will come a better understanding of building needs and even teacher training. " In the preliminary report on Consolidation made at the Milwaukee meeting last summer, the following were cited as methods used to promote consolidation of schools in the country: (i) proper legislation; (2) per- missive consolidation; (3) state aid for consoHdation; (4) continued abandonment of small schools, especially when pupils are within walking distance of other schools; (5) propaganda for consolidation; (6) improve- ment of roads and methods of transportation; (7) observation of actual educational results. These returns came from a study made in 191 2 in which information was sought from each of the forty-eight states. When the Vice-Chairman of the Committee on Rural Schools requested a brief round table dis- cussion on "How to Organize for Consolidation," ten states were selected for this purpose representing the various sections of the country; i.e., (i) Indiana and Iowa (the Central East), (2) New York and Massachusetts (eastern states), (3) Mississippi and North Carolina (southern states, but remote from each other geographically), (4) North Dakota and Oklahoma (the north and south of the Middle West), (5) Washington and California (the Northwest and Middle Pacific Coast.) Indiana and Iowa are convinst that the best method of organizing to bring about consolidation is to get the people to believe in consolidation. Indiana has done this recently thru the use of lantern sHdes. The state Department of Public Education has two lanterns with approximately one hundred and fifty slides to show buildings, equipment, etc. In Iowa the law itself is thoroly democratic and no consolidation is attempted until the town, village, and outlying communities want it. Over one-sixth of the territory of that state is under consolidation which has closed over twenty-seven hundred one-room schools and in the past year made possible the graduation of eighteen hundred boys and girls from the twelfth grade. During the first twenty-nine days of March, 1920, thirty-three consohda- tions were effected in Iowa. New York depends on an educational campaign which presents clearly and tactfully to the people of the community a real appreciation of the lack of educational opportunity they possess. Tactful cooperation rather than forceful methods is considered the best course in remote communities. Again, much is accomplisht thru the influence of a community which has I40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National really done something worth while. A new method is just going into operation m New York whereby committees, appointed by rural organi- zations such as the Farm Bureau, Grange, and other related organizations are to make a special study of the educational conditions in the rural communities of the state during the present summer and it is anticipated that one result of such a study will be the promotion of consolidation. In Massachusetts it is felt that the unit of administration, which is the town rather than the district, aids consoHdation, as well as the prevalence of cities and towns. Geographical conditions in some places in the state seem to offer insuperable obstacles, as the hill towns with sparse population, low valuation, and poor roads which interfere with proper transportation of children; nevertheless, a recent inquiry shows that in two hundred and ninety-nine, out of three hundred and four municipahties, 96 per cent of the teachers and 97tV P^i" cent of pupils are fo^jind in graded schools of two or more rooms. In North Carolina a round table of two or three leading citizens, favor- ing consolidation, from each small community, is called together by the county superintendent to go over the plan. If agreed upon, they decide whether to put it to a vote of the people or let the county board of edu- cation make the decision alone. Either plan is permissible in the state: public meetings addrest by a good speaker who stimulates and encourages the supporters of consolidation, or public-school debates affording oppor- tunity for an intelligent discussion of the subject used. Mississippi first makes an effort to secure the united desire on the part of the patrons for consolidation, and then by petition the county board of education is advised of this desire. PubHc interest must be overwhelmingly for consoHdation or it is postponed. North Dakota county superintendents arrange for a mass meeting with an outside speaker to explain consolidation whose talk is supplemented by that of the county superintendent who discusses the local situation. Before and after the mass meeting those in the community interested in consolidation agitate the change. Following the mass meeting an election is held. In CaHfornia the fundamental to consolidation is "good roads." If transportation can be arranged without too great expense, people vote for the unionizing of districts if at all practicable. In the state of Washington a bonus is given by state and county, of two thousand days additional attendance by each, for every school district less one in number of districts entering into consoHdation; i.e., approxi- mately $300 per district. If two or more districts consoHdate, supervision is given equal to that allowed in a second-class school district. The results of the inquiry, then, as to how to organize to bring about consoHdation show that: Council] THE ORGANIZATION OF RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS 141 1. The consolidated school has become a part of every section of the United States. 2. The conversion of the people thru propaganda is essential to success- ful consolidation. , \ 3. The greatest obstacle is the lack of proper facihties for transportation. 4. New methods or those not hitherto reported as emphasized are: (fl) The influence of a community that has really done something worth while; {h) The appointment of committees by rural organizations, such as the farm bureau, grange, and related organizations to make a special study of educational conditions in rural communities of the states. Such a study would necessarily deal with consolidation; (c) Legislation to provide that the county rather than the district be the unit of school administration; (d) Round tables of leaders in the district who favor consolidation. A plan for consolidation determined upon whereby either the county board of education consolidates without the consent of the people, or the people are first converted to consolidation and then the organization made; {e) Bonus offered for consolidation of schools; (/) School debates on the subject; (g) Community center movement. TEE ORGANIZATION OF RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS L. J. MUIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH It is the purpose of this discussion to treat rural high-school organization as it has been effected in the state of Utah, for the state of Utah, in its solution, may have contributed to solve the question elsewhere. Two principles lie at the foundation of high-school organization in the state of Utah. The first is that rural high schools should be organized upon the basis of economy and eflSciency of operation rather than to meet the demands of community or sectional pride. The second principle is that the high school should be a social center for the community or communities it serves. In working out the first principle above stated, the state of Utah has had some interesting experience. Originally, our high schools came into existence as extensions of our elementary schools. Many towns simul- taneously developt these institutions. By reason of contests in athletics, debating, and pubhc speaking, these institutions brought into existence a new type of community loyalty, until they were the source of a great deal of community pride and enthusiasm. Therefore, when the consoHdation of schools under the county-unit system came about, and it was deemed wise to throw together into one large institution these miniature high schools, sectional rivalries and jealousies came into play. So strong were these rivalries, that they were irresistible in some counties, and as a result several small schools are now maintained in such districts. Common 142 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National sense and administrative wisdom overcame the feeling of town pride in other counties and large rural high schools resulted. Box Elder County, one of the largest counties in the state of Utah, maintains at this time one high school which has an attendance of mofe than six hundred students. Jordan district also has a large rural high school housed in a magnificent building and favored by almost every type of modern high-school equip- ment. Other such institutions are found in Granite district, Morgan dis- trict. Carbon district, Davis district, and others. In all of these cases, transportation allowances are made to students who live remote from the high-school building. In Davis County, where electric railroad facihties are favorable, nearly three hundred students rode the electric cars to the central high school last year. These students came from points lying between three and fifteen miles from the school building. The annual transportation cost for this group of students did not exceed $6,000.00. The Bamberger Electric Railway Company allowed a cent per mile fare to these students. Each student paid an annual transportation fee of $10.00. This same fee was exacted of ninth-grade students in other junior high schools, and the total thus raised paid the transportation bill of all students who rode in the cars. In Granite, Jordan, Carbon, South Cache, South Summit, and other districts, automobile buss service was employed to bring the students to the high school. In some of these districts also students were conveyed in many cases from fifteen miles distance. The Carbon County high school, located at Price, is provided with girls' and boys' dormitories under good management. These dormi- tories take care of students who come from distant parts. In this county railroad facilities are unfavorable and highways poor. The maintenance of these large rural high schools, to which students are conveyed from distant points, has reduced the per capita cost of high- school education and has greatly improved the standard of such work. The second principle underlying high-school organization in Utah, as stated above, is the conception that the high school should be the social center of the region supporting it. This function of the rural high school has been realized in the institutions referred to above. In the course of the school year there are many occasions upon which the people of the school district are brought together at the high-school building. County fairs, conventions of various kinds, farmers' round-ups and institutes, social entertainments and athletic contests of every kind, bring to these rural high schools the population of the district. Young men and women from divergent points in the school district form acquaintance and develop friendships. Thus the petty town rivalries and community jealousies are trampled down. In place thereof there have grown up a feeling of enlarged community interest and a social communion which mean much toward the development of character and the civic outlook of the students who attend these institutions. Thus the second principle underlying high- school organization in Utah is realizfed. Council] THE CALL TO ARMS IN ig20 143 THE CALL TO ARMS IN 1920 JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, OLYMPIA, WASH. The "call to arms" of the American public this year has been "more pay for teachers." From the Atlantic to the Pacific has this imperative cry sounded forth. A partially indifferent public awakened to the fact that immediate steps had to be taken to place the teaching profession upon a more permanent financial and professional basis. The beginning salary of the teacher had to be larger. There needed to be greater and more certain financial rewards for continuous service. This same American public had a second call to arms as it slowly ' awakened to the fact that there needed to be a creation of more "social appreciation of teacher." Discouraged men and women in education accepted by the thousands positions of greater remuneration in other fields. The American public thru its closed schoolroom doors and departments with underqualified and inexperienst teachers slowly came to realize the service lost by the exodus of many of its qualified and trained teachers into other lines of work. There has been a call to arms for a more comprehensive course of study. Someone has said that the public schools, of necessity, must be from twenty to thirty years behind the times with respect to giving proper emphasis to new economic and industrial conditions. As a result of the world-war, many new conditions confront us, and if the public schools continue to be the most important factor in our RepubUc they must reflect more clearly and more vitally these large social and industrial conditions. There is an insistent call to arms for better compulsory attendance and enforcement to make the education of the children effective. The state of Utah points the way to the nation in its leadership in compulsory attendance. The education of all the children of all of the people is our nation's great concern today. The financing of American education is a problem which is engaging the attention of practically all the states of the Union at this time. The problem is how to secure possible sources of increast revenue as education becomes more expensive and to distribute state revenue in such a manner as to equalize educational possibilities. There is need for continuation schools for all who have entered the industries so as to continue the education of the mid-adolescent. The socialization and revitalization of rural life is calling us. "Give us experienst, well-qualified teachers for our schools" is the rural call. A call to arms for the saving of four things — time, talent, health, and money — rings out. The emancipation of the adult iUiterates not only calls us but com- mandeers us. There are more people enslaved in the bonds of illiteracy than were owned by the slave-owners of the South before the ein^ncipation 144 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National proclamation of Lincoln. The slavery of the negro was physical bondage; the slavery of the adult iUiterate is mental bondage. The teacher-training centers received a call to arms when the demand for higher salaries brought a demand for higher standards of teaching while at the same time an insistent demand was made for greater preparation for service. There is an insistent call to arms for the teacher to realize that the purposes of education are to help solve vital, social, and national problems. Teachers need to make their work of such a character that the pubHc will immediately discern that there is a definite relation between what the children acquire in school and what they accomplish in life. A strong call to arms for an Americanization program of education is before us. America has often been called the melting-pot of the world; but when we fail to touch the soul of the foreign-born with the American spirit and ideals; when foreign colonies exist in numbers in urban centers; when even rural communities have settlement colonies not toucht by the American spirit; then must we realize that the melting-pot ceases to melt. FORTY YEARS OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION I ROBERT J. ALEY, FORMER PRESIDENT OF COUNCIL AND PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MAINE, ORONO, ME. I am happy indeed that this is not an obituary or a memorial exercise. The. Council is very much alive and promises to render greater service in the future than it has in the past. On two other occasions there has gone into the record a survey of the work accomplisht and a statement of the ideals that have controlled the members. It is hoped that this report of the work and progress of the Council may inspire its members to even greater efforts in the future. In 1879 the Honorable Thomas W. Bicknell, editor and founder of the National Journal of Education, set forth reasons why there should be formed the Congress or Council of Education. He beHeved that such an organi- zation, made up of the leaders in educational work would be of great service in the education of the country. He hoped that such a body might clarify the thinking of educational ofi&cers and teachers and might have a favorable influence upon the work of school systems both state and municipal. This was followed by a number of other editorials. So much interest was aroused in the subject that Mr. Bicknell was askt to prepare a paper for the Department of Superintendents at the Washington meeting held in February, 1880. In this paper he discust existing bodies and showed very clearly the need of a more deliberate and careful examination of educational questions by a body of expert and experienst leaders. He urged that such an organization be formed at the summer meeting of the National Councai FORTY YEARS OF NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION 145 Education Association. W. T. Harris, J. P. Wickersham, A. P. Marble, Aaron Gove, H. S. Tarbell, J. S. Smart, and others participated in the discussion. They all favored the formation of a council. As a result a very strong and competent committee headed by Mr. Bicknell was appointed to prepare a report for the summer meeting. The report was presented and favorable action ensued. A constitution was formed which in its preamble set forth the main ideas that Mr. Bicknell had presented in his editorials and in his formal paper before the Department of Superintendence. The charter members of the Council include the names of many of the most eminent men in educational work. A few of these are Barnard, Bateman, Bicknell, Eaton, Oilman, Gove, Harris, Hancock, Hewett, McCosh, Soldan, Tarbell, White, and Wickersham. Many others whose names are written large in the educational history of America are on the charter list. It has been the aim of the Council from the first to enrol in its member- ship the men and women of the profession who were best able to render valuable service to the cause of education. Members have been selected because it was beHeved they had something to contribute rather than that the Council would benefit them. The splendid work accomphsht and the influence exerted, are both due in large measure to this idea which has controlled in the selection of members. It is to be hoped that in the future as in the past no individual seeking membership for personal aggran- dizement may be admitted to the circle of the Council. Early in the history of the Council it was decided to carry on the work thru twelve committees. For a number of years these twelve committees were provided for by the constitution. They were as follows: state school systems, city school systems, higher education, secondary education, elementary education, normal education, technical education, pedagogics, education of girls, hygiene in education, educational literature, and educational statistics. The membership of the Council was limited to sixty. Each committee was made up of five members. Hence, for a number of years every member of the Council was engaged in work upon some special topic. The reports of committees under the various headings named occupied the attention of the Council many years. At the annual meetings some two or three of the committees would report. It was the rule to present either the full report in print or an abstract of it so that each member might have accurate information upon the essential points of the report as it was made. After the reading of the report there was full and free discussion. Some of the most beneficial things in the educational thought of the country grew out of the spirited discussions centering around these committee reports. It would be difficult indeed to measure the influence of the first twenty-years work of the Council upon the educational thought and practice of America. It was during this period that several classic reports 146 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National were made that at once had a profound influence upon the course of study both of elementary and high schools as well as upon the relations of second- ary schools and colleges. After ten years' experience some of the most thoughtful members began to question the value of the formal committee plan. Such men as W. T. Harris and G. Stanley Hall believed that better results would come from men who were investigating subjects in which they had no serious interest. As a result of this idea the Council voted to admit volunteer papers at the next session with a view of trying out the plan. This plan met with approval and has been for a number of years the practice of the Council with regard to a considerable part of its program. Many of the committee reports have grown out of papers either volunteer or written at the request of the president. In the years 1890 to 1900 a great deal of time was devoted to technical education, and also to rural schools. Men of far-seeing vision like Wood- ward and White led the way and laid the foundation for most valuable work. It was thru this same period that considerable discussion centered about higher education, particularly with reference to university ideals. The real meaning and purpose of the Land Grant colleges were set forth in clear, forcible, and adequate terms. In 1898 the Council was reorganized and became the agent of the National Education Association for determining and directing investi- gations. For a number of years following 1898 no investigations were undertaken by the National Association until they were first approved by the Council thru its appropriate committee. At the time of this reor- ganization the twelve committees provided for in the old constitution were abandoned. Since that time investigating committees have been appointed as occasions presented themselves. For many years the Council regularly devoted part of a session to memorial exercises. These memorial papers and addresses furnish an inspiring history of the great leaders in education who are gone from us. This practice has not been observed with the same degree of thoroness in recent years as formerly. It is one of the customs of the past that could be revived with great credit and value. The life and service of our members ought to be fittingly recorded in our proceedings. The Council has always had in its membership the best the nation produces. It still has such men and women. A glance thru the present membership will show that from the list of first-class men and women in the educational work of the country a splendid selection has been made. The membership includes state superintendents, city superintendents, normal school men, university men, professors of education, rural school leaders, indeed all who stand at the top and direct the thought and work of educational America. As was true in the earlier days many of the great leaders because of their busy lives find it impossible to attend the meetings regularly enough to remain upon the active list. It is fortunate that the Council] PRELIMINARY REPORT ON TENURE OF TEACHERS 147 constitution of the Council now as always, has made it possible to go outside the active list for speakers and investigators. There were giants in the early days. We honor their greatness and profit by their genius. A generation from now, many of our present members will have taken their places in the hall of fame. The Council under the leadership of its new president, a man who has for so many years known the Council from the inside, will undoubtedly equal and I believe will surpass the best traditions of the past. I would not take from the great men and women of the earlier days of this Council one single bit of honor. I agree with James M. Greenwood who at the St. Paul meeting said of them, ''The noble simplicity of this group was their crowning glory. They represented pre-eminently the power of deeds and the power of thoughts, and as torch-bearers they have past on to others a mightier domain of real achievements in "all the spheres of philosophy, ethics, culture, and the duties of practical and political life, a higher code of living for all conditions of society than had ever been done before or imitated since. Thru them we stand linkt to a past that we wish not to change. Their splendid powers, we appreciate. Their purity of motives we revere, and the great lesson — devotion to duty, in a material- istic and mechanical age — may become shattered and displaced, yet one of the ^brightest and cleanest pages in American history is that of the achievements and aims of the founders of the National Council of Edu- cation. The thoughts of these circle about us as the gentle breezes of springtime. Their influence hovers over us as the steady light that comes to us from the fixt stars in the firmament. Calmly and serenely these devoted men and women performed a perpetual service to the consecrated ideas of their fives. Their object was the exaltation of humanity thru the spirit. " The greatness and completeness of their disinterested services ought to inspire us to greater service than we have yet given. The problems of education are forever new and forever more and more complex. It is our privilege to have something to do in solving the new problems or at least to aid in simplifying their complexity. The one hundred men and women of this Council are ready to give their best in disinterested service. The leaders among us are ready to wear the mantles of White, Soldan, Green- wood, and the host of others who have blazed the trail of clear, courageous, and righteous thinking. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON TENURE OF TEACHERS DR. JOSEPH SWAIN, PRESIDENT OF SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE, PA. The Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of the National Education Association presents to the teachers a preliminary report on tenure prepared for the Committee by Dr. I. L. Kandel of the Carnegie 148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. In this preliminary report the following questions are askt: 1. What should be the preliminary professional training of teachers? 2. How shall teachers be certified, locally or by the state? If by the state, what sort of state authority should assume the duty ? 3. Is the practice of annual elections, "our barbarous guillotine," as it has been called, in the interests either of educational efficiency or of the professional growth of the teachers ? 4. Assuming that the practice of annual elections is inefficient and wasteful, should appointments be for a term of years or on an indefinite tenure during good behavior or efficient service ? 5. Should indefinite tenure be preceded by a period of probationary service ? 6. In adopting indefinite tenure how can schools be protected against incompetent or unprogressive teachers ? 7. What is the relation between a sound system of tenure, salary scales, and pensions ? It is the "intention of the Committee to present supplementary reports imtil the study is completed. The question of salaries has been kept before the pubhc by the National Education Association. Your committee has presented reports. The problem of pensions was the subject of discussion in the com- mittee and in conference with representative school men and women for more than three years and resulted in the Report on Pensions for Public School Teachers prepared by the Carnegie Foundation. On the third fundamental condition of service, tenure, much has been written and somewhat extensive statistics have been publish t, but no concerted investigation of the subject has previously been made. It is the desire of your committee to do for tenure what has aheady been done for salaries and pensions. Very truly yours, Joseph Swain, Chairman of the Committee on Salaries y Tenure, and Pensions of Teachers PRELIMINARY REPORT ON TENURE OF TEACHERS The present unrest in educational affairs affords the teaching profession a unique opportunity for taking stock of itself and for considering the essential conditions that will make the profession attractive to new recruits, that will endow the profession with the dignity that it merits, and that will most satisfactorily promote the educational welfare of this country. The economic crisis thru which we are now passing has necessarily directed and concentrated attention on the problem of salaries. But the problem is not merely one of raising salaries to meet the high cost of Hving; it is not merely a problem of economics. A statesmanUke and professional view of the situation must look to the future. Merely to increase salaries this year will not insure the retention of able teachers or secure a constant flow of promising candidates into the teaching profession. Future prospects Council] PRELIMINARY REPORT ON TENURE OF TEACHERS 149 and status weigh as much or perhaps more than immediate compensation in the choice of a vocation. Absence of rewards for experience and faithful service, unsatisfactory conditions of appointment and promotion, and lack of protection against disability or old age are strong factors in deter- mining the kind of recruit that the teaching profession will obtain. The question of salaries has been adequately kept before the public by the National Education Association; the problem of pensions was the subject of discussion in this committee for more than three years and resulted in the Report on Pensions for Public School Teachers prepared by the Carnegie Foundation. On the third fundamental condition of service, tenure, much has been written and somewhat extensive statistics have been published but no concerted investigation of the subject has yet been made. Thus, altho the fact that 125,000 teachers annually leave the profession, whether voluntarily or not, is known, a study has not been made of the laws govern- ing the appointment and dismissal of teachers. While the -subject of tenure has been adequately settled in the civil service,, in the teaching profession the theory that should underlie tenure has not yet been dis- cussed. The prevaiUng practice may be sound, but there are no standards by which it can be measured. The subject is a delicate one but it is funda- mental to the efficiency of the schools. While intimately associated with the question of salaries and pensions, it is also closely allied to the problem of professional preparation of teachers, since uncertainty of tenure will not warrant intending teachers in undertaking lengthy preparation. Altho the situation in the matter of tenure has improved considerably in recent years, this only means that there have been fewer cases of unjust dismissals or of oppressive treatment. The question of tenure is deter- mined by two factors, mainly, satisfactory compensation and the pro- visions of the school laws. Other factors, such as equipment and housing, conditions of service generally, play an important part but are generally subconscious and intangible. Judged from the standpoints of these two conditions — compensation and school legislation — the situation cannot be viewed with satisfaction. While custom and practice have moved in the direction of stabihty and permanence, the salary inducements have not kept pace. The result is seen in the tremendous shifting of the teaching population each year — and this not merely among rural school or classroom teachers. Under present conditions teachers and administrative officers cannot be blamed if they see that the only line of advancement for them lies in change of position. President Coffman in a recent report concluded that we have 125,000 vacancies annually. It is generally assumed that this condition does not apply to administrative and supervisory officers; but another study by President Jessup shows that the median tenure of superintendents is less than three years and that from one-third to two- thirds of the principalships in some states are vacant each year. An efficient school system cannot be built up on such a foundation. The I50 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National administrative and supervisory officer cannot grasp the new situation that he accepts nor develop a suitable program and policy, if he changes his position every three years; the classroom teacher cannot realize the cumulative benefit of experience if she has her eye on a new position for the coming year. The remedy, of course, is obvious; improved conditions can only be secured by better remuneration and advancement in the position held. Only in this way can the competition for teachers between school boards be eliminated and an efficient corps of teachers be developed. But this is only one aspect of the situation. Whatever the customary practice may be, in law security of tenure does not prevail over a large part of the country. While the towns and cities show a tendency to encourage stability and permanence, even in many places of size the tenure of office of administrative officers is limited either by law or by the rules of the appointing boards. No matter how long a term may be provided, the teacher who feels that he must stand for election at the close of that term must inevitably be beset by anxiety, even tho unconsciously. The demand for Hfe-terms is just as unreasonable as the present practice. The chief defect in the present practice is the survival of the neighbor- hood idea of education, under which the appointment and dismissal of teachers continues to be vested in the hands of the members of local school boards. Altho appointments thruout the country are protected by the requirement of written contracts, in many cases on forms prescribed by the sj:ate superintendent, and by certification laws, in only a very few instances may such appointments be made for more than one year. Some improvement on this practice may be seen in the method recently adopted in some states of permitting nomination by the local boards and definite appointment by the county boards or county superintendents. But while this practice safeguards the character of the appointments, the terms of the appointments still continue to be annual. An examination of state school laws produces only six cases in which terms longer than one year are permitted. In each case a probationary period of service varying from one to three years is required. In Arizona, superintendents and principals may be appointed for two-year terms. In California every office of which the duration is not fixt by law is held at the pleasure of the appointing person; in practice the interpretation of this rule is that every teacher holds her position from year to year unless notice of dismissal is given before June lo. In Iowa superintendents may be appointed for three-year terms after service of one year. School committees in Massa- chusetts may appoint teachers after one year of service, at pleasure. Super- intendents and principals in Missouri are eligible after their first year to appointment for two-year terms. In Montana teachers hold their positions from year to year after their first year. In New Jersey after three years of service a teacher is assured of her position during good behavior. In the cities of New York State, teachers may, after a probationary period of Council] PRELIMINARY REPORT ON TENURE OF TEACHERS ■ 151 from one to three years, by a recent law, be appointed on permanent tenure. Three-year terms without any period of probation are permitted in Ohio, while in Oregon teachers after a probationary period of two years enjoy permanent appointment, but this law applies only to Portland, in practice. The Pennsylvania law grants three-year terms to teachers who hold certificates exempting them from further examinations. In Washington only principals and superintendents may be appointed for longer than one year terms. Finally, Wisconsin encourages teachers to retain their positions by the grant of a bonus varying with the length of service. ^ Thus only five states — California, Massachusetts, Montana, New • Jersey, and Oregon — by law recognize the principle of permanent tenure for teachers; and two other states, Ohio and Pennsylvania, permit the appointment of teachers for three-year terms. The conditions of appoint- ment for principals and superintendents are only slightly better. The underlying principle seems to be that "officers and employes of the public have no interest or property in the offices and situations which they occupy. " Interpreted in its lowest terms this means that the spoils system still prevails at this time when it has generally been eliminated from civil-service positions in the country. Only on this basis can one explain the regulation so frequently found in the laws that trustees may not appoint teachers beyond the terms of their own office. In many cases the law forbids the making of contracts for more than one year, and even in providing for renewals, reappointments may be delayed until June or July — the close of the school year. Other unreasonable conditions that are found are provisions that the teacher shall hold her position only as long as the money holds out or that she may be dismissed if the schoolhouse is destroyed or emptied by epidemics. Upon these terms no teacher can give efficient service. The argument often produced in favor of annual elections is that the practice affords protection against incompetent teachers. This argument would be valid perhaps if there were adequate supervision to check up incompetence and reappointment were vested in the hands of experts, I which it generally is not. Under a satisfactory system of training and supervision the incompetent teacher should not be admitted to schools at jail. At present we have no standards for measuring competent teaching, and dismissal for incompetence may often be reversed by the courts. The demonstration of inefficiency is too difficult and cannot be understood by the pubHc. These conditions of uncertainty and instabihty can only be reformed by a thorogoing change of attitude on the part of the pubHc and the profession. The remedy involves the setting up of adequate minimum standards of professional attainments as a condition of first appointment. 152 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National normal schools cannot hope to turn out finished teachers. A probationary period of service from two to three years is not too much to ask as a con- dition preUminary to permanent appointment. After this period a teacher's appointment should be durmg good behavior and efficient service. This again involves adequate supervision and tests of merit. Quantitative measures are already in existence; periods of study for professional advance- ment and growth and the apphcation of standard tests to the product are already being tried; rewards of merit by additional bonuses have already been put into practice. Quahtative standards of teaching abihty are yet to be developed. All these measures point, therefore, to the control of elections in the hands of experts instead of lay boards. The principal, the supervisory officers, and the superintendents may be trusted to look after the interests of the teachers and the public. Under such a system the control of tenure is put up to the profession itself. There is no vaHdity in the contention that permanence of tenure will deprive a teacher of incentive and ambition provided that there is adequate and competent professional supervision, just as there is no evidence that annual elections promote them. Properly trained, holding a certificate granted by a responsible body of experts, and supervised by similar experts, a teacher cannot "soldier" on the job. Such conditions of tenure should, of course, be accompanied by properly constructed salary scales to serve as an encour- agement and reward for progress. Salaries, pensions, and tenure cannot be separated; they augment and supplement each other. The present conditions underlying state legislation on tenure have been due to three causes primarily — ^initial lack or inadequacy of professional training, unsupervised probationary period, and automatic salary scales. The problem of tenure involves a consideration of the causes for and the administration of dismissals. A brief summary of existing laws bearing on tenure in different states shows that teachers may be dismissed for incompetence, misconduct in office, unprofessional conduct, failure to comply with the regulations, neglect of duty, any cause that renders a teacher's service unprofitable, the best interests of the school, insub- ordination, immorality, any cause deemed sufficient, and decreased attend- ance. Unprofessional conduct includes, in the Illinois code, "refusal to attend, participate in, or an indifferent or antagonistic attitude toward institutes, teachers' meetings, or other reasonable requirements of the county or state superintendent. " It will be noticed that most of the causes for dismissal are professional, and yet "any cause deemed suffi- cient," or "the best interests of the school" are terms that are so elastic and subject to such wide interpretation that no teacher can consider her tenure safe even during the year covered by her contract. This situation is aggravated by the fact that in twenty-seven states the local school boards have the right to dismiss teachers, in seven others the local boards act on the recommendation of the local or county superintendents, and in five states Council} PRELIMINARY REPORT ON TENURE OF TEACHERS 153 teachers may be dismissed by the county superintendent. The same causes that serve as a basis for dismissal operate in the suspension or revocation of certificates, which in effect has the same consequence as dismissal, but the control of certification is always in the hands of a professional authority — the county superintendent, county board of examiners, state super- intendent, or state board of education. Not only is the basis of dismissal elastic but only in twenty-seven states do the laws require that a notice of charges and a hearing be given to the teacher about to be dismissed. Appeal from the decision of the local board is provided for in twenty-three states, in sixteen the appeal may be taken to the state or county super- intendent, in three to the state board of education, in one each to a special commission, the superior courts of the state, the county probate court, and the attorney-general. There is thus no establisht practice except in favor of control by the local lay board. Since most of the causes for dismissal are professional the present practice in the majority of states is open to serious objections, for a lay board cannot be expected to be sufficiently competent to pass upon the^ professional services of teachers. The tendency today in administration is to extend the areas of educational supervision. The movement for the consoHdation of schools, the elimination of local certification of teachers, the pooling of resources in the interests of equalization are all indications of this tendency. A similar movement in the interests of the teacher's tenure of position is desirable. The professional supervisor is best qualified to discriminate between the competent and incompetent teacher; just as there is a move to secure the cooperation of such officials in the final appoint- ment of teachers, so the dismissal of teachers should be decided only on his recommendation with the right of appeal to the highest educational authority in the state. Thus the teachers' interests will be protected and at the same time more accurate and more conscious standards of pro- fessional service will in time be set up. Where a breach of contract is alleged, the teacher may always have recourse to the courts, but the courts have always shown an unwillingness to pass on questions of professional incompetence, frequently to the detriment of school efficiency. An adequate solution of the problems of tenure accordingly involves a number of other factors for which answers are now being sought. 1. What should be the preUminary professional training of teachers? 2. How shall teachers be certified, locally or by the state ? If by the I state, what sort of state authority should assume the duty ? 3. Is the practice of annual elections, "our barbarous school guillo- tine," as it has been called, in the interests either of educational efficiency I' or of the professional growth of the teachers ? 4. Assuming that the practice of annual elections is inefficient and wasteful, should appointments be for a term of years or an indefinite tenure during good behavior and efficient service ? I 154 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National 5. Should indefinite tenure be preceded by a period of probationary- service ? 6. In adopting indefinite tenure how can schools be protected against the incompetent or unprogressive teacher ? 7. What is the relation between a sound system of tenure, salary scales, and pensions ? THE SALARY SITUATION WITH REMEDIES ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, EXECUTIvi SECRETARY CALIFORNIA COUNCIL OF EDUCATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. No more perplexing question confronts the school forces thruout the nation than that of securing properly trained teachers for the schools. Everywhere it is the same. Teachers are leaving the service to engage in more lucrative undertakings. Many, who have spent years in preparing themselves for the profession, find they can now step into other lines of occupation entirely new to them at a greatly increast base pay with sure prospects for advance, such as is better calculated to meet the demands of higher living costs. Under such conditions it is no wonder we are losing many of our best teachers. Half-day classes and overcrowding are the rule rather than the exception. Young and inexperienst teachers are gladly welcomed into the service, thus tending to undermine the present all too low professional standards. And teachers long since placed on the retirement list are drafted back to the classroom. The danger to result from lower standards, already too low, is one phase of our national menace. Thousands of well-meaning, but incompe- tent teachers are now certificated. Young boys and girls direct from the high school, or with barely the completion of grade school to their credit, are attempting to teach other future citizens as mature or well informed as they. With it all, there is no knowledge of teaching on the part of these young people. Only a small proportion of our teachers are trained — are professional. Graduation from a normal school or college does not guarantee us a professional teacher. A teacher must "practice as well as prepare." There must be constant improvement while in service. It is not too much to ask that the minimum requirement for any teacher should be two years in a normal or teacher-training institution, following graduation from a standard high school. In the United States we have never approached this standard. Most of us have in the past fallen into error in arguing for increast standards on the part of teachers as a basis for and as preliminary to increast salary schedules. Rather, we must approach the matter from the standpoint of the business world. The possibiHty of attractive com- pensation will draw to the profession men and women of personahty and of power, of proper training and qualifications, and we shall be able to Council] THE SALARY SITUATION WITH REMEDIES 155 retain these in the service of the schools. Professional standards will in some degree take care of themselves and weaklings and incompetents will automatically be ehminated from the profession. The shortage of teachers is not a new thing. We have never had an adequate supply of trained teachers. The conditions have been growing worse for years. About 350,000 teachers the country over (approximately one-half) possess less than the standard high-school training. Today the normal schools have only 62 per cent of their registration of two years ago. The calhng of teachers into other lines of service during and following the war, with the attendant attractive salaries, has served to aggravate the situation. The coming year will find us lacking 110,000 elementary teachers. The teacher-training institutions will supply 30,000, leaving 80,000 for certification who have had only a high-school training or less. Of 84,000 high-school teachers, one-third will not return next year. The colleges will contribute approximately 9,000. We need, according to President Felmley, 70,000 or one-ninth of our teachers each year. To this number we must add each year 6,000 to take care of the natural growth. At the Washington Conference a roll call of states showed that with two or three exceptions only, conditions were the same the country over. In many particulars the increast costs of living have been greater for teachers than for many other groups of people. ,It is safe to place this increase during the past two years at 130 per cent. The $750,000,000 now paid in salaries must be doubled. Secretary Houston of the Treasury Department is authority for the statement that there will be no noticeable receding in prices for some time to come. In New York state, the 25 to 27 miUions paid annually in teachers' salaries is a 50 per cent to 100 per cent increase over that paid three or four years ago. Greater increases are now planned. The Southern States generally have come rapidly to the front. During the war there was tremendous increase in the value of production there, and agriculture became more varied. Thruout Missis- sippi, superintendents of smaller towns have been advanst to $3,600 and county high school principals to $5,000 and $6,000, and in some instances houses furnisht. Supervisors in Massachusetts are receiving $2,200 to $2,500 and travel expenses. Commissioner Finegan points out that Pennsylvania was the first state to estabhsh both a minimum standard for teachers and a minimum salary with increments from time to time based upon meeting the professional requirements and growth in service. Perhaps the institutions that have been the greatest offenders in the matter of inadequate salaries are the normal schools. Our best and strong- est teachers are needed in our normal schools and other teacher-training institutions. Here, if anywhere, we must have teachers with proper training and experience; those who possess qualities of moral integrity, the teaching art, knowledge of subject-matter and well-rounded view of the entire educational field. Such teachers cannot be secured or retained 156 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National at the salaries now paid. True it is that there are now and always will be self-sacrificing men and women of lofty motives and high ideals who, because they prefer teaching to any other form of service, will continue to grace the normal school. National support of education is imperative. In the matter of edu- cation especially, arbitrary state boundaries must play less part than heretofore. This is not a question of depriving states of their rights. It is a question of a proper balance between local autonomy upon the one hand and centralizing of power upon the other. Just as in a given state, the more wealthy locahties must lend support to the weaker, just so the wealthy centers from a national point of view must be made to contribute to the support of those locahties less able to help themselves. Moreover, the federal government should insist that there be a minimum educational standard that all must reach, in whatever state the individual reside, or in whatever environment he may be living. The Smith-Towner Bill points in the right direction. A federal depart- ment of education, with a secretary in the President's Cabinet is impera- tively needed. All of the moneys now being appropriated by Congress, and applied annually to the various fields of education in conjunction with one or another department, should be brought under one head and centered in a Federal Department. The budget system should, of course, be intro- duced in national and state, as well as in local, affairs. All of this will help to perfect the plan of having the wealthy localities bear their just share of the support of schools in less fortunate districts, and of going to the people for state and county aid. Equahty of opportunity there must be, and proper economy must be practiced in education, as elsewhere. The work of the teacher has been so long underestimated both by himself and by the public, that a nation-wide campaign for education is absolutely essential. Education must be "sold" to the people. Before this can successfully be done, teachers must "sell" the school to themselves. A salesman advertises his goods. We must advertise the pubHc school in America if we expect to sell it. There has been for years a studied campaign of pubUcity for every business, profession, trade, or calling in America, save that of teaching. Teachers must believe in education, or they can- not make others believe in it. There should be educational columns carried in daily and weekly newspapers. Every school system should have a "self-starting" group and every school its correspondent. Teachers should make it their business to place in the hands of local editors, important items or articles appearing in their educational journals. For lack of pubhcity, or owing to wrong pubhcity, the pubUc has a distorted view of education. "We are," says Dr. Spaulding, "on the defensive. We are on the wrong track, facing m the wrong direction. Wrong pictures are being painted. The public looks with compassion on the teacher and on one who wishes to enter the profession. We should CouncUI THE SALARY SITUATION WITH REMEDIES < 157 play up the needs and rights of the children instead of pitying the teacher and looking upon her with compassion. " We need a campaign of publicity to dignify and glorify. The significance of the value of organization is slowly, but surely, finding its way. Teachers have been slow to appreciate the value of standing together. Organization is at the very base of publicity. To make any national, state, or local campaign a success, teachers should come together in a united elffort. At this time especially, petty matters and trivial differences should be thrown in the discard. All should unite on the big fundamental issues. Upon the proper conduct and financing of the schools, and the adequate preparation and improvement of teachers, it should be possible for all to agree — teachers in rural, town and city schools, high school and college teachers, principals and superintendents. Teacher organization, local, state, and national has been long in coming. The events of the past few months, however, have shown not simply to the teachers, but to the pubHc at large, many of the weakness in the pro- fession, owing to the lack of cohesive organization. By standing together for a common cause, and that conmaon cause the children and the schools, there will be no question whatever as to proper support for education and increast salaries for teachers. After all, the needs of the schools rather than adequate pay for teachers is the telling argument. Education is a matter of state concern. The schools belong to the people. It is time to go openly and directly to the people for an adequate financing of their schools. Salary increase, from its minimum demands, should be safe-guarded. We have often said that a teacher is either worth more or less than she is getting. In other words, it is wrong to penalize the good teacher because some of those in the pro- fession are weak or incompetent. It is to be hoped that it will not be necessary to enact laws for the establishment of minimum salaries. An amount equal to $1,500, however, should be the minimum for any teacher anywhere. Moreover, any system is inadequate which would compel an excellent teacher of a primary grade to seek a high-school position in order to secure a living salary. Only as teachers are paid can we hope to secure men and women to carry on the profession. Professional standards should so be increast that sound men and women will know that teaching is a profession. The California plan of going direct to the people with an initiative proposal for a constitutional amendment to provide money for the schools is the plan adopted in some other states. And the people will listen. But if we are to do away with teacher shortage; if we are to attract high-grade men and women to the schools; if standards are to increase, we must now cease to talk salaries, as such, and talk, instead, the financing of public education. No longer do we need to strike comparison of the wage scale for teachers with that of the scrub woman, the hod carrier, the 158 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National plumber, the carpenter, the day laborer. Such comparison was necessary in the beginning to attract public interest. Teaching must, as a profession, rest upon those who remain in it. The talk of a "Uving wage " is no longer to be tolerated. Teachers should be paid for the services they render the community. If there are other public servants or private employes whose services are of greater worth, we are ignorant of the fact. THE TENURE OF TEACHERS JAMES FERGUSON, PRINCIPAL, HIGH SCHOOL, CHICO, CALIF. When your committee on teachers' salaries, tenure, and pensions was appointed nine years ago the problem uppermost was how to change the "job" of teaching into a life-work which would be recognized as a "pro- fession. " To enable teaching to draw into and hold in its ranks men and women of superior ability in the same degree that the establisht professions do, it was universally agreed that there must be higher salaries, a secure tenure, and adequate pensions for teachers. The high cost of living, as a result of the world-war, has demanded for the salary question immediate attention. Teachers today are not so much concerned with the question of how to build up a teaching profession as they are with the one of how they are going to pay their monthly bills. Besides, the argument from this latter point of view is more easily under- stood and appreciated, and is more Hkely of unanimous acceptance both by teachers and the public at large. Clothing, groceries, rents, etc., have increast from two to five times in cost since 19 14, while teachers' salaries have increast but Httle. The teachers' standard of hving is lower than it was six years ago, but that of mechanics and laborers is higher, due to their increast wages. Never before in our history has the general public been so favorable toward increast salaries for teachers, due in large measure to the educative work of the National Education Association, and I confidently expect to see teachers come into their own in this request, and that very soon. But when we shall have attained to the most favorable salary conditions there will still remain a most serious problem to be dealt with — that of tenure. It is particularly fortunate that the committee should present a report on this subject at this time and suggest action while the public is in a receptive state. It has been estimated that the average tenure of public-school teachers in the United States is about three years. I know of rural communities even in Golden California where it has averaged less than two years in the last decade. (Parenthetically, I may here remark that the present law in California referred to as giving permanent tenure to teachers unless the school trustees give notice of dismissal before June 10 of each year, Council] - THE TENURE OF TEACHERS 159 has but one effect — that of shortening the period of suspense and giving the teacher a longer time in which to find another position. It was a step in the right direction, but so far as tenure is concerned, it is a negligible one.) Unless such conditions are changed, high salaries and desirable pension laws can carry school teaching no higher than the rank of a tramp profession. The old-time itinerant Methodist preacher was more secure in his tenure than is the public-school teacher of today. Unskilled laborers can select the location in which they desire to build a home, knowing that they can remain permanently in one locality if they desire. But the teacher knows with certainty. that he cannot do this. He will have to move in a few years at the best. If he desires to have a permanent home his best invest- ment is a gypsy wagon. The present system does not protect the efficient teacher nor does it I get rid of the inefficient teacher — two vitally serious defects. Any system of school administration which lays claim to being successful must eliminate these. With most of those who have tried to reform our school system along this line, I fear the chief consideration has been how to provide an easy method of getting rid of teachers who are considered inefficient, even if in the process of elimination some mistakes may be made and a competent teacher now and then dropt. In this process it seems to be assumed that it is better to sacrifice the innocent rather than let one guilty person escape — a process just the opposite of that which we follow in dealing with horse thieves and social parasites in general. Even with our present imperfect system of certificating teachers, with its widely differing standards applied by normal schools, universities, and local boards of examination, it can be safely assumed that the vast majority of persons certificated to teach will be in the main efficient. A tenure, more secure than that of annual election by local district boards, should be guaranteed them while working thru a probationary period. This probation should be served under the super- vision of educational experts possessing the power to make the tenure permanent when in their judgment the candidates prove themselves in actual work for a definite stated period. The method of certificating teachers should be modified, however, so that no one would receive a ermanent certificate until after this probationary period had been served uccessfuUy. I suggest that the state function as a more effective unit of school dministration by organizing under the state board of education a depart- ent consisting of educational experts and bringing into cooperation city nd county units of administration, whose duties and powers shall include e following: I. The supervision of the entire school system of the state thru visitation nd other effective means. i6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National 2. The making of regular reports to the state board of education of school visits, and the classification of teachers based upon the results of such supervision. 3. The hearing of request from local district boards of education for changes of teachers, or of requests from teachers for transfer to other schools. 4. The transfer of teachers from one school to another whenever the educational interests of the state require the same; (provided, perhaps, that no teachers be transferred from a position without the approval of the local board of trustees). 5. The appointment of new teachers, duly certificated, to fill vacancies. 6. The recommendation to the state board* of education of suspension or revocation of teachers' certificates for cause, with proper safeguards against injustice. Such an organization would secure life tenure for efficient teachers, and provide a just method of getting rid of the inefficient. It would provide an efficient method of assigning to positions teachers whose personal and professional qualities fit them particularly for special tasks both in the classroom and in the community at large. It would enable every teacher to devote 100 per cent of her energy to the immediate task of caring for the educational interests of the children under her care. And it would save to the teachers the hundreds of thousands of dollars now paid in salary commissions to teachers' agencies. SECRETARY'S MINUTES CLEVELAND MEETING OFFICERS President—RoiiER H. Seerley, president State Teachers College Cedar Falls, Iowa Vice-President — Josephine Corliss Pileston, state superintendent of public instruction Olympia, Wash. Secretary — Adelaide Steele Baylor, federal agent for home economics . .Washington, D.C. FIRST SESSION — Monday Afternoon, February 23, 1920 The National Council of Education convened in regular session on Monday afternoon, February 23, 1920, at 2:00 o'clock, in the Main Assembly Room of the Hotel Winton. The meeting was called to order by Homer H. Seerley, president. The president stated one of the large responsibilities of the executive ojQficers to be that of keeping a careful record of the attendance of members and checking this in accordance with the constitution, after which the following program was presented: Mrs. Grace Strachan Forsythe, New York, N.Y., invited the cooperation of the Council in a scheme to awaken the public, thru the use of moving pictures, to the shortage of teachers in the schools, and the necessity for supplying conditions to relieve this as speedily as possible. Council] SECRETARTS MINUTES i6i "Teachers' College Problems" — David Felmley, president, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, 111. "General Education Problems" — Charles H. Judd, head of the department of education, The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. "Preliminary Report on Military Instruction and Educational Institutions" — John R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. "Special Report, Committee on Thrift" — Arthur Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education, San Francisco, Cal. Discussion. Business Meeting — On motion the following action was taken by the Council on the reports of other Committees: (i) The report of the Committee on Teachers' College Problems was adopted. (2) The Committee on Military Instruction and Educational Institutions was continued, to report at the Salt Lake City meeting. (3) The Committee on Thrift was instructed to make a final report at the February meeting in 192 1. SECOND SESSION— Monday Evening, February 23, 1920. The session was called to order at 8:00 o'clock by the President. The following program was presented: "Report of the Committee on Superintendents' Problems" was the general topic for the meeting. "Democratic Influences in the Public Schools" — ^John W. Carr, chairman of the committee, Louisville, Ky. "Democratic Factors in the Curriculum — Further Report of the Sub-Committee on Curriculum" — A. Duncan Yocum, professor of educational research and practice, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. "Democracy in the Kindergarten" — Anna Rasmussen, Cleveland, Ohio. "Ideals of Democracy Applied to English Teaching" — Walter Barnes, Fairmont, W. Va. Etta V. Leighton, of the National Security League, made a plea for help in teaching children democratic principles. Thq general topic of "Democracy in Management" was next presented. "The Practicability of Participation of Teachers in Management" — Charles S. Meek, superintendent of city schools, San Antonio, Tex. "The Participation of the Teaching Staff in School Administration" — ^H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Berkeley, Cal. "The Viewpoint of the Commission on National Emergency in Education" — George D. Strayer, professor of educational administration, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity, New York, N.Y. "Democracy in Management of Schools" — Charles B. Stillman, president of the American Federation of Teachers, Wilmette, 111. "Report on Study of Participation of Teachers in Management of Schools" — Harlan Updegraff, professor of educational administration, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. THIRD SESSION — Tuesday Afternoon, February 24, 1920 The session was called to order at 2 : 00 o'clock by the President. The President read a letter from Mr. Bicknell, the first president of the Council, in which he extended his congratulations to the officers and members and referred to a paper read by himself forty years ago before the National Department of Superintendence on "The Proposed National Council of Education." On motion, the Secretary was instructed to send a letter of congratulation to Mr. Bicknell, in the name of the Council. The general topic for the meeting was "Health Service." Introduction of Report — Thomas D. Wood, professor of physical education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Ten-Minute Addresses by: William B. Owen, president Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111.; Charles H. Keyes, president Skidmore School of Arts, Saratoga Springs, i62 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [National N.Y.; John M. Dodson, physician, Chicago, 111.; Mrs. Ira Couch Wood, director, Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, New York, N.Y.; G. W. Goler, physician, Rochester, N.Y.; Charles M. DeForrest, modern health executive. National Tuberculosis Society, New York, N.Y. It was decided that this Committee would be continued until further announcement was made. "The Main Issue of the Year" — Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash. Business Meeting — On motion to refer the report of Mr. Judd's committee to the Executive Committee of the Council for action, an amendment was offered to instruct the Executive Committee to operate in the spirit of the organization as originally laid down in the constitution. Carried as amended. A motion was carried, to the effect that there be created a committee of seven on the preaching of democracy thru the various school subjects and forces of instruction, with the cooperation of experts representing particular fields and subjects. J. H. Van Sickel introduced the following resolution, which was unanimously approved : Whereas, The report on the "Study of Participation of Teachers in Management" contained data of such value as to justify a continuance of this investigation; Be it resolved, That a committee of ten be appointed — five from the membership of the Council, and five from the National Department of Superintendence — to cooperate in the further study of this important problem, and that the Executive Committee of the National Education Association be askt to make an appropriation of Five Hundred Dollars ($500 . 00) for use by the above committee in its work. • Superintendent Van Sickel, of the Council, was authorized to carry the matter before the Department of Superintendence to secure the appointment of five members from that body, and the president of the Council was authorized to appoint five members from the Council. Believing that the usefulness of the Committee on Health Problems could be enlarged by adding to its membership five women in daily contact with actual school conditions, President Seerley nominated the following for that purpose: Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash., Katherine Devereaux Blake, public schools. New York, N.Y., Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo., Ada Van Stone Harris, city normal school, Pittsburgh, Pa., Margaret S, McNaught, commissioner of elementary^ education, Sacramento, Cal. These reconmiendations were unanimously endorst. Mr. Owen called attention to the Art Committee appointed by him at the meeting of the National Council one year ago, for the purpose of bringing into closer relation art in the industrial fields with general art instruction. The President appointed Mr. Owen to complete the organization of the Committee and the necessary business preliminary to a report. The Committee on Rural Schools was requested to make a preliminary report at the Salt Lake City meeting and a complete report at the meeting in February, 192 1. Adelaide Steele Baylor, Secretary Council! REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 1 63 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT WITH RECOMMENDATIONS AS TO POLICIES AND PLANS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA By the 19 14 Constitution, governing this National Council of Edu- cation, this administration has a three-year period of active existence and can, therefore, plan the work to be undertaken for that length of time. The members of the Council can well afford to settle down to something constructively definite and thus get results that cannot be obtained by impulsive and temporary undertakings. It is also necessary for the Council to take action on the length of time that committees appointed by it are to continue, as even a committee should have a time- limit as to existence. Some present committees have been in existence for ten years and are not any nearer completing the work assigned than they were five years ago. When committees are to continue work beyond a definite period that should be determined, then said committee ought to lapse so far as having a hearing before the Council. is concerned, as no com- mittee should be indefinitely continued unless specifically authorized at the end of stated period. It remains for some system to be inaugurated that will get early results from such organized movements for information and investigation and this should be determined at an early date if accept- able progress is to be a reality. This comment is not discussing the value of the services that have been rendered in the past, because this Council has a full understanding of appreciation on this issue, nor is it suggesting that committees now in existence should be arbitrarily discontinued whether their work is completed or not, but that some definite conclusions should be reacht in administering the committee system of reporting on assigned subjects in a reasonable period of time. As president, I have askt certain temporary committees to report on the present live problems in education that seem to them to be of such character that they deserve the recognition that assignment to committees will give. This has been done to learn the opinion of the Council as an organization of delegated workers as to the important hnes of educational progress in order to get from the members a decision on what undertakings are of the largest immediate value to public education in the United States. As this organization for service is of such supreme importance in enabling the Council to get into well-understood action at once, I suggest that decision on these reports shall get partial completion at least at this time and that the final consideration of what remains to be decided shall be reached at the regular annual meeting of the Council in l64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National July. These main attempts at this time deal with (i) the need of activity and capability of service of the membership committee; (2) the teacher- college problems of special character that should be accepted for studies; (3) the general education problems of large importance and helpfulness to the American pubhc school; (4) military instruction and training in the United States and the part the educational institutions should play in such effort. These committees' studies are to be placed before the members of this Council as propositions for serious work and for productive service with the belief that the proposed organization will be an improvement on the method of hoping and waiting for some great themes to be projected by the contributors to the annual meetings of the National Education Association. In these later days, it is customary for committees undertaking great educational problems to deem an appropriation from the National Edu- cation Association treasury as a fundamental means to get the service that is thought desirable to be performed. This conclusion is based on the impression that large expenses are a necessity as a matter of course. Know- ing something about the resources, the income, and the expenditures of the National Education Association, I do not see how much extraordinary financial support could be expected, and at the same time I am not certain that such a backing is essential to undertake much of the investigation that this body of committees can be authorized to attempt. TEACHERS' COLLEGE PROBLEMS DAVID FELMLEY, PRESIDENT, ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY, NORMAL, ILL. The teachers' college is not the exclusive agency for the preparation of teachers, but it is the state's chief agent; and as such it must build up the professional spirit, estabhsh the standards, create the ideals, send out the men and women whose call is to educational leadership. T4ie logic that justifies the teachers' college on the ground that the state must prepare its own teachers carries with it irresistibly the inference that to perform its legitimate function the normal school must make provision for the adequate training of teachers fitted to direct or perform the work of every phase of the common school from the kindergarten to its culmination in the public school. Hence any attempt to list the most important problems of teachers' colleges and normal schools must rest upon (i) a clear conception of the social purposes of the public schools; (2) definite knowledge of the suc- cesses and failures of the pubUc schools {a) as a political institution of nationahsm, and {h) as an agency of conscious progress; (3) clear knowl- edge of the nature and origin of the obstructive factors of the educational situation, which restrict the success of the public schools. Council] TEACHERS' COLLEGE PROBLEMS 165 The larger and controlling problems of teachers' colleges are those which concern their professional function in national and international social economy, i.e., the service they are expected to give to state or federal systems of public education; the direction they are expected to give to the development of public education as an agency of conscious progress, the changes they are expected to promote in the interests of the nation which the public schools are maintained to serve, and in the interests of the wider unity of men which cosmopolitanism makes desirable. In short, our problems are the several aspects of the general problem of deserving and securing educational leadership in public education. Teachers' college problems may be divided into two classes: (i) internal problems of organization and efficiency thru which they are to deserye leadership in education; (2) external problems of securing confidence, recognition, and support — the opportunity of functioning as leaders in education. Your committee submits the following list of Internal Problems peculiar to teachers' colleges: 1. Professionalizing the branches of study. — Geography, arithmetic, history, and the like are to be studies in the normal school from the teacher's point of view. It is this professional attitude toward subjects of study, the instruments of the teacher's art, that constitutes the chief difference between a teachers' college and an ordinary liberal arts college. 2. Providing better instruction in citizenship. — The prevaihng social un- rest, the lack of social responsibility among large classes of our people, the prevalence of extreme radical doctrine among us, especially among our citizenship of foreign birth, has filled many persons with alarm, and has convinst most of us that our prevailing system of civic education is not adequate. 3. Provisions for better health education. — ^This means that we must train teachers not only to be learned in physiology and the rules of hygiene, in games and sports, and formal physical exercises, but also to exemplify the hygienic life — negatively by abstinence from stimulants and narcotics and from excess; positively by participation and leadership in a life of joyous companionship in work and play. 4. Elimination from the curriculum of merely traditional subjects — subjects that do not directly function in the life of today. — This proposition to which we all agree when stated in general terms means that we must first settle among ourselves what subjects are obsolete and then educate the pubhc. 5. To provide instruction in psychology that will function in teaching. — A questionnaire among any group of our graduates of ten years' experience will reveal the Uttle practical benefit that formal psychology carries. i66 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [National 6. To secure teachers with fine personal skill in teaching. — Young teachers inevitably teach largely as they have been taught; the technique of every art is learned chiefly thru imitation. 7. To do something worth while for the rural schools.— There must be a study of the environment of the rural school, nature study, agriculture, the problems of country life, to enable the teacher better to appreciate and love the things in the country; the school subjects must be studied in their application to a rural environment. 8. To secure adequate facilities for practice teaching. — The training de- partment is the heart of the teachers' college. Here professors may judge of the real effectiveness of their instruction. Here are estabHsht the habits, standards, and ideals of class management that determine the teacher's worth. 9. To standardize our terminology, so that such a title as principles of education shall stand in our catalogs for substantially the same mass of subject-matter. Of what we have called External Problems, having to do with the recognition of normal schools, we propose: 1. To attract more students. — ^AU higher educational institutions saw their attendance dwindle during the world- war. The universities and col- leges have regained their losses partly because of the vast number of dis- charged soldiers without employment, partly because of the extraordinary prosperity of the middle and upper classes from which their students come. 2. Securing adequate funds to enable us to pay as good salaries as are paid in the colleges and universities. — Good teaching in the university ends there, but good teaching in the teachers' college, like seed, is multiplied many times. 3. To persuade the common mind as represented in school hoards that professional training makes better teachers. — It is the deliberate conviction of your committee that in filling less than half of the teaching positions is the superior fitness of the trained teacher recognized. Members of school boards themselves usually have no special fitness for their office. 4. To secure among high-school teachers recognition of the worth of pro- fessional teaching. — Most high-school teachers are trained in the liberal- arts colleges. In these institutions the normal schools for two generations have been condemned for low standards of scholarship and for undue emphasis upon method. Only within four years has the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools admitted the value of pro- fessional training for high-school teachers. 5. To secure for the work of the teachers^ colleges just recognition from the universities. — Some universities count two years' work in the normal school as the full equivalent of two years' work in their own liberal arts curriculums. Others grant no such recognition. In four, possibly five, states, graduates of the four-year curriculum in the state teachers' colleges are admitted Council] PROGRAM OF CONSTRUCTIVE WORK 167 to the graduate school of the university on the same terms as the graduates of other colleges. In the other states such admission is denied. 6. To secure acknowledged leadership in framing public-school curricu- lum.— In Illinois forty years ago a movement began among a few county superintendents for a course of study for country schools. The course prepared by them has undergone frequent revisions, but of late the revision has been wholly in the hands of the normal schools. 7. To secure for principals and superintendents at least a part of their education in teachers^ colleges. — Is the superintendent to be a real guide and leader ? Then he must know the educational background of his teachers. He should be trained in a professional environment where the same standards are set up, the same philosophy expounded, the same principles and methods taught as are taught to the teachers who are to work under his direction. 8. To secure recognition in such organizations as the Association of Collegiate Alumnae. 9. To secure for the governing hoards of teachers^ colleges due freedom of administration. — ^In some states, especially where all the higher educational institutions are under a single board, such freedom exists. But in others, the normal-school boards in immediate touch with those institutions have Httle real power. There are super-boards or commissions with power to veto or checkmate all their acts, to the great injury of the schools. 10. To secure in the various states laws for the certification of teachers that shall give due recognition to professional education, — In most states certificates are still granted by examination under conditions that made it very easy for high-school graduates and persons of even lower scholar- ship to obtain teachers' certificates without any professional training. In many states provisional certificates are issued without any regard to legal standards. These low-grade teachers by their competition keep teachers' salaries at a low level. In others, the highest form of certificate is granted after a two years' course in a teachers' college, whereas the highest form should require at least a four-year teachers' college course. PROGRAM OF CONSTRUCTIVE WORK Summary of Report presented to the National Council by a special committee appointed to draw up a Program of Constructive Work for the Council for the next three years. Committee consists of: J. F. Sims, president State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis.; Josephine Corliss Preston, superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash.; H. B. Wilson, superintendent of Schools, Berkeley, Calif.; Sarah Louise Arnold, dean, Simmons College, Boston, Mass.; J. W. Gwinn, superintendent of schools, New Orleans, La.; Charles H. Judd, Chairman. i68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Report presented at the meeting of the Council by the chairman, Charles H. Judd, Director of the School of Education of the University of Chicago, at the session of the Council, Monday afternoon, February 23. The National Council in its original organization was intended to be a small, intimate conference in which the leaders of education in the country would lay out certain investigations which could then be suggested to appropriate divisions of the National Education Association for intensive study. The Council has departed from its traditions and has devoted itself, like other divisions of the Association, to large, public meetings with set papers and reports of committees. Indeed, it has come to be the re- sponsible center for the work of several committees which are virtually standing committees representing limited special interests. The Council can render a distinctive service to American education only by returning at once and wholeheartedly to its original purpose and form of organization. The present committee has prepared and presents to the Council for its vote a series of problems which are capable of pre- liminary formulation in the Council as a first step in the direction of a refer- ence of the problems thus laid out to some appropriate agencies which can devote time to their thoro study. The problems which are thus brought to the attention of the Council include matters of school revenue and public taxation, problems of organ- ization of the curriculum with special reference to the teaching of social studies, problems of city school charters and state laws regarding state departments of education, problems of health, and the training of teachers. The program of the next three years of the Council can well be de- voted to preliminary study of such problems. PROBLEMS 1. The sources of school revenue. — ^This investigation should consider the matter of taxation, of distribution of available public funds, of future possibilities of securing adequate funds for schools. It should cover also the means of publicity by which com- mittees may be made acquainted with the facts. 2. Equalization of educational opportunity. — An investigation of existing conditions in the states and of the means both financial and supervisory to be adopted in bringing opportunity to a uniform level. 3. The teaching profession. — Investigation of various methods of recruiting the teach- ing profession and keeping members of the profession efficient during active service. 4. State school system. — An inquiry into the fundamental principles involved in the organization of the various school systems. A comparative study of the practices in these states. This inquiry should issue in suggestions useful to constitutional con- ventions. 4 5. City school systems. — A study of school charters, activities of school boards, and of the fundamental principles of organization which can be recommended. 6. Instruction in social subjects. — Explained with reference to content and method. There should be a study of the needs of pupils in various grades of schools and of the needs of adults, both foreign-born and native. The whole problem should be treated as a phase of the Americanization movement. Council] THRIFT AND CONSERVATION i6g 7. Special reqtiirements in home economics in all grades of schools. — This investigation to cover present practices and methods of putting such courses on a proper footing. 8. The relation of industrial education to academic education. — This should cover the problems of administration of these two types of education as well as the content appro- priate to both. \ 9. Physical education and health. — A study of current practices in this matter, and of devices for placing physical education on a footing which shall give it equal recognition with other subjects of instruction. 10. Reorganization of the last years of the elementary school and the first year of the high school. — This should not repeat the summaries which have been made of the junior high school movement, but should consider in detail the changes in the curriculum and organization necessary to correct defects which are general in the existing seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. 11. Junior colleges. — A study of the tendency to extend the public high school up- ward to include the early years of the college. 12. Textbooks. — The method of making and distributing textbooks. This investiga- tion should find some way of getting at the facts and of correcting the purely negative tendency of much present legislation which is enacted to limit book companies on the one hand, and teachers on the other, in the production and adoption of textbooks. 13. Teacher participation in school administration. — Such a study may start with an investigation of teachers' councils, their organization and modes of operation, but should go much farther and include all forms of cooperative administration. 14. A national system of teachers' licenses. — How this can be brought about and the principles on which it should be projected. 15. Extension of education. — What is to be the content of courses arranged for classes of children and adults who are being educated outside of the regular school curri- culum. The social institutions other than the schools which participate in extension edu- cation should be included in this inquiry. THRIFT AND CONSERVATION ARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA COUNCIL OF EDUCATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. The last report of the Committee on Thrift Education to the National Council was made at the summer meeting at Pittsburgh in 191 8, almost twenty months ago. At that time the war was reaching its most critical stage. The future of civilization hung in close balance. The entrance of the United States actively into the great conflict, as was seen to be essential to the desired outcome, carried to our people for the first time in their history, general understanding of the real significance of thrift. There was brought home the necessity for universal recognition of the application and practice of the thrift principles. Your Committee has had to turn again and again to point need for emphasis upon thrift in its everyday, broader aspects. The present tend- ency is to stress unduly one or another special phase of thrift. While these special movements toward thrift may be decidedly worth while, such restriction narrows the field and clouds the vision. This narrowing tend- ency has been developt and re-inforst thru the activi*ties and efforts of numerous societies and organizations and social agencies and commercial I70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National ventures. Much of this work has been well meaning and helpful. Other efforts have been characterized by selfish motives and personal ambitions. The very term 'thrift" has been twisted and warped and perverted to fit all manner of plans and projects, the sole motive for which has been personal benefit. The efforts of this Committee have been in no slight degree directed, thru a campaign of education to teachers and public generally, toward impressing the fact that thrift must be understood and practiced, both as an economic measure and as a training for character. In the understanding of your Committee, thrift comprehends not merely the making (earning) and saving of money and its proper investment and use. All this is one of the cornerstones of the thrift that is to find introduction into the course of study and have general application to the affairs of everyday life. Too much emphasis can hardly be placed upon the financial side, upon savings and investments as fundamental factors in thrift. It may happen that while functioning in terms of social service, results from a given action may be measured in terms of dollars and cents. What has our Committee actually accomplisht toward practicalizing thrift in the lives of the people as shown thru results from school and society generally? The thrift essay contests for children and adults have started trends of thought that will have their effect from one end of the country to the other. These essays discuss the meaning of and need for thrift, and how it may be introduced into the schools. The lives of successful men and -women are studied and their experiences cited to show the value of thrift in the common life of today. The preparation of these essays has involved study in history, geography, economics. They connect up with work in composition and English, and create interest in other lines of school work. Two bulletins prepared by the Thrift Committee and printed and circulated thru cooperation of the American Society for Thrift have done more to carry the subject over from the field of precept into that of practice, than have any like publications. These bulletins were in reality studies of the actual work being done by school children. They discust thrift in action. No phase of thrift is more important than that of the proper use of time. The waste of spare moments thru the period of a lifetime runs into weeks and months. Lack of application to some worthwhile task results during a long life in the actual loss of years. Concentration upon a prob- lem toward a desired end; the constant "hammering away"; strict attention to the work in hand; the exclusion of minor and unimportant details, with attention focust upon the main issue; these are more certain guaranties of success and satisfaction than are occasional brilliant plays. One of the most important lessons the school must teach is the value of time. Thrift is essential to national health. In the schools, in the camps and cantonments, thruout our army in France and Germany, the need for Councai THRIFT AND CONSERVATION 171 the strong body has received constant emphasis. There is being felt the influence of proper sanitation, of wholesome food and balanst ration, of right ventilation and lighting and heating, of adequate housing conditions, of good exercise and posture. Those schools now giving proper attention to thrift studies are focusing upon the principles here laid down. Hundreds of men and boys in the army overseas have told us that on return to America they would never again be content to live under conditions such as those surrounding them before the war. Physically fit individuals cannot develop in crampt, dark, damp, poorly ventilated living and sleeping rooms. Unwholesome water and lack of sanitation are enemies of health. During war time, thrift work in school and home made saving dignified. Children knitted sweaters for soldiers, and girls made garments for their own use. Clothing was renovated and repaired instead of thrown away. Shoes were sent to the cobbler. Our subsequent high prices have aided this movement. While undue extravagance now exists, still, the garbage can requires emptying less frequently than before. Salvage of waste materials had an inning in war time, particularly thru the school. The effect is not yet lost. The actual money value from salvage of bottles, bags, paper, rags, cans, string, metals, leather, runs into figures hardly to be believed. Thrift teaching lays emphasis upon simplicity in food and dress. Indulgence in confectionery and gum should be temperate. Pupils are askt to refrain from overattendance at entertainments and motion-picture shows. We have hardly begun to realize our annual losses from forest fires, from soil needlessly carried to the sea, from waste of water from leaking pipes or that might be stored for use, from unproductive lands only awaiting the civilizing touch. The earning of money should be made the duty of every boy and girl. The child in school should be taught to save. Of even greater importance it is that each child should be taught to invest properly and to buy intelli- gently. A knowledge of relative values in buying is essential to right thrift practice. The school savings bank, the Thrift Stamp, the War Savings Stamp, the securities offered by the Savings Division of the Treasury Department — all are valuable channels for savings and invest- ment. To say that emphasis upon money saving and investing is not the chief or only issue in education is in no way to belittle the value of the money side of thrift. In these days of high prices and extravagant tendencies every effort should be made to earn, and invest, and save. Economic prosperity depends more often on the disposition of the income than on the amount of the income or salary received. Every child should early start a bank account, should be made responsible for earning something, and should become familiar with simple business practices. A thrift program at school and at home involves the adoption and use of a budget system, both for 172 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National the individual and for the home. In no better way can there be spread intelUgent thrift habits than by wise spending, judicious investment, and daily use of the budget. This Council has the distinction of initiating, thru its Committee on Thrift Education, the plan of advocating thrift teaching in the schools of the nation. On August 1 6, 19 15, the Congress for Thrift, in session at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition askt for the appointment of a committee to take up at the National Education Association meeting the matter of systematic thrift instruction in the school. Your Thrift Com- mittee was the result. Thrift, therefore, in any of its forms, and wherever appearing, and under whatever auspices, has followed the lead of this present movement. Your Committee is now at work upon detailed plans for a complete system of thrift teaching in the schools. It is planned to have the matter presented before teachers' institutes and educational associations, and to have the subject taught in teachers' courses at summer sessions. We are just now entering upon a period when we are to reap the benefits of our several years of study and investigation. It is hoped to soon have in readiness a complete series of thrift literature for class use in all grades. Already a number of books have been issued and others are in preparation. The members of this body are earnestly requested to use every effort possible toward bringing before the schools of the country, not only the why^ but the what and the how of thrift teaching. Council members will, we are sure, be ready at an early date to respond with such information as may be askt for by the Committee, thus to aid in furthering the work of thrift education in the United States. THE NEED FOR TEACHING A DEMOCRATIC SOLUTION OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS A. DUNCAN YOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND PRACTICE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The acid test of democracy is twofold — the voluntary giving up or the compulsory surrender thru the due process of law of every individual right which conflicts with the common welfare, and the inalienable exercise and preservation thru law of every individual right which does not conflict with the common welfare. No right is inalienable which conflicts with the common good. The rights and privileges of one individual may conflict with those of another. The interests of the labor group may clash with those of the employer group. The welfare of one nation may be developt at the expense of another. But no right of the single indi- vidual, group, or locality, however harmless or beneficial it may be to some- one, can be permitted to conflict with the common rights of all individuals, groups, or localities. Council] NEED FOR TEACHING— SOLUTION OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS 173 As surely as this first principle of limited individual liberty is the acid test between mere liberty and democracy, between individualism in the form of anarchy, nihilism, or bolshevism and a truly democratic republic, so the principle of limited community control is the acid test between democracy and a socialism and communism in which the individual is strip t of rights, the surrender of which is unnecessary to the common good and the unrestricted exercise of which is necessary to his individual happi- ness, whatever the group or community of which he is a part. But as government regulation of industry is subject to the principle of limited community control and the exercise of personal liberty to the principle of limited personal liberty, a particular industrial group, whether trade union or corporation, is doubly limited. The gravest social democracy, which, interferes not only with either individual liberty or the common welfare, but with both individual liberty and the common welfare, is the limitation of production whether by brick layers' union or beef trust, thru imposing a check upon the highest effort of the individual worker or restraining the production of a whole group of workers. It is undemocratic to prevent a man from rising to higher levels thru the highest effort to utilize his natural ability and acquired skill. It is undemocratic to lower the level of the general welfare by decreasing the number of bricks laid each day and therefore the number of houses that other workers can own, or by unnecessarily raising the price of beef and therefore reducing the amount or quality of food that other workers eat. But the greatest undemocracy of all is the comtemptible and unequal acceptance by bricklayers or any other association of producers of goods and service which are cheap because they represent the highest effort of other working groups, and giving in return a product for which others will pay too much, because the bricklayer has workt too little or the beef trust has held its output to secure a higher price for beef.. The men who today, whatever their trade or business, are receiving two or three times their former pay or profit, and giving 60 per cent of their former service, are traitors to democracy, and any rule of organized labor or corporation practice which makes such treason possible should be forbidden by law as harmful both to individual liberty and to the common good. In the face of the supreme and immediate social need of teaching a democracy which demands of the individual all that it needs but no more than it must, it is a self-evident fact that the organization of teachers into labor unions and their alliance with other forms of labor organization, will make it more difficult for us to teach a democratic solution of social prob- lems, unless, with and above our claim for higher pay, we place not only the same duty to the common welfare which forbids police and railroad strikes, but the more peculiar duty to courageously teach in school and out the acid test of democracy however it may limit our own claims or the claims of others. If we are to remain as democratic as we are and to 174 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National become as democratic as our national safety demands we should be, every American must go to school, and every teacher must sincerely and ade- quately teach the double limitation of personal liberty and of community compulsion, by the minimum essential to the common welfare. REPORT OF THE SUB-COMMITTEE ON CURRICULUM OF THE COMMITTEE ON SUPERINTENDENTS' PROBLEMS A. DUNCAN YOCUM, CHAIRMAN The three sections allotted the Sub-Committee on Curriculum in the recently publisht report of the Committee on Superintendents' Problems November, 19 19, merely presented new and important phases of a con- nected piece of work which the Sub-Committee has been carrying on since its organization. Following the papers read by the Chairman before the Department in 1913 on ''The Value of Details within the Course of Study" and in 1914 on "Determinants of the Course of Study," a report was requested on ''The Course of Study as a Test of Efficiency in Supervision" (1916), which was continued in 1917 in a report on "Common Character- istics of Efficient Courses of Study." The 1916 report was accompanied by a paper read before the Department on " Definiteness and Compulsion in Education," and that of 1917 by a symposium, only partly reported in the Proceedings^ in which representative educational thinkers and superintendents quite generally agreed upon the practical nature of the standards proposed. These papers and reports, highly technical in their nature, were to have been followed in 19 18 with a concrete report which was solely to consist of "high spots" in existing courses. Its purpose would have been to illustrate and to popularize the standards previously presented and discust, with a view to making their use easier by superintendents and committees of teachers engaged in the revision of local courses. This report still remains to be presented, because the outbreak of the war turned the attention of the Sub-Committee to the investigation of existing democratic factors in American life and education, upon which it reported in 19 18 and 19 19. The threefold task then undertaken was the issuing of the Democracy Questionnaire to a selected group of cities; a study of the increasing com- pulsion exercised as a result of the war, by society and the state upon the individual, in each of the various phases of social life; and an effort to study and strengthen the contribution to democracy made by the several school subjects and forms of school work. The Democracy Questionnaire, on which tentative report was made at the Chicago Meeting of Council (1919), has been adopted as a research project by the U.S. Bureau of Education, and, therefore, need not be further reported upon to Council. Council] REPORT OF THE SUB-COMMITTEE ON CURRICULUM 175 The first step in the study of the increasing social and political com- pulsion resulting from the war was taken thru a paper presented in questionnaire form to the 1919 meeting of the Religious Education Associa- tion of America, under the title ''What Democracy Should Compel through Rehgion." The assumption by the Chairman of the direction of the activities of the Curriculum Committee in the Interchurch Survey gives more adequate opportunity to investigate the contribution of religious teaching to democracy and the attitude of the church toward a firmer insistence upon the fundamental forms of religion and morality essential to democratic living. A similar cooperation of other agencies will be necessary to satisfactory study of increasing compulsion upon the individual for the sake of the common welfare, exerted in the fields of health, industry, and citizenship. The part played by the Sub-Committee in this evening's program is hmited to a series of tentative reports exemplifying the third phase of the democracy investigation — the contribution made to democracy thru various branches of knowledge and forms of school work. Groups of experts have been formed for which the Council will prove a clearing-house. In the end it is hoped to have represented every field thru which important contribution can be made. Tonight Miss Lucy Wheelock will report progress for a study being carried on by a group of representative kinder- gartners on contributions made by the kindergarten to democracy, Mr. Walter Barnes for a group representing aspects of the teaching of EngHsh, Miss Sarah Louise Arnold for a home economics committee just forming, and Mr. William C. Casey for those who have been leaders in the effort to build up democracy thru the American high school. Each of the four brief reports presented by group chairmen tonight stands for a distinct type of contributions which, if the Council so rules, will be followed by others in similar fields. For example, the report of the English group will be followed by studies carried on by similarly constituted groups in history, geography, mathematics, the classics, etc. The members of each group include as far as possible those who have already made impor- tant contributions to democracy in the branch or field it represents. To illustrate, the English group has in its membership Mr. Henry Neumann who wrote the Bulletin publisht by the National Bureau on "Teaching American Ideals through Literature," Professor Edwin Greenlaw, writer of "The Great Tradition," and Dr. Hosic who speaks before the Department at its present session on the "Democratization of Educational Method." This group committee has been given official promise of cooperation thru certain committees of the National Council of Teachers of English, just as the civics group will have the cooperation of Miss Leighton's Committee on Citizenship in Elementary School, of the National Security League- These various activities and others which they exemplify, together constitute an endless chain which will reach into every aspect of instruction 176 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National and bind together otherwise scattered factors which make for democracy. The chairmen or leaders of the various groups, in effect, constitute the active membership of a representatively constituted Committee on Democracy, for which the National Council, itself representing as it does leadership in every field of educational work and in every state of the Union, is the most natural sponsor. When to the United States Bureau's study through the amended Democ- racy Questionnaire of how each American locality is teaching democracy, is added the contributions made by this Democracy Committee to the fuller and more effective teaching of democracy through every phase of instruction, guided by what we can learn of the new emphasis which must be placed upon particular elements in democracy to meet a rapidly changing social situation, much will have been done toward strengthening the national democratic spirit, and providing the democratic solution for every social problem, without which democracy cannot become either enduring or complete. Note — At the business meeting of Council a resolution was adopted creating a Committee on the Teaching of Democracy, which under Mr. Yocum's chairmanship has taken over the work outlined in the above report. THE PARTICIPATION OF THE TEACHING STAFF IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION H. B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BERKELEY, CALIF. The administration of schools or of any other enterprise involves two aspects. The first is concerned with the discussion, determination, and setting up of the policies, programs and plans which are to be executed. The second consists in the execution of the policies, programs and plans agreed upon. The growing tendency among all democratic peoples, as history clearly reveals, is toward a larger and larger participation in both aspects of administration on the part of all who are concerned in any enterprise. Governmental affairs and policies were formerly both determined and executed by the few who constituted the ruling class. The struggle of the masses to overthrow this autocratic system constitutes the story of the gradual march toward the rights, privileges, and opportunities now enjoyed by all Anglo-Saxon peoples. It was a heroic struggle involving not only great sarcifices of Hfe, but requiring also wise leadership. The struggle of {he common man in industry and commerce has been similar in kind and equally heroic. The day of autocratic domination has ended, not only in governmental affairs, but in education. Participation on the part of the rank and file in formulating policies and programs must precede their intelligent accept- Council] THE TEACHING STAFF AND SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 177 ance and thorogoing execution. The superintendent who is anxious quickly to make a mere showing of a complete and detailed course of study will not like to proceed by the cooperative method of teacher parti- cipation. It takes longer at the outset. The superintendent, however, who is more concerned about what is being taught and done in his schools than he is to be able to hand out extended printed documents will employ the cooperative procedure. He knows that in the long run he will get more worthwhile results. Altho the start is slower, the total large result takes less time than if the initial attack employs the dictatorial procedure. The same principle seems to hold also in making peace treaties. Experience shows that the contribution of the teaching stafif in the enlargement of programs and especially in the details essential in their execution is very great. The improvement in the completeness and help- fulness of courses of study during the last decade largely resulted thru the cooperative attack on the problem in which each participant workt under the stimulus of the ideas of his associates with the result that the total achievement is a large number of courses of study, infinitely more valuable than ever emanated under the former procedure when the superintendent of schools workt alone or with the assistance of a small number of approxi- mately his rank. The details which have thus been injected into courses of study are of a kind which can only come from teachers or from those in intimate and close contact with the work of the teaching staff. These details set forth concrete procedures such as when dramatization may be employed with best effect, the type of procedure in socialized recitations, the kind of material which may be best taught by the problem attackt, and so on. These courses of study likewise set forth results attained. Extended quota- tions from the finisht work of pupils in the various subjects find place in such courses of study. These bring guidance and inspiration to the teacher. The motives employed and the means of invoking the same are likewise detailed. One of the finest satisfactions which comes to me as I look back over my brief experience arises out of the evident large growth which has come to a few people from taking on and discharging responsibilities from which they were inclined to shrink when they were first offered. Not all of any teaching staff will grow to the extent that this comment suggests, but 80 to 90 per cent of the entire teaching staff in any city system where I have been privileged to work has been rendered ambitious thru having an oppor- tunity to participate in the large plans and policies which are in process of development. I believe that any teaching staff or faculty will respond up to the Umit of its energy and ability to a constructive study under good leadership, looking to the improvement of the educational opportunities provided by the institution or system in which they are serving. My experience is that teachers, not only respond to it and work faithfully, 178 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National but they impose on themselves much heavier requirements in the dis- charge of their duties than it ever occurred to me to impose. When such work is under way there is every evidence that the participants enjoy it. They evidence this in many ways, particularly by coming in to see how the whole program is developing, how their particular piece of work fits into the whole scheme, and so on. It hever fails to happen that teachers who are not at first used in these larger relations will come in after some of their associates have been at work for a time, to ask if there is not some- thing they may do or some way in which they may be used, saying *'I want to grow and develop and avoid getting into a rut." Fundamental, constructive leadership, working cooperatively, must be developt rapidly in education. Only this type of procedure can succeed. It is as essential in securing and maintaining community interest and support of public education, as it is in leading and directing the rank and file of teachers into the securing of the largest results. The day of the policeman-like, know-it-all school administrator has past. Not only can he not succeed, but the day is not far distant when he will not be able to even get a job. In his place is appearing a new type of administrator. He conceives his mission to be the creation of wholesome conditions for work on the part of teachers and pupils and the bringing to all of his associ- ates breadth of view, greater vision, and stimulating inspiration. DEMOCRACY IN MANAGEMENT OF THE SCHOOLS CHARLES B. STILLMAN, PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS, WILMETTE, ILL. Democracy in the management of the schools is a subject on which both the American Federation of Teachers and the American Federation of Labor have definitely and repeatedly declared themselves. In fact the American Federation of Teachers at the time of its organization adopted among the objects laid down in its Constitution the following: To raise the standard of the teaching profession by securing the conditions essential to the best professional service; and to promote such a democratization of the schools as will enable them better to equip their pupils to take their place in the industrial, social, and political life of the community. And that ideal of a democratic participation of classroom teachers in the conduct of the schools has been at least as strong a driving force ^ in our movement as the ideal of some approach to economic justice for teachers. Our calling must be made self-respecting as well as self-supporting if it is to retain and attract strong men and women. The most dangerous center of arbitrary power of the public schools has sometimes been the board of education, and sometimes administrative and supervisory officialdom. Both must be brought within the category of Council] DEMOCRACY IN MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS 179 democratic institutions. The board of education should be the agency fairly representing the public in the determination of the policies of the public schools. So that the public may have direct, effective control, we believe that school boards should be elected, at judicial or other special elections, subject to recall, rather than appointed by public officials whose election has usually turned on public utility or other non-school issues. In the past the groups disproportionately, and often exclusively, represented on school boards have been real estate and commercial interests, physicians, and lawyers. Surely workers in other lines, both so-called artisan and so-called professional, who are the parents of the great majority of school children, should have adequate representation. And it would make for both democracy and efficiency if the teachers, in their capacity as citizens, and citizens with specialized training and experience, were represented on boards of education. There could be no question of their first-hand knowl- edge of the needs of the schools, and as to their disinterestedness, surely no one mentally competent can believe that anyone with a drop of mercenary blood in his veins could deliberately enter the calling of teaching. A statement, adopted by the American Federation of Labor in 191 7 and 19 1 8, and endorst by our Pittsburgh Convention, follows: Your committee is alarmed by the lack of democracy in the conduct of our schools. Our American school system is administered autocratically, the teachers actually on the job in the classrooms having a negligible voice in the determination and carrying out of policies. Self-governing school and district councils of teachers should be establisht for the purpose of utilizing the experience and initiative of the teaching body in the conduct of the schools and the recommendations of such councils should be made a matter of official record. When consideration is given the effective part played by. the Prussian school system in the development of the habit of instinctive, unthinking obedience on the part of the masses of the people, the vital importance to American institutions of break- ing away from Prussian methods in our school system is driven home. Let no one raise the objection that the teachers are not qualified to participate in management. Faculties tend to atrophy thru disuse, and the wonder is that they are so well qualified. But the value of the con- tributions of the classroom teacher has been demonstrated. And the sense of increast responsibility, the feeling of no longer being a mere cog in the machine, would prove a stimulus of untold value to the schools and the community. I cannot close without reference to the increasing number of super- intendents, principals, and other school officials who welcome the present insistent demands for administrative reforms. They, as well as the teachers, feel the new spirit of the times. The large majority of our locals have establisht relations of cordial cooperation with their school authorities. Democracy cannot be handed down from above, it must originate with and be workt out by the teachers themselves. But the schools of many a city have profited from the atmosphere of cooperation made possible by the response of school officials to the democratic ideals of the teachers. i8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National PARTICIPATION OF TEACHERS IN MANAGEMENT, COM- PARISON OF THEORIES, AND SUGGESTED STUDY FOR THEIR EVALUATION HARLAN UPDEGRAIT, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA. In common with many other elements of our political and social life, the administration of our public schools is still in the earlier stages of its evolution. The only administrative organs constituting the first Massa- chusetts public schools were the town meeting and the teacher. The citizens assembled in general meeting appointed the teacher and settled other essential details involved in the conduct of the school. Since that time two new organs have been introduced between them — the board of education and the superintendent with his supervisory assistants. The relationships between the people and the board were pretty well workt out and settled before 1850. During the period before the Civil War and the late world-conflict, our chief organization problem was the determination of the relative functions of the two middle organs, the board of education and the superintendent. While we students and practitioners of administra- tion have workt out a theoretical solution of the problems, we have not as yet succeeded in persuading all boards of education that they should give up, in accordance with our suggestion, some of the authority that they now exercise. ^ And now even before the adjustment between these two organs has been fully made, the relationship of the second original factor, the teacher, to the other three, citizens, board of education, and superintendent, has come preeminently to the forefront. The democratic awakening coinci- dent with the war raised the question whether teachers ought not to be given a larger part in the management of the school than they have had since the development of large city systems. Concomitant with this came the demand for increast salaries, more secure tenure, and better working conditions, due in part to the political movement, but more perhaps to the economic situation and the slowness in adjustment of salaries of pubUc employes to economic changes. Within the past year, as we all know, there has been widespread and greatly increast interest in cooperation of teaphers in management. The program for tonight has been organized in order that we might get first- hand points of view of those men who have been active and prominent in the advocacy of the different forms of organization for this purpose. The various points of view have been clearly and forcibly presented with the result that we are now in a better position to weigh the various theories and plans derived from them. The writer of this report has, with his seminar in educational adminis- tration at the University of Pennsylvania, been closely observing develop- ■^ Council] PARTICIPATION OF TEACHERS IN MANAGEMENT i8l ments with the intention of making an intensive study of the essential elements involved in these developments. Consideration has been given to the definition, the scope, and method of study which the present confused and uncertain state of mind among school administrators and teachers seems to make desirable. The object of this study should be the determination of the question: What form of organ for teacher participation in management of schools should be adopted in each of the various types of situations that may be found to exist in the various public-school systems ? In stating the question in this form, I do not mean to assume that no one agency is best adapted for bringing about the participation of teachers in management in all school systems. Whether this be true will have to be establisht by the study itself. The merit in this form of statement lies in the fact that it requires the careful analysis of each local situation with the purpose of determining the type of organ that is best adapted to it. We may find that there is no best organ for all, or that there are several organs, each of which is best adapted to a particular class of conditions. The difference in the degree to which those holding to the various plans of teacher participation advocate the regulation of social control serves as the key to the method of study. I should like to offer a h3^othetical principal of management for the purpose of testing its vaUdity in this pro- posed study. It is as follows: The best plan for teacher participation in management is that which recognizes thruout the close cooperation of superiors and subordinates in the determination and execution of the policies of the school; and conversely, that in those school systems in which some other form of teacher participation seems to produce better results, it is due to evident shortcomings in the personnel or in the organization of the school system or in the community itself. In order to determine whether this principle shall be accepted or rejected, it will be necessary in the course of the study to do three things. First, ascertain the exact structure of the administrative organs in every city school system in the United States in which organized participation of teachers in management exists in any of the forms mentioned above; second, analyze the situation obtain- ing in any of these school systems, particularly upon those features which are essential to the determination of the truth or falsity of this hypothetical principle, such as for example {a) training, experience, and efficiency of teachers in instruction and management, {h) training, experience, and efficiency of principals, (c) training, experience, and efficiency of superin- tendents and his associates, {d) the number on the administrative and advisory staff in proportion to the number of teachers, {e) attitudes of principals, and of the superintendent and his associates toward capacities for cooperation in teachers, (/) the type of men on the school board as regards their willingness to be governed by the opinions of their appointees and their willingness to cooperate with them in management; third, analyze i82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National the results of the operation of the plans in each of the various types of the situation in such ways as will shed light on the truth or falsity of this principle. Undoubtedly the study will reveal the existence of shortcomings in many school systems which would warrant the establishment in those systems of organs of teacher participation which do not exercise in full measure the principle of cooperation. It would seem that the study should attempt to answer the question: What is the best type or organ for par- ticipation of teachers in each of the different typical situations that may be isolated and defined. In order to do this, it will be necessary to study the relative effectiveness of different plans in each of the different t)^es of situations. We should seek to find out also whether in these plans that do not observe the principle of cooperation to the full, there is any relation- ship between the relative meagerness of cooperation provided for and the efficiency of the schools. Very probably the method suggested for this study cannot be applied to that of the proposed plans of some members of the American Federation of Teachers for the selection of superintendents by teachers and for the representation of teachers upon the school boards, because of the lack of cities having such plans. Under such circumstances we shall have to fall back upon those principles and practices which the study seems to establish as desirable in so far as they apply. It is worth while to point out in this connection that the proposed plans of some members of the American Federation of Teachers are directly contrary to other principles of efficiency management than those hereto- fore referred to, particularly those which guarantee superiority of the leader, on the one hand, and his control of selection of assistants, on the other. Time does not permit us to consider here the details of the method to be followed. It presents many difficulties, some of them perhaps insur- mountable. They can best be considered in committee sessions and smaller groups. It will be necessary to develop most particularly methods that are adapted to the solution of such important questions as these: Should the superintendent participate with the teachers in their consideration of questions, or should the teachers act alone? Should the superintendent have the authority to revise the conclusions of the teachers? Should conclusions of the teachers be submitted to the superintendent alone, to the superintendent and the board, or to the board alolie? Should their conclusions, in any event, be given to the people of the community? Should the superintendent have the sole power to initiate questions, or should the teachers have the sole power to initiate questions, or should they both have the right ? Should members of committees be required to express the judgment of teachers as ascertained thru conferences with those who selected them? Should all teachers participate in the selection of their representatives or only a portion of them, those best qualified by Council] PARTICIPATION OF TEACHERS IN MANAGEMENT 183 experience and training? Should teachers express their judgments upon all kinds of administrative questions, or should their deliberations be limited in some way; if so, to what type of questions: should they be confined? In which class of subjects should teachers' judgment be advisory or ad- ministrative ? Should different forms of agencies or organs be created for the consideration of various types of questions ? But it may be said by superintendents and teachers that we cannot wait for the scientific determination of these questions. What course shall we now pursue? Upon this point the following may be said: The results of the scientific study, reported upon to this body just one year ago, of the participation of teachers in the making of courses of study, shows conclusively that such cooperation was beneficial to the schools in the judgment of the superintendents of those school systems in which it was tried. This report expresses the following tentative conclusions regarding the best form of organization for the participation of teachers in management: (a) That a committee of supervisors or principals is not so good as a com- mittee of teachers, and that neither is as good as a committee upon which all are represented, (b) That the larger the number of persons engaged in committee work or in some related capacity the better, (c) That any plan is much strengthened if formal agencies are provided by means of which members of committees can constantly ascertain the attitude of teachers whose work is covered by the proposed course, (d) That the method of selection of members upon the committees should be such as to secure, if possible, the more competent persons for the consideration of every question and also those in whom the teachers have confidence and to whom they can and will express themselves freely as well as receive from them adverse opinion without having their interest chilled. Appoint- ment by superintendent, by principals, or by teachers does not always secure this. A plan of nomination by teachers and appointment by super- intendent is better adapted to meet this end. (e) That the plan should include the largest possible participation of the superintendent or of the expert representing him in all phases of the work, including that of the sub-committee. (/) That revision of courses of study workt out by com- mittees should be reduced to the minimum and if possible be avoided altogether. It would seem that an organ formulated in acordance with these tentative conclusions could safely be adopted and tried out not only without harm to any officer or teacher but on the contrary with great benefit both to teachers and to the schools. Such a plan, moreover, represents the middle ground between the theories of the conservative superintendent on the one hand, who is opposed to a cooperative organization with teachers, and the radical teacher on the other hand, who desires to exclude the super- intendent from the deliberations of teachers or even to go further and exer- cise a controlling part in his selection as well as in the selection of members 1 84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National of the school board. Moreover, experience with such an organization will furnish abundant material for determining whether any departure should later be made from this middle ground position for the advantage of either the teachers or the schools. REPORT FOR COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION THOMAS D. WOOD, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Health is a cornerstone of the foundation of a country. Health is essential to the prosperity, the power, the happiness, and permanence of a people. "The care of health is the first duty of a nation." Health is the most essential and the most neglected of our national resources. The need for constructive conservation and improvement of health has been impressively emphasized by the Great War, and by the accumulating lessons of the post-war period. Our schools are wasting enormous sums in educating, or trying to edu- cate, the children who are handicapt by ill-health when the expenditure of much smaller amounts in a judicious health program would produce an extraordinary saving in economy and efficiency. A dollar spent promptly in a timely, constructive effort to conserve a child's health will be more fruitful for the child and for human society than will a thousand dollars appHed twenty years later. The principle of national thrift finds its first and most vital application in the conservation and improvement of the health of the children. The business of keeping the school children of the country in good physical repair is, as now conducted, a disgrace to the nation. The great majority of people (many of them generally intelligent) fail to appreciate the significance of these defects. This fact, however, does not lessen in any way the injury to the children caused by the neglected health defects. The real danger to the children of the land, as a matter of fact, lies in the ignorance, irresponsibility of, and neglect by, the adults intrusted with, and supposed to be equal to, the most important task of the adults of any species, namely, the care of the young. The children of our country deserve as effective physical care as the live stock. The children are entitled to as careful attention and cultivation as the crops. Shall not the children, drafted by compulsory education into our schools, be assured of as skilful and satisfactory health care as soldiers in camp and trench ? Council] HEALTH SERVICE 185 Every day makes more apparent the fact that the vital part of all con- structive health work for the individual or for the nation is health educa- tion. And the public school is the paramount agency and avenue for this essential of all education, instruction in the practice of, and reasons for, healthful living. The Committee literature now includes three pamphlet reports and- the set of fifty-eight health charts. 1 . Minimum Health Requirements for Rural Schools, Two editions of 800,000 copies of this report have been exhausted, a third edition is being printed. Unprejudist evidence convinces us that this report has exerted a substantial share of influence in the markt improvement in rural-school sanitation in many parts of the United States during the last five years. 2 . Health Essentials for Rural School Children was printed in 50,000 copies. This edition is almost exhausted, and a second, revised edition is just going to press. Most of the copies of this report have been used in normal schools and by rural-school teachers in all parts of the country. 3 . The illustrated "Health Chart" pamphlet was printed in 10,000 copies. This edition was exhausted several months ago and a second edition of 10,000 has just come from the press. This pamphlet not only serves to illustrate and explain the health charts but is being extensively used for health instruction in both city and country schools, and also as a guide in making of health posters and scrapbooks. This graphic method is developing as a -popular and effective device in health teaching. 4. The "Health Chart Set" comprizes fifty-eight charts, each 22X28 inches. The first edition of 600 sets has been completely exhausted and these charts have been sold at actual cost. A second edition of 500 sets of charts is now being printed and orders are on file for nearly 100 sets ol the new edition. The New York City Department of Education has ordered 2500 copies of individual charts for the schools of that city. Our Health Committee deeply appreciates the continued confidence and support of the Council of Education and of the National Education Association. We further acknowledge with earnest gratitude the sustained and increasing cooperation of the Health Committee of the American Medical Association. HEALTH SERVICE JOHN M. DODSON, PHYSICIAN, CHICAGO, ILL. I shall devote the brief time allotted to me to the emphasis of just one theme, and that is that this business of promoting better health conditions in the school is your job as teachers. No one else is in position to exer- cise such an, influence as you are. The medical profession can help, and the presence here of representatives of the American Medical i86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National Association, which comprises more than 80,000 of the physicians of America, is evidence of the eager willingness of the medical profession to assist in every possible way as individuals in their several communities, and col- lectively in their various county, state, and national organizations. No incident of the frightful war, which still casts its shadow over us all, stands out with more prominence than the demonstration both at home and overseas of the tremendous possibilities of modern preventive medicine. In spite of the adverse conditions in which this war was fought, especially in trench warfare, the losses from disease in our army were only as one to four or five by the casualties of war. This is the fact, if we elimi- nate the deaths from the pandemic of influenza and its attendant pneu- monia— an unprecedented onslaught on human life which would have stricken down our soldiers if they had been in civil life in almost as large numbers as it did in camp and cantonment. Even including the deaths from this cause, the losses from disease were but as one to one from the casualties of war. In all previous wars, excepting that of the Japanese in their war with Russia, the losses from disease had been as four to five, and in our Spanish-American war as ten to twelve, to one by wounds. If we could but translate the lessons of this experience to civil life, the saving in death and sickness, with all their attendant suffering, sorrow, and wretchedness, might be lessened beyond belief. And this but requires the application of modern preventive medicine to civil life. I read the other day an admirable definition by Professor Winslow, of Yale, "Preventive medicine," h,e said, "is the science and art of pre- venting disease, of prolonging life, and of promoting physical health and efficiency by organized community Mort for the sanitation of the environ- ment, the control of community infections, the education of the individual in principles of personal hygiene, the organization of medical and nursing service for the early diagnosis and preventive treatment of disease, and the development of the social machinery which will insure to every indi- vidual in the community a standard of living adequate for the maintenance of health." Rigid personal cleanliness and right living are far more potent as factors in preventing disease than pure water supply, sewage disposal, quarantine, and similar public health measures. Moreover, in a community where individuals are thoroly educated in personal hygiene — and only in such a community — is to be found that public sentiment which demands, secures, and adequately supports an efficient public health department. It is true that habits are very largely formed at home, and the teacher has a difficult task indeed when she has to remold the ideas and habits of children from dirty, unsanitary houses; but here the teacher can do much, for thousands of parents, especially of our foreign population, look, thru their children, to the schools for guidance in this as in other matters. Thru the parent-teachers associations, also, the teacher can do much. Council] HEALTH SERVICE 187 The members of the medical profession urge upon you of the teaching profession that you give earnest and unremitting heed to this vital matter of health among the children committed to your care. We urge that you insist to the school authorities (i) that you and your pupils are housed in clean, sanitary school buildings, situated in ample, properly located school grounds, and that these buildings be equipt with all necessary appliances for the maintenance of decent and cleanly habits. (2) That you insist upon physical examination of your pupils, as well as of yourselves, by competent physicians, to detect and prevent the spread of communicable disease, and to discover physical defects which hamper any individual pupil in his work. (3) That you insist upon the provision being made by the parent, where he is able to do so, or by the city or some benevolent agency, for the correction of such of these defects as are remediable, and that special provision be made for the education of those children afflicted with irre- mediable defects, such as the blind, the deaf, the crippled, and the mentally subnormal. (4) That you seek earnestly to secure the introduction of more adequate and effective methods of instruction of school children in that one subject which might surely be of the most interest to every human being — ^knowl- edge of his own body and its welfare. DISCUSSION Mrs. Ira Couch Wood, director, Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, Chicago, 111. — As the only woman member, to date, of this Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education, I am somewhat embarrast to be called upon by the chairman so unex- pectedly. I am happy to say, however, that the chairman and the other members now believe that the women have a contribution to make on this health program, and have askt that other women be placed upon the Joint Committee, whose membership is so ably representative of the professions of medicine and education. Being so recent a member of this committee, and having had no share in the preparation of its several reports, I feel, therefore, free to pay some tribute to the value of these publications in promoting the health of the school child. Referring to the pamphlet on Minimum Health Requirements for Rural Schools, one school principal in Chicago said to me, "You have promoted the distribution of this pamphlet on health with the idea that it would help in the equipment and educational standards of rural schools. I only wish we could have those minimum requirements enforst for every school in our city." The large charts bearing upon the various problems of the health of the school child prepared chiefly by our distinguisht chairman. Dr. Wood, have been of the greatest possible service, I believe, in arousing the attention of people all over the country to the serious conditions of physical disability and poor health so conspicuously prevalent, to the intelligent observer, among our school children. I was very happy to learn at the meeting this morning that the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education would turn its attention, during the coming year, to the subject of school ventilation. Nothing, at the present moment, demands more serious and open-minded investigation than does the condition of ventilation, or rather lack of l88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National it, in oiir public and private schools. It has been proved that children in open- window rooms make more rapid progress than do the normal children in the average closed or artificially ventilated school rooms. The workers in these open-air rooms are now beginning to wonder why these three inalienable rights of childhood, fresh air, good food, and rest, should be reserved only as privileges for sick children. Why should they not be secured for every school child? It should not be necessary to have a child become sick before he can get enough of the air an all-wise Providence intended him to have, and it should not be necessary to main- tain expensive special schools for the purpose of assuring the good air that should be in every schoolroom. Therefore we welcome, most heartily, the studies in ventilation to be made by this Joint Committee and sincerely hope that the subject will be approacht without preconceived prejudices in favor of one system of ventilation, or another, and with a willingness, so far almost unknown, of testing the ventilating system, not as to its mechanical operation, but as to its effect upon the health and welfare of the children for whom all the systems are supposed to be devised. Someone observed that we "did not know much about bad air." This may be true, but we do know a great deal about the qualities of good air, as it was intended as a medium for man's existence. I am convinst we should have fewer dull children and fewer drowsy audiences if some scheme were devised for giving each child and each auditor his rightful supply of fresh air directly introduced without contact with dusty fans and microbe-filled air ducts. In conclusion, let me say, that on the basis of the value of the work already accom- plisht by this Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education, I trust that the National Education Association will make an adequate appropriation for the future work of the committee, assured, as it should be, of the vital contribution that will be made toward the campaign for health, which should be the first subject, from now on, for educators to include in the school curriculum, instead of the last, as it has been heretofore. THE MAIN ISSUE OF THE YEAR JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, OLYMPIA, WASH. This is a time when greater demands are made upon public education than ever before in the history of our country. We are confronted with an increast shortage of teachers and threatened with a general breakdown of our public school system and educational standards. Our main issue this year is the teacher shortage question. We have promist equal educational opportunity to each and every boy and girl in this country. As a matter of fact, unless each successive generation is afforded a higher standard of educational opportunity than the one wTiich immediately precedes it, then as a great nation we are failing to cope with increast responsibilities brought by the complexity of modern, social, and economic life. Men have been entering the teaching profession in smaller numbers for years. Many of those who entered used it only as a stepping-stone to other work which brought greater financial return. The indifferent public sat by complacently knowing that there was a great army of women who were ready and willing to supply the demand. ( Council] THE MAIN ISSUE OF THE YEAR 189 But the world-war changed even this. Women — the type that made successful teachers, refined, cultured women with trained minds and excep- tional ability — were needed in trades and industry, the business world, even in agricultural life while the men were off to war and these fields had the money to offer them greater financial returns for their work and many of our teachers accepted work in other lines from dire necessity. Many of them left their chosen work with regret because of their love for children and the great opportunity teaching offers for real service, but children in the home, an aged parent, a young brother in college, a sister struggling to become a teacher, these and countless other reasons forst them into these other fields of work. We lost thousands of our capable women teachers during the war. Thousands of young people, university lads and lassies not yet thru school, normal-school students still in training, high-school graduates who tried the examination and failed, some teachers whom we had relegated forever to the retired list of incompetency past thru the portals by way of the emergency certificate to the closed doors and 65,000 schools of this land are now in operation with underqualified teachers. And still our recent survey in the National Education Association points to 35,000 schools in our country with no teachers — thousands, yes, millions of boys and girls with no school. And all of this in America that promises equal educational opportunity to each and every boy and girl in this great land. The fundamental reason for our great shortage of teachers can only be attributed to wholly inadequate salaries. In order to meet this important issue squarely we must consider the taxation question. The taxation question is ever a troublesome one. The evolution of the taxation problem so far as our schools are concerned can best be given in Cubberly's words in his book on school revenue: "Herbert Spencer in 1850 announst the doctrine that the taxation of a man's property for the purpose of educating another man's children is robbery, and that the state has no more right to administer education than it has to administer religion." The modern accepted theory of the state then assumes that the govern- ment not only can levy taxes for the establishment and maintenance of schools, but it is just as much its duty by this means to protect itself against paupers by maintaining almshouses, or against criminals by providing jails and penitentiaries. The ability of this generation to recognize education as something larger than mere luxury or even discipline, to perceive it as a great force molding national character, is one of the wholesome signs of the times. In dealing with the great taxation question we must keep in mind, first, the question of actual valuation of property versus assest valuation; second, the question of intangible property which escapes taxation; third, I90 , NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National taxation for schools to raise sufficient funds to offer salaries which will attract our best young men and young women. Our great need in meeting the issue of teacher shortage this year is to arouse an indifferent public to the facts before us. What does it mean when one of our state universities increase 465 per cent enrolment ? What does it mean that out of 5,000 enrolment in this same university a smaller enrolment is in the college of education than in pre-war times ? What does it mean when our young people are not being attracted to the work of teaching? What does it mean when 1,000 of these same 5,000 enrol in the college of business administration ? We need a campaign of education in every locality, country, and state. The time has come for school administrators and those in authority to be sanely and positively aggressive in placing before the business interests of this country the fact that our biggest business in the United States is that of education. Only as education is adequately finanst can the country develop along economic and industrial as well as social and moral lines. Because of conditions forst upon us during the late world-war, a com- placent public has been in no small measure aroused to the needs of the school. If the educational forces of this country do not grasp the opportunity and carry forward to a successful issue the matter of adequate support; if we fail during this great crisis to convince the public that their boys and girls are the nation's greatest asset; that our children are entitled to the men and women with the best brains and talent of the nation to be their teachers; then we shall have failed to secure for the children their rights. We, as educators, have a duty to perform. DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Nina C. Vandewalker, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary — ^Julia Bothwell, supervisor of kindergartens Cincinnati, Ohio FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6 The Department of Kindergarten Education of the National Education Association convened in joint session with the Department of Elementary Education, Tuesday fore- noon, July 6, at nine o'clock, at the West Side High School. The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was -presented: "The Elementary School and Demands to Be Made upon It as the Chief Agency of a Democracy" — Sarah Louise Arnold, dean of Simmons College, Boston, Mass. "The Kindergarten as a Foundation for Later School Work" — Bess Cunningham, State Teachers' College, Greeley, Colo. "Possibilities of Free Activities in the Primary Grades" (Illustrated) — Gail Cal- merton, supervisor elementary instruction, Fort Wayne, Ind. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7 The second session of the Kindergarten Education Department convened in depart- mental session Wednesday forenoon, July 7, at nine o'clock, at the Lafayette School. The following program was presented: The general topic for discussion was, "Some Fundamental Requirements in the Kindergarten of the School Whose Aim Is a Greater America. " "Adequate Provision for the Health of Kindergarten Children" — ^Jeannette Ezekiels, Kindergarten Department, Butte, Mont. "5ujQ&cient Testing of Children's Intelligence to Insure the Wisest Guidance of Their Development" — Virgil E. Dickson, Bureau of Research and Guidance, Public Schools, Oakland, Calif. In the absence of Mr. Dickson, his paper was read by E. M. Cox, assistant superintendent of schools, Oakland, Calif., who also gave a brief history of the bureau. "Kindergarten and Primary Work upon the Basis of Knowledge Revealed by the Tests" — Elizabeth Woods, clinical psychologist, State Department of Education, Madison, Wis. Discussion: Rose Jones, Kindergarten Department, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah; Bess Cunningham, State Teachers' College, Greeley, Colo. At the business meeting the report of the nominating committee, consisting of Jeannette Ezekiels, Gail Calmerton, and Bess Cunningham, was presented by the chair- man. Miss Ezekiels. The following ofl&cers were suggested and unanimously elected: President — Marion Hanckel, supervisor of kindergarten and primary grades, Richmond, Va. Vice-President — Barbara Greenwood, director of kindergarten department. Southern Branch of University of California, Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary — Miss Anna Littell, supervisor of kindergarten and primary grades of Dayton, Ohio. 191 192 NATfONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten Miss Irene Jenkins of Los Angeles read the following resolutions in honor of Dr. W. N. Hailmann, pioneer educator, universally known and loved by kindergartners : Whereas, Our all wise Heavenly Father has called Dr. Wm. N. Hailmann home for his rest. ^ And Whereas, Our debt to him as kindergartners is great, for that which he "began by doing and teaching. " Therefore, we, the kindergarten section of the Fifty-Eighth National Convention of the National Education Association in convention assembled wish to acknowledge our debt to him and voice our appreciation of this great friend of parenthood and childhood. A disciple of Frederic Froebel from his youth, his long life was given to the translation of his ideals and principles into all the processes of education. Him must we thank in large measure for the success of those first difficult years oi incorporating the kindergarten into the public-school system, and the infusion of its principles into and thru the primary grades. His translations of Froebel's writings and his interpretation of educational principles were a pregnant source of inspiration to educators and parents for many years. As founder and older brother of our own kindergarten section in the National Edu- catioii Association he proved an unfailing source of comfort, counsel and inspiration, and we shall miss him sorely. In our regret at his passing, we rejoice that he will continue to live in the lives of each one of us. Resolved, That copies of this resolution be spread upon the minutes, one sent to Dr. Kallmann's family, and to each of our educational magazines. The meeting adjourned. Bess V. Cuistningham, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS NECESSITY FOR ACTIVITY AND EXPERIMENT FOR THE EDUCATION OF LITTLE CHILDREN BESS CUNNINGHAM, DIRECTOR OF KINDERGARTEN, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, GREELEY, COLO. Good citizenship is dependent upon a realization of seK in relation to others. Social Hfe is a conflict between the primitive egoistic tendencies, so apparent in early childhood, and the reasoned dehberative acts which result from years of social experience. The ego instinct is the basis of all life. The problem of education is not to rid ourselves of tendencies which we may not Hke, but to use them. An instinct is dynamic and must find expression in some form. The same desire for goods prompts the thief and the merchant. The difference is one of direction rather than impulse. Education must see that the instincts are pointed right. Growth from the egoistic to the accepted social viewpoint must be gradual. Thru his experiences in school the child must be given opportunity to discover that the socially right conduct brings him the greatest satisfaction. He should be encouraged to gratify his egoistic tendencies thru the mastery of social situations as varied as possible. The child should be given opportunity to develop his own inhibitions. He must be granted opportunity for work and play that necessitates Department] PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE KINDERGARTEN 193 deliberation, so that he may grow into habits of thoughtful activity. The school must emphasize the spontaneously appearing inhibitions so that the child may make his social adaptations more readily. There must be opportunity for the maximum of joy in wholesome life- activities. Gladness is a food, not a stimulant. The problem of education resolves itself into the establishment of an institution where the child, born with primitive tendencies which he must express, may have full opportunity to learn social adaptation and control by testing the powers of self in the group. The organization of the school must be flexible as experiment is necessary to growth. THE KINDERGARTEN MAKES ADEQUATE PROVISION FOR THE CHILDREN'S PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT JEANNETTE EZEKIELS, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, HOME SERVICE, AMERICAN RED CROSS, BUTTE, MONT. Never has the nation been so fully aware of its health needs. Never before have so many agencies for the promotion and protection of health been initiated or strengthened. Never before have so many studies and tests been made ; never before have so many practical demonstrations been made in an effort to increase the health intelligence of the American people. Lulled to inaction by a groundless belief in our physical perfection we were not prepared in the summer of 191 7 for the startling announcement that we were a physically defective people; that of over 2,500,000 men, 46 . 7 per cent or almost one-half were defective and 30 per cent were abso- lutely unfit for mihtary service. Also the age-long behef that the man brought up in the country was healthier and stronger than the man brought up in the city was shattered by the fact that the country draftees made a showing only 12.5 per cent better than those from the city. Out of a population of 120,000,000 people, 45,000,000 are physically defective; 37,500,000 are fairly healthy and only 19,500,000, or 6.1 per cent are in full vigor — figures that amaze, if they do not astound. Practically one out of every ten babies born in the United States, which we call the most enlightened country in the world, dies during the first year. Of these deaths 62 per cent occur during the first two months and according to the Federal Children Bureau 17,000 women die in child birth annually. Exactly what is before us, what we are to do is shown by the fact that of the approximately 1,500,000 deaths in 191 7, 630,000 could have been prevented, for medical science has demonstrated that 42 per cent of all disease and death is preventable. Communicable diseases and degenera- tive diseases, including cancer, constitute the two causes of death. The health intelligence of the American people should be increast. Every individual should become familiar with the nature of physical 194 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten defects and know how to detect them, especially those of eyes, ears, teeth, adenoids, and tonsils, flat feet, and posture defects. They should be able to detect the early signs of communicable and degenerative diseases and be prepared to meet casual emergencies and accidents. Child- weKare has become a health slogan! It is truly the foundation stone in the health program of the nation. An essential part of the general health program is home visiting by pubUc health nurses and health visitors. The visit to the home has long been a kindergarten practice, each case being considered upon the basis of its needs. By means of such visitation, the suspicion or beginning of organic disease may be called to the attention of parents or the appropriate health authorities or agency; and physical defects and deformities can be prevented or corrected and a general super- vision maintained over diet and general hygiene. To be well born, to have provision made for good health, to have the opportunity to play are the rights of every child. Taking note and pro- viding along these lines secure to the nation its most precious resource — the health of future generations. The kindergarten makes provision for all of these by its health work with parents, its oversight of the children's physical development and the social aspect and emphasis of its program. The kindergartner — the teacher — ^knows what diseases are prevalent among children at different periods and stages of development. This is no simple task. It calls for special preparation, for special training, and for special knowledge. The wise kindergartner — the teacher — ^first seeks to know the physical condition of the children who come under her observation and care. She detects physical defects, of eyes, ears, nose, throat, and teeth; spinal deformity, malnutrition, tuberculosis, anaemia, and nervous states. We are coming more and more to appreciate the intimate relations between mental and physical conditions — and especially those of us who have the privilege of being with Httle children know that we cannot expect to find normal instincts, emotions, intelligence, or conduct in children suffermg from any of the foregoing physical defects or who show disincli- nation to play. If we cannot take hold of the play impulse and build upon it, there is very little left of which we can take hold to aid us in our kindergarten — our educational program. In play we find educational possibiHties; thru play the normal child interprets the life processes going on about him; thru play he experiments with the materials, he creates a world of his own. A disinclination to do these things, to enter into play, is one of the earhest and most dependable symptoms of physical defect of mal- nutrition. Much of the so-called naughtiness and badness of children today is regarded as due to the pathological conditions, and recent studies of Department] PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE KINDERGARTEN 195 delinquency show underlying causes traceable to some physical defect or condition. Malnutrition, when severe, is one of the causes of hookworm and its retarding effect upon mental development cannot be too greatly strest. This is borne out by the fact that where school feeding has been inaugu- rated, increast mental alertness has followed. The kindergartner brings to the parent the fact of malnutrition and instructs how it may be corrected and how to guard against it. She tells the parent that inadequate feeding, sometimes due to poverty but more often due to ignorance or neglect, is one of its important causes. She states this to the well-to-do mother as well as to others less fortunate. Tuberculosis collects in toll not only from the vast number of those afflicted with the disease itself, but also from the great number who are compelled to live in daily and constant association with those afflicted. It is estimated that two or more million children now attending school will fall victims unless much more is done to save them. State tuberculosis societies in the following statements emphasize this point: One- third of all poverty of the world is due to tuberculosis; one- half of the cripples of the world are crippled by tuberculosis; one-fourth of all sickness is due to tuberculosis and one- tenth of all deaths is due to tuberculosis. Among the 150,000 persons who are killed by tuberculosis in the United States every year there are more than 12,000 children under five years of age. Most of this loss is preventable. Much stress is laid upon the desira- bility of more playgrounds, more health supervision, more education toward the eradication of the disease. Much has been accomplisht among adults. The adult understands and grasps the meaning of the benefits of rest, diet, and fresh air. Among children little has been accomplisht. Greater care must be taken of children for many of the infections occur in early infancy, mainly, from contact with some tubercular person and those early infec- tions have less chance for recovery. Much depends upon the vitality of the individual, the nature of the environment, and the habits of living of those with whom the children come in early contact. Therefore chil- dren must be protected. We need to multiply the number of nutritional clinics and provide camping grounds for children under the supervision and direction of those specially trained for such service. The kindergarten has pointed the way in its wise provision for excursions and outings. The students of child psychology and child hygiene all emphasize the importance of muscular activity. In the kindergarten opportunity is given for much free movement and activities and also for controlled or directed movement and activities on the basis of the children's stage of development and the limit or limitation of their physical powers and endurance. 196 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten The kindergartner follows the order of the children's muscular develop- ment and provides opportunity for the exercise of the larger fundamental muscles before calling into use the smaller of accessory muscles. In this connection the best kindergartens are insisting that in addition to the usual kindergarten room there shall be a playroom containing simple play apparatus, such as slides, teeters, ladders, and similar devices. There is much of value in this program that can be carried forward and continued thruout the elementary grades. MENTAL TESTING FOR ALL KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN VIRGIL E. DICKSON, BUREAU OF RESEARCH AND GUIDANCE, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIF. During recent years there has been a rapid growth of the use of mental tests as an aid in the classification and guidance of school children. For a long time, psychological clinics and laboratories have existed in connection ■with a few city schools, for study and diagnosis of the feeble-minded and those who were mentally so strange or abnormal that they constituted outstanding problems in the administration of the schools. For this reason, a popular impression has developt that mental- testing functions only in connection with cases being considered as candidates for an insti- tution for the feeble-minded or the insane or at best for a special class in the public schools for the mentally retarded. It is true that mental testing is an essential factor in the study and diagnosis of the individuals for such institutions and such classes, but it is also true that its usefulness extends to the study and guidance of all other types of individuals. The use of intelligence tests in the classification and placement of men in the army is well known to most people now. Thru the use of these army tests, the public has awakened to the immense significance of the general mental level or mental capacity of an individual when considering the fitness of that individual for certain tasks or responsibilities in life. Group mental tests were developt during the war which enable us to test large numbers of people in a short time with results that are fairly reliable. These tests have been modified and adapted or new tests have been workt out on similar lines for use in the schools. Now thousands of school children are being tested and studied annually by these group tests. The group tests, however, are adapted to the needs of older chil- dren. The forms designed for kindergarten and primary children at present seem to show a very small degree of reliability. If we are to use mental testing in the kindergarten or primary grades at present we must rely upon the individual test. The individual test that I have used is the Stanford Revision of the Binet test. This involves Department] MENTAL TESTING FOR KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN 197 some expense because it takes a trained examiner from 25 to 40 minutes to give the test to one child. The first questions that naturally arise are: "Are the tests worth while?" "What benefits are derived from them?" What benefits are derived from the tests ? 1. They give a quick and impersonal judgment of the ability of each child compared with a standard for normal children. 2. They reveal capacity which is ordinarily covered by timidity. 3. They reveal that talkativeness and forward manner do not always signify real thinking power. 4. They often lead to a search for the cause of immaturity revealing a parent who delivers the home responsibilities to the school at age four instead of age five. 5. They reveal children with good intelligence, but whose class behavior shows little or no training for its use. 6. They often show that there are children ranging all the way from the three-year mental level to the eight-year mental level thrown together in one kindergarten class. Recently, we discovered by mental test one of the most superior children in the city who had been in our schools for four years and no teacher had discovered his superiority. He was very timid and sensitive — always doing his work satisfactorily but never forcing himself to the front. When his power was known and he was given encouragement, he quickly developt into a position of leadership.. Such a child as this would never pass the kindergarten or first grade where mental testing is carefully applied. The individual differences in kindergarten children cover a very wide range. A distribution of a large sampling of our kindergarten tests during last semester shows 3 per cent of our children in the three-year mental age, 15 per cent in the four-year, 45 per cent in the five-year, 29 per cent in the six-year, and 8 per cent in the seven-year mental age. These per- centages should by no means be taken as a standard distribution, but they do indicate in a fair way the nature of the problem that faces the kinder- garten teacher. In no other grade in the school (except the first grade where there is no kindergarten) will there be found such a wide range of individual differences. Into the kindergarten are thrown children from everywhere with only one prerequisite. Here are the large and the small, the clumsy and the skilful, the select and the slum, the home-trained and the Topsy-like, the well fed and the hungry, the English speaking and the foreign, the mentally superior and the mentally retarded with all the intervening stages in each range mentioned. The only measuring rod that has been applied is that each has lived somewhere, somehow, in the big world for approximately five years of time by the calendar. Democracy impHes equality of opportunity. This should mean that every child in our schools should have the opportunity to take that amount of mental development which his capacity permits. We should make use IqS national education association [Kindergarten of every available means to adapt our education to the needs of all children from the very first day they enter school. I wish to throw out a few suggestions for your consideration and for further experimentation. So far as I am concerned, I am not ready to ofifer any conclusions. 1. Those mentally and physically below five years of age should be excluded from the regular kindergarten — either sent home or formed into a junior kindergarten division or class. 2. Those above six years mentally and physically should be given an enricht kindergarten experience leading directly and quickly into a mixture of first-grade and kindergarten training that permits them to use and develop their capacities freely. They should cover a wider curriculum and should probably make accelerated progress. We have tried out one such group with results that lead us to try others next year. 3. Those over six years chronologically, but mentally retarded so that they are unable to do first-grade work do not belong in the kindergarten as repeaters (except in rare instances). They belong in a special division of the first grade where kindergarten and first-grade methods may be mingled and work that approaches the first-grade curriculum be done at a slower rate of accompHshment. It may be that a special first-grade curriculum should be developt for these children. This we are also experi- menting with at present with encouragement to continue the plan. In conclusion, I believe that mental testing is an indispensable factor in the training of kindergarten and primary teachers and supervisors for working out the readjustment problems in kindergarten and primary education. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN ELIZABETH WOODS, CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, MADISON, WIS. I propose to talk to you about individual differences, not only in the intelligence of young children, but also in their personalities. For purposes of clarity, I shall divide the topic into two parts, dealing first with the intellectual side, and later with emotional, character, and personality differences. To those of us who are vitally interested in children, the artificial separation of their intellects from their personalities, even for purposes of analysis and discussion, often seems comparable to Solomon's famous method of disposing of that infant which created such excitement in Palestine a few thousand years ago. We must admit, however, that the wise Solomon only proposed dismembering the infant who was the cause of the controversy, while we murderously carry out the full program, dissecting out the child's mind, putting to one side his dispositional traits and trends, measuring and weighing his mental function as separately as Department] INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CHILDREN 199 may be, and sometimes (God forgive us!) making recommendations for the child which may influence his entire future on the basis of the mental measurements alone. I trust that these opening words will not be misunderstood. There is, perhaps, no more ardent advocate of mental measurements, used by trained examiners, and interpreted in the light of genuine studies of behavior, career, and personality make-up. My aim here is merely to emphasize CORRELATION OF MENTAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL AGES IN 60 KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN / / / y / ' / / / / /' / / / / yX_ y y / yT ^ y ^ X / Jy / / / / / , '•// / y' / ^ /^ X X X / / A" /" / / / / / y / 0 > X / X ^ X / ■''0 / / X ^ -h y '' / y ' / 0 0 '' ya. ^ y / / 0 / 0 ^' 00 X "^ / / /+ / y , ^ X ^ / *^ y y X ^ / X r ^ / / c / / y / / 0 / / A / / / ^ / / / / /- / / / ^ X " 1 '' X / X ^ y / X ^ / ' X ■ '^' X ^* X y X X / / f X ' X X / / / X ' y y ^ X ' X / / / / / /■ X X / / ^ X / X / / . / / / y X Mental Age the great importance of all the aspects of child nature and growth, and to show the vital necessity of an understanding of the whole child — body, intellect, instincts, emotions and dispositional traits. It is obviously impossible even to touch upon all phases of a thorogoing study of a child in a brief address. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the discussion of mental abilities and personalities. And in the interest of concreteness, I wish to present the results of a study of a group of sixty kindergarten children, analyzed both with formal standard tests, and informally, from a behavioristic viewpoint. 200 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten The chart shows the distribution of these children with reference to both chronological or physical age and to mental age, as measured by Binet tests. As you see, the children varied from four and one-half to seven and one-half years, chronologically. In mental maturity, how- ever, the differences (as is always the case in any group) are considerably greater. The most immature children mentally scored a mental age of four, while the most mature in mind had a mental age of seven and one-half. A word here with regard to the term mental age. At best it is a make- shift, a term ill-defined and ill-analyzed. Whatever it means, it does not mean, for example, that every individual to whom we assign a mental age of five years is like a normal child of five. One sees precocious children of three who score a -mental age of five, and who are very different from average five-year children, in many ways. And the gross differences found between imbeciles who score a mental age of five and the normal five-year child needs no comment. The term mental age, however, has a connotation which is useful, and in any case, it has taken such root in psychological and educational literature that probably it will never be displaced. Let us think of a mental age of five years then, as describing a child (or an adult) where instincts, activities, and disposition may be utterly different from those of an average five-year child, but the efficiency of whose mental processes such as perception, memory, judgment, thinking ability and the like, is not greater than that to be found in average five-year children. On the chart the round dots represent average children, so far as mental ability is concerned. As you see, their mental ages do not vary more than a year either above or below their chronological or physical ages. These make up the bulk of the class, 69 per cent of the entire number. The small horizontal lines, above and to the left, represent the children whose mental growth is markedly behind their age in years. These children are mentally dull, and they make up 13 per cent of the total. One child yi years of age, who scored a mental age of only 4, is a genuinely feeble-minded child. Turn to the brighter side of the picture. The small crosses below and to the right on the chart, represent the accelerated or above average bright children. These make up 13 per cent of the group, 4 out of nearly 7 per cent showed even greater mental maturity, having an acceleration of two years or over. Most of these children were physically advanst also, being taller and better grown than the average child of their years. This picture tells its own story and brings an inevitable conclusion. It is obviously wrong, wasteful, and in some cases actually harmful for children of such widely different mental power to be in the same class, working, or rather playing, at the same things. Even a superficial study of the room showed certain children sitting listlessly, never voluntarily attacking any project, having to be greatly stimulated or actually forst in order to get them to join in any games or activities. These turned out to Department] INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CHILDREN 20I be mental four-year olds, with the exception of one case, a child not dull but psychopathic, mentally ill. Dr. W. H. Burnham, our foremost authority on mental hygiene, especially for normal minds, tells us that the first and more impor- tant demand for healthy mental functioning is the frequent experience of success. He says,^ "The stimulus of success affects the child in the cradle. The infant wrapt in his blanket, impelled by the fundamental impulse of activity, twists and wriggles and squirms, and when perchance he frees himself from the bonds that fetter him, he indulges in a debauch of motor activity. This is one of the great epochs in human development, when the child, from his own activity achieves perhaps for the first time a markt success. Fancy, then, the criminal ignorance of keeping a child for a year — and how often this year lengthens into two — in a place where he never achieves a success, where it is as clear to him as to his teacher and his mates, that he cannot do well, sometimes that he cannot do at all, the things which the others are doing." What shall we do about it ? The ideal thing, and the thing which we confidently expect to be the regular practice in the near future, is to have a thorogoing psychological study of each child on its entrance to kindergarten, and a placement of the child on the basis of its findings. Some cities are beginning this work. Where it is still impossible, we recom- mend that principles, supervisors or teachers, trained in their use, employ the Binet tests, and recommend the exclusion of children who make markt failures in the requirements for four and one-half and five-^^ear children. Such tests, alone, should not be interpreted as determining the child's normality or abnormality, but they do offer a very accurate measure of the child's present ability to succeed with the school work. And unless he has a good chance of succeeding, he had vastly better wait a while before entering, for his own mental welfare. Most children scoring above expectation on these tests, showing a mental maturity of six years, should, in our opinion, be advanst immediately to first grade. A second promotion may be given as soon as enough of the work has been mastered so that the child can do the work of the next grade with ease and pleasure. All of this, if there are no physical or person- ality abnormalities of sufficient importance to merit their changing the recom- mendation. For example, a small, frail child, superior in intelligence, but physically unable to cope with first graders, and showing "seclusive" traits (liking to get off by himself and not playing normally with the others, may profit more from the more homelike atmosphere and the more socialized conditions of the kindergarten than he would do from the more stimulating mental work of first grade. And this brings us to the second section of this address — to the dis- cussion of differences in personality. No teacher or mother needs to be » W. E. Burnham, "Success and Failure as Conditions of Mental Health," Mental Hygiene, Vol. Ill, No. 3, July, iQig. 202 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten told that each child has his own personality. Any observing and intelligent mother will tell you that she observed traits of character in her children as early as their sixth, or even their third month, which clearly distinguisht them from each other, and which persist in their adult life. It is exceedingly important that we recognize certain personality traits, early, and adapt the training to them. For example, the child who has a tendency to self- distrust, a feeling of inadequacy, needs special care and we should do our utmost to give him confidence in himself and trust in the love and respect which we show him, lest he develop a genuine neurosis and become a typical "seclusive" or ''negative suggestible" or some other type of psychopath. Minds in which such functional disorders develop, are fertile ground in which genuine insanities may take root. In fact, there seems no doubt that a thoro-going history of many insane patients, a history which would give a continuous picture of the developing personality, would show that as a child the individual gave unmistakable evidence of neurotic tendencies, and that definite personality abnormalities were present, for all who understood to see. More important still, psychiatrists believe that good mental hygiene would have saved many cases. Personality make-ups in normal children must not detain us long here. Experience has doubtless taught every member of this audience to watch for the too domineering child and provide him a healthful anti-toxin now and then in the way of an occasional seat at the foot of the table, as it were; just as it has also shown the necessity of encouraging the overmodest child with occasional exaltations. And so we might proceed thru a long list. But since the deviations which normal children exhibit are merely microscopic samples of traits which, writ large and become habitual, are sjonptomatic of true mental disease, we shall devote the remainder of the time alloted to a discussion of the most important types of genuine neurotic and psychopathic cases. A last word to the parent and long-suffering teacher, lest the heaping upon her of so large a responsibility for the child's mental health may induce in her melancholia, or some other mental abnormality! Let her remember that she, too, must live only one day at a time. It is always tomorrow or next week that one feels will probably be unendurable. One can always support the present hour. Then let us live in the present hour, fully, hopefully, fearlessly, and it will then become apparent that the number of those hours which we can make almost perfect both for ourselves and for our children, is astonishingly large. DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — ^Lixlie Ernst, assistant superintendent of schools St. Louis, Mo. Secretary — Gail Calmerton, supervisor of primary instruction Fort Wayne, Ind. The Department of Elementary Education of the National Education Association convened in regular session Wednesday forenoon, July 7, at nine o'clock, in the Methodist Church. The meeting was called to order by the president, and after a splendid discussion of "The Plain Teacher Adapting Tools at Hand to Conditions," the following program was presented : ^ "Unification of the Curriculiun" — William F. Russell, dean, school of education, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. "English Language a Major Element of the Elementary Curriculum" — Howard R. Driggs, professor of English, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. "The Value of Instruction in Accident Prevention as a Factor in Unifying the Curriculum" — E. George Payne, principal, Harris Teachers College, St. Louis, Mo. "Superintendent, Supervisor, Teacher — A Problem in Addition, Not Substitution, of Functions" — John O. Creager, principal. State Normal School, Flagstaff, Ariz. Business Session — Brief business session ensued: The waiving of the reading of the minutes of the previous year, moved and seconded. So ordered. Moved and seconded that the committee on unification of the various committees interested in early elementary education be continued. The motion presented in 1919 as follows was then read by the president. A motion was made by Miss Dobbs, chairman of the National Council of Primary Education, that a committee from this body be appointed to cooperate with similar committees from the Department of Kindergarten Education and from the National Council of Primary Education in making a general survey and in working for the improve- ment of the equipment and furnishings of elementary classrooms. ^ Committee appointed: Theda Gildemeister, State Normal School, Winona, Minn., chairman; Almuia George, assistant superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash.; Alice Payne, teacher Ethical Culture School, New York, N.Y. The report of the nominating committee previously appointed was read by Elizabeth A. Woodward: President — Frank M. McMurry, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Vice-President — Marion Hanckel, primary supervisor, Richmond, Va. Secretary — Anna E. Logan, assistant superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio. The meeting adjourned. Gail Calmerton, Secretary 203 204 ' NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE VALUE OF INSTRUCTION IN ACCIDENT PREVENTION AS A FACTOR IN UNIFYING THE CURRICULUM E. GEORGE PAYNE, PRINCIPAL, HARRIS TEACHERS COLLEGE, ST. LOUIS, MO. Education in accident prevention is coordinate with the program of physical education and education in health. While the immediate purpose of this experiment is to develop instruction that will make the individual physically fit, this experiment has a deeper significance in that it is merely the beginning of an effort to reconstruct the whole curriculum on the basis of the endeavor to realize specific social objectives as the aim of education. Therefore, the subject of this address might well be *'An Experimental Effort to Secure Unity in the Elementary School Cur- riculum thru the Organization of the Subject-Matter of Instruction on the Basis of Specific Social Objectives to be Realized thru the Educational Process." The object of the experiment in curriculum reconstruction is twofold. First, to make the aim of education concrete by setting up specific ends to be realized. Ends that may be made apparent to the child as his education is taking place. Second, to utilize these specific objectives to unify the whole curriculum. The history of the effort to secure unity in the school curriculum would afford interesting material for contemplation if we had time to present it, but only a few high points may be noted. What is the justification for education in accident prevention ? During the nineteen months, for instance, that we were involved in the world- war the loss of life from those killed in battle, those who died of wounds, disease, and accident was about seventy-seven thousand, while one hundred twenty-six thousand men, women, and children were for the most part needlessly sacrificed thru carelessness in the United States in the same period. During the same nineteen months fewer than three hundred thousand soldiers were wounded in the whole expeditionary force of two million two hundred thousand. More than three million persons were injured from accident in this country. The same sort of condition pre- vailed in every other city just as in St. Lonis and conditions were tragic here. For the five-year period in St. Louis, previous to 1918, about five hundred persons were killed each year thru accident. The number of automobile fatalities had grown from eighteen in 191 2 to one hundred in 1918. The number of school children killed by accident on the streets and in the home had averaged more than one hundred per year during these same five years. The deaths from accident did not measure the loss. There were around fifteen thousand accidents each year that did not result fatally, and a loss of about one million dollars per year in property damage from automobile accidents alone. Department] MAKING LANGUAGE A REAL PART OF CURRICULUM 205 Not only may education in accident prevention then be justified on the ground of the reduction of accidents, but it will also serve as perhaps one of the most effective means of dealing with material within the experi- ences of the child and relating his experience to situations over which it is necessary for him to gain control. In what way does such instruction unify tlie curriculum? It serves this function in two important respects. First, such instruction puts the emphasis upon the development of controls of behavior, such as, ideals, attitudes, and points of view, with life-situations as the unifying factor, and makes it impossible for the teacher to hold the memorization of text- books, outlines, or subject-matter as the end of instruction. Second, such instruction demands the socialization of the educational process and offers such vital motives as will make impossible the organization of the material learned except with reference to its use. The introduction of safety into our studies has helped create the spirit of carefulness which now runs thruout our school. We have learned that, of the lives saved in industry last year, only about one-third were saved by safety devices, while two-thirds or more of the lives were saved by the development of a safety consciousness among the employers and the employees. In conclusion let me say that instruction in accident prevention serves not only to unify the curriculum but also to reduce accidents. The record of deaths from accidents to school children in the city is nine for the first six months of the year as opposed to twenty-five for the first six months of the year 19 19, and this is the first decrease in a similar period over a number of years. MAKING LANGUAGE A REAL PART OF THE CURRICULUM- SYNOPSIS OF ADDRESS GIVEN BEFORE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL SECTION AT NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA- TION, SALT LAKE CITY HOWARD R. DRIGGS, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Language work, to be most effective, must be taught not apart from, but as a part of, the curriculum. In and of itself, language is an empty subject. Filled with content it becomes a vitalized study. We have had too much EngUsh simply for the sake of English; it is high time we began to teach English for the sake of service. To make language serviceable we must make it carry thoughts of real value. Language is not a content subject; it is a channel of expression — the main one given to human beings. It bears something of the same relation to the content subjects — literature, history, geography, science, etc., — that the railway system bears to the country^it serves. The railway 206 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary is a means of transportation, gathering passengers or freight, in form of grain, cattle, and goods from the country it traverses. Language hkewise must gather from the various other studies its content to carry from mind to mind. This makes language vitally related and inter-related with every other vital subject in the course of study. It holds, indeed, as close and com- prehensive a relation to the whole curriculum as the steel framework holds to the modern business building. Every other subject in the course is directly dependent on language for strength and support. Language, in turn, is filled with meaning and material from other subjects. This premise leads to but one conclusion: To make an effective, a vitalized course in language is to make the framework of the complete curricu- lum. If the learner is to be given a well-rounded training in the use of his mother tongue, he must be given opportunity to speak and to write on various lines of vital interest to him. Our first duty then in mapping a course of language is to find these life lines. The second is to follow them progressively through the learner's developing years from kindergarten up to college. What are the essen- tial lines from which can be drawn subjects for worth-while language expression ? The following must. certainly be included in any vitalized course: 1. The health study line. — Pupils should certainly be led to talk and write on topics and to work out projects in composition pertaining to their physical well-being. Wholesome play and right health habits is the end to be achieved here. 2. The industrial line. — The work of the world affects vitally every pupil. Discussion of boy and girl labor problems is a line of language work of keen interest. Willingness and ability to work should grow out of this expression and the industrial training that necessarily goes with it. 3. The nature-study line. — Stimulation of an intelHgent appreciation of the great out-of-doors will result from well-directed discussions about nature. Conservation and proper use of our natural resources is another desired result to come from this expression. Language and nature study may be readily correlated to the decided advantage of both subjects. 4. The geographical line. — Travel talks ; the stories of industry ; creating scenic sketch books; little lectures on people of other lands; and many other language-geography projects may be worked out along this vital Hne. The result will be to broaden and to humanize the child's world. 5. The historical line. — Practical patriotism is the chief aim here. The preservation of American ideals and the making of intelHgent, serviceable citizens is a worthy goal. In the blending of language and history, the Americanization work will be greatly reinforced. Among the fine projects that may here be worked out are: 'gathering and preserving local history stories; creating historical pageants and plays; retelling choice hero tales Department! MAKING LANGUAGE A REAL PART OF CURRICULUM 207 of our country; organizing and conducting young citizen clubs to discuss vital civic problems that come within the learner's hfe. 6. The recreational line. — High-minded mental recreation is the objective here. This means the cultivation of right reading habits and an appre- ciation for music, art, and kindred subjects. Such results may best be achieved by giving the pupil the opportunity to express himself along artistic lines. Language work blends beautifully with literature, music, and art. 7. The home life line. — Studies that develop a love of home are greatly needed in the American school. Language lessons leading to home appreciation, and the stimulation of proper home entertainment, and inteUigent home-making will be most helpful. 8. The moral life line. — Every lesson should help directly or indirectly to develop a sense of moral responsibility. Formal lessons in morality often defeat their own purpose; but moral training, unlabeled, must be given to develop the qualities necessary to our well-being. The language lessons, drawing upon the Boy Scout and Girls' Campfire activities, the Junior Red Cross, and other right spirited endeavors toward righteousness and helpfulness, will do much to cultivate the spiritual and moral qualities essential to make desirable and serviceable citizenship. The foregoing brief summary indicates the two things that must be done to make the language work in our schools alive and effective. In the first place we must vitalize it by correlating it closely with other sub- jects. In the second place we must organize it so as to make the lessons follow the life lines. Thus connected and systematized, our English work will become a purposeful and resultful study. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — W. W. McIntire, principal, high school Norwood, Ohio Secretary — ^Anna Willson, graduate student, Teachers College, Columbia University New York, N.Y. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1920 The Department of Secondary Education of the National Education Association convened in regular session Tuesday forenoon, July 6, at nine o'clock, in Barrett Hall, Salt Lake City, Utah. The meeting was called to order by the president. The secretary being absent, Frances Qualbrough, Salt Lake City, Utah, acted as secretary, pro tem. The following program was 'presented: "The High School's Part in the Making of a Greater America" — J. O. Engleman, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111. "Is the Teaching of English in High School Functioning Ejffectively ? " — Ella M. Dukes, supervisor of English in High Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. "A Report of the Work of Deans for Girls in Secondary Schools" — Anna Willson, graduate student, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. In the absence of Miss Willson, Frances Qualbrough, Salt Lake City, Utah, read her paper. Discussion on the above subjects by — Marie Gugle, Columbus, Ohio; Mr. Shepherd, Kansas City, Kans.; C. L. Rice, Kansas City, Kans.; Miss Davis, Boise, Idaho; Mr. Engleman, Decatur, 111.; M. Hannibal, Fort Dodge, Iowa; W. W. McIntire, Norwood, Ohio. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7, 1920 The following program was presented: "Some Important Problems of the Junior High School" — Marie Gugle, assistant superintendent of schools, Columbus, Ohio. "The Six- Year Unified High School versus the Senior and Junior High Schools" — Harry M. Shafer, assistant superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Calif. "Some Lessons from the World- War with Special Application to the Work of the High School" — J. H. Beveridge, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr. Discussion — C. L. Rice, Kansas City, Kans.; and Mr. Shepherd, Kansas City, Kans. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Clarence L. Rice, Kansas City, Kans. Vice-President — Guy C. Wilson, Salt Lake City, Utah. Secretary — Minnie Oliverson. THE HIGH SCHOOL'S PART IN THE MAKING OF A GREA TER AMERICA J. O. ENGLEMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DECATUR, ILL. There was wisdom shown by the committee in the selection of my topic, for high-school men and women, especially high-school teachers, are so busy with details of lessons and books, with discipline and teaching and extra-classroom activities, that we do not often enough attempt to 209 2IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary orient ourselves, or to formulate for our guidance a statement of our aims and larger objectives. We have inherited our course of study. We rightly assume that most that we teach and most that we do in high school will somehow result in desirable changes in the lives of high-school students, but we seldom attempt to justify our work or inquire what a high-school course does or ought to do more than to prepare for college entrance. There is, however, a tacit assumption that the high schools of the country have a function quite apart from college preparation; that their graduates who never go on to college get something they need, both for their individual and the social good. What this is, it is our task at this time to try to state. At the risk of seeming dogmatic may I say that a greater America should expect, from the high school, instruction and training that will increase the physical efficiency of our citizenship; develop its latent power to think; discover its occupational bent and give preliminary training for occupational usefulness; equip it for an intelligent, wholesome use of its leisure; democratize it to the extent that sympathy may take the place of antipathy; cooperation be substituted for individualism; the interest % of the masses be placed above that of any class; selfishness be condemned rather than condoned whether exhibited by capital or labor, by the rich or the poor, by the college-bred or the illiterate, by employers or employes; by the American-born, or the alien in our midst. Finally, may I add, our high schools should teach a finer Americanism that will magnify our country, its flag, its institutions, its language, its ideals, without doing violence to those of any other nation not incompatible with our own. To these objectives let me revert. I need not remind you that there must be a proper physical basis in health, energy, and endurance, for any dynamic leadership — intellectual, moral, or spiritual. Ideas and ideals become potent only when translated into action by somebody. The Great Teacher to whom Christian civilization is most indebted for its high ideals, spent a great part of his time in dealing with men's bodies — ^healing the sick, restoring sight to the blind, unstopping the ears of the deaf, cleansing the leper, feeding the hungry, raising the dead and the near-dead to life. Tho such an idealist as the world had not seen and has not seen since his day. He was wont to say, *'If ye know shete things, happy are ye if ye do them." He found no more inconsistency between life, health, strength, and bodily vigor, and a deep spiritual life than the Greeks found between their outdoor sports, exercises, and contests on the one hand, and a marvelous intellectual and aesthetic development to which their didascalea were contributory. That our high schools should give training in the power to think need not be defended here. In the face of the battle that was waged so long between the champions and the foes of the doctrine of formal discipline a mere superintendent may well hesitate to be very dogmatic here, but the Department] THE HIGH SCHOOL AND A GREATER AMERICA 211 truth is that the world recognizes that the student who has gone thru our better high schools has a greater residuum in mental power, in poise, than the child whose formal schooling closes with the ©lementary-school course. The high school really does open doors of opportunity not usually opened otherwise to young people. This was demonstrated over and over again while our government, under pressure of war, was looking for men who could be trained quickly for the minor military offices, while the business world almost universally demands such preliminary education on the part of those whom it would promote to any position of leadership and responsibility. The third contribution which a greater America expects from our secondary schools, I have called " occupational efficiency. " Dr. Spaulding, in the April number of the Atlantic Monthly, names it as the second of the *' three minimum, definite comprehensive objectives that American public education should set for itself. " This is essentially the task of our second- ary schools. Something can be done in the upper grammar grades in the direction of vocational guidance — indeed such guidance is being help- fully given in a number of schools in grade eight or nine. But while students may with profit be set to thinking along vocational lines at this stage in their schooling, it is not possible nor feasible to give them much training of distinct vocational or occupational value before they reach the senior high school. Here must be found in our larger schools not only good academic courses in the liberal arts, but commercial, agricultural household arts, a variety of technical and trade courses suited to the diverse interests and needs of young people of high-school age. If it is profitable for the state to provide liberally for the training of its future teachers, doctors, and lawyers, it is no less its duty to make generous provision for the training of its vastly greater number of future bread- winners on the farm, in the shops, in business, and in the home. The primary aim of vocational education is to equip the student to earn a living for himself and those who may be dependent on him. More remotely considered, its aim is to enable the student ultimately to serve society, and make a just return for what society is doing for him. When vocational training is preceded by wise vocational guidance and direction it must result in the maximum of personal satisfaction and growth that may come to one thru his work. Furthermore, as the commission on the reorganization of secondary education has well said in its report two years ago: "Vocational education should aim to develop an appreciation of the significance of the vocation to the community, and a clear conception of right relations between the members of the chosen vocation, between different vocational groups, between employer and employes, and between producer and consumer." This is a task for all that high-school teachers have of tact and delicacy, but it must not be shirkt because it is difficult. 212 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary That the high school should contribute to a Greater America, a more enlightened and a more sensitive civic consciousness and conscience will be granted, I'm sure. In the first place, like the grades below it, it is our most democratic institution. It is the great leveler of society. It breaks down class distinctions as no other agency in our midst is able to do. Our homes sometimes cultivate snobbery. Even our churches are not always free from the caste of wealth. When Dives goes to worship he doesn't expect his wife to sit beside his scrub-woman. When Croesus goes to church, he may be content to sit behind his chauffeur on the way, but such relative positions in the pews is quite another story. In school however, in the public school, at least, sons and daughters of the rich and the poor, the high and the low, the first citizens and the immigrant, mingle on terms of perfect equality. If there is any aristocracy recognized, it is that of mental ability and goodness of heart. Dallas Lore Sharp recently stated in his Patrons of Democracy , ''Neither life nor the getting of a living, but living together — this must be the single public end of a common public education hereafter We must go to school; we must all go to school; we must all go together to school, with a common language, a common course of study, a common purpose, faith, and enthusiasm for democracy Nothing less than the democratization of America dare be our educational aim." This, certainly, our high schools can help to bring to pass. Samuel Gompers is perhaps right when he argues the divine right of labor to strike for better working hours, wage, or conditions, if these are unbearable and it takes a strike to better them. But Governor Allen and Governor Coolidge are right when they recognize that certain rights of the masses of citizens transcend even the right of a class to strike. And if we are to find our way safely between the Scylla of one of these rights and the Charybdis of an opposing right, it will be because education has given us knowledge and quickened our civic conscience to the point that we can live and let live at the same time. Recapitulating, the high schools of America must dedicate themselves consciously to the high task of conserving and promoting the health, rationalizing the leisure, disciplining the minds, discovering the occupational bent, and developing and sensitizing the civic sense of their students. Concurrent with all these efforts should be the aim to make their citizens in the making individually ethical, actuated by the spirit of service, a spirit emanating first of all from their teachers. Thousands of high schools are daily helping in these very ways to make a Greater America. Our responsibility is to make their tribe increase. Department] TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 213 IS THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN THE HIGH SCHOOL FUNCTIONING EFFECTIVELY? ELLA M. DUKES, SUPERVISOR OF ENGLISH IN HIGH SCHOOLS, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH The effective and correct use of the Enghsh language of 1920 is a far different question from the formal, grammatical, and rhetorical speech demanded in former speech and writing. Recent vital changes in every phase of industrial, social, political, and international relations show a demand for informality and a tendency to display a variable use of expression which aims to attract or to please; to interest or to amuse. The speaker or writer who expresses his most serious thoughts in modern newspaper English is perhaps the one who is applauded most loudly in public, and read most convincingly in newspapers and magazines. New standards for the effective use of the English language seem necessary, or a strong attitude of mind to combat the new and uphold the former standards must be taken. The English taught in the high school is supposed to function in so many widely different channels that it seems an endless responsibiUty to follow to the end many of the various lines. It must function effectively — which we are told it does not — with the college professor's standard. The English of high-school boys and girls must meet the approval in polite forms of expression and in faultless execution in writing, of the man in whose office they seek employment, or of the business world in which they try to compete. Their English must conform intelligently to the standards of the social Hfe which they are supposed to enter. They must be able to interpret the language of the most carefully and laboriously written article in a discursive magazine, express themselves in language of the sports page of the American newspaper, read understandingly each plank in the plat- forms of the great poHtical parties, and, most difficult of all, courageously avoid any laxity of speech or use of every-day, popular expressions designated "slang." Does high-school English function effectively? It should be remem- bered that '' effectively " does not mean perfectly. Looking at the question in a broad way, and on first thought, we might answer with some truth- fulness— "With the standards of the college and university professors, no! With the standards of everyday life, yes!" There is a wide difference to young people between the classroom English and the speech of everyday life ; such a difference that oftentimes the English of the classroom is lookt upon as a language not to be used in common conversation or the user is designated as a prude. Correct speech is shunned with much disfavor. "The one who uses the loud voice, or the jargon of the street seems many times most popular with his companions. " It is said that " cute, " " swell, " and " fierce " seem to be the three adjectives 214 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary taught to the growing generation. We have all heard the boys from overseas tell with amusement and some pride of the cafe sign in a foreign country, "English spoken here — ^American understood." It seemed to them rather patriotic to have an American language. The opportunities offered in the English department of many high schools are almost equal to those offered in expensively equipt vocational schools, with their up-to-date machinery, high-priced conveniences, and comparatively well-paid instructors. The English department offers attractive and appropriate work for each aspirant, aside from the wide choice in English of the various classical, scientific, commercial, and vocational courses. More work is being done in widely different lines at less extra expense by the English department than by any department of the high schools of today. There is work for the one who wishes to contend in debate, to enter dramatic work, to take a course in short-story writing, or to benefit by the drills in oral expression classes. Apphed English courses are open to those interested in journal- ism, public speaking advantages are urged, home-reading and library reference work are under the direction of interested and able instructors in the department. During the past few weeks a little questionnaire was given to a hundred or more Seniors in a large high school. The following questions were askt: (i) "What in your four years of English work has been of most practical value to you? Why?" (2) "What has been most interesting or enjoyable to you in the high-school English work ? Why ? " (3 ) " What change or changes would you suggest in the English work of your high school ? Why?" In looking over the papers there were some surprises found. It would seem from many of the answers that English is functioning in some lines, at least, in the estimation of some high-school young people. It is rather encouraging to find statements in large numbers, such as the fol- lowing: I do not hesitate to say that English composition has been of the most practical use to me, as well as the most enjoyable. I have found that thru my composition work I was better able to express myself in the short story writing. It is an aid to me in expressing my thoughts in correspondence, or in any way in which I have done my talking on paper. It has been a joy to me to know that I can express myself easily and to watch the words forming themselves as I write without groping blindly for them. From a boy's paper: I have acquired in my four years' English course something that I consider of inesti- mable value. I have learned to love the fine and inner things of literature. I have learned as they say "to read between the lines." I have become acquainted with the customs, ideas, and civilization of lands other than ours. A practical value : The English and American literature have been of most practical value to me, because I have really persuaded my father to buy the works of some of my favorites, so that I may always find them in the library at home. I think English work makes one realize the great things in the world, and how small one really is. Department] STANDARDIZING THE QUALIFICATIONS OF DEANS 215 These lines quoted verbatim from high-school papers are of some value in determining the attitude of young people toward the English work of the high school. There must be, however, devices of some kind to create or arouse in the general public greater regard for the correct use of the EngHsh language and a more patriotic feeling for a real standard of good usage. The work in classrooms alone, of colleges and high schools, seems to make progress so slowly along this line that some real and immediate motive must be brought to bear as additional help. Some steps have already been taken, and with a fair measure of success. The "Better Speech Movement" of the past year has resulted in some permanent organizations in various localities in the way of ''Good EngHsh Clubs, " ''Voice-Training Circles, " and "Better Speech Societies. " " Com- munity English" classes wholly for the study and practice of oral and written composition and for the betterment or revival of the lost art of letter-writing are urged and organized in centers where efficient local instructors are possible. Women's clubs, we are told, are also out to save our English language. In order that the teaching of English in any classroom may function effectively in the various lines demanded there must be continued to the bitter end, the untiring, patient, optimistic work that scores of good English teachers (not the poor ones) are doing all over this land of ours today, regardless of unappreciative approval, in the face of criticism from every source, where it can be made, and in spite of the prediction that failures are more noticeable each year. Next to character, we are told, power in speech is to the greatest number, the best thing we can offer. "To train to effective speech is a patriotic duty." When a real national pride is aroused and there is a love for our language such as we feel for our country's flag, there will be a responsibility for a division of labor in the teaching of correct English, felt by each indi- vidual who instructs in any subject. The various lines in which danger to our "mother tongue" seems most fatal will eventually adjust themselves. Not only the English department alone of the high school, but all branches of the educational system will function effectively in the use of our native tongue. THE NEED OF STANDARDIZING THE QUALIFICATIONS OF DEANS FOR HIGH SCHOOLS ANNA WILLSON, GRADUATE STUDENT, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. Until very recently, all that was required of the girl graduate of our high schools was that she should have a diploma certifying that she had completed the required number of credits. Now society is awakening to 2l6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary the idea that this is not sufficient. In our Republic with the responsibilities of suffrage resting upon all our women, it is of the utmost importance that all our girls complete high school and that they are there trained in health habits, standards of sanitation for home and community, ability to meet and cooperate successfully with all kinds of people, comprehension of the policy of our government, ideals of the American home, elements of thrift, sanity regarding vocations, social conduct, religion, and thrift. With a prophetic insight of this large vision of education. Professor Stevens, of Columbia University, has secured such authorities as Dr. Wood, Professors Goodsell, Snedden, Tallman, Van Arsdale, and others to help her in conducting a course of education known as "Problems for Advisors for Girls." She has realized the chance of a higher standard of morality and a more enhghtened type of citizenship. It is apparent that whatever lifts womanhood lifts the whole future race and stimulates a finer quality of fatherhood. The fate of this new Vision of improvement rests upon the attitude of the principals and superintendents of schools. Old traditions might prompt a petty jealousy of the power and influence such a woman must have. There are unfortunately still a few benighted men who resent the idea of equality of men and women in education just as in the past ages the influence of the mother was ignored in order that the father might be considered more important. The needs of the children require that men and women work together without consciousness of jealousy or ri/alry. If this broad view prevails, strong, splendid women will be chosen as deans instead of the meekly inoffensive sort. The dean may be either a figurehead or a power. The idea may become a passing fad or almost immediately stamp itself as a natural and scientific prevention of certain incipient tendencies for evil. The recent development of the psychology of adolescents from its beginnings with Hall to the investigations of Barnes, Thorndike, Judd and HoUinsworth have given a true insight into the dangers or opportunities that may come to our youth. Every year in a child's life is fraught with infinite possibility for future good or evil. But after the first six years, no period is so important as that of the high-school age. Almost any wrong tendency of the earlier years may be swept aside by the flood of influences and emotions which rush over the souls of the boys and girls in their teens. No physician has such responsibiUty as the administrator of a high school. The compulsory education laws and the diversified curricu- lum are of doubtful value unless during the adolescent period that divine spark which lurks in every youthful soul is quickened into a steady flame which shall make safe the future. It is the unportance of this fact that has brought the dean of high-school girls, as a factor in high-school administration in schools where the principal is a man. And in all probability the dean has come to stay with us always. Obviously, the qualities of character, training, and duties necessary Department] SOME PROBLEMS OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 217 must be establisht before success is assured and this is just what Professor Stevens is doing. As a result from a recent investigation from reports of the office of high-school deans in a hundred representative schools, Professor Stevens discovered that widely differing ideas of the qualifications existed, from that of an easy-going ''motherly soul" with no education qualifica- tions, to the really necessary qualifications as set forth by Professor Stevens' report in The Teachers College Record, September, 1919, as follows: ''The adviser of girls ought in reality to be an exceptional woman with knowledge and judgment and tact equal to every emergency. She should be up-to-date in her study of present and future tendencies regarding the education of women; their relations toward the home, vocations, politics, labor, social service; their leisure, choice of friends, use of money and time." She must have had vital contact with successful people, and be familiar with the best authorities on her problems. She must be versatile, resource- ful, and capable. She must be able to organize and to lead without killing initiative. Thus her training must include besides a college degree graduate study in the following: first, knowledge of health habits and conditions; second, psychology as a basis of understanding and questions of sex and moral tendencies; third, a study of ethical and economic questions: fourth, religious training as a basis for character and social service; fifth, a broad knowledge of vocations and familiarity with the demands and rewards of all work open to women. Thus the work of a dean includes professional advice for physical, mental, moral, social, religious, and economic development. And the hopeful thing about it all is that such a calling when thoroly standardized, will attract the very cream of womanhood to its ranks, and bring to the public high school the same practice of conventions and the same broad culture which obtain in the best private schools. As a result, the girl of the high school will be respected and admired in business, college, and society. SOME PROBLEMS OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL MARIE GUGLE, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, COLUMBUS, OHIO A few years ago, it would have been desirable to preface a talk on the junior high school with a detailed account of its history, plan of organi- zation, and arguments in its favor. Now, however, it may be safely assumed that such an audience as this knows about it, believes in it, and has had more or less experience with it. In that experience many problems have arisen, a few of which we shall discuss this morning. In a recent number of a secondary-school journal, a writer claimed that pupils have been made to feel that the purpose of the intermediate school is to hurry them thru their school career. If that is true, something 2l8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary is wrong somewhere, but not with the intermediate school idea. It is no such short cut. Our experience in Columbus is just the opposite. We started junior high schools in 1909. Recently I made a statistical study of the growth of our schools during the last ten years. During the decade our city's population increast 30.6 per cent. During the same time the increase in enrolment in the elementary school, grades i to 6, was 27.5 per cent; in the intermediate school, grades 7, 8, and 9, the increase was 82 .6 per cent; and in the senior high school, grades 10, 11, and 12, it was 71.5 per cent. The absolute increase in the junior and senior high schools was greater than that in the elementary school. While other causes may have contributed to our marvelous growth in the intermediate and high schools, it cannot be wholly explained except thru the influence of the junior high school organization. In establishing junior high schools, opposition will be met on the part of both elementary- and high-school teachers. Elementary principals and upper-grade teachers will not want to give up the '' flower of their schools." Afterward, however, these same people will say, "Never before have the fifth- and sixth-grade pupils had a fair chance. We never knew so much could be done with them. " The senior high-school teacher is prone to be a little condescending in her attitude and to consider that her standards are being lowered in giving what she calls "play work" to these younger pupils. For example, a high-school teacher who likes to teach demonstrative geometry in an academic way, keeps up her standard by letting 25 per cent of the pupils fail, while another 50 per cent has very little idea of what it is all about. She may object to teaching observational geometry in the eighth grade as play work, partly because she does not know what observational geometry really is, and partly because she thinks that the pupil has too much joy in the work for it to be truly educative. One group of problems may be designated as managerial. The prob- lems included are: (i) grouping children by former school districts, by courses elected, or by intelligence rating; (2) guidance in pupils' election of course of study; (3) the gradual introduction of departmental teaching; (4) the amount of high-school credits given. There seems to be no justification in continuing the groups determined by previous schools. It fosters cliques in the new school, prevents natural grouping thru common interests, the making of new friends, and the unity necessary to develop the proper school spirit. It is contended by some that Grade VII B pupils are too young to make elections wisely. That may be true, for many people do not elect wisely their courses in senior high school and college or their vocations and avocations in later life. Some urge that election be delayed until Grade VII A. What conceit to think that in one short semester such wisdom can be developt ! The latter plan merely continues the elementary school six and a half years and shortens the junior high school. Department] SOME PROBLEMS OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 219 In order to help pupils in their selection of courses of study and elective subjects, we workt out the following plan. A few weeks before mid-year and before the close of school in June, each intermediate principal visits Grade VI A of all the elementary schools in his district. He gives to each pupil a printed outline of the courses of study and a registration blank. He explains the nature and purposes of each course. The pupils take these outlines home and advise with their parents and elementary teachers before making their choice. The course of study must be very flexible so that a pupil may transfer later if necessary from one course to another without sacrificing too much time. Our senior high school principals make similar semi-annual visits to Grade IX A classes of their neighboring intermediate schools. Some objection has been made to the abrupt change from the one-room, one-teacher plan to complete departmental teaching. In small junior high schools one teacher must teach several subjects. In larger schools, it seems best to deliberately introduce departmental teaching gradually. In the seventh grade, we try to arrange our programs so that a pupil takes at least two, perhaps three, subjects with one teacher. Foreign language and English make a good combination. English and history is another. Under the guidance of sympathetic teachers, it is surprising how quickly these young folks adjust themselves to the new plan and enjoy it. Much discussion has arisen from the problem of giving high-school credit for intermediate school work. The only subjects in the seventh and eighth grade for which we give high-school credit are foreign languages (Latin, French, and Spanish), and the commercial subjects of stenography and typewriting. In these studies we offer Grade IX B work in the two semesters of the seventh grade and Grade IX A work in the eighth, giving a half unit of credit in each for the year on the basis of five periods a week. Typewriting, as other laboratory studies, requires double time for the same credit. Ninth-grade work in the intermediate school receives regular high- school credit. If a ninth-grade study is taken in the seventh and eighth grades, tenth-grade work is given in the ninth, with credits accordingly. Administrators and teachers may revise and reorganize courses of study but most teachers will continue to teach textbooks. We need real junior high school textbooks. These should be written, not by college professors or even high-school teachers who have exaggerated academic tendencies but by real teachers who know the intermediate problems and needs and who, above all, know the intermediate child. I do not know which subject has the greater need of texts, English, science, or history and citizenship. Certainly we are not satisfied with our attempts to teach English. Most of our histories written for older people are too academic. Each author seems afraid to leave anything out for fear someone will think he does not know it. We are just making 220 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary a beginning in the teaching of citizenship. Truly, tho, the junior high school offers an unparalleled opportunity, for its pupils are so unspoiled, so eager, so responsive, so able to learn much thru participation. This suggests another of many problems that might be mentioned, which we shall call social for want of a better name. It includes the physical education or play, the various clubs and organizations of a social nature, student councils, orchestras, bands, and glee clubs. A pupil may be letter perfect in his book lessons, but unless he takes some active part in the so-called extra-classroom activities he is not being properly educated. It is more important that a boy learn how to get along with his fellows, how to meet people, how to play fair, how to win, and how to lose than how to translate a chapter of Caesar or give a book review. Girls especially need personal and social guidance by a sympathetic advisor. Every junior and senior high school should have a dean of girls or a woman vice-principal, if the principal is a man. If the principal is a woman, it is just as necessary to have a man vice-principal for the boys. May I suggest that every one who has the guidance of young people either in the home or at school read an article on "Boys and Girls " in the Atlantic Monthly of June, 1920? (The same issue has another excellent article on ''The School Shop" that every teacher should read.) Teachers for the intermediate schools should be the best in every way. First of all, they should be the best in personality, in understanding, and in sympathy with young folks. They should know so much of their subject that they can make big truths simple enough for children. They must have the widest training and broadest outlook possible. They must be able to see big things big, and small things small. They must be able to realize that it is more important that a boy develop the feeling of achieve- ment and the habit of succeeding than to memorize the incidents of Wash- ington's administration or a Shakespearean sonnet which he cannot comprehend. Other things being equal, the college graduate is more likely to have a broader outlook and better understanding of people, than one without such training. Therefore, in Columbus, all teachers classified as inter- mediate must be graduates or have the equivalent preparation in their special branches. Since they have the same qualifications, they are on the same salary schedule as the high-school teachers. They are mostly, teachers of experience in senior high or elementary schools or in both. The junior high school should in no sense be a training school for the senior high school. Many other problems might be mentioned, which must be solved by teachers and administrators. Among these are supervised, study; saving time now wasted in recitations; caring for the slow pupil without the discouragement that comes from failure; caring for the accelerated pupil Department] SIX-YEAR VS. SENIOR AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 221 without making him a spendthrift of his time and energy by holding him back for the so-called average pupil nor by pushing him too far ahead with pupils physically and socially more mature. New problems will be con- stantly arising. We welcome them as signs of growth and progress. The junior high schools need buildings and equipment; they need varied and well-organized courses of study with suitable textbooks; but above all they need wise leaders in principals and teachers who have understanding and vision, wise enough to know that the child needs the right opportunity, the right stimulus and encouragement, or in other words a chance to grow right. THE SIX-YEAR UNIFIED HIGH SCHOOL VERSUS THE SENIOR AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS HARRY M. SHAFER, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. The term intermediate school, or junior high school, has been inter- preted in various localities in different ways. A considerable variety of groupings of school grades has been evolved in different communities and the term intermediate school or junior high school applied to all of them. For the purpose of this discussion, intermediate or junior high school will mean a grouping of grades seven, eight,. and nine to meet the need of the adolescent thru departmental organization, differentiated courses of study, and other means adopted for passing the child who has finished the sixth grade on thru three years of life and work to the tenth grade. Thru annexation of territory from time to time, the school system of the city district of Los Angeles has been increast until it now includes a district six hundred and twenty-one square miles in area. In this district is included almost every variety and type of school to be found in a school system, based upon the organization plan determined by the school laws of California. Within this territory may be found one-room, two-room, three-room rural schools; six-room, eight-room, or ten-room schools such as may be found in a town, and the larger schools of the kind that a city usually supplies. Some schools are in valleys, some on mountain sides, others are along the seashore, and many are in crowded foreign districts within the city proper and a still larger number are located in residence districts. In serving the needs of grades seven, eight, and nine, three types of organizations are employed in Los Angeles : I. Schools organized on the six-six plan with either the entire upper six grades segregated in one building, or combined in a building with the lower six. Such schools are found in what may be termed the rural 222 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary communities which are part of the city system. Graduates of the eighth grade are awarded diplomas. 2. Departmentalized seventh and eighth grades in schools containing all grades of the elementary school and passing pupils to the ninth grade in either a junior high school or the first year of a four-year high school. Eighth-grade graduation exercises are held in such schools and diplomas are awarded. 3. Eight junior high schools graduate pupils to the first year of the senior high schools or the tenth year of the school course. For the first plan, which is in use in small schools, it is claimed that the addition of the seventh and eighth grades to the usual smaller high school renders possible a greater school plant. Increast enrolment makes better housing facilities and better equipment possible by reason of resulting greater revenues. Such departments as machine shop, home economics, commercial, and woodwork profit decidedly by added facihties. Increast enrolment, resulting from consolidation of neighboring small districts, results in a greater number of teachers and a more diversified course of study. The greater number of students resulting from consolidation increases enthusiasm and makes possible many school activities which could not be attempted in a small school. Larger groups of interested students add zest and the stimulus of competition to all class work; such subjects as oral expression and debating may include interclass and interschool contests, which motivate these lines of work; volume and spirit are increast in such subjects as music, especially in chorus and glee club; operettas and plays afford training and athletics function thru opportunity afforded for expres- sion; and increast receipts place school enterprises upon self-supporting basis. This type of school also serves to hold the intermediate pupil in school longer than would otherwise be the case. As a result of increast interests, together with enforcement of compulsory education laws, very seldom does a student desire to drop out at the end of the eighth grade. It may be said in criticism of this organization that: I. Throwing the seventh or even the eighth grader in with a crowd of larger and wiser pupils, is a very serious matter. The association of boys and girls of junior high school age with young people of senior high school maturity brings consequences which are highly undesirable and unfavor- able. The disparity of age in students, some as young as ten and eleven and some as old as twenty and twenty-one makes the first question to be decided: ''Shall the plan be for one school or two schools under one roof ?" If the first alternative is the answer, the next question to be decided is, shall the discipHne, rules, etc., be planned for the first two, middle two, or last two years ? It is said that the only practical way is to plan for the weakest and youngest. This worked a hardship and an unneeded and Department! SIX-YEAR VS. SENIOR AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 223 undesirable restraint upon the older student. If this plan is for two schools under one roof, conflicts and confusion result. 2. The making of a six-year high school program is determined largely by the fixed requirements of the intermediate sections with their added hours. What is left of the instructor's time may be parceled out among the students of the high-school grade. *'The intermediate tail swings the three- to six-year high-school cat." 3. It may also be added, as teachers in this class of schools are on the same salary rating as in the main city schools, the cost of such schools per capita is greater than in the larger schools. The problem of finance in relation to the smaller schools is a more difficult one to manage than in the larger schools. The general feeling is that this form of organization, notwithstanding its faults, is the best solution so far obtained to meet the situation in a rural community or in the small town surrounded by tributary school territory. It brings better results than does the plan of running small separated schools as individual units. ConsoHdation, while it leaves much to be desired and introduces new problems, is such an improvement that it should be continued in place of the old plan. Under the second plan, it is claimed that the elementary school has much more spirit, vigor, enthusiasm, and obtains better results because of the presence in the schools of the seventh and eighth grades. Most prin- cipals of elementary schools claim that this is the result. Such a claim maximizes results that are beneficial to grades one to six, while it minimizes or overlooks the handicap suffered by adolescent pupils who are detained under an elementary-school regime at a time when nature is demanding a new and changed regime. The strongest claim in the school containing grades one to eight is made for the child of foreign-born parents who is closely attached to the school of his childhood, who shrinks from breaking his association with that school, and who fears the strangeness and association of a new school and a changed environment. Usually a semester or less time puts him at ease and renders him happy and content. Experience has demonstrated that both the elementary-school child and the adolescent get on better and develop more satisfactorily when segregated in separate schools. The very reason for the founding of the junior high school, namely, a recognition of a new situation, of the appearance of new nature in the individual, demands such segregation. In situations where junior high schools are not accessible, or within convenient reach, the whole plan of arrangement by grades one to eight is followed. Long trips undertaken daily by street car or other conveyance are to be avoided so far as possible. The nearer the school is to the home of the pupil, the more satisfactory will be conditions. Junior high schools are being provided as rapidly as possible. 224 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary To the third plan, that of the junior high school-senior high school, the following objections are made: 1. The foundation years of high-school subjects are taken from the high school. Work in these years and subjects is done in an entirely different school. Where the foundation years, as well as the senior high school years, are under the direction of the same headship of departments and same instructors, Coherence in the work results. There is a better arranged plan on which all of the years are conducted. 2. After the student comes to the senior high school, he reaches the point where it is necessary to do considerable out-of-school study. The elementary tradition of no outside study can be best overcome where the conditions of study are gradually evolved rather than suddenly changed. In this way, routinized attitudes are broken up and latent energy of the pupil is gradually developt. 3. It is claimed that departmental type of program, involving many teachers and many subjects, tends to nervous instability and mental scatteration. The break at the end of the ninth year in passing from one school to another and from one organization to another is in this way made more striking. 4. The excess number of subjects together with liberal election, puts the pupil ahead of his real ability. Fourteen-year-old pupils are com- bined with sixteen-year-old ones; literature and other subjects too advanced for the younger pupil are undertaken and the younger individual is forced toward an outlook which is beyond his mentality. He usually passes the subject but fails to derive full value from it. This tends to increase the desire on the part of the pupil to pass subjects rather than to obtain the maximum of training from the pursuit of a given subject, when the onward urge throws him away from a thoro mastery of the fundamental elementary subjects. Later, when the teacher attempts to teach him algebra, she finds it necessary to run back to more fundamental arithmetic; or when she endeavors to conduct Latin or a modern language, she must spend more time teaching English. A fundamental reason for establishing the junior high school in Los Angeles was the belief that time, probably a year, could be saved in the school life of a child. Just how much time may be saved and how it may be saved are still problems under investigation. Whenever essentials shall have been distinguished from non-essentials, it will be possible to reduce time and content of course of study. However, such reduction should begin prior to the seventh grade. 5. Those who criticize the three- three plan think that the much needed discipline for the young person of the adolescent age is not obtained in the junior high school; that much better results would be obtained under a plan which did not make the break at the end of the ninth year. Department] SIX-YEAR VS. SENIOR AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 225 The new compulsory education law in California provides for schooling thru the tenth year for the normally advanced pupil. Two years under one roof, that is, the ninth and tenth year in the senior high schools, will hold many more pupils for graduation than making the break at the end of the ninth year. 6. Because of a considerable list of electives, the pupil tends to over- load in the junior high school, and thus undertake excess work at the expense of good work. He comes to the senior high school attempting to offer additional credits made in junior high school in order that he may shorten his senior high school course. The inter-relations between high schools on this point must be watched very carefully in order that the mediocre pupil may not crowd his education to such an extent that it graduates him badly prepared. Pupils should not be sent into high-school classes beyond their mental maturity. In favor of the junior high school-senior high school plan, it may be said: 1. That the interests, attitudes and activities of children eleven, twelve, thirteen, and fourteen years of age are quite different from those of yoimg men and women fifteen to nineteen years of age. All of the physiological and psychological differences which have been stated by the specialists and which it is not our province to restate here, urge such an arrangement. The very mentality of the human being as he develops from year to year demands that a different type of school organization recognizing different conditions in his life be organized. The association of the pupil of the junior high school with the senior high school pupil leads to the repression of the younger and standards being set by the older, said standards being of a type quite unsuited to the need of the younger pupil at his stage of development. Those in the junior high school are really boys and girls, while the ones in the senior high school are young men and young women. In their attitude toward life, toward school work, toward all sorts of school activities, there is a divergence of interests. The younger enjoy play, while the older are fitted for formal sports. Every speaker who has addressed junior high school audiences has been cognizant of the youth of the audience, the tendency to '' wiggle." He has found that the type of address to which the senior high school student will listen intently, will promote restlessness or playfulness when given before a junior high school audience. 2. The pupil of junior high school age requires a different type of subject- matter, different organization of the same, and different plan of instruction from that used in senior high schools. 3. The junior high school can give to each child from the elementary school a new knowledge of his own special abilities and a vision of the possibiUties and values of higher education. It is a place for both discovery and revelation. 226 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary Here, too, the adolescent forms some idea of that other-mindedness, that altruism, that social service so greatly needed in the present-day world. 4. The speed of the bright pupil is accelerated. The slow pupil is placed in associations more suited to his abihties. Pupils as a whole gain time. 5. Pre vocational training and vocational work are undertaken. This reflects the industries of the locality and links up with the life of the community. 6. Promotion by subjects becomes a practice easily employed. 7. Numbers passing to senior high school are largely increased. 8. By retention of ninth grade pupils in junior high school, the con- gestion in senior high school is relieved. Attendance in senior high school is more limited to students of like interests, ages, and requirements. 9. The high school Freshman class which has been a source of much anxiety and of grave concern, works under conditions better suited to their stage of advancement, mentally, morally, physically, and is a more satisfactory group in the junior high school than in the senior high school. 10. The school-supervised study of pupils of junior high schools gives better results for pupils of that age than does the home-study method of the senior high school. 11. Those who are acquainted with the plan and the results obtained, pupils, teachers, administrators, patrons, are practically unanimous in their endorsement. 12. Most teachers in higher grades are college trained and emphasize subjects; nearly all in the lower grades are normal-school prepared and hold the child as paramount. In this vital matter the junior high school offers decided advantages. As a result of the use of the three different types of organization pre- viously mentioned, the Los Angeles schools find the six-three-three plan with the junior high school in a separate building from the senior high school the one to be preferred. Offering electives in the seventh grade has not brought desired results and is now being discontinued with the idea that the work done on the standard subjects may be vitalized and varied to meet the need of the pupil. A subject from which very poor results have been obtained in the seventh and eighth grades is stenography. A trial has shown that this is a subject adapted to more mature minds and brings better results when undertaken later in the course. Other subjects have brought similar results to a smaller degree. A recent bond issue provided for the construction of three junior high schools, and a senior high school in a district where a junior high already exists, thus indicating the present policy. Department] THE WORLD-WAR AND SECONDARY EDUCATION 227 INFLUENCE OF THE WORLD-WAR ON SECONDARY EDUCA TION J. H. BEVERIDGE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OMAHA, NEBR. Every institution of our country was toucht either directly or indirectly by the world-war. No social, educational, business, or religious institution escaped. It is too early to say just what permanent influence has been exerted. Our problem is to deal with the influences of the war upon the secondary schools as evidenct to date. When we come face to face with the fact that 29 per cent of the men in the first selected draft were found physically unfit for military service, the necessity for better and more efficient physical training becomes evident. Some statisticians had known previous to the war that we were losing 10 per cent of our total productive power thru preventable illness and that we were, from an economic standpoint, losing a billion or more dollars every year because of ill health. The people did not realize this. The American people seem to content themselves by saying, "All is well.'' Some cata- clysmal crisis seemed necessary to awaken them to a sense of their responsi- bility. That crisis came. Then we realized that we have constantly about us in this country about three million people on the sick list. Between I J and 2 per cent of our population die every year. If you were to add to the loss indicated above the cost of medical attention given these people the cost of ill health coupled with the cost of physical unfitness soon goes beyond our power of comprehension. No estimate can be placed on the mental and physical suffering caused by illness and death in families of this country. It is said that one-half of the high-school pupils have some form of physical defect. These facts were brought forcibly to the attention of our people by the war to the end that secondary schools are now giving more attention to physical training and health supervision. We are not clear at this time as to just what kind of physical training will meet the situation best in preventing disease and correcting defects. It should be the aim of the secondary school to formulate a program that will make health more contagious than disease now is. All pupils must find a place in this program. The training at the present time in most systems is for the few. It should be for all. Instruction should not only be given in the principles of health but these principles should be put into practical opera- tion. Physical fitness is the basis of all economic, social, and personal efficiency. It is the basis of good cheer, happiness, and congeniality. The physical program of the secondary school should be a reality and not an excuse. In most secondary schools athletics now constitute the most important part of the physical training program. This program has gone thru the process of growth. First it was opposed, then tolerated, and now approved. It would seem that the stone which the builders rejected may yet become the head of the corner in physical training. Outdoor 228 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary recreation and play has a more important place in the physical program than formerly. Still more attention should be given to this part of the program. We must not forget the *'r61e that physical education methods played in furnishing recreation to the army and to war camp communities. It means much to the physical program of the secondary schools to know that in J:raining for war 2,000,000 men of America became accustomed to physical training forms of recreation and that the methods of the teacher were used in giving this training. " Secondary school men should welcome the stimulus given to physical training, recreation, and health supervision during the war. It is the belief of the writer that communities and boards of education will be stimulated to provide better facilities for carrying on this work. It is hoped that teachers may be able to secure such inspiration that they will give particular attention to their own physical welfare. The boards of education must not hesitate to provide restrooms for teachers. If, as in some cases, they object to calling the room by this name, let them call it recuperation room, recreation room, or resuscitation room. It is not so much what it is called as what it does for the teacher. Thru the use of mental tests for determining the ability of men for specific kinds of service and the capacity and capability of men for pro- motion in the different departments of the service an impetus was given to further study and application of mental tests in school work. Army officers were at first skeptical concerning the service of the psychologist in military affairs but before the close of the war the army officers were more enthusiastic concerning the value of mental tests than the psychologists. It is indeed doubtful if we who are in the educational field could have secured the same confidence in the value of mental tests that we now have, had they not been used in the war. In our own city-school system tests have been given to 1,200 eighth- grade pupils who will enter the various high schools in September. The inteUigence quotient of each child is in the hands of the principal of the high school which the child has signified his intention to attend. This will enable the principals of the several high schools, to a large degree, to classify these children in the several subjects according to mental abihty. The teachers having these children in charge will be enabled to have them progress more nearly according to their respective abilities. This is men- tioned as an illustration of a contribution made by the war to secondary education in the way of confidence attained in the value of mental tests. At the present time we have what is called an accelerated school made up of pupils who after having been recommended by the grade-school principal have past mental tests, such as Otis, Haggerty, or Simon-Binet with an intelligence quotient sufficient for us to recommend that they complete a semester's work in a six weeks' summer-school session. Slightly over half the children recommended attained the standard required by Department] THE WORLD-WAR AND SECONDARY EDUCATION 229 the Department of Research and are now doing work in the accelerated school. The present money stringency is again calling our attention to the necessity for thrift. The people of America and the pupils of the secondary schools must learn that future happiness and future success are based on present sacrifice. The person who is not willing to make some sacrifices for the present does not have a very hopeful future. History teaches us that Babylon, Greece, and Rome fell because they forgot the lesson of saving. Weakness comes thru indulgence of opulence. The American people must relearn the lesson taught them by good old Benjamin Franklin. The abundance of natural resources in this country has made Americans neglect personal thrift. Previous to the war for every 1,000 people in America, 100 saved money; in England, 317 saved money; in Germany, 347 saved money; in Sweden, 386 saved money; in Belgium, 397 saved money; and in Switzerland, 544 saved money. In this we have a pre-war rating. What the future shall be depends in no small degree on the teaching of thrift in the American public schools. Will your secondary-school men, not only teach thrift in your schools, but so organize them that the boys and girls under your administrative leadership will have an opportunity to practice thrift. The war has given an impetus to teaching one kind of thrift in the secondary schools not usually considered in connection with this topic. Its place is here. I refer to the teaching of scientific management in the home, the teaching of household arts especially from an economic standpoint. Properly organ- ized, this department may be made an important factor in thrift teaching. In one of the Omaha high schools there are eleven teachers in the household arts department with more than 600 pupils. These people are taught how and what to buy. It is as important to know how to spend money to the best advantage as it is to know how to save it. It is as much a matter of real thrift. The influence of the pupils that come out from the high school just referred to will be of tremendous importance in the future economic welfare of the people of the city. Good training in citizenship is as much a part of a course in household arts as it is in any department of the school. In the secondary school we must teach the conservation of ''natural, physical, and mental resources." It was Colonel Roosevelt who, in an address, criticized unmercifully the American people for "profligate waste of material resources, thus disregarding the welfare of future generations," but he also stated that "such waste fades into insignificance in comparison with human waste and lack of thrift in the American people." Thru opportunities thrust upon the secondary schools during the war, business men learned something of the real ability and efficiency of the teaching force and the administrative machinery. They called upon the schools in Liberty and Victory Loan campaigns. They called upon the schools for United War Campaign contributions. 230 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary They called upon the schools to provide four-minute speakers including both faculty members and pupils. They called upon them to assist in conservation campaigns, such as food, clothing, paper, and coal. They called upon the schools for poster advertising. They called for nurse and soldier service. The calls were answered. The war was an opportunity for educators to demonstrate their effi- ciency. The best evidence that they have demonstrated this efficiency is found in the large number of instructors and school administrators that were called to the assistance of the government and to the aid of business institutions during and since the war. They are still being solicited to enter the business world to such an extent that the recruiting of the teaching and administrative forces in the public schools is becoming a serious problem in most communities. DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — G\n Stanton Ford, University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minn. Secretary — ^J. J. Pettijohn, Indiana University Indianapolis, Ind. FIRST SESSION— Monday Afternoon, July s The Department of Higher Education of the National Education Association con- vened in regular session on Monday afternoon, July 5, at two o'clock, in the Bishop's Building. The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented : "The Educational Tidal Wave" — George F. Zook, specialist in higher education, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. "The High School and the Freshman Class in 1940" — Rodney West, professor, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn., L. V. Kees, professor. University of Min- nesota, Minneapolis, Minn. "The Junior College Movfement" — A. F. Lange, dean. University of California, Berkeley, Calif. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 6 "What Can Educational Psychology Contribute to College Problems?" — E. L. Thomdike, professor of educational psychology, Columbia Univerfity, New York, N.Y. "The Training and Recruiting of College Instructors" — A. H. Daniels, dean. Uni- versity of Illinois, Urbana, 111. "The Budget for Higher Education" — W. A. Jessup, president. University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Guy Stanton Ford, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Secretary — J. J. Pettijohn, director of extension, Indiana University, Indian- apolis, Ind. The meeting adjourned. J. J. Pettijohn, Secretary THE EMERGENCY IN HIGHER EDUCATION GEORGE F. ZOOK, SPECIALIST IN HIGHER EDUCATION, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. It is one of the peculiar characteristics of a great war to bring sharply to the light tendencies in national life which were previously not suspected or whose tremendous importance was only vaguely appreciated. Undoubt- edly during the last few momentous years, this has been the experience of the United States in a wide variety of fields including that of higher edu- cation. It is therefore very fitting and appropriate that we should examine some of the recent tendencies in higher education in order that we may suggest and discuss possible remedies for the present emergency in higher education. ^ 231 ■ 232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher The last complete statistics of colleges and universities publisht by the Bureau of Education were for the year 191 5-16. The attendance at institutions of higher learning for the decade ending that year reveals some startling increases which deserve serious consideration. In the year 1905-06, the total attendance at institutions of higher learning was 258,603; in 1915-16, 387,106, an increase of 49.7 per cent. Omitting the preparatory students included in this number the growth was 57.8 per cent. During this time the rate of increase in student attendance at the publicly supported colleges and universities considerably exceeded that in the privately supported institutions, namely 69 . i per cent, and 40 . 9 per cent, respectively. In 1905-6 only 31.2 per cent of all college and university students attended pubHcly supported institutions, whereas in 191 5-16 the percentage was 35 .3 per cent. The growth in the number of young women who attended colleges and universities during this decade is also noteworthy. In 1905-6 the total number was 81,103; ^^ i9iS~i6> ^37}^35) or an increase of 70 per cent, as against 40.4 per cen£ for the men. In 1905 women formed only 31 .4 per cent of the total attendance, whereas in 1915 they made up 35 .6 per cent. The increase of women students at public institutions was especially marked, being 138 . 5 per cent, as against 49 . 5 per cent in privately supported colleges and universities. Notwithstanding the powerful influence of the war there was compara- tively little falling off in the total student attendance during the war year 19 1 7-1 8. Complete figures for this year, which the Bureau of Education has recently compiled, show a total attendance of 375,359, which is a falling off of only 11,747 over the figures of 1915-16. As will be suspected, the decrease was in male students, since the number of young women attending institutions of higher learning increast by 13,683 during the two years. Complete figures for the college year 1919-20 are lacking, but the Bureau of Education has received figures of attendance from 250 colleges and universities. The total attendance at these institutions in 19 16-17 (the year immediately preceding the war) was 149,533; i^ 1919-20, 186,864; which is an increase of 25 per cent. As is well known, by far the greatest proportion of this increase was in the Freshman class last year. The Freshman class in the public institutions exceeded the Freshman class of three years ago by 61.8 per cent; in the private institutions by 33 . 5'"per cent; the general average being 46 . i per cent, as against an average increase of but 6 . 7 per cent in the Senior class during the three years. In 88 of the 250 institutions the Senior class was reported as being smaller than it was three years ago. Only 34 of them, however, reported a smaller Freshman class. Among these are the New York State Teachers College, Hamilton College, the Iowa State Teachers College, and the three women's colleges. Mount Holyoke, Wellesley, and Smith. Of the 221, which have larger enrolments, 9 have increast their total enrolments 100 per cent or more during the three-year period. Sioux Falls College, 100 per cent; Department} THE EMERGENCY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 233 Union University, Tennessee (colored), 100 per cent; the University of Southern California, 102 .3 per cent; Baylor Female College, 116 . 7 per cent; Sweet Briar College, 125.8 per cent; Missouri Wesleyan College, 133 per cent; Russell Sage College, 140 per cent; University of Detroit, 183.4 per cent. It is also interesting to notice the distribution of the increast attendance among the small and large institutions respectively. Institutions with an enrolment of Ifess than 250 in 19 16 have increast 38 per cent; those from 250 to 499, 20.2 per cent; those from 500 to 999, 14.5 per cent; those from 1,000 to 1,999, 22.5 per cent; and those of 2,000 or over, 29 4 per cent. The smallest institutions are therefore making the most rapid strides in increast enrolments, while the largest come second. The institution which previously enrolled from 500 to 1,000 students is growing at the slowest rate. Moreover, it should be remembered that the number of students fitting themselves for attendance at colleges and universities shows the most remarkable increase of any field in the educational system. For instance, the number of graduates from high schools both public and private in 1900 was 73,953; in 1910, 125,772 and in 1918, 248,199. The increase during the 18 years was 197 per cent. Since 1890 the total high-school enrolment has grown 710 per cent, the total population only 68 per cent. In 1900, 0.83 of the population was enrolled in the high schools; in 1910, i.ii per cent; and in 19 18, i . 71 per cent. It is clear, therefore, that the number of students attending and graduating from secondary schools is increasing so rapidly from year to year that colleges and universities should plan to accommodate greater and greater enrolments. It has been impossible to secure a sufficient number of competent teachers of superior training in these fields of higher education. As a result classes have been larger than experience has shown to be wise. Indeed, not long ago several of the largest and strongest universities in the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools were forst to the humiHating necessity of requesting a temporary relaxation of the standards of the association. While the colleges and universities as institutions have suffered, it is the faculty that has felt the change most keenly. Not only has their work been more arduous, more exacting, and more routine in character, but the value of their compensation has decreast very materially. An examination of salaries made by the Bureau of Education in about three-fourths of the colleges and universities shows that the average salaries in the pubKc institutions during the year just closed are as follows: Professors, $3,126; associate professors, $2,514; assistant professors, $2,053; instructors, $1,552. Salaries in the privately supported colleges average about $300, to $800, less than those in the public institutions. In solving their difficulties in the present emergency, colleges and universities under private control can, if they choose to do so, limit their enrolment to the number of students whom they can accommodate 234 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCtATtON [Higher comfortably. Indeed, for several years many of them have been doing so. The state institutions, on the other hand, will generally encounter great difficulty in limiting student enrolment. In any case, limiting enrolments may be a wise action from the point of view of a particular institution, but it is no solution for what has become a national problem. The permanent solution lies in adequate equipment and faculties and they can be obtained only with money. During the decade from 1905-6 to 1915-16, the income of higher institutions increast as follows: State and city appropriations, $11,665,397 to $32,204,111, or 177 per cent; student fees 121 per cent; productive funds 85.3 per cent; private benefactions, 70.4 per cent. In the realm of the public institutions there will undoubtedly be a tremendous increase in state appropriations. No other policy can possibly be thought of as a solution for the present emergency. All other activities of the state governments have also increast in cost greatly, however, and state legislatures are facing real difficulties in providing the necessary funds to carry on the respective functions of the state governments. The search for easily borne but productive taxes has gone on in the states for years. Undoubtedly the states feel as if the possibilities are practically exhausted. The question may well be raised seriously, as it has been raised by a number of bills now in Congress, whether the national government should not at once assume a large share of the expenses of education. This financial assistance is justified, not only by the greater ease with which the national government thru a variety of taxes can secure the necessary revenue, but also because the welfare of American citizens is equally the concern of the state and of the nation. The funds which the national government raises for edu- cational purposes should, however, contrary to the provisions of the bills now in Congress, be used for the support of higher education as well as for elementary and secondary education. Many of our universities are now becoming so large that they are ponderous. They are big at the bottom and little at the top. The imiversities will soon become weary of spending the larger portion of their energy digesting Freshmen and Sophomores under the masquerade of higher education. Cities and counties are indeed already beginning to appreciate that they can without great difficulty provide Freshman and Sophomore work of superior grade. The day of the junior college is at hand and interest in the junior-college movement is fast increasing, as is evidenst by the very successful conference of representatives of junior col- leges held at St. Louis, Mo., last week. One of the most serious problems caused by the present emergency in colleges and universities is the unfortunate condition of research. If the shortage of college teachers remains at anything like its present condition, the amount and quality of research at institutions of higher learning will be seriously impaired. If in this way research and the spirit of research is submerged in colleges and universities, a heavy blow will be dealt to the Department] THE FRESHMAN CLASS IN ig40 235 eternal search for truth for which these institutions should stand. Only in so far as the borders of knowledge are pushed out into the great unknown can we expect to make either material or social progress. From these facts it follows that universities have as one of their first interests to stimulate the spirit of research; to train considerable numbers of students in the methods of research; and to do as much research work of fundamental character as possible. College and university authorities should, therefore, stand squarely behind the National Research Council in its campaign to promote the facilities for the spirit of research thruout the institutions of higher learning in this country. The problem of training for citizenship is one, also, to which I believe every college and university should address itself seriously. It is one which is concrete in character, and college faculties ought to appre- ciate its significance and importance sufficiently to put aside differences of opinion, to define the objective as well as possible, and to lay down a course of study, accordingly. To doubt that this can be done seems to me to cast a grave reflection on the ability of college faculties and administrative officials to perform one of the most important functions for which insti- tutions of higher learning exist. A program for training in citizenship is imperatively needed in colleges and universities. Let us not delay longer in taking steps to establish it. Just now there is a considerable interest among faculties in the solution of the administrative problems of colleges and universities. It is just as essential, if not more essential, that those problems which are more purely educational in character should engage the active and intelligent interest of college faculties. The educational system of the country is a single system and no important changes can be made in it without affecting the status of higher education. In the interest, therefore, of education in general and of higher education in particular, it becomes the duty of college faculties to unite their counsel with those who represent other fields of education in order that together we may work out one of the most impor- tant problems of any democracy. THE FRESHMAN CLASS IN 1940 RODNEY M. WEST, REGISTRAR, AND LEONARD V. KOOS, PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. This paper is based on data obtained from a survey of the tendencies apparent in Minnesota, which, in the authors' opinion, offers a better basis for forecasting the future growth of the university than merely a study of the past development of that institution. Emphasis is to be placed on the value of the apparent tendencies as an aid to constructive poHcies for development rather than on any certainty that future facts will be likely to coincide exactly with the figures for growth in enrolment. 236 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher The survey leads to the following conclusions: 1. University growth can be measured by the increase in undergradu- ate enrolment. 2. The factors of primary importance in the increase in undergraduate enrolment are the development of the secondary school and popularization of higher education. 3. Of the secondary schools contributing students to the University in Minnesota, only the state high schools need be considered since 76.4 per cent of the total enrolment in secondary schools in the state is in these schools and 87.4 per cent of the university Freshman class of 1916-17 (a representative year) comes from that source. 4. A continuation of the increase in number of high-school graduates in the future similar to that in the past is not improbable. Altho the num- ber of high schools has increast 136 per cent in the last twenty years, the number of state graded schools from which the state high schools are largely recruited have increast 179 per cent in the s^me period. Altho the total school enrolment has increast 982 per cent in the last thirty years, there were in 191 5 only 21.2 per cent of the total population between the ages of from fourteen to seventeen inclusive, enrolled in state high schools, and altho the holding power of the high school has increast as represented by the comparative figures, 0.45 in 1890 and 0.66 in 1919, the most conservative estimate would assign a minimum of at least 34 per cent of the present entering high-school classes which fail to complete their courses of study. 5. Assuming that the forces which have resulted in the past develop- ment of the high schools will continue to exert the same influence in the same relative measure, a forecast of the number of graduates in the future would estimate 14,000 to 15,000 in 1930 and 20,000 to 21,000 in 1940. 6. The ratio of the total number of graduates of state high schools to the numbers enrolled in the Freshman class of the university the following year has been diminishing at a rapidly decreasing rate. 7. A continuation of this curve of diminution indicates a possible stabilizing of the ratio at from i to 0.25 or i to 0.20 per cent. 8. If this forecast is substantiated in fact, the Freshman class in 1930 will be from 3,000 to 3,500 and 1940 from 4,000 to 4,500. 9. Applying the ratio existing between the enrolment in the Freshman class and the total undergraduate enrolment in the university results in the forecast of from 12,000 to 13,000 undergraduate students at the Uni- versity of Minnesota in 1940. This is equivalent to an increase in regis- tration of approximately 80 per cent in the next twenty years. 10. The Freshman classes of the next few years will probably fall below that of the present year to an extent indicated by the abnormal percentage of deferred registrations which are explained by the interruption of school courses by the war. DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS SECRETARY'S MINUTES SALT LAKE CITY MEETING OFFICERS President — John R. Kirk, president State Teachers' College Kirksville, Mo. Secretary — ^Anna M. Tibbets, Fargo College Fargo, N.Dak. I FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6 The Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association convened in regular session Tuesday forenoon, July 6, nine o'clock, in the Bishops* Building, Salt Lake City, Utah. The meeting was called to order by the president and the following program was presented: "Religious Education in Teacher-Producing Institutions" — W. A. Lewis, president, State Normal School, Hays, Kans. Discus'sion — R. H. Wright, president. State Normal School, Greenville, N.C.; Joseph Rozier, president. State Normal School, Fairmont, W. Va.; R. A. LeMaster, superintendent of schools, Athens, Ohio; Dr. Clark, State Normal College, Dillon, Mont.; Dr. Brunhall, State University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah; A. W. Birdwell, San Marcos, Tex. "The Reasons Why All Teachers Should Have Preparation Equivalent to That Now Required for Secondary Instruction" — H. B, Wilson, superintendent of schools, Berkeley, Calif. Discussion — Matilda Peterson, head of Department of Primary Education, Branch Agricultural College, Cedar City, Utah; Guy C. Wilson, president, Latter Day Saints University, Salt Lake City, Utah; D. B, Waldo, president, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich.; R. H. Wright, president, State Normal School, Greenville, N.C. The following nominating committee was appointed by President Kirk: W. A. Brandenburg, president, Kansas Manual Training Normal School, Pittsburg, Kans.; Matilda Peterson, head of Department of Primary Education and Primary Supervisor, Branch Agricultural College, Cedar City, Utah; R. H. Wright, president. State Normal School, Greenville, N.C. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7 The following program was presented: "What Iowa Has Done on Rural Education thru the State Teachers' College" — H. H. Seerley, president State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Discussion — R. W. Powell, professor rural education, State Normal School, Kearney, Nebr. "Effective Democracy in the Faculty and the Administration of a State Teachers' College" — William H. Zeigel, State Teachers' College, Kirksville, Mo. "Student Self- Government in Colleges for Teachers" — C. E. Evans, president State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Discussion — Milton Bennion, dean of the Normal School of the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. The following ofl&cers were elected for the ensuing year: President — W. A. Lewis, president. State Normal School, Hays, Kans. Vice-President — C. E. Evans, president, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Secretary — Anna M. Tibbets, head of Department of Education, Fargo College, Fargo, N. Dak. The meeting adjourned. Anna M. Tibbets, Secretary 237 238 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS RELIGIOUS EDUCATION W. A. LEWIS, PRESIDENT KANSAS NORMAL SCHOOL, HAYS CITY, KANS. It is my strong conviction that the greatest development needed in our curriculum today is religious education thru the grades, high school and college. We cannot hope to steady the world and sober the minds of our young men and women unless we can put into their lives the enriching influence of religion and the sanity of judgment which comes from the reverential attitude toward life. The distracting influences of the world today have almost destroyed reverence. Children are astonisht^ if you ask them if they hold their parents in reverence. They do not know what you mean. I have askt groups of children questions to test out the spirit of reverence. I find that in our ambition to put everything imaginable in the curriculum, we have allowed ourselves to crowd out the reverential attitude. To my mind the greatest safety for patriotism is reverence for America's great men and traditions. Teaching religion does not mean teaching creed. We have a least common denominator in our religion upon which we can all stand. These things are fundamental and essential in human life — the spirit of reverence. We cannot teach love of Washington, Lincoln, and Roosevelt, and the great number of lovable men and women of American history if there is not within the child's mind the reverence which comes thru the religious understanding and attitudes. If there is no reverence for the names of Washington, Lincoln, and Roosevelt, there can be no patriotism in that same heart for America. The anarchist and the Bolshevik depend upon this one factor in planting their seed. With a heart full of reverence, the bitter seeds of their doctrine cannot grow. The child's heart is essentially open to culti- vation of the attitude of reverence. I believe it is the opportunity of the American teacher to build upon this attitude until there shall be such a spirit of reverence for America in American men and women that anyone who preaches destructive practices will be abhorred as a moral and political leper. Department] WHY TEACHERS SHOULD HAVE MORE PREPARATION 239 THE REASONS WHY ALL TEACHERS SHOULD HAVE PREPA- RATION EQUIVALENT TO THAT REQUIRED FOR GOOD SECONDARY INSTRUCTION MATILDA PETERSON, EXTENSION DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH BRANCH NORMAL SCHOOL, CEDAR CITY, UTAH And King Rehoboam made in their stead brazen shields and committed them unto the hands of the chief of the guards which kept the door of the King's house. — I Kings 14:27. Just as the people of Jerusalem were not to be deceived by the brazen shields which the king had hung upon the palace walls to replace those of pure gold previously hung there by Solomon, neither will the people of today be deceived by the man who substitutes in his character brass for gold. The great mass of teachers today are toilers, but it takes successful leadership of dynamic qualities to convert toilers into doers. The world today is calling for leadership and for the constructive mind in developing resourcefulness, in shaping the intellect, character, and health of the rising generation. We look back "with impatience at the mistakes of teachers who came into the profession without having had any special training. Yet each was, without doubt, working for the best results. However, we have- learned that children should never be sacrificed at the cost of untrained and uneducated teachers. Men in the professions, such as the lawyer, and doctor, must have considerable training in the technique of their work before beginning practices of law and medicine, and is not the teacher's calling a profession that demands expert training, in determining the intellectual, moral, and even physical welfare of the nation ? It is absolutely incumbent then upon teachers both individually and collectively to do expert work and to stand for definite principles and practices which are in harmony with modern scientific knowledge. The slogan for those in the profession must be ''How best may I serve"? Translated into terms of the primary school, this means continued improvement. Education must be a doing education; in the past it has been a knowing education. From now on there must be less emphasis upon subjects and more upon projects; less striving for endless information and more for definite accomplishment. The whole child must go to school. His social instincts must be developt and wisely directed. He must always be considered both in the light of his individuality and in the light of his relationship to humanity. The truth that his interests are inseparable from the interests of all others must be strictly observed. 240 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal The world-war has imprest upon the people the great importance of this fact. As never before, has the nation seen the school as her pillar of cloud by day and as the chief agency for the Americanization of the people. It is a known fact that the nations having the best schools, gave the best service, and in every w^y had the advantage over their rivals. As a result of such resourcefulness and achievements, learned men of the day are saying that America's success in the war was largely due to her school. Increase in preparation is needed in order to establish teaching as a profession. It will not otherwise command respect. The courses of instructions for doctors, lawyers, and ministers have increast very much. The preparation for teachers must be more extensive to keep up with progress. A STORY OF RURAL EDUCATION REORGANIZATION H. H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA The story. — The president of this Department requests a report on the six-year activities maintained at Cedar Falls for the improvement of rural education in Iowa. This story will be told without apology for its content and without motive as to aim, as the work that was under- taken, planned, and conducted was experimental rather than scientific, spiritual rather than pedagogical, human rather than managerial. The chief problems involved related to the college as a teacher-training institu- tion, for the state had received large attention from the president for some years before the undertaking assumed form and was begun as a movement for serious work on the greater phases of reconstruction and readjustment. These studies were preserved in part in the publication of The Country School, a book brought out by Charles Scribner's Sons in 19 13. In this little book of 211 pages were set out the difficulties, the foundations, the relations, the development, the activities, and the possibilities of rural education, thru which runs the philosophy that what was needed in America was a demonstration of such character, extent, and success that as a concrete example it would show the common man the importance of such results to the masses in American civilization. These activities briefly listed below. — The activities of rural education consist first of the establishment of a complete rural-school l^oratory for experiments, tests, and development of ideals and possibilities. This laboratory field has consisted of work in six civil townships of one-teacher schools, three^ small rural- village schools, three large consolidated schools, two of them located in villages of five hundred and eight hundred popu- lation, and one of them in the open country. Department] STORY OF RURAL EDUCATION REORGANIZATION 241 Community center activities in the various schools associated with the college have been carefully developt and thoroly tested for the past six years, and a large community picnic has been held on the college campus each year, to which all the people of the farm districts cooperating with the college come on invitation. These activities built up a very strong interest in education, developt an appreciation of good teachers, good educational advantages, good equipment and good qualities in citizenship, and brought to the children enlarged opportunities and increast advantages of unusual kind and character. Training teachers for rural schools. — During this campaign for better country schools, the Department has searched the state for persons inter- ested in rural-school service and in sympathy with rural life, and has encouraged them to prepare for the best grade of work by taking one of the courses offered for diplomas and special state certificates. These have been given training in the one-teacher demonstration schools in the country, after having had courses in observation in the campus- demonstration school maintained by a system of transportation of pupils. One month of actual living in the country and teaching in these demonstration schools has been found sufficient to give skill in such service. In these six years, an average of 1,100 persons a year have been under the instruction of the Department for one or more terms, and these have gone into the rural schools and raised the standards and improved the work. The consolidated school. — The comparative study of the merits of the rejuvenated one-teacher school and the well-organized and equipt con- solidated school operating side by side in this affiliation with the Teachers' College, has had a markt influence in helping bring rapid progress to the consolidation of rural schools in Iowa, as the demonstrations made have shown that there was little to be said for the improved rural school as compared with the enthusiasm, the interest, and the broader scheme of education of the consolidated school. These facts and the articles that have been written for the farm press and educational press by the head of the Department have had a large share in bringing about a move- ment for consolidation of rural-school districts that is unprecedented in the United States. Without these demonstrations and these findings of the Teachers' College, there would not be four hundred consolidated school districts in Iowa today, paying fine salaries, carrying enlarged courses of study, and developing an educational revival never before experienst in the history of state development and progress. As the Department now sees it, the making of the consolidated school, the Iowa typical rural school, as a universal legislative solution, is the next step for the Iowa General Assembly. The extension service. — For six years, the Iowa State Teachers' College has carried on an elaborate and an extraordinary system of extension 242 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal education, confining its services absolutely to that of work for the improve- ment of teachers in the public schools of every class. By a ruling of the state board of education, this kind of educational work belongs exclusively to this one state educational institution. The study center. — This title was originated to define the work planned and, at the same time, use a new nomenclature that would enable the people to recognize this new service as identified with the Iowa State Teachers' College. The title proved popular and the work grew rapidly until it spread over the state and included about 15,000 teachers at work in the schools. These study centers are classified as general, special, and credit, according to their individual purpose and management. The general study center has for its chief object the immediate helping of the teachers in their daily work in fundamental lines; the special study center has for its aim special subjects like agriculture, domestic science, manual training, where vocationar lines are given particular attention; the credit study center is conducted in one branch of study with one teacher in a series of meetings, until twelve weeks' credit of five days each has been covered in quantity, and has reached standard scholarship in quality, the same as required on the campus. These courses of instruction used (i) the project method in teaching geography, (2) handwork as a normal means of expression for children, (3) history as a "why" study, not a "what" study, (4) standardization of the teaching of music thru the use of the talking-machine, (6) a proper emphasis upon silent reading, (7) the teaching of spelling as the correct basis for the expression of thought in writing, (8) the rational use of standarized tests and measurements — all contributing to the enlighten- ment of teachers, the better encouragement of their work, and the greater benefit of the schools in general. In order to determine that this preaching of new ideals has been effective and that the lessons learned were applied, one needs but contrast the methods of teaching these subjects in the rural schools before and after the, study center. No other educational influence in the same time can compare at all to the study centers, as they have been continually maintained for the bringing of these results about. Publication. — The extension division has made a distinct contribution also in the mimeographed and printed outlines of lessons and subject-matter that have been distributed at every study center. It has also publisht certain pamphlets such as, (i) "Organization and Classification of a Rural School" that has been accepted by the Department of Public Instruc- tion as the best aid yet presented in the solution of this problem, the publication being used in the normal training high schools of the state; (2) "Sewing in Rural Schools"; (3) "Cooking in Rural Schools"; .(4) "The Course of Study in Geography." All of these have been exceedingly valuable, useful, and acceptable. Many other things are planned for Department] STORY OF RURAL EDUCATION REORGANIZATION 243 the near future that will have equal importance and helpfulness to the humblest school organization. Assistance in propaganda for consolidation of schools. — In this field, speakers of the best quality have been furnisht communities where meetings have been held and many consolidations have been secured by the capability and suitability of these presentations. This work has ended with propa- ganda, as the problems of organization, inspection, adjustment, and construction are legal questions and belong directly to the state Depart- ment of Instruction. This special service during the year 1919-20 has required more than one man all the time in the field. Finance and personnel. — It takes the right men and women and a large sum of money for expenses to conduct these varieties of educational progressive work in a single state and be able to develop them to such an extent and on such a scale and to such a standard as is worthy of commendation. It is a gigantic enterprise at any rate, and cannot be conducted cheaply. It must be state-wide in its opportunity and it must be a good business for those who are employed to give the strenuous services. Only when such an enterprise is as large as the public demand does it deserve to be approved and as appropriately accepted to be a genuine and laudable undertaking. It must be done, therefore, on a great scale, it must be maintained with efficiency and force, and it must be presented with vigor and confidence. During each of the years of the biennial period now being covered, rural education has cost $30,000 and extension service has cost $60,000 and the next General Assembly will make large increases in each in order to permit this popular educational enterprise to be enlarged, expanded, and intensified so as to help all the schools of all the people. DISCUSSION R. W. Powell, professor rural education, State Normal School, Kearney, Nebr. — We must have more food producers if our nation is long to endure. At the present rate of rural depopulation, within thirty-five years we shall become a great import nation. The recruiting of our farmer ranks must be done by the retention of the already establisht farming population. Consequently the question follows: What is Cedar Falls Teachers' College doing to meet this economic crisis ? There are two main unique programs used in reaching the farming population: namely, the extension program and the laboratory method of training teachers in residence. I know of no better, even if as good, an organization for extra-mural service than the one at Cedar Falls. This extension faculty of more than a half hundred members taken from the regular faculty, and out-in-the-state educators, under the direction of an able director reaches possibly 30,000 teachers out in the field yearly, giving them help, instruc- tion, and inspiration. Children are directly reached, too, thru the club work. The parents come in for their share of instruction thru consolidation meetings. Only one result can come from such an organized effort to solve the rural problems, and that is more farmers and more food. If the above is not the most injteresting feature of the program for rural education then it is the laboratory they have built up in which to train teachers in residence. It is 244 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal probably the most complete, and the largest laboratory for training te'achers found in any teacher-training institution of the country. The management of these affiliated systems and individual schools is not haphazard. They are under very close and constant supervision while teachers are practicing and observing them. EFFECTIVE DEMOCRACY IN THE FACULTY AND THE ADMINISTRATION OF' A STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE WILLIAM H. ZEIGEL, DEAN, STATE TEACHERS' COLLEGE, KIRKSVILLE, MO. Democracy is government of the people, by the people, and for the people. It is more the power to rule than actual rule. All the outward forms of democracy may be observed while the spirit of democracy waits afar off. Timoleon of Syracuse, when old and blind, made this apt reply to two demagogs who bitterly attackt him: "I cannot thank the gods enough for permitting me to live to see all Syracusans enjoying the liberty of saying what they think fit." Democracy is not everyone having his own way, it is not everyone exercising authority, but it is everyone express- ing without fear his own opinions and having his vote counted in reaching the decision of the democracy; and, then, whatever the decision fairly arrived at, giving it his support both by submitting to the exprest will of the majority and by furnishing his active cooperation in carrying out this will. Democracy is not a gift from the gods dropt into the lap of an indifferent people. It must be sought eagerly to be acquired and must be practist consistently to be retained. Democracy is a long road and a slow road, but when once a nation has entered upon it, that nation grows by its struggles and lifts its burden of human achievement and thought to heights that benevolent autocracies can never attain. Democracy augments its power and achievements by putting its principles to the test in practice. It is the school of promise for the human race. Our forefathers saw clearly that it would not be safe to rely upon the caprice of an ignorant citizenship for the maintenance of the democracy which they had founded. So our free public schools were establisht as the bulwark of our nation. We have ventured all upon the efficacy of ideas to dispel darkness and crime, to lift men from bondage and servihty to the exalted heights of free men. The words "Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free" were no idle words spoken to the winds; they are surcharged with power and promise. They furnish the reason for our public schools which are the cornerstone of our Republic. Children of today need all the preparation that our public schools can give, for they must go out into a world teeming with difficult problems — problems of tremendous consequences that press for immediate solution. The nations of earth are i*n a state of unrest. Russia, downtrodden, illiterate, opprest, revels one brief moment in her newly found liberty and Department] DEMOCRACY AND ADMINISTRATION 245 then plunges into one long, dark night of chaos and despair. Half of Europe and Asia are engulfed in this maelstrom of discontent and anarchy; nor are our shores safe from the waves of its malevolent impact. We have the race problem with its violent outbreaks; the I.W.W. and the anarchist breathing out threats and sedition; the millions of illiterates received into our body politic; and the pressing conflicts between labor and capital. These problems cannot be solved by force from without as at the point of a bayonet. The solution must come from within thro the understanding and good will of an enlightened citizenship, and it is the task of th€ public schools to furnish such a citizenship. The teacher is the guiding force in the schoolroom. This vast power in the hands of the teacher is enough to make us pause, especially those of us who direct the training of that teacher. Teachers' colleges occupy strategic positions. They must furnish for the nation teachers that will never sell their birthright of service for material gain; teachers that will never stoop to the base level of the professional demagog. They must furnish teachers imbued with vital, militant ideals; teachers that can marshal and center the resources of our public schools upon the urgent needs of our country. Do we believe that right makes might, and righteousness exalteth a nation? Then put this principle into our schools. Enunciate it thru organized curricula; support it by example, experiment, and demonstration. Bring to bear the art of poet and sculptor, the genius of scientist and philosopher. Put behind this doctrine the driving force of teachers, nurtured in the wholesome democratic atmosphere of teachers' colleges, and it can be embodied in the life and traditions of our nation. Teachers' colleges must become leaders and exemplars in the practice of democracy. High-sounding words and loud acclaim will avail nothing. These schools must in organization and administration represent the forefront of theory and practice in democracy. Are we willing to face the facts, to see what is being done, and consider further what needs to be done in the democratization of teachers' colleges ? In a typical progressive teachers' college the president will ask the aid of a registrar, and of committees on: credentials and graduation, positions, field service, curricula, extension service, school publications, social life, health, and nominations. Thru this organization the efficiency of a school is increast and the president assumes intelligent leadership. The records of the institution are intrusted to a competent registrar who is held responsible for record cards, original files, and proper certifica- tion of credits. To the registrar may also be intrusted the bookkeeping of the institution. In both cases there is full authority and full responsi- bility. This means that no other individuals may add to or change in any manner records, credits, or accounts. A committee on credentials will have full authority to pass on all credits from other schools, and will cooperate closely with the registrar. 246 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION A SSOCIA TION [Normal The committee on programs and excess credit will aid students in choosing courses of study and will pass on all questions of excess credit. In the matter of excess credit no favors can be shown. Students want a square deal. They believe in high standards impartially enforst. The committee on examinations will arrange thru departmental cooperation for examinations to which students may be entitled because of work done in unaccredited schools or under private instruction. This committee is unhampered in determining eligibility for examinations and faculty mem- bers have full authority in niarking papers and reporting standings. The committee on positions has the important function of properly placing the product of the college in the schools of the state. Here rests the triple obligation of fair dealing with college, individuals, and public- school system. This committee has liberty of action and renders a unique service. The committee on field service acquaints the public with the purpose and plans of the school and its facilities for meeting the needs of the people. Committees on curricula, extension service, school publications, health, and social welfare are also created and perform their respective functions in carrying out the expanding program of a progressive teachers' college. The president is ex officio a member of each committee. Such is the organization that is putting new life into teachers' colleges. The power and usefulness of the president is increast, not decreast. It makes him a leader not a task master. The possibilities of the office with committees thus organized are unlimited to men of wisdom, judgment, and vision. How then are these committees selected ? The faculty elects by ballot, without nominations, a nominating committee of five persons. After the nominating committee is elected, it begins its task of making out a roster of names for the various committees of the school. Politics will not work here. In executive session, the qualifications, adaptability, and charac- teristics of each faculty member are discust. By this careful sifting nominations are made for each committee and when approved by the faculty the standing committees for the year have been selected. This whole procedure is a remarkable exhibition of democratic participa tion in the conduct of a teachers' college. But the organization is nothing compared with its achievements. It works. Certain things need yet to be done in the democratization of teachers' colleges. A good beginning has been made. Who is bold enough to go the whole way? What college president has faith enough in the honest purpose of his faculty to ask it to share with him the responsibility of choosing new faculty members, determining tenure of office and regulating salary schedules? These powers rest in theory with the board of control, in practice with the administrator of the school. This transfer of function from the board to the administration is wise; it is also a wise check that bepartmentj DEMOCRACY AND ADMINISTRATION 247 ultimate authority rests with a board of laymen. Would it not be well, however, for the president to share this responsibility with representatives of his faculty. As the president's will cannot per se override the will of the board, so also the view of the representatives of the faculty should not per se override the will of the president. Why should not a faculty committee advise with the administrator in passing upon new faculty members ? The department in which new members will work should be represented in these deliberations. The personnel of a faculty is of real interest to faculty members and there is every reason to believe better selections would result thru this combined judgment. Likewise, if a faculty member is to be discharged it is only fair that a committee representing the faculty should share the responsibility of recommending dismissal. Of course, departmental opinion should be secured and bear its just weight. A man about to be dismist, who has been honored and elevated to a position in a college, has a right to appeal to the faculty for its judgment of his case thru, a committee that should stand both for the rights of an individual, if not forfeited — and for the rights of an institution to good and faithful service. But of all the causes for complaint, as schools struggle along on limited funds, none is so frequently made as the one relating to the manner of dis- tributing salaries. Shall industrial concerns get together and make adjustments that remove friction, promote good will, and increase efficiency while teachers' colleges fail to do so under more favorable conditions? Can we not see that the remedy is ready at hand ? It is faculty representation in making the salary budget. A faculty should have the privilege of electing two of its members, one man and one woman, to represent it in salary adjustments. The president, the dean, and these two representatives of the faculty would know the merits and weaknesses of each faculty member better than any one man could. All cases would be considered and measured by a single standard; worth would be recognized and rewarded, the slacker would be demoted and the whole faculty would be back of the decision. It is a longing for an acknowledged right, a guarantee of fair play and the square deal. When these reforms are added to those already in operation, the teachers' college will assume its rightful place in experimental democracy. Faculty representation as advocated above may not be an educational panacea but it is a giant stride in the right direction. It substitutes confidence for distrust, interest for indifference, harmony for discord. It produces effective cooperation thru understanding and good will. It will bridge the great gap that has in the past separated teachers and administrators and will bind them to the one common task of making the world a better place in which to live. 248 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ' [Normal STUDENT SELF-GOVERNMENT IN TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS C. E. EVANS, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, SAN MARCOS, TEX. The purpose of this paper is to report the results of an investigation of student self-government in the teacher-training institutions of America, together with suggestions for making larger use of student participation for the promotion of school ends. An attempt was made to ascertain the actual status of student government in normal schools and the opinions of presidents and faculty regarding its feasibility. The following questions were sent to one hundred and fifty-eight (158) normal schools: 1. Do you have student self-government in your institution? 2. Explain briefly your type of student seK-government. 3. What school affairs are committed to the control of student committees ? 4. Do you find student self-government satisfactory? 5. Make any criticism out of your experience. From the investigation the following conclusions have been drawn: As so many normal schools making reports offer only two years of work beyond high-school graduation, the short period of normal-school life pre- cludes the possibihty of a continuous student body for a sufficient number of years to develop the student leadership requisite for highly successful student self-government. University "Student Handbooks" that set out in detail student organizations and activities indicate student control thru "upper classmen," Freshmen being rather the governed, and that, too, with little more than quasi consent and nominal representation. The few recent instances of apparent breakdown of student self-government in universities during the war may be charged to the shortage in junior and senior leadership growing out of the selective draft, necessitating the sub- stitution of immature and untrained "lower classmen" in student manage- ment. Wise leadership is no less essential for sane student government than it is for sane poUtical action in state or nation. "You cannot put old heads on young shoulders." The professional purpose of the normal school may also supply desirable motivation of work and wholesome ideals that will tend to make young men and young women seK-governing, without organized governmental machinery. May it not be that the work, the atmosphere, and the pro- fessional spirit, at least of some normal schools, combine to produce a high plane of individual appHcation and conduct, the practical equivalent of formed student responsibiUty for social order ? What the student body of normal schools lacks in maturity of years and continuity of college life, it may even make up thru the development of the craft spirit incident to the pursuit of true professional ideals. The negligible number of cases of discipline in some normal schools would point to the uselessness of spend- Department] SELF-GOVERNMENT TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS 249 ing time on corrective machinery as well as the actual accomplishment of the preparation of students for citizenship. Under such conditions in a normal school — and such conditions may be found — an elaborate scheme of student self-government would appear to be an impertinence or excres- cence. Democracy should actually release "all the energies of every individual for the enrichment of the personal and social life of all." If, therefore, the normal school could work out satisfactorily the limitations and function of student participation in its discipUne. it would give a valuable training to young men and young women for responsible group action; it would train more effectively leaders to mobilize the energies and talent of public- school boys and girls for school and civic betterment. Socialized young men and young women, democratic rather than autocratic in attitude, would face confidently dehcate problems growing out of the tremendous demand of the rank and file of students, grade teachers, and minor employes for larger participation in shaping poHcies under which they work. More than 80 per cent of student life in normal schools is spent away from classrooms in rest, getting meals, exercise, recreation, and study. Any form of school government, which promises even a measure of improve- ment of this external college life , deserves con sideration and trial . Cer tainly , we cannot afford to underestimate the educational value of the "larger college atmosphere"; and lest these outside activities endanger or outrun internal morale, we must amply provide for their direction and control. I am of the opinion that much of student college life outside of classrooms and more particularly off the campus can best be elevated thru lodging large responsibility with students for the maintenance of wholesome conditions. The experience of normal-school dormitories illustrates the desirable results of student self-government in one field and forecasts the advisability of its extension to other extra-classroom endeavor. The stu- dent council could best lighten and regulate the increasing non-academic de- mands upon normal-school students; it could more easily organize and vitalize religious or internormal-school activities; it could effectively enforce standards in athletics. In some of the larger universities, the student associations are regulating the number of social functions per week, and the conditions of expenditure of money in student elections. Advisory student councils elected from the several classes or from the school at large could hardly prove objectionable. Such councils enable presidents, deans, and teachers to appreciate the students' point of view, promote cordial relations between students and teachers, and provide a suitable agency for hearing the requests, petitions, and grievances of students. Thus, the advisory council lessens friction in school manage- ment and is a strong influence for the development of school spirit. The powers and duties of the advisory student council may expand according to institutional conditions and needs; when the situation warrants, the 250 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal advisory council may become the executive committee of the student self- government association, the transition being gradually effected as a matter of evolution. Thru student self-government, the normal school may enlist the leaders among young men and young women on the side of law, order, and social uplift, thereby offsetting the influence and propaganda of the bad and the lawless students. Student cooperation can best answer the Bolshevik, and the disgruntled. From this standpoint, student self- government becomes a militant force for the protection and conservation of the integrity of the school. By giving student bodies and student organizations powers and duties to be exercised for social ends, we prevent the diversion of student energies into dangerous channels. Expedi- ency, therefore, indicates a practicable use of organized student self- government as a safe preventive agency. Finally, if student self-government is worthy of trial in a normal school, it must be inaugurated with the sympathy and support of the faculty. When student government comes as a "negative concession wrung from a half-hearted faculty," rather than a positive school poHcy for the development of creditable conditions, it is not being accorded a decent chance for life in the institution. Under such circumstances failure would mean antagonism, opposition, or even worse, cynicism of faculty. If the situation in a normal school is not favorable to large student responsibility, faculty influence and faculty pressure should not lead or drive students into it. With the confidence and support of the faculty, and with student sentiment ready and willing to assume large responsibility for social order, the normal school may expect constructive results from the introduction of a carefully planned scheme of student self-government. DISCUSSION OF PAPER ON STUDENT GOVERNMENT Milton Bennion, dean, School of Education, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah— As to whether or not it is advisable to introduce student governmeat depends on the state of civilization of the student body. It is well known that a plan of self- government which works very well with civilized, law-abiding people will not succeed at all with people who are not stabilized. In order to succeed, student government must conform to the following conditions: First, it must be in the hands of a serious-minded and law-abiding body of students. Second, students must understand at the outset that self-government is of necessity limited, resembling in this respect government granted by Congress to the territories. Ultimate authority over a public teachers' college rests with the people of the state that support the college. This authority is delegated by them to a board of trustees and by the trustees to the president and faculty — the board, however, reserving the right of veto of anything done by the president and faculty. In delegating authority to students, the president and faculty are necessarily bound to reserve the right of veto since they, rather than the students, are held responsible by the board of trustees. Third, the limitation of the functions of student government must be made perfectly clear. Evidently student government cannot properly exercise authority in determining Department! SECRET ARTS MINUTES 251 courses of study or other educational policies. It can, however, control all matters per- taining to student discipline and should concern itself especially in maintaining high moral tone in the student body. Such practices as petty gambling and cheating in examinations, where these exist, should be eliminated thru the student-body organi- zation In matters of this kind the student government can accomplish much more than is possible thru action without student cooperation. Fourth, the president and faculty must not adopt student self-government as a method of shifting responsibility. Student self-government is as much a part of the educative process as is classwork and should receive the constant, careful, wise guidance of the president and faculty, united in support of the plan. SECRETARY'S MINUTES CLEVELAND MEETING OFFICERS Chairman — John R. Kirk, president, State Teachers' College Kirksville, Mo. Secretary — Anna Tibbets, Fargo College Fargo, N.Dak. Tuesday Afternoon, February 24 The Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Tuesday afternoon, February 24, at two o'clock, in the French Room of the Hotel Winton, Cleveland, Ohio. The following program was presented : The general topic for the meeting was "The Instructors and the Facilities for Teaching and Exemplifying Scientific Tests in Teacher-Producing Institutions, with View to the Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests. " "Intelligence Tests" — N. A. Harvey, professor of elementary education, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Discussion, led by the following: Virgil Dickson, Research Department, City Schools, Berkeley Calif.; W. A. Brandenburg, president. State Normal College, Pittsburg, Kans.; George Melcher, director of research and efficiency, Kansas City, Mo. "The Personal Qualifications of Instructors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exem- plifying Hygiene and Physical Education Tests in Teacher-Producing Institutions, with View to the Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests in the Public Schools" — J. D. Heilman, professor of educational psychology. State Teachers' College, Greeley, Colo.; A. G. Reed, professor of Child Hygiene and Public Health, State Teachers' College, Kirksville, Mo. Discussion, led by the following — H. G. Swanson, superintendent of schools and director of practice teaching, East Carolina Teachers' Training School, Greenville, N.C.; Nina C. Vanderwalker, principal" of kindergarten training department, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. "Salaries in Teachers' Colleges and Normal Schools — Should Parallel Salaries in Universities? If So, Why?" — J. Stanley Brown, president, State Normal School, De Kalb, 111. Discussion, led by the following: D. B. Waldo, president State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich.; Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash.; A. E. Winship, editor, Journal of Ediccation, Boston, Mass. The meeting was adjourned. Anna Tibbets, Secretary 252 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS INTELLIGENCE TESTS iOFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, Ml COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICH. The records of 1,700,000 men obtained by giving the army tests repre- sent the most stupendous accumulation of psychological data in the world. The results derived from these army tests have been recognized as extraor- dinarily valuable. The large number of men tested justifies us in assert- ing that they represent fairly well the psychological status of the entire population of the country, including the children of school age. Inciden- tally, one result of these tests is that the subject of psychology has been completely transformed, and possibilities of the subject previously undreamed of have been disclosed. Mental measurement necessitates a recognition of the fact that children dijffer widely from each other in their mental capacities and in their con- sequent ability to learn. Of this fact teachers are generally aware, but their judgment of the amount of this variation and the consequences following from it has little weight in determining their practice in teaching. Mental measurement constitutes a method of studying children in a more satisfactory way than has ever before been available, and inevitably tends to correct misjudgments that are common in schools. Some children are judged to be normal in school when they are really retarded mentally one, two, or three years. But the greatest injury is done to those brighter children who have a mental capacity of two, three, or even four years above the grade in which the mental testing finds them located. By means of mental measurement, we have become able to adapt our schools to the capacity of children. Using the determinations of the army tests, it has been discovered that intelligence of the C plus grade may be described as that of the high school. Persons of less than C plus intelligence are unable satisfactorily to accomplish the work ordinarily required for high-school graduation. But it is possible so to modify our high-school requirements and to establish in our high schools work of a kind that persons of a different grade of intelligence are able to do with profit, and thereby have the same effect as to increase the grade of intel- ligence which they are able to manifest. Another thing that must not be overlookt in any discussion of the teacher's problem is the matter of disciphne. We find that there are in schools some incorrigible children. Mostly they are boys, and they consti- tute a very serious problem for every teacher. There is a very general feeling, exprest sometimes in the startling statement that incorrigible boys have in them material for making the very best men. This is encouraged by some very reputable scientific publications, but it is true only when applied to certain cases. One kind of incorrigibility arises from a hyper- Department] INTELLIGENCE TESTS 253 trophied development of the instinct of childish independence. This instinct is absolutely necessary, and those who possess it in a high degree are likely to be of the kind from which natural leaders come. But there is another kind of incorrigibility that arises from a different cause. This second kind of incorrigibility arises from a condition of feeble-mindedness, and such persons can never become successful leaders of any good social movement. The external marks of the two kinds of incorrigibility are not very different, and teachers generally fail to discriminate this second kind of incorrigibility from the first. They indignantly assert that this bad boy could learn as well as anybody if he would apply himself. But actually he is unable to apply himself in consequence of his natural limitations. Mental measurement easily discriminates these two kinds of incorrigibility. If I had a bad boy or a bad girl in school, I should first of all subject him to mental measurement. In the teaching of defective classes it is necessary to be pedagogical. The very best examples of pedagogical practice will be found in the schools for the defective and dependent classes. The purest examples of pedagogy that I have ever seen have been found in schools for the deaf, for the bUnd, and for the feeble-minded. Such dependent and defective classes cannot be taught by anything less than pedagogical methods. In ordinary schools our children will learn something and get along somehow if we are not so explicitly pedagogical. They will learn something in spite of their teachers. But they will learn enormously better if the teachers are as pedagogical as they must of necessity be in schools for defectives. We give to the defective children advantages that are denied to the normal child. I see no escape from the conclusion that if mental measurement is necessary to the teaching of defectives and so important for a proper under- standing of the pedagogy that must be applied to them, it is equally neces- sary for the proper understanding of those who are not defective, and for the pedagogical practice that must be applied to them. I take it that a knowledge of mental measurement is absolutely essential in the preparation of every teacher. For the past six years I have been giving to students in my classes exercises in mental measurement, principally for the purpose of enabling them to know what mental measurements are, how they are made, and what may be accomphsht by means of them. At present we are undertaking to have every pupil who graduates from our insti- tution in any course acquire something of this knowledge. I would not say that we give enough to justify anyone in regarding himself as an expert in making mental measurement, but energetic individuals with what they do get from us are able to begin the work of measuring, and after a suf- ficient amount of experience they do become able to make measurements that justify them in having some confidence in the accuracy of the results that they obtain. While such an amount of preparation is far from ideal, it is enormously better than none. 254 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal THE PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS OF INSTRUCTORS AND THE LABORATORY FACILITIES FOR EXEMPLIFYING HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION TESTS IN TEACHER-PRODUCING INSTITUTIONS WITH VIEW TO ADEQUATE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR USING SUCH TESTS IN THE SCHOOLS A. G. REED, CHAIRMAN, DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE AND PUBLIC HEALTH, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KIRKSVILLE, MO. The physical education instructor in teacher-producing institutions will also be examiner. As such he must be equally as expert as a physician. His training will be necessarily somewhat different. He should be a better diagnostician. His problem is to detect pathological developments in their incipiency before symptoms are apparent or exaggerated, analyze them, prognose with a fair degree of accuracy and apply appropriate treatment. Such treatment will not consist of adpiinistering potions, but in nature be prophylactic, preventive, and expectant. He must know the fundamentals of the body organism, both as regards the primary simple cellular structures and the relationships of primary structures as they exist grouped into tissues and organs. He must therefore have a functioning knowledge of human physiology, anatomy, pathology, histology, etc., and their relations to the complex bodily activities. In addition he must be familiar with the modern school problem. He sees the new school in its broadest scope and appreciates the factors thus involved. He must feel that the physical and mental aspects of education are merely phases of the same subject, and neither has preference to the exclusion of the other. Knowledge of games and plays are essential in so far as their appropriateness is indicated in specific individual cases. We must admit the fact that even now probably as many students in our institutions are being injured by physical education as are being aided. In most cases the error is due to the physical education instructor being familiar with games and plays only and ignorant of the human body. The true basis of physical examinations is perhaps not definitely known. We have* conclusive evidence, however, that many points formerly con- sidered primary are at best only secondary. What are causative factors and what are resultant conditions are in many respects yet to be determined. Among the extremely few fundamentals or primary points nutritional errors perhaps rank first. Malnutrition may be general or local, congenital or acquired, and in the varied forms elicits the trained ingenuity of a physical examiner. By malnutrition I would include improper metabolism of* the human body. Another index of nutrition is the condition of the blood pressure in individuals beyond the age of puberty. The sphymomanometer is an instrument made use of in indicating the presence of any obstruction or Department] PREPARATION OF TEACHERS AND HYGIENE TESTS 255 impingement, however slight, in the blood stream. Both systolic, diastolic, and pulse pressure should be noted. Impingement causes an elevation or increase of pressure. The most common focus for such a circulatory interference is in the tortuous blood vessels of the kidney glomerules in the adolescent and young adult. Hence in these cases the blood pressure can with a degree of safety be taken as indicative of kidney lesions. The conclusive proof of course is a urine analysis which should be made. The strain usually thrown upon the kidneys during this period thru dietetic errors makes this analysis essential. Also the initial stage of arterio-sclerosis often occurs during this period and can usually be ascertained by the foregoing method. Tuberculosis at a fairly early stage, at least pre-hemorrhagic and usually before sputimi analysis reveals the bacilli, is often foretold by the blood-pressure machine. Taking the normal blood-pressure systolic as being 100 plus the age of the individual during adolesence and early adult life, a pressure registering less than 100 with a consequent diminution of pulse pressure should arouse a suspicion of tuberculosis. An expedient diagnosis can often thus be made before physical symptoms are in evidence. Scoliosis is now believed to be a symptom of muscular weakness and that the seating in the schoolroom is a comparatively unimportant factor in producing curvatures. If scoliosis were due to seat misfits, for example, the desk be of improper height, the curvature would be to one side as frequently as to the other, since seats average as often too high as too low. The facts based upon careful measurements fail to bear out this theory. Statistics point quite conclusively that scoliosis is a result of bi-lateral inequality of muscular tone and strength. We see excellent examples in children whose history is to the effect that they h§.ve had most diseases of childhood; the more wasting the disease the more exaggerated is* the curve usually, due to the greater nutritional disturbance. We have heard the insistent demand by certain groups of educators that the safety of the social organism lies in the teaching of sex hygiene to school children. Firm opposition has ever been encountered. Consider- able justification for the opposition has been advanst, some of which was unanswerable. What was the causative factor, fundamentally, that seem- ingly made sex teaching indispensable ? Was it the normal child's curiosity that must be satisfied by an elaborate explanation ? It is hardly reason- able. Childish curiosity is as fleeting as is his attention. Persistent introspection in this respect is symptomatic, almost invariably, of an abnormality. It is true that more defects exist of the external genitals both congenital and acquired in both sexes than perhaps any other part of the body mechanism. Irritation and inflammation as a result of phimosis or paraphimosis is the almost universal cause of onanism, or self-injurious practices. That is not all. Such mal-conditions are highly prolific thru reflexes in producing the most disastrous diseases of childhood. Among 256 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal these are mentioned nervous instability, hysteria, night terrors, aneuresis, insomnia, chorea or ''St. Vitus' Dance," even epilepsy, and petit mal or insanity. Teaching sex hygiene to children thus aiffected can possibly effect no cure. Appeals to the immature mind on the basis of health in maturity is practically of no avail. It is, in fact, often contra-indicated, as it may exaggerate the evil, thru directing the apperceptive mass of the child toward those parts. A careful but simple examination by the physical director and a little follow-up minor surgery is the proper solution arid the only one. Another condition which the physical examiner must be able to recognize is skin lesions. In the average city more children are excluded on that ground than any other. Most of the common skin diseases are con- tagious, necessitating quick and definite action for control in the school. In conclusion, permit me to say that the previous discussion is in no wise complete. An attempt has been made to bring out points that are of value to those in the physical examiner's capacity, some of which are in common usage, others because of the singular form and exactness com- mend themselves for usage in teacher-producing institutions which can in turn be utilized by the teachers thus trained in their respective schools. In general, the physical education instructor must be expertly trained in knowledge of the human body and its basic processes; also the proper methods of teaching the fundamental or primary body functions. Systemic conditions rather than the elusive secondary symptoms are those to be sought. With such instructors and such equipment, teacher-producing institutions will be able to assume their full share of responsibility in the social organism. THE PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS OF INSTRUCTORS AND THE LABORATORY FACILITIES FOR EXEMPLIFYING HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION TESTS IN TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS, WITH A VIEW TO THE ADEQUATE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR USING SUCH TESTS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS J. D. HEILMAN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, STATE TEACHERS* COLLEGE j GREELEY, COLO. To those who believe that teachers cannot be adequately trained to make physical examinations, I wish to say that there is little evidence for this belief. On the contrary, there is much evidence to show that teachers who have had Uttle or no instruction for giving physical tests beyond those printed on small instruction sheets have done work of much practical value. Medical inspectors acknowledge that they receive much assistance from untrained teachers in locating physical defects. According to a recent report by the Commissioner of Education, the new health law of North Department] PREPARATION OF TEACHERS AND HYGIENE TESTS 257 Carolina requires that the teachers shall make a preliminary examination of all pupils and provides for a detailed examination by some physician of all children suspected of defects. The Commissioner quotes the following from the North Carolina report: "The most gratifying feature of the year's work has been the uniformly satisfactory work of the teachers in completing the preliminary examination of the children." If good results can be obtained by teachers who have had little or no preparation in locating defects, what may we expect of teachers who have had two or more terms of training for the work? My experience has led me to the conviction that their work would be but slightly inferior to that of physicians and nurses. While physicians have the advantage of a better background of training for detecting defects, teachers have the advantage of a superior interest in the child and of the opportunity for repeated observations. It is after all not very difficult to determine whether a child's organs are sufficiently impaired to interfere seriously with the performance of their functions. To determine that a child is suffering from some physical abnormality is vastly different from and much easier than to determine the precise nature of that abnormality with a view to its amelioration or cure. It is only the former that teachers should be called upon to do. The latter is the work of the physician. It is still the general rule for adults to determine for themselves whether they require medical aid for their physical ailments. With the aid of an intelligent teacher trained to detect mal-functioning, I believe that, with the exception of heart and lung defects, only minor ailments would be overlookt. This program has not been tried and found wanting; it has not received any serious trial. Teacher-training institutions have failed either to offer enough courses to give adequate preparation for the work or to require the students to take such courses. One of the important facts to bear in mind in selecting apparatus or laboratory equipment for illustrating physical tests pertains to the nature and number of pieces. They should be very simple and their number should be small. The laboratory which has the simplest and least apparatus consistent with obtaining good results in giving physical tests is best equipt to prepare teachers to examine school children. The more the demonstration of physical tests involves the use of expensive and com- plicated pieces of apparatus the more certain is the work to fail of its purpose. For most school boards will not buy expensive apparatus, and if teachers are not trained to give tests without it, the work of testing will miscarry. Even if school boards could be persuaded to buy such apparatus, it would still be a bad plan to place it in the schoolroom on account of the difficulty of housing it properly and the difficulty and expense of keeping it in good condition. Still another objection arises from the fact that it would soon fall into untrained hands on account of the many changes in the occupation of teaching. To make this point of the use of little equipment more 258 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal specific, I shall discuss the materials which are necessary to make satis- factory tests of the eyes, ears, nose, throat, and teeth. Ocular defects may be divided into two large classes. The one inter- feres with the normal refraction of light and the other with normal binocular functioning. Many instruments may be used to detect the presence of refractive errors. Among them are the Snellen test type, the Jaeger type, the astigmatism chart, trial lenses, the retinoscope, and the ophthalmometer. All of these might be added to our laboratory equipment. But after having tried all of them I have come to the conclusion that only the Snellen type and possibly the Jaeger type are necessary. Evidences of eyestrain are in most cases more significant than the results of tests. There are two degrees of binocular errors or muscular insufficiency. In the one, muscular weakness, the tendency of the eyeball to turn out of its proper axis is concealed by muscular effort. In the other, squint or strabismus, the eye actually turns in the wrong direction. As there are no reliable means for eliminating the concealment of the eyes' tendency to turn in the wrong direction in muscular weakness, and, as the condition when present in harmful degree, gives rise to numerous symptoms, I recommend that the phorometer, stenopaic prism or Maddox rod, and rotating prisms be excluded from the laboratory equipment. No apparatus is necessary to detect squint or strabismus. There are several tests of hearing which require little or no apparatus. The whisper-speech test, when given to a group of children simultaneously, gives excellent results and requires no special equipment apart from a plug to stop up the ear which is not being tested. The watch test may be used but it contains elements of unreliability. It cannot be standardized and the response is not easily controlled because the child imagines that he hears the tick of the watch. Perhaps one of the simplest and cheapest instruments for testing hearing is the Politzer acoumeter. This apparatus if held horizontally will produce a sound of uniform intensity. It is durable and very easily manipulated. The tuning fork may be used, but I have not found it as dehcate as other tests. A very delicate test would not be necessary were it not for the fact that it may indicate the presence of middle- ear disease in mild form. The McCalUe audiometer is one of the most satisfactory of all of the meails for testing hearing. It enables one to test quickly and rehably the hearing of all school children from the kinder- garten to the high school. It might therefore be desirable as a part of the laboratory equipment, but its use should certainly be supplemented with a demonstration of other tests, because it is very doubtful whether it will find its way into many schools on account of the price. Evidences of defective hearing apart from tests may also be used, but they add very Uttle if anything to the results of Xhe tests. For the examination of the nose, the throat, and the teeth such instru- ments as the naso-pharyngeoscope, the head-mirror, the rhinoscope, the Department] PREPARATION OF TEACHERS AND HYGIENE TESTS 259 speculum, and probe might be used. But as their use in the schools by the teachers is probably neither practical nor necessary, I should not include them under the laboratory equipment. The only instrument which it is advisable for teachers to use in the examination of the teeth and the throat is the wooden tongue depressor. This can be used to good advantage in laying the teeth, gums, and throat open to inspection. As the most im- portant thing in regard to the teeth is to prevent disease and decay rather than to discover them, the teacher should devote most of her efforts in training the children to give their teeth the best possible personal and dental care. The laboratory facilities for exemplifying physical tests must include more than apparatus; the laboratory itseh should, of course, be properly constructed and located in or near the training or model school. Children should be available for demonstrating the tests. The students are usually quite wilHng to serve as subjects, but as they are very different from the children, the latter should be used in the demonstrations. It is also neces- sary, in preparing teachers to examine children, to go farther than the mere fact of demonstrating tests. Under the supervision of the instructor the students should receive practice in the examination of children. This has been done in our school in a limited way. The work has been ofi[ered only to the advanst students. However, as all the children of the training school are examined once a year, it would simply be a matter of adminis- trative poHcy to give all of the students some practice in the examination of children. If a program of instruction in hygiene with demonstration and practice in giving physical tests were carried out in the preparation of teachers, I have not the slightest doubt but that they would do better work in locating physical defects than they do in training and educating children. In conclusion I wish to say a word about the qualifications of the instructor. From the standpoint of intelhgence or native endowment, his qualifications need not be superior to those of other instructors. His tasks, altho somewhat different, are certainly not more difficult than those in other fields of instruction. In order that the instructor may do his special work well, he should be famihar with the structure and functioning of some of the organs and parts of the body. This requires some training in anatomy and physiology. He must know something about abnormal bodily conditions and their symptoms, bad effects, and causes. For this purpose some training in pathology and bacteriology with very good courses in child hygiene would give adequate preparation. He should understand the influence of bodily ailments upon the mental and general bodily behavior of the individual. This requires some training in psychology. One of the most important requirements is several years' experience in examining children. This can be gained by working in, clinics of various types. In this connection I- 26o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal think it might be well to point out that, while the instructor's training should be sufficiently comprehensive to make it easy for him to evaluate and take on new ideas in his special field, nothing is gained and there may be much loss if his training has extended to phases of the subjects just enumerated which have little or no value for his work. For in such cases it too often happens that the instructor wants to teach the students every- thing that he knows regardless of its importance in preparing the students for their work. It is difficult for us to get away from our old reaction systems. That is why we teach so many things which are no longer of any use to the student. Under the direction of an intelligent, active, and progressive instructor with training in education and the subjects pertaining to his special work, teachers can be trained to give physical tests satisfactorily. In exemplify- ing these tests the least and simplest apparatus that is consistent with doing good work should be used. We must do more than illustrate the tests. We must give the students practice in using them. We must also teach them to rely as much upon the symptoms of physical ailments as upon the results of physical tests. If the work of giving physical tests to school children shall be of real value in improving the child's physical con- dition, let it be remembered that the discovery of defects is but the first and easiest step in securing this improvement. SHOULD SALARIES IN TEACHERS' COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS PARALLEL SALARIES IN THE UNIVERSITIES? IF SO, WHY? IF NOT, WHY NOT? J. STANLEY BROWN, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, DE KALB, ILL. A new, young, inexperienst, very wise Freshman in college is the only individual ever connected with a college or university whose wisdom is sufficiently broad, and whose conceptions are so sufficiently matured, and whose extent of vision is sufficiently developt to settle in a brief time all the great problems which ever present themselves in the college or uni- versity or the world at large. It is probable that for some such hidden reason as may lurk about my conception of the Freshman with his in- experience and his newness that the chairman of this body askt the speaker to discuss the topic that has been announst. Certain it is that no one with matured experience in this field of normal school and teacher's college would presume to come before his well-known associates, and by purely academic reason attempt to lead them to a legitimate conclusion, to a real solution of the problem proposed. Instinct very often leads certain types of vitalized protoplasm to make conclusions which may not at all be based on a series of propositions arranged in logical order. The tenacity with which such individual clings to the conclusion thus arrived at is probably Department] NORMAL SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY SALAJtIES 261 more intense than that which might be reacht thru a long series of experi- ments whose teachings are apparently unquestioned. In attempting to arrive at some kind of defensible procedure, I have askt the business managers of the universities of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Michigan, Northwestern, and Chicago to give me certain facts concerning the salaries of the professors, associate professors, assistants, instructors, etc. I made a similar request of a group of colleges in approxi- mately the same territory, including Lake Forest, James Millikin, Knox, Bucknell, Denison, and others. I have also had the information very carefully made by the president of this section showing the salaries of ten or more of the leading state normal schools in this same territory. We found, however, that these things are true in a rather definite way. That the state normal schools' salaries of its professors are about the same as salaries of the professors in what we many times term "the small colleges"; at any rate, in the institutions not of a university character and under state control. We have found, in the second place, that these salaries of the normal- school professorships and the small-college professorships are approximately the same as the salaries of assistant professorships in the great state uni- versities and the corresponding universities under private control, like Chicago and Northwestern. We have then a rather clear line of demar- cation. There is a financial relationship pretty clearly markt out, altho there has been no conference on the part of the administrative heads of these better so-called small colleges and the administrative heads of the state normal schools. We answer the question proposed in the aflirmative for the following reasons: First, service of an educational character should receive remuner- ation somewhat according to the nature and quality of the service. All teachers are in some measure supplying a public service. The service which the university teacher supplies is largely individual and personal, and the student who receives this service is largely impelled by selfish motives. At any rate, the horizon of his service is specific and limited. Second, the state normal schools have as their distinct, definite, and specific function supplying public-school teachers to the state. Their work is as definitely allotted to them by law as is the allotment to the college of medicine or to the college of theology. Their field is the entire state, in one specific, definite kind of service. Is there any more important, more valuable, more necessary, or more desirable service to be rendered by any body of people than by this group ? Third, the present situation in supply of teachers was never so alarm- ing, never so aggravated, never so unsettled as now. The small attendance at all teacher-training institutions everywhere, the fact that teachers, men and women, are leaving the profession, leaving the faculties of the normal schools and teacher-training institutions, brings before us a most serious 262 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal situation. But the educational institutions, not designedly teacher-training institutions, are full to overflowing now. One of the most effective means which can be used to secure a larger and larger number of desirable young people for teacher training lies in the retention an3 satisfaction of the groups of men and women now in service whose relationships and work in service have been supremely helpful. Raising the level of salaries makes it possible to relieve the strain which is now on; makes it possible to attract to the field of teacher- training faculties the type of man and type of woman so clearly essential to the direction and education of the leadership of the children of the next decade. For these reasons and others unexprest we believe that this question is fairly answered in the affirmative and that this body ought to record with itseK its conviction and use every legitimate effort to see to it that the doctrine here exprest shall become immediately operative in every institution here represented. DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — ^J. A. Book, South Division High School Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary — ^Lilian Neipert University, N.Dak. Acting Chairman — T. A. Beal, Dean School of Commerce and Finance University of Utah Acting Secretary — Jessie Duncan, West Side High School Salt Lake City, Utah I FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6 The Department of Business Education of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Tuesday forenoon, July 6, at nine o'clock, in the Seventeenth Ward Chapel, Salt Lake City, Utah. The meeting was called to order by J. A. Book, president. The following program was presented : "Rhythmical Penmanship" — Louisa M. Spencer, School of Rhythmical Penmanship, Los Angeles, Calif. "Commercial Education in Secondary Schools" — ^Thomas A. Beal, dean of school of commerce and finance, University of Utah. "Commercial Education of the Future" — Glen Levin Swiggett, specialist in com- mercial education, Washington, D.C. Discussion: "The Greatest Need in Commercial Work." SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7 George B. Hendricks, director school of commerce and business administration, Agricultural College, Logan, Utah, was acting chairman at the second session. The following program was presented: "Business Education and the Community" — Earl Jay Glade, assistant professor of commerce, University of Utah. "Salesmanship as a Factor in Education" — Nellie G. Morris, educational director, Walker Brothers Company, Salt Lake City, Utah. Round Table Disctssions : Commercial education below the second year of the high school should not be the same as that given the upper three years of the high school. Commercial education as at present organized is influenst more by the nature of the subjects in the curriculum than it is by the actual vocations for which boys and girls are being trained. • Continuation school commercial courses must be radically different from the usual high-school commercial courses if they are to meet the needs of the younger commercial workers. Business training on the unit basis to meet the requirements of specific vocations is what is needed in the evening school. What is the greatest need in improving the commercial work in the high schools in the state of Utah ? What is the value of a survey of commercial work ? 263 264 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS RETAIL SELLING AS A FACTOR IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION NELLIE GRANT MORRIS, EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR, WALKER BROTHERS DRY GOODS CO., SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Under the title, "Trained Men Wanted," there recently appeared the following editorial in one of our leading daily papers : Institutions of higher learning have frequently been criticized by practical business men because they do not train men in a definite way to take part in industry. A move- ment is under way however to bring about a closer correlation between the work of colleges and the needs of business. A plan for meeting these needs is being tried out by Mollis Godfrey, president of Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, and it has been endorst by more than 200 industrial firms and nearly every college and university of importance. The plan is as follows: Business firms individually and jointly will write a specific order for the trained men. This order will specify approximately what training the industry requires these men to have, how many men are needed, and what their oppor- tunities in business are. Representatives of the Institute will write a specific statement of the school's capacity for filling the order of the industry. A permanent record will be made in book form and in terms common to all, of the result obtained, the aim being to develop a plan of profitable cooperation, especially keeping up to date the educational needs of industry and the school's methods of meeting their needs. Methods will be outlined by which future action may be taken for the best contact possible between the demand and supply of trained men. If this works out successfully as it undoubtedly will, the college man, as well as the industry, is going to be the recipient of great benefit, and an important step will have been taken toward bridging the gap between his diploma and practical every day business affairs. He will not have to spend valuable years in bridging this chasm. That time, instead of being devoted to acquiring knowledge which can just as well be acquired in school, can be turned over to bigger work. This editorial gives us just one ttiore instance of the innumerable demands for training for the specific task whatever it may be, and this is no more true of the world of industry than it is of the business world. The slogan, "Trained men wanted" is rapidly replacing its predecessor, "Experi- enced men wanted," not that the latter are not valued as highly as ever but business and industry have of recent years grown by such leaps and bounds that it has become, to a very large extent, impossible to get experi- enced operatives. But business and industrial concerns have been quick to realize that the man or woman with training acquires experience at such a rapid rate that lack of experience can be very largely discounted at the time of employment. Naturally the combination of training and experience constitutes the ideal, but, lacking experience, the applicant with expert training for his job or office has much to recommend him. As a proof of the seriousness with which this demand has been taken, witness the rapidity with which such institutions of higher learning as Harvard, New York University, Carnegie Institute, and many others Department] RETAIL SELLING AS A FACTOR m EDVCATION 265 have installed Departments of Business Administration and Research Bureaus with courses in Employment, Personnel Management, Retail Training, etc. No group of industrial or business concerns has been quicker to realize its need of trained operatives than the retail merchants of the United States and the need has been not only for trained people to fill the executive positions in this organization but for trained salespeople in every department. In the Atlantic Monthly for May, an article on "Democracy in Educa- tion," by Mr. Nathaniel Horton Batchelder, the writer makes the following statement: "Education is quite as much a matter of habit and attitude of mind as subject-matter." One thing that a school owes every pupil, granting reasonable effort on the pupil's part, is a fair measure of success. If he is to cope with the problems he is to face after leaving school he must face them with a confidence born of success in his school life." This suggests one of the great advantages of the Retail Selling Course to the students; they not only secure good jobs to begin with, but the course gets the young workers started right. The many difficulties which young people are sure to meet with when they first begin to work and which are frequently merely matters of adjustment and understanding can be straightened out by the teacher, for whether at school or at work the pupils are un^der the care and supervision of the public-school authorities. It is of inestimable value to these young people to have the help of both store and the school. The plan tends to hold the young person for a longer time on the first job, thus protecting him from faUing into the habit of constant change from job to job which is so disastrous to so many young people. While the immediate object of any vocational course of study is to fit one for employment in the vocation selected, the ultimate object is to develop power and control. In accomplishing the possibiHties in this direction the course measures up admirably. Few people outside of department stores realize-the number and variety of positions and the consequent promotional possibilities in the field of retail distribution. In most large stores the organization is divided into four large departments: the financial, the merchandise, the publicity, and the personnel. The girl starting in as a sales girl at the bargain table has the opportunity if she hkes the merchandise phase to work to a position as head of stock, assistant buyer, and finally to a buyership with a salary running well up into the thousands. Or she may be transferred to the office end of the business and work up to the head positions. If she finds the field of pubUcity more to her Uking she has a future ahead of her in advertising, window trimming, interior decorating, etc. If among her talents she discovers an indication of executive ability, the personnel department offers much for her to choose from. Along this line stores have need of many women as department managers, in place of the one-time 266 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business floorwalkers, and every large well-organized store employs an educational staff, one or more welfare workers, a graduate nurse, and often a trained librarian. The assistant superintendent and the employment manager are often women. And all of these positions call for experts in their line. I say positions for they are not jobs. They are truly positions (if you like to discriminate between the meaning of the words) to which the indi- vidual may bring all the native intelligence and versatiHty with which she is endowed, all the character which she can develop, and all the ability and culture which she can acquire by highly specialized advanced courses of training in our highest institutions of learning. I wish to emphasize particularly the word culture; because culture is a thing so absolutely essential to professional success. Perhaps now as never before the broad unbiast sane outlook of the culturally educated person is needed. The world needs it in this age of upheavals and shifting values and great changes; the individual needs it to discern among intricacies of life the path to what is highest and best. But along with that idea runs another newer, perhaps greater; the ideal of service; the ideal of making young people ready, eager, competent to accept their share of the world's work. As a consequence of these two ideals any vocational course of study must combine the best in the liberal and technical educations. It must link its students with the great pulsing world around them. Vocational training should give them a compass to guide them safely thru the difficult early years toward a career and, lastly, it must give to industry and business young people who can bring vision and intelligence to bear on their work, young people who can think as well as do. In order to accomplish this two-fold purpose the Retail Selling Course must be fitted into the curriculum with a nice sense of its relation to history, mathematics, literature, science, foreign languages, etc. A short time ago, I was talking across the counter, to a fine promising young student of Retail Selling, in one of our high schools here, and I askt her which of the other subjects she was studying in high school helpt her most in her store work; she very promptly answered " My French, without it I would be at a loss over the pronunciation and meaning of the names of much of the merchan- dise in this department." She was selling face powders, cold cream, toilet water, and perfumes. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the importance of having this work in the hands of a specially trained teacher. I heard of one case where the work was put in the high school and intrusted to the Botany teacher because his program was not quite full. In another case a teacher of English, who for years had been spending a semester on Burke's speech on ''Conciliation with the American Colonies," was given charge of the course in Retail Selling. What measure of success could logically be expected in such cases? The thought makes one pause! V Department] RETAIL SELLING AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION 267 It is also very important that new work of any kind means a certain amount of sacrifice in the beginning but when it is understood that this is for the better training of our boys and girls in order that we may fit them for a worth-while, wage-earning, occupa- tion it does not seem too much of a task. A course in Retail Selling never can be successfully carried out unless the one in charge is ready to see the matter from both sides and realize fully that mutual interests must be protected at any cost. All concerned, the merchant, the school authorities, and the parents must remember that any new educational movement takes time and infinite patience. All must have a faith in the ultimate results strong enough not to be shaken by apparent failures. In a work which deals so largely with human beings there are bound to be some difliculties, but, with a vision of what the plan will mean in the end, progress will slowly but surely win all. New movements need the vision and belief of a few to carry along the many who see only the temporary situation.' » Quoted from the Federal Bulletin on " Retail Selling," by Mrs. Lucinda W. Prince, Boston, Mass. DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — John Callahan, state director of vocational education Madison, Wis. Secretary — ^Arthur F. Payne, University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minn. FIRST SESSION— Monday Afternoon, July s, 1920 The Vocational Education Department of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Monday afternoon, July 5, at Lafayette School, Salt Lake City, Utah. The meeting was called to order by the president and the following program was presented : "Vocational Home Economics" — Zella Bigelow, special agent for federal board of vocational education, Washington, D.C.; Alice M. Loomis, state supervisor of home economics education, Lincoln, Nebr.; Maud Murchie, state supervisor of home economics education, Sacramento, Calif. "Teacher Training" — R. H. Leonard, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. "Vocational Testing" — Arthur F. Payne, school of education. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1920 The following program was presented: " Part-time Education " — Francis W. Kirkham, state director of vocational education, Salt Lake City, Utah; Newton Van Dalsem, state director of vocational education, Salem, Ore.; Ruth C. Miller, state director of vocational education, Santa Fe, N.M. "The Development of Foremen Training" — John O. Steendahl, Bowser Pump Co., Ft. Wayne, Ind.; Arthur E. Holder, Federal Board for Vocation Education, Washington, D.C.; James R. Coxen, state supervisor of trade and industrial education, Laramie, Wyo. Business Meeting. The officers elected for the ensuing year are as follows : President — W. G. Hummel, state director of vocational education, Seattle, Wash. Secretary — ^Marian S. Van Liew, state supervisor of home economics, Albany, N.Y. The committee on program — Men's Work: W. G. Hummel, state director of voca- tional education, Seattle, Wash., chairman; Francis Kirkham, state director vocational education, Salt Lake City, Utah; K. G. Smith, director of vocational education, Lansing, Mich. The committee on program — Woman's Work: Marian S. Van Liew, state supervisor of home economics, chairman; Cleo Murtland, professor of industrial education, Michigan Agricultural College, E. Lansing, Mich.; Maud Murchie, state supervisor home economics, Sacramento, Calif. RESOLUTIONS OF DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, SALT LAKE CITY, JULY 5, 1920 1. Be it resolved, That the Department of Vocational Education be continued as an integral department of the National Education Association. 2. Beit resolved, That the Department of Vocational Education include agricultural, trade and industrial, home economics and commercial education. 269 270 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Vocational 3. Be it resolved, That the Department of Vocational Education cooperate in every way possible with the Department of Vocational Guidance and other closely related departments in promoting in general Vocational Education. 4. Be it resolved, That the incoming president of the National Education Association be requested to secure a speaker of national recognition on Vocational Education for the general session program. 5. Be it resolved, That the Department of Vocational Education secure adequate press representation in the National Education Association Bulletins. 6. Be it resolved, That the Department of Vocational Education indorse the Fess Bill providing additional funds for Home Economic Education. 7. Be it resolved, That the General Resolutions Committee of the National Education Association be requested to include an endorsement of the Fess Bill in their resolutions. 8. Be it resolved, That the Department of Vocational Education indorse the move- ment as exprest in the "Federal Act for the Vocational Rehabilitation of Persons Crippled in Industry, or Otherwise. " 9. Be it resolved, That the Executive Committee of the National Education Association be requested to appropriate the sum of $1,000, for the use of the Department of Vocational Education in carrying on studies and investigations in vocational education. 10. Be it resolved, That the Department of Vocational Education express their appreciation of the efficient services bi President John Callahan and Secretary Arthur F. Payne in developing the Department of Vocational Education and promoting the interests of the same. Respectfully submitted, Maude I. Murchie, Chairman Trava E. Kauffman * W.G. Hummel DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES SALT LAKE CITY MEETING OFFICERS President — H. A. Allan, rural school agent, Department of Education Augusta, Me. Secretary — Mabel Carney, Teachers College. Columbia University New York, N.Y. FIRST SESSION— Monday Afternoon, July 5, 1920 The Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association con- vened in regular session on Monday afternoon, July 5, at two o'clock, in the Presbyterian Church. The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented: "Some Immediate Demands for Community Service" — G. W. Ager, superintendent of schools, Jackson County, Jacksonville, Ore. "The Fight against Rural Illiteracy" — Elizabeth Kelly, rural illiteracy director for North Carolina, Raleigh, N. C. "The Rural Teacher's Part in a Community Health Program" — George H. Black, president. State Normal School, EUensburg' Wash. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1920 The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented: "Rural Schools that Serve Effectively" — R. P. Crawford, associate editor, Nebraska Farmer, Lincoln, Nebr. "School Progress in Pioneer Communities" — Annie E. Shelland, rural school super- visor, department of education, St. Paul, Minn. "Some Immediate Requirements for Rural School Betterment (Based on Survey Committee on Rural Schools of National Council of Education) " — John F. Sims, execu- tive secretary of rural committee of national council, Stevens Point, Wis. "Problems of the Future for Rural Leaders" — Payson Smith, state commissioner of education, Boston, Mass. The following ofl&cers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Eli M. Rapp, superintendent of schools, Berks County, Reading, Pa. Secretary — Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, N. Y. Vice-President — I. Br Ball, state supervisor of agricultural education, Salt Lake City, Utah. The meeting adjourned. ^ Mabel Carney, Secretary 271 272 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS SOME IMMEDIATE DEMANDS FOR COMMUNITY SERVICE G. W. ACER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, JACKSON COUNTY, JACKSONVILLE, ORE. What are the demands for community service by the people in our rural sections ? The following five things might be mentioned as urgent needs in the rural centers at the present time: (i) trained community leaders, preferably the teacher; (2) organized communities or clubs includ- ing better library accommodations; (3) better health conditions; (4) better and more thoro educational facilities; (5) social agencies, especially those which aid in training our rural people to use their leisure time more advantageously. As to the first of these demands, I will venture the assertion that the time is not far distant when all rural communities will demand trained \ leaders for teachers. Such leaders must know rural people, and the needs of rural people in the locality where they are to work. Successful teachers and supervisors in community work are successful, not so much for what they achieve, as for the extent to which they are able to lead the people to do for themselves that which is really important. Rural folks like town folks resent being told what to do; they must be led to discover for them- selves what ought to be done, in which ca^e they will not be satisfied until the thing is done. There must be no haste. Cool deliberation, and much patience are necessary. Mr. Cecil C. North, professor of sociology, Ohio State University, says, "The problem, therefore, is essentially one of mobilizing and organizing the forces resident in the community instead of grafting foreign forces onto the community." This is a bit of advice comn^unity leaders must heed if they are to be successful. The head of a centralized or consoKdated school of the rural community might be reasonably expected to take up certain lines of work, which have been tried out and have been found successful. Not all of these should be undertaken at any one time, but after some of them have gained a foothold, the others will come easily. The following are suggestive: 1. Make a community survey. 2. Arrange community center meetings with an object in view. 3. Hold agricultural or children's fairs and school exhibits. 4. Help write up the community history or at least assist in directing the work. 5. Direct evening classes or part-time schools. 6. Arrange with extension divisions of universities and colleges for a lecture ecourse. 7. Teach national patriotism. Department] SOME DEMANDS FOR COMMUNITY SERVICE 273 8. If possible procure and find ways of using a community library. 9. Arrange for social gatherings and supervise play and athletics for the boys and girls. 10. With the older folks, good roads meetings, as well as good social gatherings, are both popular and do much good. These have all proved to be successful lines for community activity and are especially recom- mended for rural communities. County or community libraries are gaining rapidly in popularity and constitute one of the most essential factors in the upbuilding of any com- munity. Since this topic is being discust by another during this session, I shall not dwell upon that subject. In passing it, however, I will say that with us the traveling library of about 100 books from the state library was very popular until the recent adoption of the county library system which promises to do away with many of our library difficulties. Another great need of the rural community is better health conditions. It is not necessary for me to dwell upon the facts showing this need, nor is it necessary that I discuss the matter as that part is assigned another speaker on this afternoon's program. It might be interesting to know, however, that in Oregon a recent law makes it compulsory that a twenty- minute period be devoted each day to physical instruction and drill in all public schools. The county public health nurse who has been on duty during the past two years is aiding us to take the kink out of the health and sanitation situation, not only in the rural sections, but in the cities as well. The next point which I have considered is the demand for better and more thoro educational facilities. The unit for school purposes has been too small. The consolidation unit for religious, educational, recreational, and other social purposes is the most satisfactory and is coming by leaps and bounds. The consolidated rural and smaU village schools provide excellent conditions under which farm management can be taught in a vital way. Possibly three-fourths of all rural education rests distinctly on rural schools, many of which are of the one-room type, the other one- fourth being taken care of in the larger high schools and colleges. Is it any wonder that rural communities are demanding better educational facihties? The new type of building, with modern equipment, correct lighting facilities, and sanitary conveniences is rapidly coming into use. The desire is naturally coming for trained teachers serving longer terms. Our rural people in the progressive communities long for courses of study offering those things that function with the business of the community. They want legislation by legislators, who know rural conditions and rural needs. The fifth and last point which I will mention is the need for better social conditions. These naturally press upon rural education as the two must necessarily go hand in hand. 274 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural In conclusion, I shall classify our sociological demands and in a way summarize what has already been said in the following three groups. First, we have the dominating interests of each community which must be considered. Accurate scientific knowledge and methods of pro- cedure are more in demand than ever before. In this short period of time one could not go into detail, but community interest determines the kind of vocational training an individual should have. The dominant pursuits of any section determine what training should be emphasized. Second, one of the greatest needs in our rural communities is training" that will enable our rural folks to make the most of their leisure time. A sad remark commonly made by those who seek the city after an unsatis- factory attempt to live an enjoyable Ufe in the country is **We had no place to go." Too little time is given to proper play, to association with one's fellows and to the enjoyment of Hfe for its own sake. A third requirement is that each individual of the community be possest of a certain degree of intelUgence especially pertaining to pubHc matters. He must have a love for community weKare. In concluding my remarks relative to social conditions and needs in rural centers, I will say that prosperity and success of our social and economic life in both rural and urban communities is absolutely essential if we are to continue our American institutions. RURAL SCHOOLS THAT SERVE EFFECTIVELY R. P. CRAWFORD, ASSOCIATE EDITOR, '^NEBRASKA FARMER," LINCOLN, NEBR. Upward of 50,000 of the old-time one-room schools have gone out of business — over three-fourths of that number in the last decade. The consolidation of the rural school is the greatest educational movement of the present day. Indiana, Ohio, and Iowa were awarded the first three places in rank in the matter of school consolidation. From telegraphic reports made to The Nebraska Farmer ^ June 19, Indiana reported 1,000 consolidated schools, Ohio 910, and Iowa 415. In the thirty years from 1890 to 1920 Indiana abandoned 3,990 one-room schools, or nearly half of the total number in the state thirty years ago, an average of four one- room schools going to the scrap pile for every one of the central buildings erected. The three states named were awarded first place not alone because of numbers of schools but because of quaUty of buildings. North Dakota reported 543 consolidated schools, but the law in that state classes as a consolidation any school with two or more teachers and serving eighteen contiguous sections. Iowa has edged Minnesota out of her place, that state reporting but 310 consolidations. However, if relative farming conditions and settlement of land were taken into consideration, Minnesota Department] SCHOOL PROGRESS IN PIONEER COMMUNITIES 275 would rank near the top, if not at the very top. Our research and study of these schools in the different states of the Union indicates that the center of the consoHdated school movement is moving steadily westward from Ohio and Indiana. Colorado, notwithstanding the mountainous country and difficulties of transportation, reported 115 consolidations on June 19. Some of these latter schools transport children from a territory 100 miles square. On June 19 the United States Bureau of Education reported thirty- three states with 8,404 consolidated schools and estimated 12,000 such in the entire country. That would mean that approximately 50,000 one- room schools have been abandoned, averaging four of the old schools for each of the new. Country school teachers in many cases have failed to Hve up to their opportunities. There is a real opportunity in the country for teachers who can do something besides teach from textbooks. We have experts in just about every educational line, so why not an expert in country living. If farming is the greatest business in the world, as it is, educating the farmers' children ought to be the greatest educational business in the world. If any teachey can awaken her community she is going to be heard of, and if her community won't pay salary enough, some other comniunity will. < SCHOOL PROGRESS IN PIONEER COMMUNITIES ANNIE E. SHELLAND WILLIAMS, RURAL SCHOOL SUPERVISOR, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ST. PAUL, MINN. The Minnesota frontier comprises the northern end of the state and all of it is yet less than two-score years in age. In that country we have three types of educational organization in a territory that presents prac- tically the same difficulties, namely, a small financial backing, isolated children that must be cared for, regardless of fathers' location or the mental undernourishment of the whole population, due to their isolation. In the northwestern portion, a prairie and brush country easily opened, we still have the small district organization. It is hopelessly inadequate to the needs. If the district is small enough so all children therein can reach the schoolhouse, the maintenance of nine months of school brings an almost prohibitive tax upon the parents and the smallness of the finance is frequently not equalled by the vision of the boards. If the district is between 12 and 18 sections in size, the funds are insufficient to transport or board the children who are isolated from the schoolhouse. In the central and eastern sections, a country that is, or has been heavily timbered, we have both the small and large districts, some of them com- prising as high as 175 townships. Some of these large areas are under the independent district system and under the county board of education. 276 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural These boards gather the taxes from the large bodies of corporation-owned timber or lands, and use them for the benefit of the children of the settler who is opening up the country to a productive stage. They appoint one of their number, or a superintendent of schools, to act as business agent. Their interests are not local. The very size of the territory and its demands cause a larger viewpoint and the business is run as a commercial enterprise. District No. i of Itasca County, under the direction of Superintendent A. A. Freeman, is one of the best demonstrations of this better organization. The district comprises 69 townships, has 117 teachers and two rural super- visors, besides an agricultural man and a home-economics teacher. All the children are cared for by board or transportation. As individual schools have grown in number in small localities, they have been replaced by a consohdated school and transportation. Thus, the type of schooling and of housing has been improved, while transportation has relieved the school authorities of the boarding problem. Last year this school board saw that a bill past the legislature equalizing the tax between wealthy mining districts and the poorer agricultural districts. This was done by levying a general tax on all districts in the country, said tax being divided by the number of attending school children and placed to the credit of the respective districts. The mining companies were willing, because they realized the necessity of holding the settlers who raised the produce for the mining population. The schools in this district are models of construction, neatness, and superior academic work. The teachers have a wonderful interest in the personal welfare of each child, for over and over again have Mr. Freeman and his remarkable supervisors brought home the fact that the fut^ire development of the north country rests on the training of the children. Each supervisor has her Own schools and she alone is held for the progress therein. The teachers meet one week in the year and their work is much stronger than in the neighboring districts. The vision of the board in administering the work is almost wholly responsible for the fine conditions. Near this district lie two larger bodies of territory, each under the supervision of county boards of education. These county boards of edu- cation have become great educational factors in Minnesota. A law was past in 1906 requiring all territory not already districted, to be placed under a county board of education, said county board con- sisting of the chairman of the county board of commissioners, the county treasurer, and the county superintendent who acts as clerk. These boards have the power to levy taxes, build and repair buildings, hire teachers — in fact to do all things necessary to the maintenance of education in that territory. The law also requires that every child be furnisht an education thru separate schools, board or transportation. Now what has this work shown ? Department] REQUIREMENTS FOR RURAL-SCHOOL BETTERMENT 277 First, apparently we need a board or unit of education, with a field large enough to develop experience, vision, and finance. Second, that teachers working under such boards have freedom from petty government and enjoy service; that teachers made aware of the size of their job and brought into friendly organization and competition, meet the needs of the people and the community, providing that they are kept in touch with the larger view and have advantage of knowing what others in Hke situations are doing. Third, that the children are a great factor in reaching their com- munities if trained in private and pubUc service at the school. As a result of watching this work it was decided that teachers' and children's organ- izations could be brought about in any county, providing the teachers were organized and instructed in their county's needs and made to feel the challenge of their profession. As a result we reorganized the institute work. Besides directing each team of institute instructors to carry out a certain amount of general preparation work, they have been instructed to suggest such organization to the teachers and tell them what others have done. As a result, thruout the state this year county teachers' organiza- tions have done much effective work. These organizations have been known as "Teachers Patriotic Leagues," and they pledge themselves to the service of their country by carrying out the work of the league, said work being determined by the teachers and county superintendent. SOME IMMEDIATE REQUIREMENTS FOR RURAL-SCHOOL BETTERMENT JOHN r. SIMS, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, STEVENS POINT, WIS. In historic time, not so far remote, the chosen few arrogated to them- selves the right to govern, and condemned the masses to blind obedience. There came a time however when the masses dared to think, to read, and to assert the inalienable rights of a God-given manhood to seK-government. This theory implies the assumption of the obhgation of the government to provide the means of education to the growing generation who are to be the rulers of the future. Intelligence is an indispensable factor in a government of, for, and by the people. Popular government without popular education is national suicide. No scheme of education can exclude from its scope any part of the boys and girls of the nation, nor can the nation prosper at any time, and especially in this time of surging unrest, which denies equaUty of educational opportunity to any portion of its potential citizenship. Yet it is a well- known fact that the boys and the girls in the rural districts of America do not have the same fair chance of securing an education that is provided for the urban boys and girls. 278 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural The race trains the individual, and the individual thru sustained and well-directed activity gives rank and importance to the race which makes progress only thru him as he exercises and exemplifies the qualities of truth, wisdom, and power. The course of study is organized to make the child familiar with the tools of civilization in order that he may prove a worthy citizen and make constructive contribution to his community and nation. But the power to bring this about lies not in the curriculum but in the development of the child's powers thru the wholesome exercise of those powers, mental and moral. The future course of study will use subject-matter of such nature as will present problems to the child suitable to his attainments and capacity for solution which he can attack and solve with fidelity and completeness. Each problem mastered opens the way to the solution and mastery of more difiicult problems, gradually increasing his power of thinking and judgment. The emphasis in the new courses of study must be placed on the child, and not upon the subject-matter however much a fetish we consider it. No such course has yet been formulated, and our present courses in teacher-training institutions fall far short of the mark. The immediate needs for rural-school betterment are to be found in the arousing of the people of rural communities, in the interest of better educational facilities, in the more adequate training of teachers, in the reorganization of courses of study with the emphasis on the child rather than on the subject-matter, and wherever possible in consolidation. SECRETARY'S MINUTES CLEVELAND MEETING OFFICERS President — H. A. Allan, state agent for rural education Augusta, Me. Vice-President — Amalia Bengtson, county supenntendent of schools, Renville County, Olivia, Minn. Secretary— ^AB^j. Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University New York, N. Y. EXPLANATORY STATEMENT ON THE ORGANIZATION AND DEVELOP- MENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In 19 14 an enthusiastic gathering of state rural supervisors, meeting at Nashville, Tennessee, effected an organization known as the National Association of State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools. This association has since held annual conferences immediately preceding the mid-winter meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association and by 19 19 had become in reality a general department of rural education of the National Education Association, presenting a comprehensive program of rural subjects and attracting each year several hundred persons representing every phase of rural education. Department] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 279 By February, 1919, at the time of the Chicago meeting of the Department of Super- intendence this situation and the need for a reorganization of rural education interests under the National Education Association was clearly apparent. A committee on reorganization was therefore appointed, which reported later by presenting a proposed constitution for a new Department of Rural Education under the National Education Association, with sections provided to meet the needs of each special rural group. This report was unanimously adopted and each of the three organized rural groups then existing, namely, the National Association of State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools, the County Superintendents' Section of the National Education Association, and the National Association of Persons Engaged in the Preparation of Rural Teachers, voted to coordinate as sections one, two, and three, of this newly organized Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association. Because of the efficiency of this reorganization as effected in Chicago last year rural leaders found it possible to present the most adequate and vital treatment of rural educa- tion interests yet afforded by the National Education Association at the recent Cleveland meeting. Three general sessions of the new Department of Rural Education were held and four sectional programs were provided. FIRST SESSION— Monday Forenoon, February 23, 1920 The Department of Rural Education of the National Education Association con- vened in regular session on Monday forenoon, February 23, 1920, at nine o'clock, in the Assembly Hall, Hotel Hollenden. GENERAL DEPARTMENT MEETING The following program was presented: "Some Needs of Rural Education which May be Met thru this Department of the National Education Association" — H. A. Allan, state agent for rural education, Augusta, Me. Committee Reports and Plans — Section I. "State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools" — John M. Foote, state rural agent, Baton Rouge, La. Section II. "County Superintendents and Rural Supervisors" — George O. Smith, superintendent of schools, Bureau County, Princeton, 111. Section III. "Persons Engaged in the Preparation of Rural Teachers" — Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Section IV. "Agricultural Educators and Rural Extension Workers" — L. H. Dennis, director of agricultural education, Harrisburg, Pa. "Report of the Special Committee on the Advisability of Starting a Journal of Rural Education" — Ernest Burnham, State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. Announcements and Appointment of Committees. SECOND SESSION — Monday Afternoon, February 23, 1920 GENERAL DEPARTMENT MEETING The following program was presented: "Practical Standards for the Preparation of Rural Teachers in Normal Schools and High Schools" — H. W. Foght, president normal school, Aberdeen, S. Dak. "The Amount and Character of Differentiation Desirable in the Preparation of Rural Teachers"— W. C. Bagley, professor of education. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. "A Survey of Teacher-Training Department in the High Schools of Minnesota" — L. D. Coffman, dean of education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. 28o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural "The Vermont Plan for Coordinating Normal School and High School EfiFort in the Preparation of Teachers" — ^Milo B. Hillegas, state commissioner of education, Montpelier, Vt. "The Maine Plan for the Preparation of Rural Demonstration Teachers" — A. O. Thomas, state superintendent of education, Augusta, Me. THIRD SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, February 24, 1920 GENERAL DEPARTMENT MEETING "The Social Background for Rural Education" — ^Warren H. Wilson, Department of Church and Country Life, Presbyterian Board of Home Missions, New York, N. Y. "The Country Life Movement at Home and Abroad" — Kenyon L. Butterfield, president, College of Agriculture, Amherst, Mass. General Business Meeting. SECTION MEETINGS On Tuesday forenoon and Thursday afternoon four sections of the General Depart^ ment of Rural Education of the National Education Association met simultaneously. Section I. " State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools." Chairman — C. C. Swain, rural school inspector, department of education, St. Paul, Minn. Vice-Chairman — Florence M. Hale, agent for rural education, Augusta, Me. Secretary-Treasurer — ^Julia M. Stone, state rural supervisor, Topeka, Kans. Section II. "County Superintendents and Rural School Supervisors." Chairman — George O. Smith, county superintendent of schools. Bureau County, Princeton, 111. Secretary — M. Beatrice Johnstone, county superintendent of schools. Grand Forks, N. Dak. Section III. "Persons Engaged in the Preparation of Rural Teachers." Chairman — Oscar W. Neale, director of rural education, Normal School, Stevens Pomt, Wis. ' Secretary— Msicy Campbell, director of rural education. State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Section IV. "Agricultural Educators and Rural Extension Workers." Chairman — L. H. Dennis, state director of agricultural education, Harrisburg, Pa. Secretary— O. H. Benson, Junior Achievement Bureau, Springfield, Mass. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS SOME NEEDS OF RURAL EDUCATION WHICH MAY BE MET THRU THIS DEPARTMENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION H. A. ALLAN, AGENT FOR RURAL EDUCATION, AUGUSTA, ME. If this department can serve as a means of meeting some of the needs of rural education then its support by rural-school leaders will be well deserved. Thru its formation may be secured the leadership in rural education by rural-school workers since it may become a recognized medium for combining activities in rural-school endeavor. It should become a body representative of rural-school work large enough and influential enough to mold public opinion as it relates to the Department] SOME NEEDS OF RURAL EDUCATION 281 rural-school problem. It should become an organization that may cooperate with other more general organizations as a part of such and with other country life associations as a recognized representative of country-school activities. It should serve as a forum bringing together all active workers in all divisions of the field for discussion and investigation of general problems and permitting division of workers interested in special fields for the study of specific problems in those fields. Thru such an organization, affiliated with the National Education Association, rural-school workers should be more generally attracted to the gatherings in which their contact with larger groups may make for better understanding and sympathy with all problems of education as well as those which are more distinctly rural. Thru such a department a more sound and more generally recognized policy in rural-education leadership should be secured. We should demand that the problem of education in rural communities be given the respect it deserves — respect by those both within and outside the field. Thru it there should come the understanding that the rural-school worker, whether a teacher or a leader, has a real job — is not primarily a missionary in the more generally understood meaning of that word — but should be, and often is, as adequately paid and must be as fully respected as others in the teaching profession. Thru the activity of this department should result less imitation, more investigation, less dependence, more construction, less willingness to have theories and panaceas thrust upon us and a greater activity to find out for ourselves what is worthy or unworthy of our adoption. Thru the influence of such a department we shall cease to think of the rural-school problem as one of the single- teacher schools alone but by no means shall we be led to disregard the necessity for the maintenance of single-teacher schools under certain conditions and to make such necessary schools strong units in the system rather than to neglect them and let them decay. Such a department may assist materially in the interests of rural educa- tion thru the carrying on of constructive work which when undertaken and completed may be given a stamp of approval. Well-organized and system- atic investigations, similar to those which may be proposed to us later in this morning's session, cannot fail to be helpful to us. As an example I may cite the proposed study aiming to give us a comparison of results of instruction in types of rural schools — a comparison of the one-teacher school and the larger schools along a line hardly touched upon. I believe that the field is unlimited in its variety of further studies or programs that may be undertaken. Any of the following and many others may be worthy of our consideration: Rural Supervision; the Curriculum of Rural Schools; the Place of the Rural Schools as Community or Social Centers; the Establishment of More Generally Recognized Standards of 282 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Rural-School Plants and Organization; a Program of Ways and Means of Betterment of Necessary One-Teacher Schools; a Study of the Financing of Rural Schools; an Investigation of Methods and Comparative Results of Rural-School Leadership in the Various States. A project which appeals to me as one of special value is the consideration of the establishment and support of a strong journal of rural education which may serve as the official publication of this department. While it should be supported by and planned for leaders in the work I believe it should contain such material as may be directly helpful to the rural-school teachers. THE STATE OF MAINE FLAN AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, AUGUSTA, MAINE One of our greatest educational concerns is the rural problem and the rural school is a part of this. To make the rural school as good in every way as the city school will be a most difficult task, but it must be done. Centralization, consolidation, and standardization bring many advan- tages especially in a division of labor for teachers in classification of pupils, in the rural junior high school and a properly diversified program, but after all the vital part in school is the teacher. If you have a good teacher you will have a good school, if you have a poor teacher you will have a poor school no matter what the other factors are. Few teachers prepare for rural teaching expecting to make it a pro- fession. Many teachers are willing to go into the country school for apprenticeship but hope to be rescued at the end of the term or the year by some enterprising superintendent of a city school system who has dis- covered them or by matrimony. They are not content to put up with lack of conveniences, with long walks to and from school in the winter season, without sidewalks, without special social advantages and those things which centers of population afford. A teacher who is interested in rural life problems, is in sympathy with rural life, and who is willing to stay by the job is needed. Even with consolidation and the centralized school the work is still rural. The state of Maine has undertaken to solve, if possible, this perplexing problem. The legislature of 1919 gave the state superintendent funds and the authority to select each year one hundred rural teachers who are graduates from normal schools, who possess native ability, who are familiar with rural life conditions, are in sympathy with them, and who are wiUing to make rural teaching a profession. In order to do this the work must be properly motivated by compensation, by dignity of service, by oppor- tunity, and by the support and cooperation on the part of the rural people. Our plan is to create a rural teaching professioij. or rather a differentiated form of general education which will attract teachers of proper personality, character, and education. Department] THE STATE OF MAINE PLAN 283 The plan is already in operation. In the summer of 1919 the first hundred teachers were selected and put into a six weeks' course of study dealing specifically with rural problems and the rural school. All of their expenses were paid, their car fare to and from home, and their board for the full term. These teachers are employed in the regular way as teachers with the additional duty of helping-teacher. At the end of the year in addition to their regular salary they are given a state bonus of one-fourth the amount paid them by the town. This brings the salary of these teachers up to a minimum of $850 and a maximum of $1315. The school provided for these hundred rural helping-teachers is con- ducted as an officers' training camp and is called the "Educational Platts- burg." The program contained six special topics which were conducted on the "unit" plan of instruction: (i) Rural-Life Movements; (2) Rural Surveys; (3) Rural Economics and Sociology; (4) the Standardization of Rural Schools; (5) Medical Pedagogy; (6) Rural Life and the Rural School. These subjects each covered a half-day for one week with the instruction divided into three forms: (i) a general lecture on the topic; (2) the teachers are formed in small groups for the discussion of the points developt in the lecture and from the state of Maine viewpoint; (3) these groups return for general conference with the lecturer. Besides the unit courses physical education was carried thruout the six weeks. The afternoons were given over to group round tables covering course of study, the making of programs, the duties of the helping-teacher, special methods, rural criticisms, etc. In Maine the unit of school management is the town or township. The schools of the town are under a committee of three and under a superin- tendent of a union of towns. These teachers not only preside over a school but become helping-teachers under the superintendent for the other teachers of the town. The benefits of this plan are manifest in so many ways that it is difficult to enumerate them but the following results are noticeable: 1. It has motivated rural education; young people are entering our normals to prepare for rural service. 2. In selecting teachers who could qualify, school officials discovered how poorly prepared their rural teachers are; they are paying better wages to secure better qualified teachers. 3. Results show clearly in the schools of those who took the training as well as in the school of their associates. 4. Rural people now realize that good teachers are available. 5. Superintendents are holding meetings for groups of teachers and these leaders are real factors in their training in service. 6. There are one hundred teachers distributed over the state with definite ideas and ideals of rural school advancement. 284 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT AT HOME AND ABROAD KENYON L. BUTTERFIELD, PRESIDENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS. For some years the words ''country life" have been used to cover a rather large field in the general area of rural affairs. Recently, however, a limitation of the field to the social or welfare aspects of rural matters has been made by the newly organized American Country Life Association. Country life by this definition includes: the rural home, comprising all aspects of home making and the relations of the home and community; rural education, including rural schools, agricultural education, and adult education; morals and reUgion, in taking both the church and its various allies such as the Y.M.C.A. and Y.W.C.A. ; rural government, with especial reference to local government; means of communication; rural health and sanitation; rural recreation, including both the play of children and youth and the sociable life of all; rural charities and corrections; country planning. This restriction of the field to the welfare aspects of agriculture is for purposes of definiteness and effectiveness and by no means leaves out of account the intimate interrelations between the economic and the social, the wealth and the welfare phases. Country life is simply one large division of the rural problem which includes the technical and the scientific, the managerial and the economic, as well as the social or welfare aspects. So much for definition. I will speak first of a few of the more striking things going on in the various fields as thus defined. First, in regard to the rural home. There is an enormous amount of educational service for the benefit of the rural home, altho I suspect that largely at present this work lies in the field of home economics, rather broadly defined. It would seem as if the next great task is to endeavor to develop the family unit in relation to welfare and wealth. This is a some- what broader problem than that of gaining the maximum efficiency and satisfaction in the household. I would not, however, carry the impression that the present work is not marvelously useful and inspiring as well as very widespread and popular. The members of this audience know even better than I what is happen- ing in the field of rural education. Nevertheless, I wish to mention the things that seem to me of most consequence. The first has to do with the consolidation of schools. Consolidation has been a slow process but is moving much more rapidly now. The consolidation movement is especially significant, not merely because the country will thereby get much better schools than under the district plan, but because it helps mightily to make the school a community institution and makes possible what I regard as the key to adequate rural schooling, namely, the rural high school. I Department] COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 285 I am frank to say that the ordinary approach to the pleas for making the school the community center do not appeal to me. The arguments seem to imply that just because the schoolhouse exists in every community and belongs to the entire community, therefore it should be used for all kinds of community purposes. I prefer to think that the school is an insti- tution which, heretofore used almost wholly for the formal schooling of children and youth, should now be used perpetually for the education of all the people of the community, of all ages and conditions. This leads, of course, to the making of the schoolhouse a center, so far as practicable, of all the educational work of the community; and I think it makes of the school quite a different affair than merely a convenient housing of miscellaneous activities. In the field of rural government there seems to be little activity. Move- ments on behalf of better local government have thus far been confined almost wholly to the cities, as instanced by municipal ownership and management of public utilities. The improvement of local governmental finance as well as the possibilities of larger social functions of local government are still mines relatively untouched. Very rapid progress in rural health and sanitation has been made in the last few years. The American Country Life Association devoted its recent session in Chicago almost entirely to the problem of rural health. Rural public nursing, the development of county hospitals and clinics, the increast activities in the country by state boards of health, and the post-war services of the Red Cross are particularly notable. The vital need of adequate organization of the rural community, or, to phrase the matter differently, the pressing necessity of rural community building is so obvious to the friends of country life that they feel responsible for taking some leadership in the movement for these ends. They are not unmindful of the fact that the rural community must be built on a solid economic foundation. There is every reason why people should work together in the country perhaps primarily for better farming and larger profit. But from the social point of view it is so completely vital that we should have a community spirit and develop the community idea, that the country life movement must consider this field a part of its own. In the few moments remaining to me, let me emphasize very briefly the importance of this movement. In the first place, it concerns the welfare of two-thirds of the world's population. We know that Russia is at least 75 per cent, perhaps 85 per cent, rural. That India and China are not less than 85 per cent rural; that some of the Balkan States are even more completely rural; that the great areas of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Syria are largely rural. But we some- times forget that one-half the population of France is rural; that Germany has recognized agriculture as one of its prime assets; that England considers the question of its agricultural and rural life one of its pressing problems. 286 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural Here at home one-third of our people are rural. Any movement for the welfare of humanity cannot leave out of account the welfare of the people who live in the open country. The country-life movement affects the largest sector in the circle of the world's economic efficiency. Food is the prime need, followed very closely by the materials for clothing which thus far come also from agri- culture, but agriculture supplies also many other products for manufactures, perhaps less pressing but still exceedingly important. We have come to a time when we must think and act in terms of the entire world's food supply. What does the world want in the way of soil-grown products; when does it want them; where does it want them; and where can they best be grown? Now in the long run the economic efficiency of man depends upon spiritual qualities. The man behind the plow is more than the plow. So that everything that makes for better education, better health, greater contentment, better morality among country people in all these various immense populations spells new possibilities for urban populations. The country-life movement is also a vital phase of the development of world-democracy. If these populous countries are to be fully democratic they can become so only as the rural people become democratic — politically, industrially, socially. It is a hopeless task to try to achieve world- democracy if the farm people are left out of account. STATE REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS FLORENCE M. HALE, STATE AGENT FOR RURAL EDUCATION, AUGUSTA, ME. When the matter of attempting to standardize our rural schools was first discust in the state of Maine our superintendents and supervisors seemed to be afraid of it. They exprest the idea that in the present shortage of teachers, to introduce a definite standard of - measurement of efficiency would alarm the teachers to an undesirable effect. However, the sub- sequent events proved such fears to be entirely without foundation. Even those of us who believed in the movement for standardization have been surprised at the enthusiastic way in which our rural teachers and citizens have responded to the idea of finding just how their schools measure up with those of other communities and with the state standard rating sheets. Rural teachers in their isolation often times become discouraged because their earnest efforts for improvement, both of their own work and of the physical conditions of the school, pass by unknown and unnotist and they see the indifferent teacher apparently faring as well as themselves. The system of rating according to standard requirements changes all this and makes the teacher feel she is getting a tangible recognition of all she has been trying to accomplish. Most teachers are honestly anxious to do the DepartmentJ STATE REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS 287 best possible work and I find them welcoming a definite standard by which to judge the results of their efforts. Much depends, I suppose, upon the way the plan is presented to the teachers but in Maine all concerned have tried to present the matter of standardization with the above ideas in mind and have put the matter up in a cooperative way to the teachers, as indeed the whole idea very properly should be regarded. To have standardization and the adoption of uniform state requirements savor in any way of coercion would, to my mind, defeat the best aims of the whole plan. Two points, in particular, seem to be absolutely essential to observe in presenting a standard rating sheet for our schools — first that distinction be made and a separation in the rating sheet always between the teacher, the living factor of the school, and the inanimate factors for which the teacher, in some cases, is only partly respon- sible, i.e., physical features, etc. In the final rating, this distinction seems the only fair way to the teachers. Secondly, make the requirements as definite, compact, and as simply exprest as possible remembering that to the young teacher, at least, a great amount of material and too highly technical terms are confusing. In our state, for the benefit of our untrained young teachers, I prepared a little pamphlet ''Questions by Which a Teacher May Test Her Own Work" in which I followed the form and lines of our standard rating sheets but translated — in a way — the requirements into the terms of everyday, simple questions which any teacher might ask herself. When she can give a satis- factory answer to each question she need have no fears in regard to having her school rated. Also such a little pamphlet kept in her desk, will help the teacher in the isolated school, where only partial supervision can be given, to test her own work and keep her daily work up to standard. In this way, standardization loses its terrors for the young teacher, or for the older teacher of sensitive makeup, for she sees that it means just the matter of having her school the best possible school in an all round way, and gives her definite ideas of what authorities on the subject consider the characteristics of the right kind of school. Most teachers are anxious to do this very thing but have not known how to go to work to make their school measure up to an ideal. In the separation of the teacher's personal side of the work from the physical side she feels that she has something definite which she may put up to her comtmunity as their part of making their school a standard school. To make standardization of rural schools possible, the standard rating sheet and the whole plan must be simply and clearly put up to the people of the community. The grange or the parent teachers meeting offer splendid opportunities for such explanations. "Town meeting" in our New England towns would be a good place to inform the people what the measure of the standard school is in the minds of those who have made a study of the matter. Here again standardization should be explained in as clear and simple a way as I have indicated in the case of the teacher. 288 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural RURAL SCHOOL ACTIVITIES W. R. HEISTAND, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MARION COUNTY, MARION, OHIO It is the inherent right of every child to have a fair chance for the development of his faculties and to have at his command the best educa- tional facilities that our civilization can afford. The country youth, even tho surrounded by nature's laboratory, often fall victims to the destructive influences of traditional and unhealthy school environments. The one-room rural school at one time served its purpose equally well with other systems. It no longer articulates in terms of the needs of present- day country life. Little opportunity does the child have to find himself and to develop his powers and capabilities along lines most conducive to a successful career. Facilities for communication and travel, together with modern rural conveniences are bringing the rural folk in contact with new ideas, with a larger and more complex society and with definite civic duties, all of which contribute to the development of more efficient means of instruction. It is this change of attitude which now makes possible the consolidation of schools and their interests in many sections and the decided improvement of environment in all districts. Rural activities have their best possibilities in these consolidated dis- tricts, so we shall assume that every administrator of rural-school affairs will put forth the greatest effort in the interests of more consolidation. Of the many activities conducted in the county schools it may be well to make special mention of some most vital. (a) Vocational activities in the rural school deal with agriculture and manual arts for boys and home-making for girls. Club work which leads to the standardization of a well-adapted brood of poultry or to the intro- duction and permanency of registered hogs and cattle in a certain district or county must necessarily put any school on a high plane of usefulness in its community. (b) High-school athletics and county field-meets for both boys and girls create a spirit of loyalty to home interests and serve as means of interesting those pupils who may otherwise drift into indolence. (c) Inter-high-school debates and oratorical contests effect associations among schools which give pupils a feeling of confidence and definiteness of purpose. (d) Music instruction under competent supervisors who perform the work on the circuit plan, give pupils an opportunity to develop those finer traits which make fife enjoyable. A cantata by selected talent from different schools given in the county seat has been found to surprise the city folk and to give the rural youth a feeling that they can become intellectually and socially equal to their urban neighbors. Department! THE ZONE PLAN OF SUPERVISION 289 The school orchestra, in schools where boards of education furnish a wide range of instruments for rent among pupils, has proven a wonderful boon to both pupils and community. (e) Moving pictures, when judiciously controlled by the school adminis- trations, become a potent factor for civic social betterment among rural people. These and many other innovations mark the beginning of a new era for the rural community and the end of the * ' farm to city " movement which has already taken from our midst resources most essential to rural prosperity. THE ZONE PLAN OF SUPERVISION M. S. PITTMAN, PROFESSOR OF RURAL SCHOOL SUPERVISION, NORTHERN NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, ABERDEEN, S.DAK. Why is this plan of supervision called the zone plan ? It is called the zone plan because the area to be served by the supervisors is divided into zones, territorial units for one week of work by the super- visor. The number of schoolrooms to be served and the possibility of getting to the schools would determine the number of zones into which the supervisor would divide his supervisory district. My experimentation indicates that one visit to each schoolroom each month is perhaps the best schedule for this plan of supervision. It also indicates that the visits should be from one-fourth to one-haK of a day in length and that from eight to sixteen schoolrooms per week, depending upon the time allotted for each visit. According to this plan, Monday should be the supervisor's free day and there should be one week between the time the supervisor completes one circuit of visitation and the time he starts upon his next series of visits, that week to be used in plan making, professional reading that bears upon his next topics of study, letter writing, making summaries, etc. The area of the zones should be determined by topography, by types of schools, or types of problems. What is the zone plan designed to do ? In her discussion on Tuesday, Miss Dunn showed clearly the difference between the function of administration and the function of supervision. According to her analysis, I think you will agree that the rural schools of the past and the present have been and are being administered, however poorly that may be, but they have not been professionally supervised in such a way as to deserve the name. We have hired and fired teachers, erected and condemned school buildings, arranged and rearranged school- district lines, adopted and enforst courses of study. We have organized parent- teacher associations, created boys' and girls' clubs, establisht com- munity centers, and erected teachers' cottages. We have conducted thrift campaigns, carried on good health revivals, made consolidation-school drives, pushed standardization propaganda, and led fly-swatting crusades. 290 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural We have regulated our teachers and required of them a multitude of com- munity activities outside of and in addition to their regular task of teaching. The zone plan is designed, first of all, to make the teaching of the so-called fundamental subjects the recognized big goal and to center the attention of the teachers, children, and parents upon that fact. It aims to secure the other social and economic results so much desired, but to do so thru the regular school interests and not to their neglect. It is the business of the supervisor to achieve these special ends thru regular channels. The nation has spent money freely to inspire the growing of more and better hogs and incidentally better hog-raisers but it has been most niggardly in its efforts to inspire better hog-raisers and incidentally produce better hogs. The state of Oregon has a capital illustration that can be multipHed by more than forty-eight. During last summer it paid a very talented young man $150 per month and all of his expenses to super- vise the growing of fifty industrial club pigs. During the regular school year it paid the same young man only (and he paid his own expenses) $125 to supervise the growing of two thousand of its purest bred boys and girls. Choose ye this day whom ye will serve — the hogs or the hog-raisers ? The zone plan of supervision of schools proposes to make hog-growing and fruit-canning incidentals to, and the result of, child-education instead of the goal of education, by a shift in the financial support and of supervisory emphasis. How is the zone plan operated ? Its first principle is to arrange the teachers to be visited according to weeks of work for the supervisor. As said before, they may be arranged according to the topography of the country, according to grades in the schools, or according to special problems or interests. The dominating aim is to get together a homogeneous group of teachers in each of the groups. Common interests and common problems produce homogeneity. The great weakness of the average institute is its heterogeneity. It covers everything but solves nothing. The great power of this particular program in which we are today participating is its purposeful pointedness and the homogeneity of its participating personnel. The second principle is to provide a daily program for the supervisor that is just as systematic and conducive to good work and professional growth on the part of the supervisor as a good program is for the teacher and the school. The third principle is that the supervisor shall hold himself responsible for being able to illustrate what he wishes to achieve. One hour of illus- tration is worth ten hours of explanation. When a supervisor has illustrated what he wants in teaching then he is in a position to discuss both principles and details. He and the observing teacher have a common object about which to talk. Too much of our supervision has been only "talking" supervision. k Department] THE ZONE PLAN OF SUPERVISION 291 The fourth principle to be observed is that the teachers shall meet with the supervisor and the other teachers of her group after each visit of the supervisor. The fifth principle is that little criticism shall be given to the teachers in their own schoolrooms. There is the place for the supervisor to be happy, to be inspiring, to be appreciative. It is not the place to use the X-ray, the microscope, and the dissecting knife. The professional meeting of the teachers is the place for those instruments. A sixth principle is that these group meetings provide a means for the social organization of the rural communities. The place of the teachers* meeting should be changed each time. In this way, probably every com- munity in the zone will serve as hostess once each year. The professional part of the program should be held in the forenoon and free from visitors. A seventh principle is the application of "thrift stamp," "liberty loan'*' psychology. It is easy and interesting to do even a disagreeable task when everyone else is doing it also. The zone plan of supervision empha- sizes periods of specific interest. One month is as long, perhaps, as one subject should be held in the center of attention. The eighth principle on which the zone plan is establisht is that the supervisor is not the inspector and critic of the rural schools but is rather the friend, inspirer, and big brother of the teachers, children, and patrons. While there are other principles involved in the whole scheme of super- vision when conducted according to the ideals of the zone plan, I shall take time to mention only one more, viz., the opportunity of doing a systematic piece of work and then of making a report of its results to the people who are interested as to the results. The limitations to the zone plan are* the very things that constitute its chief virtues: (i) It exacts of the supervisor definiteness and system in planning his work. He must plan where he will go to every place, what he will do when he gets there, and what use he will make of it later. (2) It demands of the supervisor professional ideals and physical energy.. He cannot make his plans without the one, he cannot execute them without the other. (3) It requires of the teachers some effort to get to the teachers meeting — rain or shine, scorch or freeze. (4) It requires of the administrative forces of the county a recognition of the diJBference between administration and supervision, and further that it is the duty of the administrative forces not to be diverting the time and attention of the supervisor to places and problems that do not come within the natural scope of supervision and that are opposed to the supervisor's working schedule. The supervisor cannot go to one end of the county one day to settle a school-board row, to the other end of the county the next day to speak to a parent-teacher association, to another corner of it the 292 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural next day to inspect a boy's garden or give medical advice to his sick pig, and at the same time do systematic, professional supervision of the schools. The supervisor should not be expected to waste his time as the trouble fixer on the educational telephone line. He is the electricity on the line. Let the administrative force keep him working at full capacity. (5) While the zone plan implies close supervision and a reasonable number of teachers, yet it is probably more effective than the usual plans when applied to a large number of teachers with even rare visits. SECURING AN ADEQUATE SUPPLY OF PREPARED TEACHERS FOR NEGRO RURAL SCHOOLS LEO M. FAVROT, STATE AGENT OF NEGRO RURAL SCHOOLS, BATON ROUGE, LA. A study of this question resolves itself into a study of the needs in this respect of the sixteen states designated by the Census Bureau as the South Atlantic, east-south-central, and north-south-central states of the Union. In these states nearly 97 per cent of the negro rural population is found. These states are Delaware, Georgia, Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. The problem before us is, therefore, the problem of the supply and preparation of rural teachers for the 1,900,000 negro rural children which the census of 1910 records between the ages of five and fifteen years. Altho this age-group does not represent accurately the rural school age-group, this total will vary but slightly from the six- to sixteen-age-group, which, in consideration of short terms and retardation from other causes, does represent fairly well the elementary- and rural-school age-group for negro children. The largest single problem that these states have to face, and the problem that will require for its solution a far larger measure of statesmanship than has yet been devoted to it, is that of making efficient physically, morally, civically, economically, and industrially the 7,000,000 rural negroes making up 30 per cent of the rural population of these states. Whatever other' agencies may be used to accomplish this purpose, this problem now largely depends for its solution upon the greater efficiency of the negro rural teacher. A brief questionnaire was sent to representatives of the sixteen states above mentioned, and replies were received from all of these except South Carolina. It was found that there was no accurate data in many instances on which to base the information sought, and estimates were furnisht. As these estimates were made as a rule by men who are studying this question and in position to know something about it, I have faith in the comparative accuracy of the figures I shall use. Of the 33,669 negro teachers employed in these sixteen states, 24,602 are rural teachers. Estimating that South Department] PREPARED TEACHERS FOR NEGRO SCHOOLS 293 Carolina employs at least 1,400 rural teachers, we may safely say that 26,000 rural teachers are engaged in the task of educating 1,900,000 negro children. This means on the average that one teacher is employed for every seventy-three children. The estimated present shortage of negro rural teachers in schools already establisht is a little over 3,000. We can safely say, therefore, that the present need in the negro rural schools of the South is for 24,000 additional teachers or a total of 50,000 negro teachers, prac- tically double the number now employed. This would supply one teacher for every thirty-eight children. The fifteen states reporting record the existence of 212 institutions offering professional training courses for teachers. There are four types of these institutions as follows: (a) state institutions (normal schools or colleges offering normal courses), 22; {b) private or denominational schools or colleges, 91; (c) county training schools, 61; (d) public high schools, 38. It was estimated that the output of these schools in 1919 was 1,620, of which approximately 1,000 are teaching in rural schools. It is seen from this that, even to maintain the present inadequate supply of 4,300 new teachers each year, these training schools fall far short of the demand. But we must remember that existing schools are short 3,000 teachers. If we are to aspire to the task of training the teachers now needed, and of securing an additional 24,000 teachers for the rural schools, even on a basis of doing this gradually at the rate of 10 per cent increase in the numbef of teachers each year, to get anything like an adequate supply of prepared teachers it will be necessary to multiply by ten the output of training schools. This means additional facilities. We may as well recognize the facts that: 1. We have 1,900,000 negro rural children to educate in schools in order to make our negro rural population efficient. 2. We need twice as many teachers as we are now employing in the negro rural schools, at least 50,000 all told. 3. The average standard of scholarship and professional training among the present teachers is very low and must be improved. 4. The output of present institutions and the increast facilities for training teachers should be such as to increase the supply from seven to ten-fold annually. 5. The amount of public funds available for negro rural teachers' salaries, if we are to do this job properly, will have to be increast from $5,000,000 to $25,000,000 a year. Such a hasty analysis of the situation, as has been outlined above, leads us to the conclusion that a more careful study and investigation of the question might well be undertaken under five divisions as follows: I. A study of the field, including a statistical study of the supply of rural teachers, the number of rural pupils, and the needs in each state and county of the sixteen states involved. 294 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural 2. A study of the present equipment, scholastic and professional, of the rural teachers now in service — the number of new rural teachers needed yearly, etc. 3. A study of the training-schools for teachers including location and availability, the academic and professional courses offered, requirements for admission and for graduation, qualifications of the teaching corps, practice school, annual output of the training course, and success of the graduates in rural-school service. 4. A study of the teachers' institutes and summer normals in these states; opportunities for training teachers in service through supervision; of laws and regulations of school boards bearing on this question and of inducements offered for improvement in the service through these means. 5. A comparison of conditions in white and negro schools with special emphasis on inducements offered to colored teachers in the way of long school terms, adequate salaries, accommodations with respect to school and boarding facilities and tenure of office. In connection with this should be studied evidences of unlawful discriminations against negro schools. Incentives to enter teaching service might well be divided into two classes, physical and spiritual. The physical incentives have already been referred to. These include better salaries, longer terms, tenure of office, better living conditions, and things of that nature. But, we must not fail to take into account an incentive that is largely lacking among the members of our own race in the teaching profession. I refer to the desire to help the lowly, the pride of race that prompts many negroes to enter the teach- ing profession, and the missionary spirit which makes them willing to undergo hardships in order to be a Moses to their people. Couple with this another spiritual incentive, less meritorious perhaps, and yet worth full consideration — that is, that the profession of teaching holds out for the negro a higher relative distinction than for the member of our own race. This is doubtless due to the fact that their economic and social status bars them from entering upon many professions and occupations open to white people. Realizing the need of more negro rural teachers, Louisiana put on last summer a program for training them. Enlisting the cooperation of parish school boards and the philanthropy of the General Education Board and Mr. Julius Rosenwald, we opened 31 parish summer training schools of twelve weeks duration. We then put on a publicity campaign to interest young men and women in entering these schools. Church and lodge papers carried the information that Louisiana needed 1,000 more teachers and that it was the duty of all available young people to enter the teaching profession in order to help their race. Ministers announst the program from their pulpits. It was shown that without these 1,000 qualified te^ichers, 40,000 negro children would be deprived of schools. It was also shown that if school boards budgeted this money for the negroes and were unable to get Department] PRACTICE-TEACHING FOR RURAL TEACHERS 295 teachers, this money might be diverted in the future to other uses. This was the negroes' golden opportunity. The response to the appeal was highly gratifying. More than 1,700 young people enrolled in the thirty- three schools opened. One-half of these had never taught before. They were drilled for three months in the elementary school branches and how to teach them. As a result of the examinations at the close, 784 teachers were certificated as against 120 the previous summer. All of these readily found positions. The cooperative effort of negro organizations in this work, the gratifying result of the appeal to the spiritual incentives in the negro young people, the sacrifices made to enable many of them to attend a twelve-week school, the willingness of school boards to supply funds for these schools coupled with the probability of their not going very much farther to secure teachers if this plan failed — these things brought out in this story, demonstrate an attitude toward this question and certain elements involved which must be given full consideration in any discussion looking to a larger supply of well-trained negro rural teachers. PRACTICE-TEACHING FOR PROSPECTIVE RURAL TEACHERS ETHEL BLACK, NORMAL SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. Because rural education is only a phase of general education, we feel that the preparation of its teachers should not be in separate institutions or separated within the same institution. The teacher trained in a normal school which fits its students for various phases of educational service must, of necessity, have a broader vision and see her own field, not isolated, but as a specialization of general education. She has more of the spirit of coopera- tion, more sympathy for other teachers, and a greater opportunity to secure the proper professional attitude and to develop the ideals of service so necessary to a successful teacher. Her training should thus give her a vision broad enough to see her place in the great plan of education, and this might be workt out in practice and the teacher shifted from rural to urban or urban to rural schools as conditions demanded. This, of course, involves the salary question. Taking for granted a training school with ideal conditions, a rural demonstration school with a trained teacher, and the cooperation of other rural schools, practice-teaching, to serve the best interests of the prospective teacher, should be organized according to the following generally accepted principles: 1. Because of the laws of habit-formation, practice- teaching should be extensive rather than intensive. Therefore it should be spread almost entirely thruout the year. 2. There should be as much as possible, but the quality, the type, and the daily preparation should measure up to a very high standard. A 296 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural minimum of 40 minutes a day (and more if possible) is recommended. If a two-year course were possible, allowance would be made for twice the amount of practice. 3. Practice- teaching should be the most important activity of the student's whole training — the center around which the work of the year revolves. 4. Practice- teaching should form a foundation for technique and an experience basis for all theoretical courses, as well as motivate all subject- matter courses. Better, it should be the basis for professionalized subject- matter courses. To do this it should begin at the first of the year. 5. Practice- teaching should be carefully graded both as to the practice- courses and the selection of activities within each course. This means an organization providing for a series of steps gradually increasing in difficulty for the student-teacher. The apprentice system, the methods of training modern craftsmen, and the general plan by which a young man gets into the profession of medicine or law are illustrations of the need of actual participation in Ihe activities of a profession or vocation in order to acquire skill in technique and practical knowledge of the theory concerned. Teach- ing may be called both a vocation and a profession, and we have ample proof that the most economical method of learning a vocation involves beginning with simple processes and gradually proceeding to the more com- plex. Too often the young teacher has been forst to begin with the complex or with very little of the simple preceding it. 6. It is generally accepted that we should apply (so far as possible) the project theory in the training of teachers as well as help the students to apply it in their work with children. Conditions are such yet, and so much of method must come from experiment, that the student-teacher is perhaps safer if trained in methods both new and those in common use now, so if she meets a situation where the new fails she may fall back upon the old. We must face the fact that we shall never be able to get the project over, so to speak, unless we get with it enough of what the pubhc calls "order" to satisfy their demands. Possibly in the average training-school any caution against sending teachers out without equipment in the old methods is out of place. As a rule they get too little of the new. The whole project theory spells the spirit of democracy, which is a means of growth, an evolution. It is evident in the present demands for industrial democracy, and is being rapidly extended to the schools. The teacher's demand for a voice in administrative and supervisory affairs is evidence of this fact, and the wise administrator deals with his teachers, not according to the checker game, moving each at will, but as the modern base-ball game is conducted, where each member sees his own importance and responsibihty and his place in the whole plan. In training men for the army we are told that it was found necessary to inform our men, by use of moving pictures, of the general plans and movements at the front, so that a man had a Department] FOLLOW-UP WORK AND EXTENSION ACTIVITIES 297 vision of his place in the whole scheme, knew its importance, and when he went over the top he knew just what was being done along the front, knew that his part was vital and necessary. It is from such a vision that ideals and attitudes come. Democracy is possible only when its citizens are trained to participate and assume responsibilities. Because adults, as well as children, grow from the assumption of responsibihty, and because cooperation, initiative, and the abihty to judge her own work as well as that of others are so necessary to the success of a teacher, should we not shift to the student in training the responsibility of more initiative in the choice of her activities in the training school, more opportunity to cooperate with her neighbors and to judge or measure the results of her own and her classmates' work ? The whole course of training is, to the student-teacher, a project. Based upon the above theory, would a plan such as the following not be feasible ? Let the student-teachers, with the director of training, plan a list of activities — things the student wishes to accomplish — and work out, with the help of all available standards, a definite scale of judgment for each activity. These exercises should be arranged in order of difficulty, responsible room-teaching coming last. Each student would go at her own pace, judging her own work first, then securing the judgment of several of her classmates, and finally the approval of the teacher in charge. When an exercise measured up to standard the student would go to another, her speed being determined by the ease with which she could use her theory, her former experience, etc. Would this plan not make for the gradual acquisition of routine by habit, beget self-confidence on the part of the teacher, and mean more efficient teaching, thus bringing greater benefit to the children? It would mean an opportunity to see each exercise by itself and thus to rate and study it more closely. A critic teacher who carried this idea out only to a slight degree reports that a student-teacher with only unfavorable records of her former practice- teaching showed evidence of more ability and originality than any other student in her class. We see this same contrast in children within a group and often find that the child who, under the ''teacher's domination," seldom says anything and is sometimes called dull will be a real leader under the plan of child freedom, guided by a teacher. I HOLDING STUDENTS UP TO STANDARD THRU FOLLOW-UP WORK AND EXTENSION ACTIVITIES MARGARET CRAIG CURRAN, DIRECTOR, TEACHERS' SERVICE DIVISION, STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, DILLON, MONT. The statistics which have been made available in the February National Education Association Bulletin have caused me to strike out ''after gradua- tion" from the topic assigned me for discussion. Graduation seems to be 298 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural an experience not of the past but of the future for the rural teachers of this country. There are in the United States 650,000 teachers, 365,000 of whom teach in the rural schools. This year 151,450 inexperienst teachers entered the ranks. The total output of teachers wholly or partially trained by colleges, normals, and high schools (Report of Commissioner of Education, 1919) was but 24,000, so that a remainder of 127,450 untrained, inexperienst teachers have been thrust into our rural schools — for there is where the lowest standards are maintained, and the poorest salaries paid. Last year 122,000 of like kind went into our rural schools, and it is safe to estimate that at least 100,000 equals 349,000, practically all of our untrained rural teachers with two years or less of experience. This is our problem, ''How to raise them to a standard of graduation," not what to do with them afterward — yet the problem is the same in both cases for conditions make it largely a problem of training teachers in service, for the 16 per cent of teachers trained in the training institutions of the country will but barely fill the places of the 6 per cent shortage and the 9 per cent who are below standard in efficiency. Some of the ways for providing the motive for better educational and professional preparation are: 1. Establishing standards which can be gradually met and raising the requirements for certification thru a period of years. 2. Coordinate with the raising of standards must be an equal increase in salary for each advance made. 3. Preference in the selection of teachers for the better positions must be given fo the teachers who show professional growth, whether thru study or noteworthy service. 4. Summer schools for teachers must provide for practice-teaching and every phase of work that is given during the year. Correspondence courses and group extension classes must be conducted, and credit given for the work. 5. Supervisors must be trained so that they can teach their teachers, conduct demoi^stration classes, and do such other things as will actually improve instruction. 6. County superintendents must be trained for their work. In turn they must organize their agencies for instruction in such a way as to accom- plish some definite end. Enormous sums of money are being wasted in institutes and similar meetings because of poor organization and the failure of the county superintendent to see what their true purpose is. 7. A great quantity of educative material is being sent out at random over the country and consequently is failing to accomplish much. If this material were to be collected by normal and college libraries, organized into packages, and loaned to schools, real service could be rendered and this material made to function. Department] RECOGNITION OF THE RURAL PROBLEM 299 8. Reading-circle work as it is now generally done is like a "cure-all" pill, and about as effective. The same ends that are now being gained, and more, could be achieved thru cooperation between county and state superin- tendents and the normals and universities by requiring a certain number of correspondence-study credits to be earned in given subjects each year. Under such a plan teachers would be encouraged and helpt toward normal or college graduation. As it is, reading-circle work is "goat feathers," the gathering of which many times prevents teachers from doing some piece of organized work. 9. Better living conditions must be provided. In this connection I would like to suggest the possibilities that a national campaign of publicity thru ruraj publications and rural meetings might have in bringing better conditions about. If this organization were to appoint a committee to study conditions, and prepare a set of standards which should be met in providing proper living conditions for rural teachers, and then have these written and talkt about thruout the nation, until the farm people come to have a consciousness of the needs of the teacher, and their relation to her best serving the community, the change would come — just as pro- hibition came as the result of the educational work done by the W.C.T.U. women. The present output of normal schools is about 9,000 a year, so even if we could "corner the market" for the rural schools, it would take forty years to supply our present needs, if all the teachers now in the service would remain in it. We cannot wait that long — in fact the average life of the rural teacher is only between two and three years — if we are to main- tain a democracy we must train the teachers now in the service, and retain them. To do this we must pay better salaries on the yearly basis, put rural teaching on the same level as city teaching, and afford the motive and opportunity for these teachers to get their training, and reward them for it. We must give publicity to conditions in order to prepare for legislation, and then inaugurate and support bills that will procure the desired results. SECURING RECOGNITION OF THE RURAL PROBLEM IN TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS CLYDE M. HILL, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, SPRINGFIELD, MO. It is safe to say that there is no teachers' college or normal school faculty, no student body, no board of control, no legislature, in America which has the slightest knowledge of the conditions as they exist today in rural education who do not recognize the rural problem as one of the big problems which teacher-training institutions must accept and solve. It must be admitted, however, that even at the present time most schools for the training of teachers are merely cognizant of the problem, but are 300 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural devoting their major energies to the training of teachers for urban positions, a condition which has developt because of the better social and financial rewards which the city positions have to offer and the consequent demands of the students which have determined the trend of teacher-college activities. I am using the term ''recognition" in my subject not so much in the sense of "mere acknowledgment" as the avowed determination to attack and solve a problem generally conceded to be the great and pressing need of the times. The subject might therefore be stated in the form of a question, "How may institutions for the training of teachers in all of their depart- ments and affiliations, intra-mural and extra-campus be so concentrated and focust upon this, one of the greatest problems confronting the American public today, so as to make a distinct and immediate contribution to its solution?" I do not believe that there will be a just and adequate recognition of the rural problem in teacher-training institutions until each one is intel- ligently cooperating with all its might in great, definite, state, and national programs of rural education which embrace the basal considerations, trained teachers, money, organization, control, supervision, and attractive country life. Until this time, and God speed the day, the schools which point the way to the larger program by mapping out and putting into operation for themselves schemes of local rural-school betterment which comprise all of these elements are securing recognition of the problem in a fundamental way. We may say then, that recognition of the rural problem will be secured in teacher-training institutions whose rural-school program is planned and administered in accordance with the following principles: I. The training of rural teachers cannot be separated from the related problems of curriculum, maintenance, organization, control, supervision, and rural life. The improvement of the rural school (physical plant) and rural community must go hand in hand with the improvement of the rural teacher and is part of the rural problem for which the teacher-training institution must assume responsibility. It is not enough to prepare a teacher. There must be prepared for her a place in which she can work under proper guidance, inspiring supervision, and with sufficient reward for service. It is not enough for her to know whither she goes and the way. She must know that a place has been prepared for her and if it is not so she must be told so that she may enrol for other courses that, where the desirable teaching positions are, there she may be also. Until adequate salaries for rural teachers can be provided by legislative enactment or by the creation of the proper public sentiment in cases where all available means for providing sufficient revenue are not employed, teacher-training institutions must provide, even at their own expense in part, enough really desirable teaching positions in rural schools to attract a nucleus of their best students, who will be capable under the close super- Department] RESOLUTIONS 3OI vision of the departments of rural education to develop demonstration rural schools. It is unfortunate, indeed, that professors of rural education have been selected so frequently because of their practical experience with rural schools as they exist, rather than because of their broad scholarship and definite knowledge of rural sociology and economics in their more significant aspects. Professors of rural education must be the equals of their asso- ciates in scholarship and general culture if their work in the institution is to receive recognition. No plan of solution of the rural problem which neglects the fact that the rural people themselves must acknowledge the rural problem will receive recognition. They must be educated to recognize the difference between trained and untrained teachers, good schools, and poor ones. The manufacturer develops his commodity and creates the demand for it at the same time. As the demand becomes permanent and more refined and exacting he turns his attention almost wholly to the improvement of the product. We may get a lesson here illustrating the point. The facilities in faculty observation and practice opportunities and specialized courses offered must be on the same high plane that characterizes the work of other departments. Sufficient publicity must be provided to make the results of experiments and investigations available for other schools. I speak from observation and experience when I say that the rural problem will receive recognition in teacher-training institutions when the solution is demanded by the people, and that the time will come when they are made conscious of the existence of the problem by those who now see it. RESOLUTIONS PAST BY THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION Whereas, The universally recognized emergency in education bears with particular heaviness upon the rural schools, the deficiencies which already constituted one of our most serious national problems and Whereas, The urgency of the situation has aroused widespread interest and con- structive effort on the part of educators and of the public in general, so that the time appears ripe for a whole-hearted, united, and fundamentally sound procedure in the development of this shamefully neglected phase of our national well-being; be it Resolved, i. That this department advocates an adequate financial support of rural education and an equalization of educational burdens. To this end we believe (a) A national subsidy as provided in the Smith-Towner bill is essential and we hereby endorse the purposes and provisions of that bill. (b) We reiterate the principle that the wealth of the whole state should educate the children of the state, and recommend therefore state aid adapted to stimulate local initiative and supplement local resources where they are inadequate. We call attention to the fact that in numerous states local initiative is curbed by constitutional provisions which fix a maximum of tax rate, and we recommend legislative 302 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Rural action to remove in every case the maximum limitation, retaining however any minimum requirements already establisht. {c) We desire to acknowledge and express appreciation of the invaluable aid that has been rendered in the past by various philanthropic boards and foundations, which have made educational progress possible by financing forward-looking movements, while at the same time leaving the administration of these activities under state or local control; and we approve such assistance as a means of stimulating and furthering similar progress in the future. Resolved, 2. That we recognize sound organization and administrative policies as essential in the school as in any other enterprise, and therefore . {a) We commend the county unit of school administration as that best adapted both to preserve local enterprise and to make possible educational opportunities equal for all, {h) We advocate that no minimum school term be less than seven months, with compulsory laws adequate to enforce attendance during this term; and we assert that equality of opportunity demands a term at least as long in rural as in urban sections, {c) We advocate increast efforts toward consolidation as one of the most important means to adequate rural education and commend good-roads programs as essential to successful consolidation. The recent educational conference at Cedar Falls, Iowa, especially considering the problems of consolidation recommended the motion picture as an important means of advertising this policy, and recommended that the National Education Association under- take to serve as a distributing agency for films. We commend to this body the policy suggested at this meeting. Resolved, 3, That in the increasing extent and complexity of modern education there is need for specialized efficiency in the lines both of administration and supervision. To this end we endorse the provision of county supervision thru distinct supervisory agents on the county Educational Staff. We recommend that this ofl&ce be made one of high professional requirements and corresponding dignity, and that these supervisors work under the leadership of a state supervisor of rural education, and hold themselves responsible to the county superintendent for the success of their office. Resolved, 4. That we recognize the necessity in education for citizenship of wide contacts for the learner and opportunity for actual participation in many phases of social life, that we appreciate the opportunities of such type which are afforded by many forms of extension or other school agencies, and that we commend these to school administrators, supervisors, and teachers, to the extent that they are regarded as means to the accom- plishment of worthy educational ends. We maintain however that in every case these agencies must be regarded as means and the child as the end and that their use must therefore be controlled by school administrative and supervisory officers, to whom is entrusted the responsibility of the child's development. Resolved, 5. That it is the general consensus of opinion that normal-school facilities should as rapidly as possible be developt to afford an adequate number of thoroly qualified rural teachers. In the meantime, while this ultimate program is in the making, it is essential that no means of affording even partial preparation to rural teachers be neglected, and training classes in high schools are recommended as one of the best temporary means. Resolved, 6. That since modern educational theory gives large place to personal initiative and activity rather than verbal memorizing of required tasks, there becomes necessary a modification and extension of the materials of education provided in the schools. We recognize the service of standardization programs of the past decade in improving the physical and sanitary conditions of rural schools, and we believe that we are now ready to extend this policy of standardization to stimulate increast provision of educational equipment. We maintain that this is especially essential in the one-teacher schools, when they must remain, as a means of stimulating children to self-initiated educational activity. Department] RESOLUTIONS 303 Resolved^ 7. That the crucial teacher shortage in rural regions today can hope for amelioration only thru the provision of such satisfactions in the occupation of rural- school teaching as will make it equally attractive with other vocations. We maintain that such satisfaction must be provided- in three lines: {a) Teacher's salaries must be made adequate to supply not only the physical, but the mental and spiritual needs which are felt by those who are actually qualified for the responsibility of education. {h) Facilities must be afforded for comfortable home life for rural teachers. It will not suffice to increase salaries if those salaries cannot purchase common decencies, necessities, and reasonable comforts of life. (c) Increasing provision must be made for constructive activity, and personal and professional growth thru self-expression and stimulating contacts. Supervision of a high type replacing inspection and autocratic direction is recommended as the best means to this end. Resolved, 8. T^t we believe teachers' voluntary organizations are essential to the establishment of teaching as a profession, that we recognize their value and place in the development of constructive policies and the promotion of educational progress but that we deplore all tendencies toward unionizing and affiliation with organizations of any other occupation, as subversive of the very aims the teachers' organizations are best fitted to serve. Resolved, 9. That we hold the rural teacher's position to be more responsible than that of any other teacher, and the one-room school to be. the most responsible and difficult position in the whole educational field. We recommend that the difficulties be removed by consolidation wherever possible, but that where this cannot be effected the status of rural teacher be recognized as of the highest, the best salaries be attacht to this position, and all means available be employed to induce the best-qualified teachers in the school system to enter upon its duties. Resolved, 10. That this body recognizes the unusual amount of responsibility and labor which has, because of its recency of organization, necessarily fallen upon its chairman and secretary, and desires to express to them its grateful appreciation for the excellent program which they have provided, and for their invaluable services in so auspicious an inauguration of the Department of Rural Education. m DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President— ORSOii Ryan, superintendent of Carbon County Schools Price, Utah Secretary— J MIES H. Smith, assistant principal, Austin High School Chicago, HI. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1920 The Department of Science Instruction of the National Education Association convened in regular session Tuesday forenoon, July 6, at nine o'clock, in the Victrola Room of the Hotel Utah. The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented: "Elementary Science and the National Welfare" — Miss L. H. Seeley, Dickinson High School, Jersey City, N.J. "Elementary Science" — ^John C. Johnson, State Normal School, Gunnison, Colo. Discussion — L. A. Adams, State Teachers' College, Greeley, Colo.; W. L. Eickenberry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7, 1920 The following program was presented: "Vitalized Agriculture in the Rural Schools thru the Rotation Plan" — P. G. Holden, International Harvester Co., Chicago, 111. Discussion — Thomas Walker, editor of journal publisht by the State Teachers' Association, St. Louis, Mo.; Bert Cooper, superintendent of schools, Nodaway County, Mo.; Francis Kirkham, vocational director of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah; C. P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. The following ofl&cers were elected for the ensuing year: President — ^John C. Johnson, Colorado State Normal School, Gunnison, Colo. Secretary — ^L. H. Seeley, Dickinson High School, Jersey City, N.J. The meeting adjourned. James H. Smith, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE— WHAT, WHY, AND HOW? JOHN C. JOHNSON, COLORADO STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, GUNNISON, COLO. Undoubtedly there should be greater emphasis on the teaching of science in the elementary grades of our public-school system. There are several good reasons why this should be so: first, because nearly all children are intensely interested in science when reduced to their level, asking the most important question of science, "why?" continually; second, the trend of modern times demands that the great majority of our citizens be trained in trades requiring considerable scientific knowledge of a general nature, if not Of a very special type. 30s 3o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science Since so many occupations require some scientific understanding, it is plain that this training must come largely from the public schools, and also, since only a minority attend high school and college, this prehminary scientific training must come in the elementary grades. The type of science training needed should not be heavy and probably should follow the line of the child's natural interest, which, usually in the first five or six grades, is largely about plants and animals. Perhaps it might be called by the term nature study, if in this study actual knowledge as well as enthusiasm is developt. In the seventh and eighth grades the so-called general-science course, usually given in the Freshman year of the high school, should be taught. The pupils are ready for this work at this time, and it should not be delayed until a later grade. The most important reason for more emphasis on science in the elemen- tary grades is to develop the careful, accurate scientific type of mind early, which is necessary to national safety in this increasingly scientific age. JUST A WORD ABOUT EDUCATION p. G. HOLDEN, THE INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER CO., CHICAGO, ILL. ' The thoughtful people, I am sure, are profoundly grateful for our present educational system. That it is splendid is true, but that it can be improved and we are obligated to make these improvements is also true. Therefore, in presenting vitalized education for your approval, there is no thought of criticism in my mind. I. am only trying to do my part in helping to make our present educational system better serve the interests of our boys and girls. Vitalized agriculture makes children eager to go to school. It makes the school work of the child grip it wjth an intense interest like that it feels in its play. When we were first trying Vitalized Agriculture I was not certain that it was the right thing, but after seeing the results of the three years' trial in three states by hundreds of teachers, I am sure it has proved to be all that I" had hoped it to be. Vitalized agriculture is built on the principle that the place to begin in education is to begin with real things, and a thing is only real to anyone when it is something that is needed to satisfy a felt want. And every step and every process in vitalized agriculture begins with the child and its needs. Under the vitalized agriculture method the teacher does not think so much about the subject, but more of the need of the child. The silo being a very much needed thing on the farm, the child will be interested to know all it can find out about it. In order to know how many head of Department] JUST A WORD ABOUT EDUCATION 307 livestock can be fed out of its father's silo, it will have an interest in dis- covering either from books or elsewhere how to figure the contents of it. That means it will learn cubic measurements, but will learn this not as a subject but as something it is interested to know about in order to make use of it. All of these projects here, this milk stool, this bird house, this dough board, this fly trap, all of these are projects the children can make and that they can use. To be permitted to make them is to truly vitalize their studying of their lessons. It makes me very glad to tell you that there has not been reported to me one instance where the use of this method has failed to arouse and keep alive in children thruout the entire term of school an intense interest that the word "vitalize" aptly expresses. The second, but by no means the least important, phase of this work is the rotation of the subjects. Rotation is one of the great principles in nature and I believe is as important in training the mind as in cultivating the fields. The same thing all the time is" an impossibility in nature — ^in agriculture it means depletion of soil and poverty, while the same thing over and over in education becomes a deadly monotony where interest and enthusiasm cannot live. In vitalized agriculture we have arranged the divisions of this, method to cover a period of four years, each year being different from the other. The first year we call "Growing Things" and that involves the crops and plants. The second year we call "Making Things" and that has to do with the making of things that in their use can be applied to the different activities of the farm and home. The third year is called " Living Things " and that applies to the livestock on the farm and the making and doing of things related to the raising and growing of livestock. The fourth year is called "The Soil, the Home and Community" year. This is a very rich field full of interest and offers a great deal of help to the farm boy and girl in the study of those things which can be of service to them in their fives. This division we call the rotation of the subjects. The process or proceeding is to interest the children in making projects as has been explained before. The child learns how to make the necessary calculations for the material it is to use and does the work which has been selected because of a need it has for the project it is making. After this is finisht the child is encouraged to write what it has done, its experiences, etc., in a notebook which it keeps for this purpose. The use of these famiHar things as subjects for study signifies and glorifies them in the thought of the children. And who shall assume the right to declare that when the child is studying these things or conditions and learning to five them and to do them for itself that it is not being as truly educated as are those who are studying subjects and the contents of books, passing examinations, and being awarded diplomas. For I believe that 3o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science those who know how to do and really do the necessary work that must be performed if man is to continue to live on the earth are as truly educated, in fact more truly educated, than those who only know about such things as subjects but who never do them but shun them. To do this is to vitalize agriculture and it seems to me the (method by which it is done is rightly named vitalized agriculture. • X DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICER Chairman — ^P. Melvin Peterson, director of music, Salt Lake City Public Schools Salt Lake City, Utah FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1920 The Department of Music Education of the National Education Association con- vened in regular session on Tuesday forenoon, July 6, at nine o'clock, in the Gardo House Recital Hall. The meeting was called to order by the chairman, and the following program was presented: "Importance of Music in Public Schools" — Alfred Roncovieri, supervisor of schools, San Francisco, Calif. "Listening Lessons and Music Appreciation" — Mrs. Frances E. Clark, head of education department, Victor talking machine. The following officer was elected for the ensuing year: President — P. Melvin Peterson, director of music, Salt Lake City Public Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7, 1920 The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented : "Community Music" — Edward P. Kimball, assistant organist, tabernacle, Salt Lake City, Utah. "High School Music" — B. Cecil Gates, director of music, L. D. S. University, Salt Lake City, Utah. "Vitalized Music" — Margaret Streetor, former supervisor of music, Los Angeles, Calif.; male chorus, Payson, Utah, Carl Nelson, director. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — supervisor of music. Salt Lake City public schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. 309 DEPARTMENTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND CHILD HYGIENE SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS Chairman — E. G. Go wans, state director of health education Salt Lake City, Utah FIRST SESSION— Monday Afternoon, July s, 1920 The Physical Education Department of the National Education Association con- vened in regular session on Monday afternoon, July 5, at two o'clock, in the Deseret Gymnasium. The meeting was called to order by the chairman, and the following program was presented : The general topic for discussion was "Current Problems in Physical Education." "Efficiency Methods in Exercise" — ^William Burdick, state director of physical education, Baltimore, Md. "The Physical Director and Social Ethics "—Charlotte Stewart, East High School, Salt Lake City, Utah. "Success of Nutrition in Classes in Boston and Chicago" — Caroline Hedger, physician, Chicago, 111. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1920 At the second session of the Physical Education Department the chairman appointed Charlotte Stewart, East High School, Salt Lake City, as temporary secretary. The following program was presented: The general topic for discussion was "The Relation of Physical Education to Social and Economic Problems." "Principles Underlying the Maintaining of Economic Fitness" — F. C. Kleeberger, professor at University of California, Berkeley, Calif. "Militarism and Military Training in the Public Schools" — E. L. Roberts, professor, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah. "Physical Education for Leisure Time Activity" — E. B. DeGroot, Scout Executive, San Francisco, Calif. "Medical and Physical Examinations — ^Their Value and Scope" — ^W. M. Stookey, physician. Salt Lake City, Utah. "The Cooperation of P^-rents, Teachers, and Physical Directors for the Development of Healthy Children" — Orson Ryan, superintendent. Carbon County schools. Price, Utah. Business Meeting — "Shall the Physical Education Department be merged with the Child Hygiene Department ?" A resolution was adopted favoring the merging of the Physical Education Depart- ment and the Child Hygiene Department. The following officer was elected for the ensuing year — the secretary to be appointed by the president : President, Frank C. Kleeberger, professor, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. 311 312 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS TEE PHYSICAL DIRECTOR AND SOCIAL ETHICS CHARLOTTE STEWART, EAST HIGH SCHOOL, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH In this day of readjustments, of readjudications, of revaluations, the ethical function of any group of individuals, be they physical directors, physicians, or educators, or better still all three in one, is as difl&cult to fix as is ethics to define. What is social ethics ? Is it a composite of the conduct of society or is it the highest standard of human behavior ? Disregarding Kantian philosophy and book-born ethics let us consider an American educational product, the Morality Code. A childrens' code it is, selected after nation wide competitions: and a children's code is chosen because social ethics in our communities for many years to come will be determined in the aggregate not by the high school or college graduate but by the one of elementary grade. In a survey of this simple code let us make note which of those law- defined qualities are well within the sphere of every physical director: (i) the law of health— the good American tries to gain and to keep perfect health; (2) the law of self-control — the good American controls himself; (3) the law of self-reliance — the good American is self-reliant; (4) the law of reliability — the good American is rehable; (5) the law of clean play — the good American plays fair; (6) the law of duty — the good American does his duty; (7) the law of good workmanship — the good American tries to do the right thing in the right way; (8) the law of team work — the good American works in friendly cooperation with his fellows; (9) the law of kindness — the good American is kind; (ic) the law of loyalty — the good American is loyal. With this simple code before us and with such mental adaptations and adjustments as are necessary to encompass the periods of youth and maturity let us pause for a moment and consider the physical director and his particular qualifications for the great task of making individuals measure up to such a code. Physical training by virtue of its very nature is penetrating and powerful in fixing human behavior and habituating ethical ideas. First, the physical examination and consultation fixes an intimate, personal interest, and confidence that is very much akin to the family physician with the added cohesion of a normal rather than a pathologic finking interest, a creative rather than a remedial tie. If such an examiner should be a physician, then the director should be a physician or else nurses and physicians should know more about physical diagnosis in activity. Within his own department the director should play the health game hard by his shaping of courses, fixing of hours, scheduling of infinite activities; within his system, he should sell the health idea to other departments. Department] NUTRITION CLASSES IN BOSTON AND CHICAGO 313 should keep his hand on the general programming, should check up on the external physical conditions, light, seating, feeding, ventilation, and demand sufficient outside and inside playing space. Special activities he must devise for certain groups, the brakes he must put on others, the boilers of some individuals must be fired. How different the health training for two groups of girls in the same town, how widely divergent in two antipodal communities. Health is essentially a prerequisite to the highest attainments in those two hemispheres about which education is already revolving — education for work, for a vocation, and education for leisure. What qualities of social ethics will be needed in the nation's great tomorrow if the laborer, the professional man, the business man, the mother at home measures up to the standard ? Certainly skill, and the desire to excel, undoubtedly fair play, and team work, will power, determination and courage to fight or overcome obstacles, and always loyalty to right. Are not all these omnipresent in embryo on the playfield, in all the hereditary games and plays of childhood, in the natural, physical activities of youth during these, his real working periods. Rightly trained, then, they will find no difficult readjustments when the play field is supplanted by the shops, the office, the clinic. Surely the standards of the physical director cannot help- but affect the ethics of labor and business tomorrow. Physical training as it should be conceived and organized thruout school systems and without school systems when called into being by real directors cannot help but spin much of the health warp of human life, tie tightly the woof threads of the work-a-day and fill in the major part of the colorful design of a good leisure time-pattern. Then and only then does it become an integral part of life, then and only then does it function effectively ethically. The ideals of the physical director must determine health standards and attainments, must sublimate instincts that spell progress and success in business and industry, must furnish much of the content and desire for right leisure-time activities. * SUCCESS OF NUTRITION IN CLASSES IN BOSTON AND CHICAGO CAROLINE HEDGER, MEDICAL DIRECTOR, ELIZABETH MC CORMICK MEMORIAL FUND, CHICAGO, ILL. Two fields in physical education work are: (i) individual development of the child, (a) muscles, (b) coordination, skill, (c) health; (2) social development of the child, (a) team work — uniting the child with the group, {b) fair play — ethical development, (c) group effort for outside ends — loyalty to school, etc. In these two lines of effort a plea is made for the undernourisht child : (i) to save him for positive health, the health that means the unconscious 3 14 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Physical working of the body and stored reserves of vigor; (2) to set standards of nutrition for athletic events that will make the child feel that normal weight is something to be workt for and will save the undernourisht child from the strain of track and exhibition athletics. We beheve that one basis for health is the proper relation of weight to height. If a child is a given number of inches tall, he needs a given number of pounds to support that height. There is a great mass of children that fall below this standard. These below- weight children are characterized by: (i) lack of weight for height; (2) posture of fatigue — prominent abdomen and sunken chest; (3) sober face, lines under eyes, pasty complexion; (4) winged scapulae and in many cases lateral curvature, or lordosis ( ?) (5) stringy, flabby, wretched upper arm. This condition is accompanied by one of two nervous states : (i) over- stimulated, unduly active, ill-controlled nervous systems or (2) under- active, non-playing. The causes of malnutrition are: (i) insufficient food — school children are found trying to get along on 1000 calories a day — the amount of food for a year old baby; (2) wrong food — candy in excess, tea and coffee, lack of milk, lack of cereal; (3) lack of home control — the American parent cannot usually get the child to bed at reasonable hours, much less make it eat what it should; (4) fatigue, over-stimulation, crowded and hurried school curriculum, too much social life, too little sleep, too many movies; (5) bad food habits — such as rapid eating, washing the food down with water, eating on the run (no horse works with his nose bag on) ; (6) bad health habits — bad air, overheated rooms; (7) defects — mouth breathing (from adenoids and tonsils), decayed teeth, local infection, general infections. These children can be cured. They must be cured. The curative agencies are: (i) sufficient food — milk, vegetables, and cereal every day, with proper food habits; (2) rest — the child in our classes is sent home at 10:30 A.M., gets a glass of milk and some crackers, and goes to bed for 45 minutes' lying on the back with a pillow under the shoulder blades to improve the posture; again at 3:30 p. m. after school goes home for some lunch, and 30 minutes rest; (3) correction of defects — to get improvement it is necessary temporarily to curtail their strenuous physical exercise. Too much skating, swimming, track athletics will take weight off the mal-nourisht that they cannot afford to lose. Is it too much to ask the physical educators to assist in building up these underweights by demanding normal weight for track, exhibition, and team athletics ? The normal child can stand the strain, but the below- weight child cannot, and if he is further deprest, the amount is taken out of his bank account of health for the future. Department] FUNDAMENTALS UNDERLYING ECONOMIC FITNESS 315 THE FUNDAMENTALS UNDERLYING ECONOMIC FITNESS F. L. KLEEBERGER, PROFESSOR AT UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CALIF. Needless to say, in dealing with the subject assigned to me, I must take it for granted that I am to discuss primarily those fundamentals which physical educators may well study as within iheir realm of service. The process of preparing people to meet the demands of life and of preparing them to function most efficiently in the economic development of the nation rests upon four fundamental considerations in my analysis. All four of these fundamentals are, of course, related and interdependent in various ways, but in most part quite independent of one another with respect to the agencies which can best promote them. It is this differentia- tion between the agencies for promotion of economic fitness that I wish to emphasize, since I feel that much of the future value of physical educa- tion depends upon a recognition of this differentiation. The four chief fundamentals underlying economic fitness are proper education, health, well-being and morale, or patriotism. First, education, emphasizing vocational training, is essential to skill and celerity in accom- plishing specific tasks of one's profession, and in preparing the individual for greatest service to the nation in time of war. In the second place, health is essential to consistent activity in meeting the obligations and pleasures of life. And third and fourth, well-being, with the closely associated fundamental, morale, is essential to joy and enthusiasm in the process of living and to the mental, moral, and physical efficiency demanded for business, pleasure, and war. Considering first, education, I may only briefly indicate the factors which, to my mind, must receive attention in making this country a "good place for us all to live." Individual ability and enthusiasm for work, the desire to serve one's fellows, a social consciousness, a recognition of funda- mental economic truths, a sense of patriotism and pride in one's country and one's vocation are essential prerequisites to collective success. These qualities, of course, pre-suppose a certain amount of education along social and economic lines, a proper vocational training and, last but not least, the constant promotion thruout educational processes of team spirit thru certain correlated activities. If physical education is to prove as efiicient as it should in promoting the fundamentals underlying economic fitness, we must be careful to deter- mine its true possibilities and estabUsh a correct platform on which to base a campaign for its promotion. It is one of the purposes of this paper to stimulate discussion along this line thru questioning the soundness of the prevailing health interpretation of physical education. Health, the second fundamental, stated in my analysis, is defined for the purposes of 3i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical this discussion as freedom from infectious disease and structural handicaps, and the sort of health which is conditioned by medical agencies in the supervision of health menaces. Thus, protection must be provided in schools and industry, in home and community against unsanitary water, milk and food supplies; against agencies of personal contact, such as unsanitary drinking fountains, toilet arrangements, and careless procedure in the control of personal and community infections, and against the depleting influences of structural handicaps and abnormal conformation. This protection must be maintained thru medical supervision of school children or factory employes, provision of school and public clinics, home- nursing programs, etc. Precautions must be taken against accident, trade poisoning, deforming influences of factory and school furniture, equipment, clothing, etc. Finally, education on the subject of personal, sex, home, and community hygiene must be so organized as to develop habits of pro- cedure which will automatically protect the nation against the ravages and degenerative influences of disease. A psuedo-scientific classification of muscular movements for specific health or corrective purposes with the corresponding neglect of the psycho- logical factors involved is sure to follow the health approach. This means boredom, destruction of interest alnong educators as well as victims and creation of antagonism against the profession among scientists, and finally reaction against physical education. Physical education, physical training, athletic recreation are essentially positive in their bearing, and the result is that of developing a state of mind and body which, lacking a better term, I speak of as well-being. In short, we do not find that physical training, athletics, and play tend to prepare the body to resist the inroads of disease to any significant extent. We cannot expect exercise to take the place of vaccination, inoculation, specific medical treatment, operative correction of structural defects, or the avoidance of infection. The most robust, well-trained men in our camps succumbed to influenza. It is a common experience among physicians that the athletic, heavily-muscled, physically vigorous man often proves a very difficult patient when attacked by pneumonia, typhoid, and other wasting diseases. There is, of course, a limited bearing, which exercise has in the treatment of certain structural conditions; this bearing is relatively so slight, however, that it should not influence our organization of physical education, and should in large part be turned over to orthopedic specialists, and should never be made the central theme in a plan of physical education, as too often happens. Such mistaken emphasis to a large extent defeats even its own aims thru the development of antagonism, which carries over into later Ufe, and at the same time ruins possibilities of a broad development in the promotion of the real objectives, general well-being, morale, and physical cleverness in the natural coordinations demanded in meeting the physical tests of every- day life. Department! MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONS 317 Physical education has a vocation, therefore, closely relafed to that of health maintenance, namely, the promotion of the third and fourth funda- mentals, well-being, and morale. General well-being and morale are fundamental states which must permeate our civiUzation if national economic success is to continue ultimately. General well-being, coupled with morale, is that state of mind and body which makes life really worth while, and is conditioned, assuming ordinary health, by aesthetic con- siderations, by happiness, by joy in the mere fact of existence, by an enthusiasm for work and for play, and by zest in accomplishment and in service to mankind. It demands a positive type of procedure for the production of such conditions, qualities and attitudes of mind, instead of the negative method employed in the prevention of disease. There is a patriotic duty ahead for real physical educators, just as Father John long ago inspired the young men of Germany to rouse them- selves from physical sloth and perfect their powers of mind and body, their skill, their endurance, and their patriotism, so must physical education of the future strive to engender thru properly administered sport and physi- cal training like qualities in the heterogeneous people of America. This is the vocation and field of service for physical education, and not the development of a new cult or " Fakism" of medicine. This is the platform on which physical education, thru its vast gamut of activities, can reach out and influence. economic success in a big, vital way thru the schools and thru the industries: for it can produce strength, endurance, and cleverness to meet the physical exigencies of life; it can engender habits of vigorous physical recreation to serve as a never-failing source of joy, enthusiasm, and relief from the petty worries and harassments of life; it can promote acquaintance, confidence, genial relationships and plant loyalty thruout industry; it can prove a builder of morale for the young men and young women of America and help to ensure this country its rightful place of leadership among nations. MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONS— THEIR VALUE AND SCOPE W. M. STOOKEY, PHYSICIAN, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Factors which determine the child's health rating at the beginning of his school career: (a) general heredity — race, nationality, parentage, etc.; (b) inherited or transmitted specific disease; (c) inherited or trans- mitted tendency toward disease; (d) acquired diseases or abnormal conditions; (e) physical defects, congenital and acquired; (/) home environ- ment, food, air, sunshine, clothing, exercise, etc. The composite effect of the foregoing conditions on the child's life and health must be known if justice is to be done the child, the teacher, and the state. 3i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical Methods and means, by whom, where, and how, we shall determine the health conditions of the child: (a) a medico-educational problem and a new and fruitful field for the state school system; (b) child's physical health, and his mental or intellectual, and moral health and efficiency inseparable; (c) mental health or intellectual efiiciency of child rests upon a broad, many-sided physical foundation; (d) teacher must know the child's physical status as a whole if she is to guide and direct his intellectual and moral growth; {e) properly prepared teacher must be capable of knowing the child first — ^books second; (/) systems in use: doctor and nurse system has been of much service but is insufficient and objectionable; nurse service very desirable under certain conditions; whatever method or system employed, it should be under the direction of the board of education; {g) boards of health needed for police powers, physicians (properly trained) for special conditions, instructing teachers, as speciahsts in child welfare and of course for treatment; teachers, the regular inspectors of their own children. Importance or value of health inspection in the grade schools: (a) aU children are reached at an early age, and are five days a week and nine months in the year under a trained teacher; (b) this gives control over contagious and transmissable diseases that otherwise would be impossible; (c) physical defects of the child are detected sufficiently early to prevent bad after effects; (d) teacher trained in health work most valuable asset of the state. Hygiene and health teaching possible only when teachers are prepared with proper training; (e) education of the public thru the state school organization, our highest aim and greatest hope; (/) preventive, curative measures as well, can and will become effectual only when the public knows and appreciates their importance; this can come only thru education. HEALTH EDUCATION SALLY LUCAS JEAN, DIRECTOR CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION OF AMERICA, NEW YORK, N.Y. Two years ago we scarcely realized that the school children were below par physically, and that monthly weighing and measuring could be used as a test. Today scales are recognized as indispensable in school equipment, thousands of children are being weighed and their weight record is being sent home on the monthly report card. The schools, once convinst of the health needs of the children, began working out definite methods of getting over health facts and of interesting children in the practice of health habits. It has been the privilege of the Child Health Organization to assist in this process by suggesting modern methods of interesting children in the estabUshment of health habits as outlined in their health pamphlets and in those which they have prepared for the United States Bureau of Department] HEALTH EDUCATION 319 Education. The creation, by this organization, of the Health Clown, Cho Cho; the Health Cartoonist, the Picture Man; and the Health Fairy, has demonstrated the value of the dramatic appeal in teaching health. The awakening of the country to the health needs of school children has resulted in active participation by groups of all kinds: women's clubs men's clubs, Red Cross groups, chambers of commerce, and other similar organizations. These groups are now holding up the hands of the teachers as never before. This cooperation, by bringing the home and the school nearer together, is establishing more vital relations between the children and the teachers. The teacher who becomes interested in presenting health facts is a more valuable classroom instructor for the three R's. No school child is too young for the ABC's of health if the method of teaching is properly adapted. The essentials of healthy daily living are as simple as they are important; plenty of fresh air, plenty of sleep, cleanliness of teeth and body, proper food and regular habits, are vital and can by systematic insistence be instilled into the child. Daily habits can be formed and exercised in the school and a taste for proper foods cultivated by a well- organized hot school lunch. "How can I find time for such work?" says the busy teacher. The answer is: "Use that time now given to inefficient teaching of physiology hygiene, and physical education. Correlate health with other subjects." Thoro physical examinations by a physician are not always possible, tho most desirable, at least once every year. But this is not enough. We have strest defects in the past. We know now that presenting the goal of health to the child is the way to secure his cooperation and interest. Teachers all over the country, pioneers in the task of securing results in health teaching have found that they could arouse the child's enthusiasm thru competition, dramatization, drawing, and story-telling. The fairy story and other appeals to the child's imagination have met with remarkable success. Make health a game and the essential health habits are the "Rules of the Game." The nutrition class for under-weight children has been made a pleasurable lesson, not only to the individual child but to the whole school. Beginning with the kindergarten, health teaching should be progressive and the methods by which habits are formed in the lower classes should be continued thru the upper grades. The success of the teaching can be measured only by the health habits of the individual child. DISCUSSION Maude Brown, Division of Hygiene, Board of Education, Kansas City, Mo. — A year and a half ago the director of the Department of Physical Education came to feel that something more in the way of health work should be added to the splendid program 320 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical of physical education already in force and the corrective work which was being inaugurated. Consequently a supervisor of hygiene was added to his stafif, with the somewhat indefinite problem of seeing what could be done for the health of the children in a city system where the board of education employed neither physicians, nurses, nor dentists. Assuming that no reason existed for believing Kansas City unique as to the alarming proportion of undernourisht children which was being estimated at from 20 to 30 per cent for the country as a whole, the first step was a rapid weight — height survey of fifty- five of our grade schools. Doctor Wood's table of averages was used and the Child Health Organization method was adopted. The preliminary survey having shown a hitherto unsuspected health emergency, the next step was to determine the most effective point of leverage for the attack upon the problem.' Accordingly a health study was made, in quest of this "irreducible minimum " of health service for these school children. This was effected with the splendid cooperation of the Kansas City Anti-Tuberculosis Society. A complete health service was set up in the school having the highest percentage of underweight pupils. This service consisted of medical service, nurses' service, dental service, correction of defects and mid-session meals on the "protective feeding" plan as developt by McCollmn of Johns Hopkins. The stupendous problem presented itself of what to do in the absence of the elements considered essential to school health service, while waiting for the slow process of evolution to produce school medical, dental, and nurses' service. The Child Health Organization Plan was the answer. Manifestly the diagnostic tool that can be used with safety by the laity is some weight standard. The C. H. O. plan in the preliminary survey had so demonstrated its value that the director of the Department of Physical Education installed it as a permanent feature of the work of the department. At his request, the board of education purchast scales for every grade school. He declared the restoration of muscle tone to be necessary preliminary to any program of physical training, and the work for the year commenst with "Wipe out Malnutrition" as the slogan of the department. The method of attack has comprised: 1. The weighing and measuring of every child three times a year by the teachers of physical education and other members of the department. 2. The recording of each child's weight, height, and normal weight, upon the C. H, O. wall chart. 3. The sending home to the parents of this report upon the tag bearing upon the reverse side the "Health Essentials." (These tags are printed by the Lathrop trade school. Next year they are to print the charts as well.) 4. All children found to be 10 per cent or more below standard weight are to be weighed monthly by the classroom teacher, who makes it the chief aim of her hygiene teaching to eliminate malnutrition. Naturally whatever health habits are necessary to bring an under-nourisht child up to standard are necessary to keep the well child well. 5. The serving of mid-session milk in every school to the children who are as much as 10 per cent below standard weight. The domestic science department has been splendidly effective in solving knotty problems connected with the serving of the mid-session nourishment. The sod is broken. September, 1920, will find the Department of Physical Education concentrated upon the attack upon malnutrition, with the continued cooperation of all other departments. A corps of school nurses is being added to the Department of Physical Education, together with additional corrective specialists; mid-session nourishment has been estab- lisht in every school. There is a scale in every school, and the C. H. O. plan of teaching hygiene upon a laboratory basis is in operation. Everyone is looking forward with enthusiasm to the coming year's work. Department] DISCUSSION: THE HEALTH CRUSADE 321 DISCUSSION: THE HEALTH CRUSADE Grace Gallett, Modem Health Crusade Director, Idaho Tuberculosis Association, Boise, Idaho, — It has been marvelous how the crusade has flourisht in the United States with practically no individual supervision. We credit this to the teachers. We have found that the success or the failure of the crusade depends upon the interest or indifference of the teacher. But never in a single case where the crusade has succeeded has the teacher suggested that it was a burden. The health crusade is merely hygiene attractively applied. Proper presentation to the teacher in summer schools, institutes, and normal schools, will give the proper frame of mind and necessary information for the presentation to the children. The story of the crusades, all the fascinating tales of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, stories from Ivanhoe, the workings of the feudal system — these can make up some of the lessons in language and history and can be immediately applied to the health crusade. Dramatization of health stories from the "Little Pig Brother" to the "Pageant of the Average Town" can furnish entertainment for school or public presentation. The impressive knighting ceremony adds great stimulation always. Children love to feel that what they are doing is of nation-wide and state-wide interest, and so important that a special state director comes to see how they are getting along and tells incidents and stories of children in other counties and schools. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES SALT LAKE CITY MEETING OFFICERS President— Albie^t Wunderuch, commissioner of education St. Paul, Minn. Secretary — William C. Bruce, editor of American School Board Journal Milwaukee, Wis. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1920 The Department of School Administration of the National Education Association convened in regular session Tuesday forenoon, July 6, at nine o'clock, in McDonald's Roof Garden, Salt Lake City, Utah. President Albert Wunderlich being absent, State Superintendent Linnaeus P. Hines of Indiana presided, and, in the absence of Secretary William C. Bruce, the chair appointed William George Bruce to serve in his stead. The following program was presented: Address — Albert Wunderlich, president. Department of School Administration, National Education Association, St. Paul, Minn. In the absence of President Wunderlich his paper was read by Mrs. Caroline Kinney, member Board of Education, Minneapolis, Minn. "Adoption of Program of Constructive Measures as a Forward Step in School Adminis- tration"— J. E. Freece, president, school board, Davenport, Wash. Discussion — Mrs. V. H. Miller, board of education, Tacoma, Wash.; L. P. Hines, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.; D. C. Jensen, superin- tendent of schools, Salt Lake County, Sandy, Utah; William George Bruce, president, Bruce Publishing Co., Milwaukee, Wis. The chair appointed a Committee on Nominations consisting of the following: President — George W. Gerwig, secretary, board of education, Pittsburgh, Pa. Vice-President — H. A. Smith, president, board of education. Salt Lake City, Utah. Secretary — ^William C. Bruce, editor, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis. The following resolution, submitted by Frank Irving Cooper, Boston, Mass.. was unanimously adopted: Resolved, That the Department of Administration of the National Education Asso- ciation in convention at Salt Lake City, desires to express its high appreciation of the generous support given to its Committee on Standardization of Schoolhouse Planning and Construction by the General Education Board. We request the Secretary to transmit a copy of this resolution to Abraham Flexner, secretary of the General Education Board. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7, 1920 The following program was presented: "Eighty Years' Fluctuations in the Cost of American School Buildings" — W. Ran- dolph Burgess, statistician, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y. "Planning a Departmental School Building" — Frank Irving Cooper, committee on standardization, Department of School Administration, Boston, Mass. "Organization and Building Requirements of a Junior High School" — ^James M. Glass, Washington Junior High School, Rochester, N.Y. Discussion — A. E. Winship, editor, Journal oj Education, Boston, Mass. 323 324 RATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration The following resolution, offered by W. Randolph Burgess, was adopted : Resolved, That the Committee on Schoolhouse Planning and Construction be requested to continue its study of the departmental school building and that it make the results of its work available to the educational world by the publication, from time to time, of bulletins or otherwise as may be found best suited to carry out the interest of this resolution. The meeting adjourned. William George Bruce, Secretary Pro-tern PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENTS ADDRESS ALBERT WUNDERLICH, PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OP ADMINISTRATION, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, ST. PAUL, MINN. No public body has greater responsibilities or more important duties than fall to the board or department that is responsible in any locahty for the public schools. The duties and the difl&culties of boards of education thruout the country have lately been increast, partly thru the pubHc demand for school improvement in conditions and results, and largely also by the change in the financial situation of the last two years. School systems which thought five years ago that they were paying liberal salaries have been obliged thru public sentiment and the change in money value^, largely to increase the salaries of teachers. Places which heretofore were paying moderate or meager wages find themselves by the same necessity either practically handicapt in the selection of teachers, or obliged to double their former scale. In addition, the rapid growth of cities in the last few years has increast the demand for school buildings during a time in which war conditions practically pro- hibited their construction, and now building prices are so heavy that many cities are hesitating to carry on the construction program which they really need. The financial problem involved in both these factors, is a heavy one, and the responsibility resting on boards of education first, to secure necessary funds, and second, to make sure of full value in spending these funds, has been much increast. Another vital problem facing the schools is actually to make them what they have hitherto been supposed to be — the schools for all the children of all of the people. This involves more thoro attendance require- ments, a thing that has during the war period been secured in many of the cities. To be wholly successful this must be followed by the introduction of courses in the upper grades suitable to retain the interest of pupils who hitherto have left school at an early age for practical pursuits — courses which will help to make vocational training for the youth of the land something more than a short practice in one or two of the typical and general lines of work. The greatest interest of the country Hes in securing Department] PROGRAM OF CONSTRUCTIVE MEASURES 325 a strong, modern training for all boys and girls. The accomplishment of this is the task laid by the public upon educational officers. The corre- sponding duty of the boards is to make sure that the public shall not forget its own responsibility, thru the provision of needed funds, and by an intelligent and active interest in the special needs of each locality. ADOPTION OF PROGRAM OF CONSTRUCTIVE MEASURES AS A FORWARD STEP TN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION J. S. FREECE, PRESIDENT, LINCOLN COUNTY SCHOOL DIRECTORS' ASSOCIATION, DAVENPORT, WASH. This nation was conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Liberty as thus used does not mean license in the sense of unrestrained liberty, as some of our misguided would interpret it. Rather it means privilege or peculiar advantage or better still it means opportunity. To be created equal with another, as here used, does not necessarily mean that all are born with the same talents, or that all are the same physically, mentally, or socially. But it does mean that all are entitled to the same advantages of government and of the institutions it controls. It does mean equal opportunity. Believing then in such an interpretation of these two primary pillars on which our government was first placed, our honored forebears establish t a system of common schools supported by the state, with the fond hope that future generations should in very deed be given equal opportunities to learn, know, and practice the fundamental principles of life and the means of sustaining it. In reminiscence we can all recall something of the little red school house, the Three R's, the hickory switch, and the spelling match of pioneer days. Time has wrought its changes, until in this day of automobiles, flying machines, and still speedier money changers, our school system may have to ^'sky rocket" too, if it will keep the pace of progress. Perhaps the most serious menace to the teaching profession today is the inadequate salaries paid. I can speak freely of this for I am not a teacher, never have been, nor do I have much promise that I ever will be. Viewing the matter impartially I dare to say, and say emphatically, that the salaries heretofore paid the teaching profession are an everlasting and unqualified disgrace to this great American people. This, the most important of all the professions, requiring years of training and study — to say nothing of self-sacrifices and devotion — this wonderful calHng with its lofty aims and high ideals and its duties well done — has been forst to grovel in the mire of penury and want, relatively speaking, while artists and artizans, doctors, lawyers, merchants, and even movie actors have driven by in speeding high-powered limousines of wealth and luxury. 326 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration And yet we wonder why good teachers are hard to get, why commercial schools are training our youth who ought to be in our colleges. ,- I wish next to speak of the unequal advantages offered our children. When our nation entered the late war and the selective draft law became effective it was soon discovered that some of our young men had not had equal scholastic opportunities. The army's weeding out process disclosed that of the men between the ages of 21 and 31, 700,000 had to be rejected from mihtary service because of physical defects, most of which could have been prevented by proper attention and instruction in youth. An enhghtened citizenship is not only a panacea for many ills of this day, but it is the only means by which to safeguard the future of the RepubUc, and yet nearly 30 per cent of our young manhood could not read and write when a testing time came. Had they had equal opportunities ? Then too, what shall we say of the thousands of boys and girls of the mountain regions of the South or the great multitudes in the slum districts of our cities ? Nor does this condition of unequaL opportunity exist alone in these places. I doubt that there is a single state in the Union that is not guilty, to a greater or less degree, of this injustice to our youth. By an enhghtened citizenship I mean definite training in the subjects taught in the common schools and in the colleges and universities of our land. But I also mean definite training in religious thought, in morality, and in public affairs. I mean a training that will foster and develop a knowledge of our state and national constitutions and our system of govern- ment; that will develop a high regard for our free institutions, and a deep-rooted, substantial, genuine patriotism and a real affection for the stars and stripes, that blessed emblem which has for so many years waved proudly on high, wafted to and fro by the gentle breezes of peace or violently shaken by the fierce on-sweeping storms of war, yet always emerging with its glorious colors still aloft, blazing to the world the message that this is truly the *4and of the free and the home of the brave." My fellow- countrymen, if we are to have such citizenship, then we must teach, unceas- ingly, the doctrine that if this land is good enough to live in, to work in, to earn money in, to rear our children in, it is also good enough to speak our own language in. Do not misunderstand me, friends. I believe that foreign languages should be taught in our schools. But what I want to say is that neither our schools, our public meetings, our church worship, nor any other institutions of a public nature, should ever be carried on in a foreign tongue. Let those who wish to enjoy the privileges of our blessed land learn to speak, read, and write our language. Let the mother tongue of the foreigner remain with the land he has seen fit to leave. You who were not privileged to take up arms in our late conflict know only too well that every community in this country numbered among its citizens all too many sympathizers with the fatherland, when it was necessary to put over the war drives. They had literally to be compelled, by force of public Departmentj PROGRAM OF CONSTRUCTIVE MEASURES 327 opinion, to perform even the most simple patriotic duties. You know, too, that most of these sympathizers came from communities where the language of the old country was talkt in the home, used in social intercourse, and preacht from the pulpit. We will never have a 100 per cent Americanism so long as we tolerate our German towns, French towns, Austrian villages or "little Italy s," wherein native-born Americans, if you please, never learn our own language until they are old enough to migrate into some other part of our country where there are conducted American institutions in the American tongue. I am against this soft-pedal, pussy-foot, half- hearted method of Americanizing the foreigner, be they native-born or otherwise. Teach them to live American ways, to eat American food, wear American clothes, read American literatures, and as the boys over in France used to say "Talk United States," and the problems of our "foreign element " will soon disappear. I realize that it is much easier to point out defects in a system than it is to suggest remedies. I am convinst, however, that we must make definite changes in both our taxing and administrative methods if we shall meet the emergencies confronting our schools today. That the district method of tax levy and administration is growing in disfavor with school officers is certain. It not only fails to offer adequate and equal opportunities to pupils, but it also tends to deter rather than encourage a superior type of teachers. It causes strife and dissention among neighbors and between communities. County superintendents must spend very much valuable time in adjusting district boundaries, creating new districts and disbanding old ones that might otherwise be used to better purposes. Too often efforts to transfer school territory, by petition to the county superintendents, are based on purely selfish motives. Too often is the question askt: will or will not the transfer increase taxation, instead of will it or will it not give us a better school. Many instances of envy and jealousy of one district toward another may be found, all of which sooner or later result detri- mentally to the schools affected. By this inadequate system, teachers have been driven out of their profession, schools have closed their doors, and the boys and girls go unschooled or receive part-time training only. In the smaller districts it is next to impossible to have boards competent to manage the schools. All too often are they inexperienst in school matters, sometimes they are unschooled, even ignorant. The result is such boards are mere tax assessors. Too often also "what was good enough for father is good enough for son " and progress proceeds very slowly indeed. The state or at least the county should be the general taxing unit, leaving perhaps a little discretionary tax to be imposed by the district for extra equipment or special purposes. The apportionment of the funds should be made on both the teacher and the pupil basis. Thus will we insure equal opportunities to all schools of the same class and guarantee trained teachers for all districts. 328 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration I believe the county should be the administrative unit, with a central county board, selected on a basis of qualification, and a county superinten- dent with a sufficient corps of helpers to make as frequent visits to all schools as necessities may require. In every other branch of the state's affairs we demand competent, experienst managers. Why should we demand less in this branch which is the foundation of them all ? Let me say, too, that I favor federal aid for our pubHc schools. I beheve also that if the financial world, the agricultural world, the labor world, and all these kindred industrial matters of our nation, are entitled to representation in the president's cabinet it is high time that our educational system should have representation there also. If it is worth while to spend millions of our dollars for garden seeds, for the live stock and dairy industries, for the investigation and promotion of the interests of labor and capital, it is quite proper that we should invest a few more dollars of govern- ment funds in the promotion of the welfare of our boys and girls — the very best and most precious product of the nation. No school board has any moral right — and ought not to have any legal right — to hire a teacher that is already under contract, until releast by the school interested in such contract. For these troubUng conditions both school boards and teachers are to blame. This practice of resignation, so called, is a vicious one and should be universally discredited. It weakens the entire system, injures the pupils, and develops in a teacher who practices it the idea that so far as she or he is concerned the contract is as Kaiser Bill said of the Belgium treaty "a mere scrap of paper. " I favor stringent and emphatic measures against both teacher and school board that thus wantonly plays with the sacredness of an obligation solemnly made. This association should strenuously denounce the practice and recommend that the teacher who has broken his or her contract should not be permitted to engage in the teaching profession elsewhere. I do not wish it to be under- stood that I believe teachers always dishonest who resign a contract, nor do I contend that teachers, as a class, pay less heed to their promises than other professions. But I do say that a laxness has grown up in this regard that borders well on the danger zone and that now is a good time to reset our compasses and travel into placid waters of fair deahng in respect to our contracts. Teachers now have full protection against school districts. But what protection has the district against the teacher ? I maintain that legislation should be past whereby a certificate to teach may be immediately revoked for breach of contract. Our great need, then, is legislation that will remove some of the twenty- year old methods of apportionment and distribution of funds; that will give the powers of school boards elasticity sufficient to meet changing conditions and increasing needs; that will put it within the power of the school adminis- tration to pay teachers a decent living wage, without the necessity of submitting the details of administration to the differences and whims of an Department] FLUCTUATIONS IN COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 329 ever changing public opinion; to make it possible for the state educational authorities to equalize the opportunities for all the boys and girls of each state, so that it shall no longer be said that one group will grow up in comparative ignorance while another group, no better, no smarter, nor more deserving than the first, has every possible educational opportunity; legislation, also, that will make our own language truly our mother tongue for all .our citizens, and lastly, but not for that reason least, legislation that will make it impossible for either teacher or school board to retard the progress of this great institution by being a principal or accessory to broken convenants, by penalizing those who still insist by deed, if not by word, in treating a teacher's contract as a "mere scrap of paper." Then shall we truly have adopted a program of constructive measures as a forward step in school administration. EIGHTY-YEAR FLUCTUATIONS IN THE COST OF AMERICAN SCHOOL BUILDINGS W. RANDOLPH BURGESS, STATISTICIAN, RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. One hundred years ago the citizens of the village of Cleveland, Ohio, built a school building at a cost of $198. 70. This expenditure was shared by about 25 citizens who contributed from $2 . 50 to $20 .00 apiece. This year the citizens of Cleveland are erecting a school building at a cost of $26,000 per classroom. Each classroom is now costing considerably more than 100 times as much as it did 100 years ago. There are two reasons for this increase in cost. In the first place the type of building has undergone an entire transformation. Fireproof construction has replaced logs and slabs. The amount of floor and air space for each child has been increast. Elaborate steam-heating plants have replaced unsatisfactory fireplaces and stoves. The schoolroom is completely and comfortably furnisht. Mechanical ventilation has been installed, and complete neglect of sanitation has given way to the provision of every sanitary convenience which modern plumbing can supply. Between 1841 and 1915 building costs did not quite double. Between 191 5 and 1920 wages a little more than doubled and building materials rose to a point three and one half times 191 5 levels. As a result, building costs are practically three times their 19 15 level. There are available figures from three cities for the actual cost of school buildings in 1920 as compared with five years ago. The school architects of Cleveland, Chicago, and New York have made computations of the cost of building per cubic foot. These computations show that in Cleveland and New York the contracts which are being let this year provide for building costs three and one half times the 19 15 figures, and in Chicago 330 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tAdmlnlstration nearly three times. These contracts are somewhat aliead of any index numbers because the buildings are to be constructed during the coming year, and contracts have to provide for still further rises in prices and wages. With the actual figures for these cities supporting the index numbers, the evidence seems conclusive that school buildings are now costing about three times as much as before the war. This advance means that com- munities should be spending three times as much each year for school buildings as before the war. Other increases in school costs are shown in the following table: ' SCHOOL COSTS IN 1920 FOR EACH $1,000 SPENT IN 1915 Object IQIS Ratio 1920 Salaries $642 78 3° 28 27 40 2 1.6 2 I 2 I $1284 46s 125 60 Outlays Fuel, light, etc Books and Supplies Interest 28 Maintenance 54 40 Other ' Total $1,000 $2,056 The total of the last column shows that for each $1,000 spent in 19 15 it is necessary to spend more than twice as much in 1920. This sum, moreover, provides exactly the same kind and amount of educational service as was available in 19 15. Any improvements or enlargements call for still larger expenditures. We may safely say that any school system which is not today spending twice as much as in 1915 is losing ground. It is underpaying its teachers and so losing them and failing to attract able young men and women, or it is not housing its pupils adequately or is somewhere else cutting out necessary expenditures. The American people must be prepared today to spend fully twice as much for education as they spent five years ago. DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF ROOMS FOR A DEPARTMENTAL SCHOOL BUILDING' FRANK IRVING COOPER, CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARDIZATION, DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, BOSTON, MASS. I shall place before you a broad picture of the conditions surrounding the planning of a departmental school building and of the information desired from the educator by the architect before he can begin intelligently the study of the floor plans. It should be stated that the architect of a successful building must first work out the general floor plans. There is a prevalent notion that an * Abstract. Department] NUMBER OF ROOMS FOR A SCHOOL BUILDING 331 .architect works out a picture of his building first. This misconception and misunderstanding of the work of the architect is probably a relic of past conditions. Clients were in the habit of saying that they wisht their building to resemble some other existing structure which had pleased their fancy and which they thought would appear distinguisht in the eyes of their fellows. A complete analysis of the activities of the proposed school must be made, that it may meet present needs when the building finally houses the total number of pupils for which it was planned, and may satisfy future needs in so far as they can be foreseen. This analysis, which should be made by the educational authorities, will give the basic data which is needed by the architect; with this in mind he will rear his edifice. The first question the architect will ask after he has been engaged to prepare sketches for a new school building will be: How many pupils is the building to accommodate ? And here is a chance for a difference of opinion; differences always occur when more than one mind is dealing with a subject, and there is more than one way in which this question of accommodation may be considered. When working out the size of a school building some educators and architects consider and tabulate the number of pupil stations in a building rather than the exact number of pupils. Some call only a seat and desk in a classroom a station, others would call a pupil's place to work in a shop, a laboratory, or a drawing-room, a station. Likewise they would consider an opportunity for work in a gymnasium, a swimming-pool, or a seat in an auditorium, a station. We desire that before any planning of the school building be undertaken the architect and educator and building committee understand and be in agreement as to what is meant when they say the building is to accommodate a given number of pupils. Financial considerations and the present-day organization of our school system, changing gradually from the one teacher regime to the system of special teachers with its accompanying departmentalization of work, demand changes in the organization and administration of the school work which are already reflected in the plan of the school building. It is a fact that a review of this past year's new schoolhouse plans shows wider variations in form and type than has ever before been observed in the same period of time. The architect's next questions will be about the grades that will be in the school and the probable number of pupils in each grade, the subjects to be taught, the probable number of pupils that will take each subject, the maximum number of pupils per teacher in each subject, the length of a period, and the number of periods per week for each subject. It is necessary to have information as to grades because in the work of the school, pupils are divided by grades, altho promotion is largely by subject. 332 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration In working out the tabulation for number of rooms each subject is considered separately and the total probable number of pupils taking the subject is divided by the maximum number of pupils allowed per teacher for that subject. Information is next requested on the number of periods per week that will be given each subject and the length of each recitation or study period so that each class or section may be provided with a suitable room for that period. Special activities are treated in the same manner and the periods taken by them are to be tabulated as in any other work. For the purpose of this paper we may consider it is agreed that each pupil in our school is to have the equivalent of a one-book-locker or station that shall be set apart for his personal use and convenience, in other words, he is to have a place that he may call his home station, and each pupil taking a special subject, such as chemistry or domestic science, shall have, convenient to the room where this subject is given, a special locker or drawer to contain the material he will use for that subject. For the purpose of this paper we may consider that the architect has received from the superintendent precise and satisfactory information as to the number of grades, the estimated number of pupils in each grade, the subjects to be taught, and the estimated number of pupils taking each subject. I refer to the superintendent of schools because the superin- tendent is the person who should answer the questions and because it is desirable and advantageous that the superintendent should be a member of the building committee. The superintendent, the school committee, and principal should confer and agree upon the maximum number of pupils a teacher in their school system will be called upon to teach in a class or section; they should fix the number of periods there will be in the school day, the length in minutes of each period, and the number of school days per week. The question of the multiple use of rooms will need much consideration before a proper analysis of the requirements can be concluded. Rooms, whenever possible, should be so planned and constructed that they may be used continuously and may be used for different purposes at different times. The superintendent can calculate accurately the demand for school accommodation in his community, and will be able to plan a program which will meet its educational needs; with the data he can give the architect, school buildings should be produced which will accommodate all pupils, and in these buildings we should find no longer an appreciable per cent of the rooms lying idle thru any large part of the day. Whole-hearted coopera- tion between educator and architect is the foundation for America's hope — the best possible opportunity offered wisely to all her children. Department] ECONOMY IN SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING ^33 SECRETARY'S MINUTES CLEVELAND MEETING OFFICERS President — ^Albert Wunderlich, commissioner of education St. Paul, Minn. Secretary — ^William C. Bruce, editor of American School Board Journal Milwaukee, Wis. FIRST SESSION — Thursday Afternoon, February 26, 1920 The Department of School Administration of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Thursday afternoon, February 26, at two o'clock, in the Ball Room, Hotel Hollenden. The following program was presented: " Illimination Required for Classrooms" — Frank N. Freeman, professor, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. "Economy in Schoolhouse Planning and Construction" — W. R. McComack, architect, Cleveland Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. "New Types of School Buildings Being Erected in New York City"— C. J. B. Snyder, architect. New York Board of Education, New York, N.Y. > "Some New School Buildings in Massachusetts" — Frank Irving Cooper, architect, 33 Cornhni, Boston, Mass. Address — Leonard P. Ayers, director of education, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y. SECOND SESSION— Friday Afternoon, February 27, 1920 The following program was presented : "Vocational Guidance and Placement" — Frank M. Leavitt, assistant superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. "Part-time Schools" — S. J. Vaughn, professor, Northern Illinois Normal School, Dekalb, 111. "Influence of the War on Vocational Education" — George M. Brace, supervisor manual training, St. Paul, Minn. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ECONOMY IN SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION W. R. MCCORNACK, ARCHITECT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, CLEVELAND, OHIO This paper will treat with principles rather than details for the reason that misapplication of principles is generally the cause of great mistakes. A prominent state official recently made public a statement that millions of dollars are being wasted in the state of Ohio in costly facades to school buildings. Unfortunately, this reflects an erroneous but often popular opinion, the facts being that in the most ornate public school buildings all the stone work, including base courses, steps, window sills, belt courses, copings, and ornamental work does not exceed 4 per cent of the total cost of the building and the ornamental stone work not more than i per cent. 334 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration For the aesthetic welfare of any community this small expenditure can and should be defended. One cause of waste is poor architectural service. Any architect who agrees to do work for less than the recognized rate of compensation and who guarantees to build for a certain price or forego his commission is ignorant of the service he should render his client or he is dishonest, or he is both. How can an architect guarantee a price when he has no drawings before him, when contractors estimating from completed drawings vary so much in their estimates ? You buy clothing or any other material and expect to pay the merchant 15 per cent or 20 per cent or 25 per cent profit. Without question you allow the contractor 10 per cent or 15 per cent profit with his overhead, but the architect is supposed to provide more service and assume more responsibility than the contractor, and the architect's smaller fee must in- clude his overhead and what profit he can make, and generally the low- commission architect slights his work to squeeze out his profit. Not until we appreciate architectural service on a higher plane with higher fees and make the architect financially responsible for all the errors in his plans will school authorities secure service which means the elimina- tion of waste in schools, better buildings which means less maintenance cost in the future, and structures of such architectural quality that they will be an asset to the community. There is a serious problem in the matter of waste space which has gone unchallenged for decades. It has caused such an alarming waste of money in this country that remedies must be found without further delay before millions of dollars more are thrown away. This has to do with waste due to stairs and corridors. There are 1,250,000 sq. ft. of floor space in the school buildings of Cleveland devoted to stairs and corridors. This is an area equivalent to 1,560 classrooms or enough to accommodate 62,400 children, and at the present cost of building in the city of Cleveland it would require $35,000,000 to construct this number of rooms. Considering that Cleveland is equal to one one-hundredth and twentieth of the population of the country, the space devoted to stairs and corridors in the entire country is equal to 187,200 classrooms, or a seating capacity for 7,480,000 children, and the replacement cost would be $3,744,000,000. We must, however, admit that a certain amount of unusable space is necessary in any type of building. Cleveland has been studying the question of elimination of waste space with the result that three types of plans have been developt which will be shown on later slides. These types are: first, one-story corridorless elementary school — 10 per cent of the floor area in corridors; second, three-story corridorless elementary school — 12 per cent of the floor area in stairs and corridors; Department! VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND PLACEMENT 335 third, junior high school combination one-and three-story building — 15 per cent of the floor area in stairs and corridors. Assuming that 15 per cent is the average amount of waste space in thfese new types of plans, there is a difference of 10 per cent between the average waste space in the Cleveland school today and the waste space in the proposed new types. Therefore, 40 per cent of the 1,250,000 sq. ft. of stairs and corridors in the buildings of our present system has been criminally wasted. This is equivalent to 625 classrooms, representing seating accom- modations for 25,000 children, and these 625 classrooms at the present cost of construction in Cleveland would require $15,000,000 to replace. These 625 classrooms seating 25,000 children represent the actual shortage in Cleveland today. Using the ratio of the population of Cleveland to that of the nation men- tioned above, the unnecessary waste in the entire country amounts to 75,000 classrooms or seating space for 3,000,000 children, and the replacement cost is $1,500,000,000. It is the time for all school architects and school men to stop and at once inaugurate a policy of intensive study of the school-building problem; to reduce its cost without injuring its beauty and its usefulness or constructive value, and I believe this study should be concerted and nation wide, and that a national bureau for such study is not too visionary a proposal to be idly past by. In conclusion let me quote the words of Ruskin, who has stated more clearly than anyone I have ever read a great truth. All works of quality must bear a price in proportion to the skill, time, expense, and risk attending their invention and manufacture. Those things called dear, are, when justly estimated, the cheapest. A composition for che3.pness and not for excellence of workmanship is the most frequent and certain cause of the rapid decay and entire destruction of arts and manufacture. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND PLACEMENT FRANK M. LEAVITT, ASSOaATE SUPERINTENDENT OP SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA. Generally speaking, educators who have discust the subject of voca- tional guidance during the past ten years have been inclined to avoid or even to condemn the actual placement of school graduates and particularly of school drop-outs in jobs. One of the earlier authorities on vocational guidance remarkt that since there were so few desirable positions open to the majority of children leaving the public schools it came dangerously near exploitation to have anything to do with getting jobs for them. I would beg leave to announce at the outset that my own conception of the function of placement in a vocational guidance scheme is radically different. 336 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration I believe that no scheme of vocational guidance in a school system can be intelligent or effective without an efficient placement bureau. Vocational guidance is not a system of vocational fortune-telling tho it is possible to establish a fact basis for a certain amount of prognastication. Vocational guidance is not an attempt to discover special aptitudes, abiUties, and interests in the adolescent child, altho it is possible to estab- lish a fact basis for a certain amount of diagnosis. Vocational guidance is not a plan for developing a life-career motive in the case of the rank and file of our school children. Vocational guidance is not getting jobs for children as they leave school. What then is voca- tional guidance ? To my mind vocational guidance simply means, tho it is by no means a simple matter to bring it about, establishing as many articulations between the school and the occupational world as may be necessary in the light of ascertained facts regarding child employment and youth employment in a given community. For years we have been at work perfecting the articulation between our high schools and our colleges. In later years we have found it neces- sary or desirable to modify our high-school work to meet the needs of col- leges of different types. Vocational guidance means that we shall study just as carefully the entrance requirements to the occupations as we have studied the entrance requirements to the universities. I venture to predict that our efforts in this field will have as profound an effect on the entrance requirements of our industries and our commercial establishments as our former efforts have had on the entrance requirements of the junior college, and as much influence on the occupational work of the first years in industry as on the curriculum of the Freshman college year. The Vocational Guidance Department of the Pittsburgh public schools is so organized that it can draw upon every resource of the school system needed for the vocational guidance of our young people. It consists of a director, five field and placement secretaries, and a vocational counselor in each high school. The whole constitutes an effective employment and information service. Thru the Vocational Guidance Department we come into contact with the. employers. We convince them that we are in a position to do them a genuine service by bringing to their notice the right kind of young employes as they leave school and go to work. . We also serve the employers by advising these young employes, both before and after they leave school, as to the kind and amount of training and education they should have in order to be successful in a given position. We also serve the employers by organizing or by helping them organize classes of their employes for night-school courses. We come into intimate and friendly relations with the unions by helping them organize their members, particularly their apprentices, for night- school work. We have ten such classes organized within the past two years. Department] THE WAR AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 337 Also we help the general industrial education movement by cooperating with the unions in the selection of good material from among their members for teachers. Occasionally we employ one of them in our industrial schools but of tener we induce them to take up training work in the Smith-Hughes Department of the University of Pittsburgh. This is a free course con- ducted in the evening. Our Vocational Guidance Department is, therefore, a coordinating department primarily, but the placement work is made the center of all activities, furnishing the major objectives and indicating the important policies and procedures. The United States Employment Service is doing valuable work in fostering vocational guidance in the public schools. It was thru the co- operation of the United States Employment Service that the Pittsburgh pubHc schools were able to establish, about a year ago, effective employ- ment offices. I wish at this time and in this connection to recognize the value of this cooperation. The work in Pittsburgh is now being finanst entirely by the Board of Education, tho we still have important assistance from the United States Employment Service. The fundamentally important thing about a man is his philosophy of life. The most important thing about an organization, such as a depart- ment of vocational guidance, is its philosophy of service, a clear-cut con-, ception of its ideals and of the plans necessary to carry out those ideals in concrete action. Mr. Terman, in his book entitled The Intelligence of School Children makes one statement which, if taken seriously to heart by school adminis- trators, would revolutionize our high schools particularly. It is this: "It is time that the school should ask not only what it would like to do, but what it can do." The poet states it thus: "The common problem, yours, mine, every- one's, is not to fancy what were fair in life provided it could be, but finding first what may be, to make it fair up to our means." An efficient placement office will enable a school system to ascertain what can he done for its young people vocationally and will point the way in which the needs of these young people may be met educationally. The central feature of vocational education should be a vocational-guidance department and the central feature of a vocational-guidance department should be an. efficient junior employment and information office. THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAR ON VOCATIONAL EDUCATION GEORGE M. BRACE, SUPERVISOR, MANUAL TRAINING, ST. PAUL, MINN. It would be strange indeed if such a catastrophe as the late war did not leave its impress on things educational, and no phase of education has 338 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration been more vitally affected than that of manual training. By the term manual training I hope I am not misunderstood, I mean what the words mean, anything that trains the hands, which includes vocational, industrial, and trade education. The entrance of our country into the arena of the world-war found the manual-training teachers of the country especially well prepared to respond to the needs of the government, many of the younger teachers enUsted, while those who were ineligible on account of age were just as ardent in helping on the cause by training soldiers in various trades. If our schools, and more especially the manual-training departments of our schools, have not benefited by the war, then there is something radically wrong with the school system. Any manual-training teacher who is now doing his work in the same way as before the war is not only not progressive, but is actually retrogressive. Teachers fail most because they are content to think today as they did years ago; method, problems, and courses are being followed today as they have been in the past by unprogressive teachers who think the old ways are the best. We might as well be as content with the ox-cart as the aeroplane as to be found of the same mind. War or no war, there must be changes in ideas if we are to be progressive, and yet there are manual-training men who are satisfied to follow methods that modern machinery has made obsolete. Another class of teachers who may be clast with the failures, is that not inconsiderable number who want to get back to the pre-war basis; they have been forst by the necessities of the times to change their ideas, but now are willing, if not anxious, to get back into the old rut because that rut is the line of least resistance for them. Their models have been made and their blue-prints prepared, and to change would mean an immense amount of labor on their part. This country will never return to a pre- war basis in anything, and the teacher who does is sure to be lonesome. Another class of failures among teachers are those whose interest is centered on the product rather than the boy. While we were training soldiers we were not interested in manufacturing, we were training men; if this one big idea could carry over and permeate all of our work then there would be no more false products; the products would be the trained and educated boy rather than a room full of beautifully finisht things. This kind of a teacher deUghts in making exhibits of the best work of the best pupils which he dishonestly displays as samples of all of the work of all the pupils. Another class of failures are those who insist on exercises arranged according to some kind of sequence instead of presenting the boy with a man-sized job. The average American boy wants to be a man and to do the things men do long before they reach man's estate. Why not capitaUze this longing and make use of it by arranging for boys to do men's work in the same way men do it ? Department] THE WAR AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 339 The United States Department of Labor has made it possible for supervisors of manual training in the larger cities to become directors of vocational guidance and placement. This is the connecting link between industry and the school and is well worth careful investigation. The war has imposed on all of us the burden of high prices and with that follows the natural concomitant, high wages. Never has money temptation been so great as now; schoolboys can earn as much as experi- enst men did before the war. Some way must be found to keep our boys in school in spite of this temptation. One counteracting influence that will ultimately accomplish this result is that never before have employers demanded so much intelligence in their employes as now; they are making sacrifices of time and money voluntarily in our state by sending apprentices to part-time classes without loss of pay, and in these classes the apprentices not only learn units of trade work but the larger part of their time is taken up with academics; this movement in itself will tend to keep boys in school longer even tho the opportunities for remuneration are very plentiful. The public mind has been readjusted so often during and since the war that it is not the same public mind, and teachers should be mindful of this and act accordingly. During the war the government supplied in- dustry with large quantities of the best equipment and the production of the shops was speeded up, limits of accuracy were changed, and new ideals formulated. Since the war, industry has adopted the rhethod that proved so successful, and has installed large quantities of modern tools. Manual- training teachers should be mindful of this change and do likewise; this is not time for retrenchment in equipment of salaries if the best results are to obtain. Vocational education to be effective must have a most intimate con- nection with industry; captains of industry as well as the labor leaders must be kept in touch with the work in our schools, and, if my experience is worth anything, teachers will find that industry stands ready to go more that halfway in meeting them on a common ground that spells success to any movement. The Federation of Labor has been a pioneer organization in favor of vocational education and their leaders are efficient and valuable coadjutors. In training soldiers for the world- war, educators have learned the value of short, intensified unit courses. It has been proved that intensive train- ing will produce skilled mechanics in an incredibly short time. This lesson should influence us in our all day vocational and part-time classes. The army trade tests have been of value in vocational guidance, and if they can be used in testing schoolboys with the same success obtained among soldiers, they will be a valuable aid in vocational guidance. Finally, the amount of illiteracy found among our soldiers has opened the eyes of educators to the fact that too large a percentage of our boys are getting away from us with little or no education. Some means must be 340- NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration found for strengthening the work of our attendance departments, and some way must be devised to interest more boys in school work; this is where vocational education has a golden opportunity to prove its worth by keeping more boys in school longer. PART-TIME SCHOOLS S. J. VAUGHN, NORTHERN ILLINOIS NORMAL SCHOOL, DE KALB, ILL. The part-tinie school may appropriately be called the school of another chance — ^another chance for the boys and girls who have quit school and gone to work; another chance for industry; and another chance for the public school. Its establishment by law marks the consummation of what has long been the dream of a few enthusiasts. Its success will stand along- side of the greatest achievements of this generation. It is so just in its conception, so humanitarian in its spirit, and so far-reaching in its signifi- cance and influence, that it is extremely doubtful whether the educational world yet realizes the epoch-marking importance of this new legislation. A generation with high ideals, worthy motives, and inherited curricula past by apparently unconscious of the fact that the boys and girls were rapidly but prematurely leaving school under one stress or another and were taking up a hopeless struggle. Another generation suddenly discovered this wholesale exodus and without understanding the various elements involved, both pitied and condemned the folly of the young generation and resorted to compulsory-attendance laws without attempting to change the character of the school work. The third generation lookt the matter squarely in the face thru the part-time law, simply accepted the situation, not happily but courageously, and frankly offered a remedy which broke with tradition and hence incurred the enmity and fear of soi:ne. In order to indicate something of the magnitude of the problem which the part-time school raises for solution, it is only necessary to mention a few facts. The Smith-Hughes law provides that at least one-third of the money appropriated to a state for salaries of teachers of trades, home economics, and industrial subjects must be spent, if at all, for part-time schools and classes. The law likewise provides that the work of the part- time school or class need not be narrowly trade instruction, but that it may include such subjects as "will enlarge the civic or vocational intelli- gence of persons over fourteen years of age who have entered upon employ- ment.'* This makes possible the giving of such regular academic subjects as Enghsh, arithmetic, spelling, and other general improvement courses. Indeed, it is such courses as these that constitute the large bulk of the instruction in the part-time schools that have thus far been establisht. At this time, at least twenty states have past laws for compulsory part- time schools or classes, and it undoubtedly will be but a matter of a brief Department] PART-TIME SCHOOLS 34I time until all the states of the nation have establisht by law the part-time school and have provided for the compulsory attendance of the boys and girls in industry. When one considers the maturity of the part-time pupils not alone in point of age but in point of contact with the business and industrial world, and understands their changed point of view, and takes account of their newly acquired definiteness and intensity of purpose, one can readily under- stand that the mere equivalents in hours do not in any adequate way express the actual accomplishments possible in the part-time school. Added to this is the other fact that in the large number of trade-extension classes the daily employment becomes the laboratory in which the instruc- tion of the class is put into execution. Under the supervision, direction, and instruction given a trade-extension class, all the work of the student may, with considerable justice, be regarded as educational, thus greatly extend- ing the school day over the regular public-school day. The part-time school frankly meets a condition and, without stopping to theorize about what should or should not have been done, offers definite first-aid remedies in the various exigencies and leaves it to other institutions to determine what must be done to prevent the continuous recurrence of the same lamentable situation. It says to the boys and girls who have left school to undertake the heavy responsibility of wage earning: "Here is your second chance. Come back to the public school and start again. The state and the nation have seen the folly of permitting the door of the public school to be closed against any boy or girl in the land. The part- time school will cooperate with your employers to the end that you shall suffer but meager financial loss, if any, by your school attendance." To those who have started on a trade, the part-time school says, "The school, by offering definite units of study related to your work, will give you such intelligence and skill as will mean certain and continued advancement in your chosen line." That there is a growing sense of need of some such agency as the part-time school among the progressive industries of the country is proved by the fact that schools or educational efforts of some sort are rapidly being set up at great expense in the industrial plants themselves. In the year 19 1 6-1 7, there were 32,000 boys and girls in corporation schools. In the public part-time school, therefore, the industries have another chance to get workers more thoroly trained in all the elements that go to make efficient workers and efficient citizens. Furthermore, , the industrial leaders realize that this is an opportunity to cooperate in a public enter- prise, for the good of a great multitude of working boys and girls. They are aware that in this way the new attitude toward labor, toward education, toward conditions for laborers that is being taken now by all progressive concerns may be shown in its most effective way by hearty cooperation with the effort to bring back opportunity and the second chance to the 342 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration working boys and girls. They are furthermore far-sighted enough to see the power in the part-time school for Americanization, and their experiences during the war period have imprest them mightily with the importance of this matter. It is not necessary to charge that the thousands of boys and girls in industry have been forst out of the schools thru the schools' faults. There have been numerous contributing faults. But it is needless to argue, on the other hand, that the schools have been blameless in this matter. They have been at fault in the uninteresting and unfunctioning content and instruction of their curricula. They have been at fault in their failure to respond in any adequate manner to the demands that were being made by business and industry upon those who left the schools or even those who stayed for all the schools had to offer. Happily, this situation is rapidly being overcome, but for those who have already gone to work prepared neither for citizenship nor for successful work the part- time school seems the only salvation. The part-time school is the public school's big opportunity, its other chance to help undo some of the injustices that have been done and the failures made. But what a betrayal and what a travesty if the boys and girls are forst by law back into school a certain number of hours per week for some more of the impossible grammar and algebra, dead men's English, and medieval history for discipline and culture which in the first place drove them out of school, or at best failed to hold them. The atmosphere of the part-time school must be different from the atmosphere familiar to these students before they went to work. The attitude of the teacher must be different, indeed in many, many cases, the teachers themselves must be different. The privilege seldomly falls to one to try again, to do his task over without criticism or condemnation; but this privilege has come to the public-school people. The second chance is here. If it is lost or neglected, it will not come again, and the injury will be too great to reckon. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Sara H. Fahey, teacher of community civics, manual training high school,^ Brooklyn, N.Y. Vice-President — Ethel M. Gardner, teacher. Park School Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary — ^Jeannette O'Rourke, teacher, grade school Seattle, Wash. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6 The Department of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association, convened in regular session on Tuesday forenoon, July 6, at 9 :oo o'clock, in the Assembly Hall, Salt Lake City, Utah. The meeting was called to order by the President. The Secretary being absent, Judith Lillie, grade teacher, Garfield, Utah, acted as Secretary, pro tem. After announcements and introductory remarks by the President, the following program was presented: The general topic for the meeting was, "Universal Education the Safeguard of Democracy. " "The Teacher of Today and the Citizen of Tomorrow" — H. B. Wilson, superin- tendent of schools, Berkeley, Calif. "The Menace of Teacher Shortage in Illiteracy and Anarchy" — Delia R. Reilley, principal, DeWitt High School, DeWitt, Iowa. ^ "Some Unstrest Causes of Teacher Shortage" — Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash. "New Educational Opportunities thru the Home Teacher" — Elizabeth A. Wood- ward, state director of home and neighborhood classes for immigrant women, Albany, N.Y. "America's Pledge to the Peoples of the World" — E. O. Sisson, President University of Montana, Missoula, Mont. Discussion — B. J. Horchem, United States Senator, Dubuque, Iowa; E. A. Zimmer- man, Cincinnati, Ohio; Ethel M. Gardner, Milwaukee, Wis., and Cornelia S. Adair, Richmond, Va. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7 A Joint Breakfast Conference was held with the National League of Teachers Asso- ciation at the Hotel Utah. The presiding chairmen were Sara H. Fahey and Cornelia S. Adair, Richmond, Va. "How to Relieve Teacher Shortage" was discust by many present. Inspiring messages were given by Mary C. C. Bradford, Denver, Colo., A. W. Winship, Boston, Mass., Margaret A. Haley, Chicago, 111., Josephine Corliss Preston, Olympia, Wash., Fred M. Hunter, Oakland, Calif., Ethel M. Gardner, Milwaukee, Wis., Nina Buchanan, Seattle, Wash., and several other leaders in educational thought. At 9:30 o'clock the department session was held in Assembly Hall, President Sara H. Fahey presiding. The following program was presented: The general topic for the meeting was, "Teacher Cooperation in Administrative Problems." "The Downfall of Autocracy" — A. W. Winship, editor, New England Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. "The Teacher's Salary as a Factor in Establishing Caste" — Sara H. Fahey, teacher of community civics. Manual Training High School, New York, N.Y. 343 344 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers "Unity of Professional Interests an Essential Need of Teachers* Organizations" — Julia Spooner and Jennie Richardson, grade teachers, Portia id, Oregon. Discussion — Frances Harden, Chicago, 111.; M. E. Lowry, Alton, Ohio; W. H. Shepherd, Minneapolis, Minn.; Mrs. K. Arrington, El Paso, Tex., Mary Morrison, president, grade teachers association, Denver, Colo. Reports from members from all sections of the country emphasized the great public awakening regarding the prime importance of education, the alarming scarcity of classroom teachers, and the great necessity for immediate action to secure candidates for the teaching profession. The following oflScers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Sara H. Fahey, teacher of community civics, manual-training high school. New York, N.Y. Vice-President — Ethel M. Gardner, teacher in Park School, Milwaukee, Wis. Secretary — Margaret Richardson, grade teacher, Spokane, Wash. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE MENACE OF THE TEACHER SHORTAGE DELIA R. REILLEY, PRINCIPAL DEWITT HIGH SCHOOL, DEWITT, IOWA The National Citizen's Conference, which recently convened at Wash- ington at the call of the Bureau of Education, announces that between three and four hundred thousand children were deprived of schooling during the past year and the most conservative estimates place the teacher shortage for the coming year at 80,000. In addition it is revealed that 50 per cent of the teachers now in the profession are substandard, that 150,000 are not beyond twenty-one years, and that 65,000 are teaching on permits. We are prone to attribute these conditions to the exigencies of war-time conditions, but the sentiment, which crystallized into expression at that period in our National History, had been plastic in the professional mind for more than two decades, and had been forst upon us by the apathy and penuriousness of a people dead to the best interests of their communities and their country. As an economic and a social factor, the teacher has been steadily ignored, and she has been subjected to petty annoyances detrimental to professional advancement and deadening to the interest of those con- templating entrance into the teaching profession. Very recently I visited with one of the best high-school teachers in the Middle West — I have known her from my early childhood. She has molded the character and given the upward bend to two generations of successful business and professional men and women — ^Adjutant Geneial Will Conner, ranking next to General Pershing in the United States Army, says that all that he is or hopes to be is due to her — and yet she said to me, I advise my girls not to enter the teaching profession. I have taught forty-two years and much of that time I have worried along on a meager salary with my invalid mother and crippled brother. I am not knocking on my profession for I know it is the noblest one there is, but my girls have but one life to live and I advise them to enter work where effort is appreciated and remunerated. Department] CLASSES FOR NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING WOMEN 345 Lest any anarchistic seed lying dormant in our soil may not find con- ditions favorable for germination let us meet this emergency by putting 650,000 missionaries plus all the recruits which can be mustered into the field to awaken our people to the dire results of this teacher shortage. If this National Education Association Convention can go on record as a deviser of means to provide ''A competent teacher for every American child," I state, without fear of contradiction, that it will have eclipst the work done by all other national conventions held this year, for it will have solved the most vital problem necessary for the perpetuation of government "of the people, for the people, and by the people" and democ- racy shall not perish from the earth. A BRIEF VIEW OF ONE YEAR'S EXPERIENCE IN NEW YORK STATE WITH CLASSES FOR NON-ENGLISH- SPEAKING WOMEN ELIZABETH A. WOODWARD, STATE SUPERVISOR OP HOME AND NEIGHBORHOOD CLASSES, ALBANY, N.Y. Since the war the necessity for giving more attention to adult education has loomed up as one of the most imperative needs of our Republic. Thou- sands of foreign-born American soldiers returned to their racial colonies in our cities, having acquired, not only a usable knowledge of the EngUsh language, but an enlarged interest in and vision for America. Thru this knowledge of the English language they are better able to cooperate with men of other tongues who likewise had come to use the common language of America. These splendid soldiers of foreign birth, but of newly won American citizenship, because of their military service, returned to wives, mothers, and sisters who had not enjoyed these educational advantages which their more fortunate men-folk had experienst in American camps and on foreign battlefields. Complications are constantly arising in the homes with the non-English-speaking mothers whose children are learning American customs and ideals far more rapidly than the mother can follow. These children are losing all too quickly sympathetic appreciation of the traditions of their parents. Child-welfare seems to have brought to the foreground the necessity for instruction of the mothers. "I wish I had a mother Hke Tommy's — she can write a note to the teacher," mournfully remarks Micheal Calletti, after a few years in the public schools. But David Saretsky who has had different experiences, even tho his mother cannot read or write EngHsh, announces, "My mother is an American now — she wears a hat and goes to the moving-picture show. " And yet during all the months of his school life his mother had not been able to read or sign his reports. Young Americans stride ahead, quietly contemplating or openly expressing judgments upon foreign-born parents and watch with 346 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers oversensitiveness the homeland customs which the older members of the family attempt to keep alive. The following statement by Bernard J. Fagan, chief probation officer of the Children's Court of the City of New York is a striking evidence of this inabihty of parents to speak English as a cause of juvenile delinquency. "Last year, out of 15,000 children who were arraigned in the Children's Court, City of New York, there were referred to the Probation Department of the Court for investigation and social analysis, 6,621 children. This includes all classes of offenses. In tabulating our statistics on nativities, we did not separate those arraigned for delinquency and those for improper guardianship. The summary of the tabulation shows: Native-born children — native-born parents — 1,971 or 28.8 per cent Native-born children — foreign-born parents — 3,899 or 58.8 per cent Foreign-born children — foreign-born parents — 751 or 11. 4 per cent Mr. Fagan adds: I have no hesitation in saying that the inability of foreign parents to speak English is responsible for a large contribution of juvenile delinquency in this court. It is axiomatic that whatever tends to disrupt the family makes for anarchy. Principals of public schools in foreign-born districts are beginning to realize new responsibility for preserving the integrity of the home. They see that the unsuspecting mothers need instruction and help during the difficult years of adjustment to conditions in a new country. Educators everywhere are feeling a deeper concern for the women who hold the most important positions in the great laboratory of citizenship. A year ago there were only four cities in the state where regular work of teaching English to foreign-bom women was conducted outside of the night-school system. These cities were New York, Syracuse, Albany, and Schenectady. During the past year, 1919-20, however, 52 communi- ties have been aroused to action and 470 classes have been started with a registration of 5,000 women. A conservative estimate for the entire state. While the interest awakened in many centers is gratifying, the problem has scarcely been touched. New plans are under way, universally for another year of double effort, since approximately only 2 per cent of the 218,913 illiterate and non-English-speaking women have been reached. (These figures are taken from the 1910 census — since then, from 1910 to 1914, many more thousands of women entered the country, as well as since the signing of the armistice). The immigration reports of recent months indicate that at present more women are entering the United States than men: this is only adding to our problem. During the fifteen years pre- ceding the world-war, 26 per cent of all immigrants, fourteen years of age and over, were illiterate. If this percentage of illiteracy continues, the Departmentl CLASSES FOR NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING WOMEN 347 task of New York State, which receives a large proportion of each incoming group, has been tremendously increast, as it now has more non-English- speaking and illiterate persons than any other state in the Union. Those who have had the privilege of watching the progress of the women in the home and neighborhood classes during the past winter realize the deep satisfaction which results from the simple accomphshments: signing one's name; writing a note to a principal, to an absent child, or to a friend; reading signs on the street cars, posters at exhibitions, screens in the moving-picture houses, recipes for new dishes, directions given by nurses and doctors, simple notices, and circulars. Later their joy is unbounded when they acquire abihty to read simple books, "current events," newspapers, and magazines. The women have proved them- selves quite as good students as the men. In all the work with the English classes the goal has been constantly that each class shall be closely connected with some pubhc school. Natu- rally, since many schools do not have the adequate space during school hours for this work, the women must meet in a neighborhood room which is lookt upon as a school annex. Failing either of these possibihties — a school or neighborhood place — a suitable room in a private home is found where a hospitable woman is wiUing to gather a number of friends together a few times a week for instruction. These classes may be held from one- half to one and one-half hours and from two to four sessions a week. It has been found from the last year's experience that the mothers are better able to give time to this work during school hours, while they are relieved of the care of the largest number of their children. But on account of the shortage of trained teachers, most classes thruout the state have had to be held from 3 to 5 o'clock (after school). In this way regular teachers have been employed for the work. The care of the small children and babies during class periods has been a great problem with both home and school classes. It is advisable to have a separate room for the children — supphes of simple toys and books, also paid or volunteer caretakers. Each school and community is solving this problem in an individual way with the assistance of parent associations or Women's Clubs. The main difficulties encountered in establishing home and neighborhood classes are connected with school appropriations and school administration. It is not easy to persuade school boards to take upon themselves the appointment of a new type of teacher, particularly when her work has to be done largely outside of the school building. The very fact, however, that a few cities have already appointed full-time teachers for the women is most encouraging. Giving greater pubhcity to the fact that one teacher often reaches in a week from sixty to eighty women for two- or three-class sessions for each group will have great weight in extending the work. This demonstration made by private organizations or with the financial help of the state department has brought the first success. A popular demand 348 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers foretells the rapid spread of these classes. Hundreds of women are ready for instruction when teachers can be found. A difficulty which will have to be overcome in the large cities is the establishing of a minimum number of twelve to fifteen in each class in order that efiicient work may be accomphsht with the beginners. Since the grading of the classes is not an easy matter, highly specialized workers are required. The goal of all the work with older or newer immigrants is to have the women share more fully in the Hfe of America. They must make contacts with Americans, know and use more fully the institutions of their own neighborhood before they will desire citizenship or value it when it is conferred automatically by the naturalization of the husband. Local responsibility for community reform must be taken equally and democratically by women of all races. The aim of the classes, therefore, is to help these women know in a concrete way what is the possible next step in local improvement — whether it be a playground, a community or children's garden, a health center, a day nursery, a kindergarten, library, high school, or better markets, better water supply, or better housing. It is not a question of whether we can afford to provide teachers for these women. The question is can we afford not to do it when the good citizenship of the children is at stake and when the power of these newer American women has not yet been utilized for community reform. AMERICA'S PLEDGE TO THE WORLD E. O. SISSON, PRESIDENT, STATE UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA, MISSOULA, MONT. The new world is being made, and we Americans, like all other forward- looking people, are seeking our part in the task. We have come clear out of our isolation and have no idea of going back : nearly every American expects, indeed intends, that we shall get into the League of Nations, on proper terms, and as speedily as possible. It is the professional poHticians who want to make out the reservations to be bigger than the covenant: we shall get in, and do our part honestly and generously, as we did finally in the war. If our education had not been so narrow, we should have gotten into the war months earlier, perhaps at the very beginning; or we might even have spoken so sharply in August, 1914, that there would have been no war; but our education was narrow, and we required a two years' intensive course, given by the tragic muse, with Woodrow Wilson as chief assistant teacher; it is Wilson's permanent glory that he knew exactly when the lesson was complete and the pupil ready for action. But alas that the long horrible period of waiting and learning was necessary! What agony might have been spared if only we had been as wise and as awakened in 19 14 as we were in 191 7. I Department] AMERICA'S PLEDGE TO THE WORLD 349 Another crisis is on us, and others will follow, decade after decade, century after century. We were not educated for the crisis in 1914: it is the business of the educator to help us to be ready, without special intensive courses, for the crises to come; for during these intensive courses somebody is sure to be bleeding or starving. So we need to understand our debt to the world, or, if you please, our pledge to the world. The first ground for this pledge of ours is actual indebtedness. Some schools are beginning to teach the origins of America in Europe — we should go back farther than that. The very immigrants who knock at our hospi- table gates remind us of this debt: the Jew, whose fathers so long ago caught and treasured the vision of the one Almighty God (what would the American colonies have been without that vision ?) ; the Greek, who hawks fruit on our streets and builds the track of our railroads, whose ancestors did the first real thinking, and sowed the pregnant seeds of science and philosophy and who besides were the very first to assert the right of freedom and pour out their blood gloriously for their independence; without Salamis and Thermopylae and Pericles and Themistocles, the Declaration of Independence would not yet have been written. The second ground of our pledge and obligation is our riches. We alone of all the great world-powers have a wide margin of economic comfort. Our people have, in general, enough and some to spare. We are luxuyy consumers, and, what is more important, we have the excess of energy and the margin of leisure which put the possibility of service into our hands. We must serve because we can serve, and that is reason enough. We must make use of our surplus power and means, and the best use we can make is to devote it to human progress. There is no conflict between loyalty to America and service in the cause of world-order and freedom: our duty to the world is but the expan- sion and fulfilling of our patriotic love of our own land. We might well paraphrase Lincoln's historic words and say that the world cannot endure half slave and half free; that it will become all one thing or all the other, and that we must play the leading role in determining that freedom shall prevail. We have been reminded at the close of the Gettysburg address, that it is not in the United States alone, but in the earth, that government of the people, by the people, for the people, is to be preserved. Lincoln also called the American Republic "the last, best hope of man"; if it was this in 1863, how much more in 1920. The truth is that our own future can be safe only in a world that is safe. We have reached our limits as a refuge for the opprest. We are already struggling terribly with the problems entailed upon us by immense and heterogeneous immigration. Instead of inviting the opprest from all the earth, our new task is to aid in building a world that excludes oppression from every corner and guarantees freedom regardless of zone or clime or national borders. This is the task of world-order; its basis is world-citizenship, and the educator must aid in creating the mind of democracy, which alone can redeem our pledge and discharge our debt. 3 50 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers DOWNFALL OF AUTOCRACY A. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, "JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON, MASS. The struggle of democracy to thwart the purpose of autocracy received much encouragement in the apparent results of the world-war, but it has only made aristocratic autocracy more domineering than ever. It is no longer brutal, as of old, but it appears in the delectable vestments of aristocracy and in the role of Levites, guarding the sacred traditions of the educational temple, they officially survey the wounded man by the roadside and then "pass by on the other side." No aristocrat any more than an autocrat was ever a Good Samaritan. There will be no democracy in education that does not come to and thru and by the classroom teachers. The air is full of fine phrases just now by 'those who are preparing to pass you by on the other side. The Levite was condescending enough to come and look at the wounded man, that was his idea of democracy, but he past by on the other side. So long as educational leaders pick subservient classroom teachers for honors they are Levitical autocrats. Autocracy will be upon the throne until the classroom teachers make their own selection of their representatives and then they should make them give bonds that they will not bow to the autocrats when they associate with them. There is no question but that the National Education Association needs reorganization, but it would be interesting to know how large a group of persons has really done any more than say "me too," when it was told what it was to be. It would be interesting to know how much voice the classroom teachers have had in the reorganizing, farther than to agree that Margaret Haley is dangerous. I am not saying that she is not so dangerous as you are told she is, but I protest that the three times that she has exercised her power were glorious services to the National Education Association. It was her method that elected Ella Flagg Young. It was her method that elected Carroll G. Pearse, and at Milwaukee she prevented the management from being notoriously lawless. I believe the leadership of Mrs. Young, and Mr. Pearce to be eminently satisfactory, and I think it would have been a national scandal if she had not rescued the Milwaukee meeting from the brink of lawlessness. Insist that the reorganization shall be in fact and not thru a camouflage in the interest of the rank and file of the profession. Department] ESTABLISHING CASTE BY TEACHERS' SALARIES 351 THE TEACHER'S SALARY AS A FACTOR IN ESTABLISHING CASTE SARA H. FAHEY, TEACHER OF COMMUNITY CIVICS, MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, NEW YORK, N. Y. Few people, except able, qualified teachers, realize how far th^ spirit of caste, that exists among various groups of teachers and administrators, is built up and permanently sustained thru petty differences in salary schedules. To some of my audience it may seem that I have chosen to discuss a trivial topic. Let us then examine some familiar results and effects of this evil. For example, no attempt is made in any large way to utilize the knowledge relative to planning school buildings which a teacher of experience, thru long suffering, possesses. In the majority of elementary schools, and in many high schools, little provision is made for the most elemental physical comforts. There is a markt absence of sanitary lavatories, proper rest- rooms, lunchrooms, or restaurants. In the big city school, the teacher is obhged to remain during the lunch period in a dusty classroom, with nothing but a cold lunch, usually a soggy sandwich that was boxt up at 7:30 a.m., while office and business workers generally are seeking a change of scene in some favorite restaurant. If a school boasts a gas plate it is usually to be found in a three-foot-square office room in close proximity to meager toilet faciUties, and faulty plumbing. Frequently, too, classrooms are poorly lighted and badly ventilated. The excuse for some of these conditions in large cities is that space is too costly. But witness the spacious display rooms in the great business centers merely for the purpose of giving an artistic setting to the auto- mobiles designed to attract wealthy purchasers, and then answer whether we can afford to make tolerable Uving-rooms of the places where the future of America is housed. Our school buildings have in no sense kept pace with good modern factories. If you but make a visit here in Salt Lake City to the McDonald Chocolate Factory, with its wonderful roof gardens, and recreation rooms, or to the Home of Shredded Wheat in Niagara Falls, or to a dozen other great industrial plants in New York, or Chicago, or San Francisco, with their spacious open workrooms, their restaurants, and restrooms, their assembly and dance halls, and their welfare work generally, you will appreciate the significance of my comparison. The formalism of the school work which is so disheartening to lovers of children is frequently due to badly planned buildings. For example, teachers and pupils use up as much of their vitality in getting in and out of the ordinary big building as they do on the day's work. Yet this lock- step method of dismissal would be unnecessary if officials responsible for 352 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers building programs had overcome caste feelings sufficiently to reason that the poorly paid teacher might be able to offer constructive criticism on the planning of school buildings. Again, this caste spirit which makes people associate low salary with poor ability and trivial work, permits the use of the rural school as a mere training station for city-school aspirants. American citizens have not yet learned to think in large enough units to understand that that same rural school may be the keystone to the arch on which rests our hopes of a permanent democracy. Burdensome pension laws have made the teacher's small salary even smaller in some cities. Yet it is difficult to bring about calm discussion of the facts, because this spirit of caste makes those in higher-salaried positions look with disfavor on proposals for relief coming from the lower grade teachers. If such teachers venture to make adverse criticism, they are frequently regarded as presumptuous and anti-social. Yet I noted that the audience here yesterday applauded the state commissioner of California when he said "The actuarial principle makes pension payments too burdensome for the teacher. We would rather hold the humanitarian viewpoint, and trust to God and the people of California to see us thru." One fashion that deserves to be challenged at every turn in the road to progress in education is that of using glibly the term *' supervisor" for 'special teacher." Webster defines ''supervisor" as "to oversee." That, I contend, is not the original purpose for which these teachers were selected. As a rule, these special teachers have a poorer general education than the class teacher. They have acquired expertness in some one direction which has become useful to the school. The application of the term "supervisory teacher" which is easily transformed into "supervisor" is very distasteful to class teachers generally, and causes much useless friction. The term encourages, in the shallow-minded, a superior air, makes another opportunity to display a feeling of caste, and gives a claim for a petty increase in salary over the class teacher. Teachers of the trades in prevocational schools have had unpleasant experiences due to low salary caused by temporary assignments and uncer- tain status. Here the caste feeling has been shown by the class teacher. Many trade teachers have been made to feel that while they might be able to teach such inferior pupils as would wish to learn a trade, they could never hope to familiarize themselves with the mysteries of classroom work. However, the large appropriation made by the nation for this work is rapidly eliniinating these feelings of caste. It is also caste feeUng which suggests to administrators of schools that the great need of the teacher is constant instruction. A subject new to the schools is usually introduced by formally providing for the teacher's instruction. There may be experts in the subject among the teaching body, Department] ESTABLISHING CASTE BY TEACHERS' SALARIES 353 but the first assumption of many administrators is that those enjoying a higher salary than the teachers must perforce be equipt to teach the teachers. All this is irritating to scholarly teachers, even tho immature young teachers may sometimes need the instruction. There seems to be a woeful lack of imagination in these tactless methods of well-meaning people. For example, recently, a supervisory group of school people, who had attempted some of this work of enhghtening teachers, saw no impropriety in stating at a large public gathering, and in the press, that they were making an extensive campaign to train teachers in citizen- ship. Such a claim is very annoying to self-respecting teachers who naturally pride themselves on their citizenship. It is also a severe com- mentary on the work of our normal schools and on those officials who Ucenst people to teach unacquainted with the elementary facts of citizenship. Then, too, it is not good Americanism to assume that the training of our teachers in citizenship is to depend on the work of voluntary organizations. After all, excessive training of mature people unsought by themselves is a doubtful practice. Someone has said, "When you successfully train a thing you get it to go the way you want it to go until it always goes that way." Preparation for any kind of teaching ought not to have that significance. When we learn to regard the teacher a little more for what she is, for the qualifications she possesses, rather than for the grade she teaches, or for the salary she receives, we shall have begun to make some advance on the road to a profession. When the teacher attempts to offer constructive criticism she should not be made to feel that its value is determined by the position which she happens to hold. Those who are responsible f6r the education of the young should realize that forward-looking thoughts and great teachers are not developt in the cult of caste. Worthy ideas and ideals should not need the prestige of authority or position to secure their expression in a land of equal opportunity. Then, too, the home and the press, with a snobbishness all their own, have tried to show the unattractive side of teaching. The daily paper is fond of caricaturing, instead of idealizing the teacher. In the "movies" the bad boy always gets the better of the apparently witless teacher. In the home, the father, in the presence of his youngsters, regales the visitor with brilliant episodes of his youthful days when he bluffed the teacher. Thru these various agencies, the teacher has been subconsciously acquiring a distaste for work which, however useful, causes her to be regarded as a censor of the morals and manners of others. The experiences of war which brought many women teachers into a field outside of teaching, made them less tolerant of all these things. They reaUzed, too, as never before, their lack of opportunity to meet and mingle with adult minds as does the world of business. Dealing with immature people had its attractive features, but they saw also its limitations. 354 ^A TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers The truth is that teaching has been underrated and the work of adminis- tration and supervision somewhat over-rated. Liberal salaries should be paid to exceptional people in either field. This practice would go a long way toward eliminating this offensive caste spirit. We all need to realize that the training of the youth to skill of hand, to accuracy of vision, to high physical development, to scientific knowledge, to clear reasoning, to practical patriotism, and, greater than all else, to reverence for God, is a worth-while work for any American. Some things which I have said may seem to you unduly pessimistic. I grant it. Some one has said that an optimist is one who lets himseK see only the bright side, while a pessimist dares to look at the dark side in order that he may try to transform it into a bright side. I am not one of those who would say to you that no progress has been made in reaching out for the ideals that should characterize our profession. When we recall the developments in education even in the past seventy-five years, we have great cause to feel encouraged. At the beginning of that period, a knowledge of the subject was all that was required of the teacher. Later came a day when universities dared to offer courses in education, and then normal schools grew up. Everywhere the emphasis was laid On the impor- tance of the class, but, until forty years ago, no interest was shown in the kind of school building, or in its equipment. Legislation relating to its lighting, heating, and ventilation is a still newer venture. The present failure to sense values in relation to people engaged in the work of teaching is due partly to the fact that we are in these transitional stages. Administrative positions are filled frequently by people who have Had no special preparation for such work, but who were appointed because they had done something else exceedingly well. Such people, as a rule, are the last to utilize the initiative of teachers. However, this is a time for readjustment. The work of the world depends on united effort. Teachers and administrators together must work to safeguard their rights of citizenship, organization, freedom of speech, and political action. We must work for tenure laws that will protect us in the positions for which we have fitted ourselves thru years of prepara- tion. We must be allowed to do our work undisturbed by changing political administrations. We must also take an active part in the social, civic, and pohtical movements which have for their purpose the bettering of living conditions for all. We are the ones who must take the children as they come out of homes of poverty, nay, even of degradation, underfed, and insufficiently clothed, and try to build on such a foundation the structure of human hfe and happiness. If we are to be real teachers, life's problems become our problems, and an interest in solving them the right way becomes a vital part of our duty. To be truly educated, we must have, not only a knowledge DepartmentJ ESTABLISHING CASTE BY TEACHERS' SALARIES 355 of life, but an understanding of the economic principles which govern the conditions, and control the Hves of the people whose children we teach. We must have political freedom to enable us to use our influence and our votes to secure adequate support for education. Americans should awaken to the fact that teachers of the children of a free people must themselves be free. They must be upstanding, not servile. Any practices tending to establish petty caste distinctions, miHtate against freedom of the spirit, discourage cultured people from entering the field of teaching, and thus menace the stability and welfare of our great and upward-striving Republic. DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President— Katsrys Sisson Phillips, 316 W. 94th St New York, N.Y. Secretary — Anne Dudley Blitz, Teachers College, Columbia University New York, N.Y. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, February 24. The Department of Deans of Women of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Tuesday forenoon, February 24, at nine o'clock, in the Lattice Room, Hotel Statler, Cleveland, Ohio. The following program was presented : Address of Welcome — Helen M. Smith, dean, College for Women, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. , "Student Government" — Mina Kerr, dean, Milwaukee-Downer College, Milwaukee, Wis. Discussion. "Problems of the Curriculum" — Eva Johnston, adviser of women, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. Discussion. Luncheon was served in the Lattice Room, Hotel Statler, at twelve o'clock. The speakers at this luncheon were Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash,, and Sarah Louise Arnold, dean of Simmons College, Boston, Mass. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, February 24 The following program was presented at the afternoon session: "Problems Relating to the Office of Dean of Women" — Myra B. Jordan, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Discussion. "Problems of the Social Life of College Women" — ^Josephine Simrall, dean of women. University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. THIRD SESSION — ^Wednesday Forenoon, February 25. The following program was presented at the forenoon session of the second day's proceedings: "Problems of Student Health" — Jean C. Palmer, head warden, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.Y. "Report of Conference of Women Physicians" — Anna E. Pierce, dean of women, New York State College for Teachers, Albany, N.Y. Discussion. Twelve o'clock luncheon. Guests of Lake Erie College, Painesville, Ohio. FOURTH SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, February 25 The following program was presented at the afternoon session of the second day's proceedings: "Democracy in the Social Life of the College" — Georgia L. White, adviser of women Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. Discussion. Business Meeting — Officers were elected at this meeting. 357 358 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOC! A TION [Deans of Women PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS STUDENT GOVERNMENT MINA KERR, DEAN, MILWAUKEE-DOWNER COLLEGE, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The government of students is as old as schools and teachers. What we know as "student government" has come into education within about twenty-five years. To be sure, there were monitors and student governors under strict teacher supervision in Jesuit education in the sixteenth century and again under the Lancastrian system of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but in neither of these was there any idea of real initiative, authority, executive and legislative responsibility. Student government is one expression of the whole democratic move- ment. It is a part of the same movement which has caused faculties to seek by committees, representatives, and general vote, a share in the government of the institution which they serve instead of leaving all responsibility and initiative to president and trustees. The pulse of the world everywhere inside and outside colleges is toward democracy, toward a share in all that Hfe means of rights and duties, responsibilities and privileges, in the desire to live and be and have and do. Before I go on to talk of problems and methods, I must go back to what seem to me the fundamental principles of student government. First of all, we must make up our minds that student government will never completely justify itself anywhere as an administrative system. If our ends in the government of students are order, efiiciency, smooth machinery, just, wise, and even administration, we had better not place our faith and dependence on student government. It never will be nor can be expert government. My own belief in it is founded on its value as an educator. Not government but the student is the center of our thought. Student government is not an end but a process. Social efficiency can be produced only by participation in the activities of a society. I am going to quote a significant passage from that deep thinker about theory of government, Carl Schurz: In discussing the merits of self-government, we are apt to commit the error of claiming that self-government furnishes the best possible, that is, the wisest and at the same time, most economical kind of government, as to the practical administration of affairs, for it does not. There is no doubt that a despot, if he be supremely wise, absolutely just, benevolent, and unselfish, would furnish a community, as far as the practical working of the administrative machinery goes, better government than the majority of the citizens subject to changeable currents of public opinion — in all things except one. But this one thing is of the highest importance. Self-government as an administrator is subject to criticism for many failures. But it is impossible to overestimate self-government as an educator. If student government is a stronger force than faculty government for making our students grow in responsibiUty, social-mindedness, and citizen- Department] STUDENT GOVERNMENT 359. ship, it has to my mind fully justified itself. The test of student govern- ment is in the kind of women it makes. The second principle I would emphasize is that student government does not imply turning the entire government of the institution over to students. The best conditions in modern family life come from coopera- tion between older and younger members, parents and children, so also must faculty and students cooperate if we are to have the best conditions of government and community life for all. The younger members of the group need the experience and guidance of the older members, and the older need the energy and enthusiasm of the younger. Neither pure faculty nor pure student government works well today, but the government which combines the activities and interests of both. Sometimes I think that we should all use, as some institutions do, a name such as College Govern- ment Association or Women's League, so as not by the very name Student Government Association to seem to exclude the faculty from any part in the government of the community. The third principle is closely related to the second. A member of the faculty must be, to quote Wordsworth, "guide, counsellor, and friend," an adviser and not a supervisor. When students ask us how to manage certain matters, we must give our best counsel and not take the work out of their hands and do it. They want our help, but they want also for them- selves the satisfaction of the activity. We do not ask counsel of certain people, because they immediately say: "I'll do that," and the joy of action is theirs, not ours. So it is with our students toward us. The advantages of student government are briefly these: 1. It teaches principles and methods of government such as students need to know in later life. 2. It creates the institutional point of view and develops a sense of responsibility. 3. It trains in independence of thought and action. 4. It develops and conserves public opinion, as to "what we do" and "what we do not do." 5. It brings a real knowledge of situations and tendencies in the student body often undiscovered by faculty. 6. It arouses a spirit of loyalty and good will toward the college and faculty. 7. It applies the principle of "learning by doing." The disadvantages of student government are: 1. There is a change of officers every year, so the leaders are always amateurs. 2. There is great difficulty in getting a sense of individual responsi- biUty. 3. There is constant unwillingness to report on one another. 4. It takes more time and more skill on the part of faculty members than direct faculty' government. 36o NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Women 5. It places responsibility too early on young shoulders. 6. It takes too much time from study. 7. It makes students too self-important. Here are seven advantages and seven disadvantages. Which group we shall consider the weightier will depend on our own philosophy of edu- cation. The first necessity in building up a strong student-government associ- ation is to get good student officers for the executive board or committee. They must have the four fundamental requisites of leadership among students: scholarship, executive power, character, and the ability to win the good will of fellow-students. They should be the best all-round students on the campus and should be so recognized. If they have not the respect and confidence of faculty and students, the whole association will suffer. A general talk to students about the importance of the elections and the kind of leaders to be chosen two weeks or more before nominations is of value in setting students to thinking and talking about their elections. A scholarship requirement here, as for all major offices in connection with a point system, is of value. The offices must carry with them a certain dignity, authority, and responsibility, so that year by year there is built up among the students a tradition of regard and respect for the offices as demanding personality and real ability. Shall we have penalties is another of the questions suggested. There are always in every community a few people who must be governed by force and fear. The penalties are for these few. There are various kinds of penalty: 1. Fines for registration offenses, for failing to register in a hall regis- tration book, or for registering incorrectly when leaving the campus. 2. Reprimand by the executive board, by the faculty head of a hall, or by the dean. 3. Campus, in case of dishonor and wrong-doing off the campus. 4. Suspension from the Association, when obligations of citizenship are disregarded or treated with contempt or when some very flagrant offense is committed so that the board refers the offender for further action to the president and dean. 5. Suspension and withdrawal from the college, which may be recom- mended by the executive board but decided only by the president and dean. Every penalty imposed by the executive board at Milwaukee-Downer comes to the dean as a recommendation before it is enforced. Occasionally, tho seldom, a recommendation is sent back to the board for reconsideration. There must be great effort to make the penalty fit the offense in kind and degree, and to get steady uniformity in action from case to case. The assurance that there will be penalty limits the number of cases requiring penalty. Of course we all feel that the smaller the number of penalties we have had to impose in a year, the more successful has been our government. Department] PROBLEMS OF THE CURRICULUM 361 A considerable degree of moral development in right ideals, judgments, and wills is an essential prerequisite to student government. Human beings, even at eighteen or twenty years of age, cannot stand all responsi- bilities of freedom and self-government at once. A certain amount of moral strength must exist as the basis for the right to self-direction and self- government. In any social group there must be obedience, for obedience is the law of the universe, obedience voluntary, self-initiated, cheerful, if possible, but compulsory, if need be, for any obedience is better than license and anarchy. The group has to be developt, as well as individuals in the group, in honor, sense of responsibility, self-control, ideals of liberty, social-mindedness, and citizenship. Self-government needs to be given gradually, point by point, to a community as to an individual, until the group as a whole can take and use liberty and self-goverrmient. We must give privileges and powers only as fast as they can be assimilated. How- ever, we must be ready to give freedpm and control as rapidly as a group can possibly take it, according to the age, previous experience, and stage of development of the students. We each need to study, understand, and consciously develop the group spirit and group life of our own institution. There are great differences in kind and stage of development in the various institutions. No absolute rules can be laid down for your work and mine. There are principles and guide posts, but no unchanging rules or methods of pro- cedure. We must care about the next generation, keep firm hold on our common sense, patience, courage, and sense of humor, see the " Glory of the Imperfect," be more interested in human beings in the making than in finisht products, and, ''heart within and God o'erhead," do the best we can, each with her own job. PROBLEMS OF THE CURRICULUM EVA JOHNSTON, ADVISER OF WOMEN, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO. Criticism of the existing curricula in educational institutions is the rule rather than the exception, and doubtless there are many problems yet unsolved. The charge is made that the grammar school is a time waster, that the high school scatters and dissipates the pupils' interests, while the college curriculum is blamed from various angles. Some beheve it is too vocational, others that not enough time is spent in definitely preparing the student for his future calling; some think that it is too conservative in its course of study, others, that it has introduced too many nonessentials; some believe there is too free an elective system, others, that the students are not given enough freedom in their individual choice of subjects. On the whole the college of a few hundred years ago had a better time of it with the critics, for then Greek, Latin, and mathematics were confessedly 362 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCtA TlON [Deans of Women the chief subjects in the course of arts. Yet it was more than one hundred and fifty years ago that a course of study was announst which rivals in breadth most curricula of today. The projectors of Kings College, the forerunner of Columbia, according to their own statement, recognized the need and right of an education, not only for those going into the learned professions, but also for those who might adopt the mechanical professions, and for all the remaining people of the country. In a recent article President Lowell ("The University — the Bulwark of Civilization," Harper's Magazine, November, 19 19) emphasizes the serv- ice of institutions of learning in the matters which deal with human rela- tions. He says: The main subject of a general education is, and properly ought to be, what the race has been and thought and done; and the wider the conception of the race and its doings, the broader and more profound the education. For want of a better word these are called the humanities, because they are directly concerned with man. From their nature they furnish the chief landmarks, or points of departure, for navigating the unknown sea of the future. The knowledge of these things is stored in books. The widespread belief in a coming change of greater or less magnitude in social relations is not a reason for neglecting the study of man and of his experience in the past. A. C. Keller {The Review, August 9, 1919) quotes an educationalist as saying: The studies of the future are to be the physical sciences with their applications, espe- cially in engineering; the modern languages, particularly those of the Romance group, history; and perhaps above all the social sciences. A survey of the curricula of the larger women's colleges shows that no courses have been introduced which are exclusively adapted to woman's needs. State universities have given a different answer by establishing departments of household economics. The vocational rather than the pro- fessional idea seems back of this, altho a feeling of justice would make the institutions, which have schools of law, medicine, and engineering, in which men are enrolled almost exclusively, seek to establish courses espe- cially adapted to the needs of women. Most women will marry, will have children to rear, and will be responsible for the wholesome food, clothing, and surroundings of their families. What could be more valuable than that the future mother should be trained for her calling. True, but it is equally true that most men students will be fathers and heads of families, and surely every man is better equipt for that future life if he understands how to run a furnace so it will give the most heat with the least possible con- suinption of fuel, how to avoid coal smoke, how to get rid of cinders in the most aesthetic way, and above all how to keep the plumbing in perfect order. It would seem quite as logical for all men to be urged to take such courses as for all women to take specialized work along the other lines mentioned. Surely the future citizen, whether man or woman, should know something about taxation, the rights and duties of property owners and of tenants. He should know something about the school system as a Department] SOCIAL LIFE AND COLLEGE WOMEN 363 whole. But whether college credit should be given such courses is another matter. If the study of a language, ancient or modern, helps a student to think logically and to express her thoughts clearly, then surely it is a practical subject even in the judgment of the vocationalists. When we are planning the education of girls and boys we must remember that success cannot be rated by the first few years after college. While youth and joy of existence make hfe rose-colored, success seems easy to grasp. But when twenty, thirty, forty, nay even fifty years have past, that one will know that his education was an ultimate success who gained from it enrichment of spirit. That one is poor indeed who cannot turn from his occupation, learned tho it be, to fresh fields of thought, where he can browse and grow refresht. Surely it should be the function of any curriculum worthy the name to furnish the seed for such thought. THE PROBLEMS OF THE SOCIAL LIFE OF COLLEGE WOMEN JOSEPHINJE SIMRALL, DEAN OF WOMEN, UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY, LEXINGTON, KY. We live today in a new world, a world of new standards of value, of new standards of suffering and endurance. We have learned that we can bear the unbearable, that we can endure the unendurable. We have also new standards of achievement, new ideals, above all a new sense of responsibility and of our relationship to our fellow-men. Out of these conditions is developing inevitably a new set of social standards. For four years we lived in a world at war. During this time our young people were brought face to face with the great realities of life — the realities of pain and death, of service and sacrifice, of an amazing heroism of the spirit. During these years we recognized only spiritual values. The petty, the personal, the material fell away from us. We gave all that we had, our time, our energy, our money, our loved ones, to the great cause of world- freedom. Our college students are, as is to be expected, holding themselves more steadily, meeting the situation with greater poise than the young people outside of college. However, the college student is demanding to- day, in place of the old arbitrary conventions, rules of conduct which are based upon realties. I believe that our American college woman can be trusted. She is, perhaps, the finest type of young womanhood which the world of today is producing. If the concrete problem is put squarely and clearly before her she will find a way to work it out. It is the function of the house director, of the dean, or of the president to define the problem. It is not to be expected that the student, with her lack of experience, her limited perspec- tive, and her absorption in academic work and college activities should be able to grasp the full significance of the situation. That she does grasp 364 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Deans of Women it so often and deal with it so effectively is a constant source of surprise to me. But when the issues are put clearly before the students by one who has thought them thru, I find that we can leave the solution, even of the most difficult problems, to the students themselves. I think that our own handling, as deans of women, of the problem of social life should be from the constructive, rather than the restrictive, side. College is, for many of the women who come here, their one chance to learn the lessons of what, for lack of a better word, we may call social accustomed- ness, those amenities of social intercourse which play so important a part in the effectiveness of life. These amenities, as we always try to show the student, are not trivial matters. They are based upon those qualities which make for character. Sympathy; that understanding of the other person's point of view, which brings tolerance; gentleness of speech and manner, eagerness to serve; joy in human intercourse — these are real things. The students who have learned these things are able to go into the presence of their fellow-men with that lack of self-consciousness which enables one to be ai one's best, to give one's best, to help, to stimulate, to bring joy and gladness to a world that is dull and drab for many, simply because they do not know these things. This constructive side of the social life of the college woman seems to me to be our immediate problem. I have not time to offer suggestions as to its solution. I doubt if such suggestions would be of any particular value, for it is after all a special problem for each one of us, conditioned by the circumstances of our own peculiar situation. But there are certain general principles to be observed in working out these problems. How to make the environment of our students not elaborate, not luxurious, but fine and beautiful; how to so develop the social life among our students that they may learn to recognize truth and beauty when they see it, for the recognition of truth and beauty, wherever they may be is, I take it, the essence of culture; how to do things in the real way, without sham and without pretence; how to make the girl realize the value of a perfectly appointed table, of a beautifully arranged vase of flowers, of gowns that are suitable for the occasion and express the personality of the wearer rather than the passing style — these are the things that constitute our real prob- lems. But our greatest problem, it seems to me, is to secure as directors of our halls of residence, women of sincerity, culture, and strong personality. After all it is personality that influences youth. To sum up then the basing of the social conventions upon which we insist on fundamantal realities; the presenting of our social problems in clearly defined form to the students, trusting them to work them out effectively; the providing of a constructive program of social training thru a right environment, thru a constant practice of the fine art of social living and thru securing for the supervision of our halls of residence of the right type of woman, at almost any cost — these seem to me to be at least the first step toward the solution of our social problems. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICER President — ^Mrs. George McMath, member of board of vocational education. . .Portland, Ore. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 6, 1920 The Department of School Patron? of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Tuesday forenoon, July 6, at nine o'clock, in the Salt Lake Theater. The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented: "Health and Happiness for Children" — ^Thomas D. Wood, professor of physical education, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "Utah's Health Legislation" — E. G. Gowans, state director health education, Salt Lake City, Utah. "Health Organization Work in Public Schools" — Sally Lucas Jean, director child health organization, New York, N.Y. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7, 1920 The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented: "Report of School Revenue" — Margaret S. McNaught, commissioner of elementary schools, Sacramento, Calif. "The Child's Study Period" — J. Fred Anderson, president, Utah education asso- ciation. Salt Lake City, Utah. "Education a Co-Partnership" — Payson Smith, state commissioner of education, Boston, Mass. THIRD SESSION— Wednesday Noon, July 7, 1920 The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented: Addresses — Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash.; George D. Strayer, professor of educational administration. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. The meeting adjourned. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE HEALTH OF SCHOOL CHILDREN A COMMUNITY PROBLEM THOMAS D. WOOD, PROFESSOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. The care of health is the first duty of a community. The most vital item in the health resources of any community is the welfare and health of the children. 36s 366 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons No community is really civilized which does not possess a community intelligence and sense of obligation relative to the health of the children, and an effective complete practical program of health care of all the children of the community. Our schools are wasting enormous sums in educating or trying to educate the children who are handicapped by ill health when the expendi- ture of much smaller amounts in a judicious, comprehensive health program would produce an extraordinary saving in economy and efficiency. A dollar spent promptly in a timely, preventive, constructive campaign to conserve a child's health, will often be more fruitful for the child and for human society than will be a thousand dollars applied twenty years later. The principle of community thrift finds its first and most vital appli- cation in the conservation and improvement of the health of the children. The consciousness and conscience of many communities are being aroused to better appreciation of child health; and yet effective conduct of the most progressive communities in this field is still in its infancy. Various statistics might be enlisted in support of the indictment against the neglect of most communities of efficient programs of effort for child health. From 70 to 80 per cent of the children in any community are handicapt by health defects which are actually or potentially detrimental to health and which need prompt attention. While the cities today are doing more, relatively, in 'the field of child health than are the rural communities, it is still lamentably true that very few communities in the United States are achieving more than a small part of the comparative success in child-health work which modern business efficiency would demand in any commercial enterprise for the avoidance of ignominious failure. What should a community do for child health ? I beheve it should: 1. Combine all the official forces and all of the volunteer, philan- thropic agencies and interests for the attack upon the problem. 2. Bring to light, by thoro and frequent examinations, the health conditions and needs of all the children. 3. Correct the defects and insure to all the children the inalienable right of every child — sound health by: a) Health cUnics and health centers for handicapt children to make them healthy, and for healthy children to keep them healthy and to make them more healthy. h) Instal in every school a school-lunch service, to provide for every- one a warm nourishing mid-day meal; to inculcate sound food habits for each child and to insure for the pupil and for the home sound instruction in the fundamentals of human nutrition. c) Supply enough messengers of child health in nurses and social visitors to persuade all of the homes to do their utmost for their children. Department! UTAH'S HEALTH LEGISLATION 367 d) Make sure that schools, health authorities, churches, and all kinds of social agencies are carrying on the most complete, cooperative, and practical program of education in relation to child health. No aspect of community life or of the program of public education can be more advantageously affected by the parents, by the biological and social parents, and especially by the mothers, than the matter of health care and health education. To all women today we give this challenge: ''What are you doing to bring 'health, strength, and joy' to every child in your community?'' UTAH'S HEALTH LEGISLATION E. G. GOWANS, STATE DIRECTOR HEALTH EDUCATION, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Examination of School Children for Defective Sight, etc. (Chapter 5, Session Laws, 1911.) Section 4546-50 Compiled Laws 1917. Sec. 4546. Duty of teacher. It shall be the duty of every teacher engaged in teaching in the public schools of the state, separately and carefully, to test and examine every child under his jurisdiction to ascertain if such child is suffering from defective sight or hearing, or diseased teeth, or breathes thru its mouth. If such test determines that any child has such defect, it shall be the duty of the teacher to notify, in writing, the parent of the child of such defect and explain to such parent the necessity of medical attendance for such child. Sec. 4547. State board of health to prescribe rules. The state board of health shall prescribe rules for making such tests, and shall furnish to boards of education and boards of trustees of school districts rules of instruction, test cards, blanks, and other useful appliances for the carrying out of the purposes of this chapter. Sec. 4548. When tests shall be made. During the first month of each school year ^fter the opening of school, teachers must make the tests required by this chapter upon the children then in attendance at school and thereafter, as children enter school during the year, such tests must be made immediately upon their entrance. Sec. 4549. Duty of boards of education. It shall be the duty of the boards of education and boards of trustees of the several school districts of the state to enforce the provisions of this chapter. Sec. 4550. May employ physicians. The board of education or board of trustees of any school district may employ regularly licenst physicians to make the tests required by No. 4546, and when such tests are made by a physician, the teacher shall not be required to make the tests provided for in No. 4546. Powers of Boards. (Sec. 4617 Compiled Laws, 1917). Sec. 4617. (1891-20) Powers of board. The board of education shall have the power and authority .... to do all things needful for the maintenance, prosperity, and success of the schools, and the promotion of education; Creation of Division of Health Education in the Department of Public Instruction (Chapter 85, Session Laws of 1919.) Section i. Appointment of director — duties — salary. That the State Board of Education is authorized to appoint a State Director of Health Education and to fix his salary and determine his qualifications. Under the State Board of Education, the 368 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [School Patrons Director of Health Education shall exercise general supervisory control of health educa- tion in the public schools of the state consisting of hygiene, sanitation, physical education, and recreation. He shall advise with local boards of education in regard to organization and effective means of preserving and promoting the health and physical welfare of school children and of children of pre-school age as provided for in this Act. The salary and necessary traveling expenses of such officer shall be paid out of the state school fund upon approval of such salary and expenses by the State Board of Examiners. Sec. 2. Supervisors — courses required — time. The State Board of Education shall determine the professional requirements of supervisors of health education and school nurses. Health education consisting of sanitation and personal and school hygiene shall be required of all teachers in the public schools of the state, provided, that teachers now in the service shall have three years from date of approval of this Act, in which to comply with the provisions of same. Sec. 3. Pre-School Age — measures for education — consent — ^providing plans. The boards of education of all school districts of the state are authorized to adopt such reason- able measures of health education and to incur such reasonable expense as may be necessary for the promotion of the physical welfare of children of pre-school age in their respective districts, including the education of parents in matters pertaining to child welfare. The power herein granted to local boards of education shall only be exercised with the consent of the parents. A committee consisting of the State Director of Health Education, the dean of the State School of Education, the dean of the department of medicine of the University of Utah, the secretary of the State Board of Health, and the director of the department of home economics of the Agricultural College, shall provide and recommend plans for carrying into effect the provisions of this section. Such plans shall be approved by the State Board of Education. Sec. 4. This Act shall take effect upon approval. Approved March 12, 19 19. The Eleventh Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion for the biennium ending June, 19 16, contains the following: The Children's Health. A careful inspection of the school buildings and grounds in all districts of the state undertaken by the State Superintendent personally, convinst the department workers that the health obligations of most of the communities of the state are not being adequately met, and that while there are other offenders, the schools are not free from censure. One of the most definite obligations resting on any community is the safeguarding of the health of the population. After all, no matter what we do in other fields of education, if we turn children out of the schools after having used their tune for three, five, ten, or more years, and they are less efficient physically than when they came to us — if they have not accumulated some definite health habits — we have not measured up to our responsibility. This is a matter for administrative attention as well as for attention on the part of teachers, principals, and supervisors. The first six years of school life, while not neglecting anything that has established itself as a necessary part of elementary education, should teach a child how to live. It is not so important that he know how many teeth he has as that he know how to eat; that he know what part of a day is spent in sleep as that he spends his own sleep time either out of doors or in a room that has an abundance of fresh air; that he know the use of soap as that he use it with scrupulous regularity. These six years should net the school child a group of health habits, a fund of health knowledge, a set of health ideals that will evidence the fact that the schools recognize, as John Dewey says of the schools at Gary, that: "The physical growth of the pupils is just as important as the Department] HEALTH WORK IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 369 mental, and by devoting the same care to it that is given to the child's progress thru the grades, the schools go a long way toward making themselves a small community which gives every opportunity for a normal and natural life. As a matter of sane educational supervision, every child in the system should be given a medical examination every year which would furnish accurate information about the eyes, the ears, the teeth, mouth, and throat, the posture, physical activity, and health habits; as well as of the general condition, rate of growth, and physiological resistance, if we would safeguard the welfare of the next generation. It would seem from this brief review that legislative provision for this educational work is quite complete and it remains now for the people themselves and their authorized representatives on boards of education to take advantage of this wise legislation. HEALTH ORGANIZATION WORK IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS SALLY LUCAS JEAN, DIRECTOR, CHILD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, NEW YORK, N. Y. Sir Auckland Geddes said the other day before the Citizen's Congress of Education in Washington that a statesman can estimate what the people will be thinking ten years later if he knows what is being taught in the schools. I believe this to be true and I believe it to be equally true that the health of the man today reflects the health thinking and health teaching of the schools of ten years ago — what a man thinks he is. Let's look at the health teaching ten years previous to the physical examinations of the first draft. Let's analyze the teaching of physiology and hygiene. These subjects have usually been handled as one, and the boys and girls of the upper grades have faithfully learned the names and number of the bones of the body, its circulatory and digestive sys- tem and even studied the formation of the teeth. Too few hours of sleep and the wrong kind of foods were considered, as were alcohol and nicotine. The latter, however, were made dramatic, such ideas as the few drops of nicotine on the tongue of a dog and the effect of alcohol upon the tissues of the stomach. Who can forget the sight of alcohol burning in its saucer in school at about our tenth year? Do we have any such memory of the effect of neglecting our tooth brush which was the case at that time of a large percentage of children, as it is today ? The domestic science classes have been taught to make desserts, salads, biscuits, etc., and the children encouraged to work out food values as well as budgets, but have they been given a working knowledge and interest in every day home foods — as body builders — enabling them to live more fully ? Physical education has meant largely exercise of a formal nature stress- ing muscular development. As a superintendent of physical education in one 370 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons of our large states said lately : '' Upon the physical activity of the people de- pends the strength of the nation" and he thought he was telling the truth. Physical educators of the more enlightened type now tell us that they do teach hygiene, but one doubts its efficiency when a western state report on the subject covers one hundred and eighty-four pages, of which only two are given to health habits, including nutrition. "Children should be encour- aged to eat the right foods" — this one sentence on this vital subject when pages had been devoted to the development of one drill to strengthen the muscles of the arm. Medical inspection has been largely a matter of detecting defects and tho great results have been attained along the lines of prevention, little real health educational work comparatively has been attempted. Skin infections have been almost eliminated from the schools in the large cities, and other communicable diseases considerably affected. The people as a whole have learned the effect of enlarged adenoids, eye strain, etc., and are much more ready to take action upon such matters, but the amount of money expended upon the same has not permitted either the school doctor or the school nurse to become a real teacher of health. Children's books of rhymes and fairy stories have been prepared, appeahng to the child's natural interest. The effect of such rhymes may be shown by the little Irish boy who returned to the Charity Organization Society office one day with his mother. Mrs. McGarity seemed excited and said: ''Say, Mrs. Murray, ain't there somethin' beside spinach what makes a boy win the race ? Ever since you give my Micky that book he wants spinach every day and I am tired of washing it." Mrs. McGarity had been told that Micky needed foods with iron in them because he had anemia but it had made no impression, but Micky was sufficiently impressed by this rh3m[ie to insist upon having spinach: I is for Iron in spinach and eggs Makes Red Blood and Sinews For Strong Arms and Legs. The development of Cho Cho, a Health Clown, has been most success- ful. He is a professional, christened with the initials of the Child Health Organization. He has in the last year appeared before one-half million children thruout the country. He presents in a dramatic way simple health truths and in forty-five minutes has left with the children an indelible impression as to the worth-whileness of brushing teeth and going to bed early. There is nothing new in the facts presented by Cho Cho, but as one teacher said, he stimulates the child's imagination. A cartoonist, called the Picture Man, who does charming sketches of vegetables, milk bottles, dancing happily because the children like them, is of course popular. The Health Fairy is perhaps best of all. She is a trained nurse who impersonates a character developt in the little volume of fairy stories Department] SCHOOL REVENUE AND ITS EFFECT 371 Cho Cho and the Health Fairy. She appears with the magic house built for her by the children, a brick or bit of colored glass having been added every time a child practices a health habit. A real live fairy can say anything, you know, and who would doubt her ? We cannot hope to develop a sufficient nimiber of these figures to supply the demand, but there is no reason why normal schools should not stimulate interest in this method of teaching. But this is not enough. The dramatic figure, whether a clown or what not, is only the brass band and must be followed by some method of teaching by which the children's interest will be sustained. Monthly weighing on the school scale serves this purpose. The teacher does not have to add this to her burdens as the children have demonstrated their ability to do the weighing satisfactorily. Posting a weight chart where all the children's names are entered with the actual weight opposite the normal weight, gives an opportunity for competition and forms an incentive, which makes it possible for the teacher to talk health effectively — not the jargon we have all fallen into of the negative — suggesting the perils of sickness if we don't obey the rules of health, but rather picturing the goal — Health! Strength! Joy! The people of Utah have put upon their books the best legislation for health education in America, and with the efficient guidance of Dr. E. G. Gowans and the cooperation of the volunteer forces, an even sturdier race of children can be expected from Utah. The rest of the country looks on, and tho we stand ready to help, we are all looking to Utah for inspiration and guidance. SCHOOL REVENUE AND ITS EFFECT MARGARET S. MC NAUGHT, STATE COMMISSIONER OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. As chairman of the Committee on School Revenue, it has been in the past my privilege and duty to help in safeguarding the schools during the period of the war to the end that whatever sacrifices we had to make as a nation in the winning of the world-war, our children should not be deprived of their rights as coming American citizens to an adequate public- school education. Today, however, we are face to face with a new danger quite as threaten- ing to the nation as any loss from the school treasury of funds set aside for school purposes, but otherwise expended, would have been. This dan- ger is so unexpected and so unusual that its full significance has not yet been borne in upon the public mind. Our schools are still intact, our children are ready to enter them, but trained teachers to conduct the schools are not to be found; in other words, we are facing the crisis of a teacher shortage. 372 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons If we, the School Patrons of the National Education Association, representing the largest organized body of citizens in the nation that is committed to work for and with the teachers of the public schools, are to be of any help in this crisis, we must get at the facts of our school con- ditions as set forth in publisht statistics. Bulletin iq20, No. ii, '^Statistics of State School Systems," 1917-1918, prepared by the Statistical Division of the Bureau of Education, states numerous facts concerning schools that we ought all to study and remember and use. To cite but a few : The total number of teachers, secondary, elementary, and kinder- garten, in 19 18, was 650,709, the average yearly salary of each teacher being $635. There is great variation in this salary schedule in the different states. California ranks first, paying an average salary to high-school teachers of $1,365, and to elementary teachers, $891. Maine pays the lowest average salary to high-school teachers, $652, and Georgia the lowest to elementary teachers, $314. The rate of increase in teachers' salaries from 1916 to 1918 has been only 6 .4 per cent ($36 per year) while the total increase of living for the five-year period 1914 to 1919 has been 76.76 per cent or an average of 1 7. 1 per cent a year. It is easy from these facts alone to account for some of the teacher shortage. School revenues are obtained in the main from three sources, the state, the county, and the city or district. The last named is commonly termed local support. The percentage of school revenue derived from state taxes is decreasing, that derived from local taxation is increasing. The state furnishes 16.8 per cent of our school revenues, the county 7 .9 per cent, and the locality or district 75.3 per cent. It is no longer necessary to set forth reasons why good teachers must be brought back to the profession, held in the profession and trained for the profession; nor is it necessary to argue that increast salaries will be one means of bringing these three desirable conditions about. What we as members of the Department of School Patrons of the National Education Association have to consider is how we can best serve our schools in this crisis. What can we do to educate the public as to the needs of the schools ? What can we do to help school revenues from being wasted? What can we do to maintain or increase our present standards of school efficiency ? What can we do to increase materially the salaries of our teachers ? First, we can once more and with increast ardor support and advertize the merits of the Smith-Towner bill, providing, as we all know, for a Secre- tary of Education and giving federal aid for education to the amount of $100,000,000. The passage of this bill would not only ensure a substantial revenue, but it would set a much-needed example to a number of our states Department] A CHILD'S STUDY PERIOD 373 in the matter of school support; namely, raising money where the wealth is and distributing it where the children are, to the end that all children may be well taught. No school, no matter where it is placed, should be taught by an incompetent teacher. We can also, as a mere matter of business policy if for no other reason, advocate consolidated schools wherever feasible. These schools provide better schools, buildings, and equipment and eliminate much overhead expense. We can work for the enactment of adequate laws for compulsory education in all states, laws not only well made but vigorously carried out. Thus we can save many millions of dollars now wasted because the children are not in the schools to be educated. And after we have done our best and are at our wit's ends as to the next procedure regarding teachers' salaries, we can threaten those who turn a deaf ear to our pleadings and arguments with calamities that must inevitably result if no effort for betterment is made. Let me quote one warning that has lived thru the centuries and is as true today as when it was written by Roger Ascham in 1565. And it is pity that commonly more care is had, yea, and that among very wise men, to find out rather a cunning man for their horse than a cunning man for their children. They say nay in word, but they do so in deed. For to the one they will gladly give a stipend of 200 crowns by the year and are loath to offer to the other 200 shillings. God that sitteth in heaven laugheth their choice to scorn and rewardeth their liberality as it should. For tie suffereth them to have tame and well-ordered horses, but wild and unfortunate children, and therefore in the end they find more pleasure in their horses than comfort in their children. • A CHILD'S STUDY PERIOD J. FRED ANDERSON, PRESIDENT, UTAH EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Too often, the so-called "supervised study period" is neither study nor supervision because the teacher cannot *'get over" her assignment. A constructive program is needed in order that the teacher may supervise the study period properly: 1. Her assignment must be definite as to topics, questions, problems assigned, or projects outlined. 2. She must have a keen understanding of the signs by which one can tell whether or not the child is working intelligently. Does the child get the answer or do the work solely by his own efforts ? Does he know when he is "stuck"; and does he ask for definite help to assist him over troublesome places? Does he know when he has fully accomphsht the task assigned; and does he know he is right ? Is he happy ? \ 3. She must have a thoro knowledge of the exact type of help to give each child in answer to his needs. Some children need mere suggestions; others require drill. 374 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons 4. The teacher must know how, in her help, so to emphasize the main points of the lesson that they become a part of the child. 5. She must keep strictly within time limits. Ending on time is just as important as beginning on time. Just as definite assignments in teaching work helps supervise study, so supervised study carries over into the recitation. It is cumulative in effect and forces the teacher to do definite, clear-cut work in her teaching. In other words, supervised study is really teaching of the highest order. The socialized recitation, properly conducted, is a splendid study period, often abused. A little girl boasted that she was the teacher, one day, in a socialized recitation: "What was your teacher doing, Mary?" ''She was painting a flower pot," the innocent child rephed. The aims of the efficient teacher are often upset by well-meaning parents in the home-study period. It is the clear duty of parents to post themselves in how to be truly helpful if we are to have real cooperation between the home and the school. LIBRARY DEPARTMENT SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — O. S. Rice, state supervisor of school libraries ' Madison, Wis. Secretary — Irma M. Walker, librarian. Public Library Hibbing, Minn. The Library Department of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Monday afternoon, July 5, at two o'clock, in Elks's Club. The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented: Introductory Remarks — O. S. Rice, state supervisor of school libraries, Madison, Wis, "Relation of the Public Schools to Various Library Agencies" — Mary E. Downey, library secretary and organizer. Salt Lake City, Utah. In the absence of Miss Downey, her paper was read by E. J. Norton, assistant state superintendent of education for the State of Utah. Discussion — Mr. Hagemann, Franklin, Ind.; S. T. Eggertson, Prove, Utah; O. S. Rice, state supervisor of school libraries, Madison, Wis.; Beatrice Finn, Hibbing, Minn.; Mrs. E. Crane Watson, Iron County. "The State's Interest in School Libraries" — Cornelia Marvin, librarian, Oregon State Library, Salem, Ore. In the absence of Miss Marvin, her paper was read by Mr. Carlton, State Department of Education, Oregon, "Some Plans in Operation for Stimulating Home Reading by School Children" — J. D. Wolcott, Chief of Library Division, United States Bureau of Education, Wash- ington, D.C. "Books for Elementary School Children'' — Annie S. Cutter, director of children's work. Public Library, Cleveland, Ohio. . ' The president appointed the committee on nominations, consisting of Joanna Sprague, librarian. Public Library, Salt Lake City, Utah; Isabel Neales, librarian. Public Library, Ontario, Calif.; Irma M. Walker, librarian. Public Library, Hibbing, Minn. "Printed By-Laws for Regulating the Proceedings and for Promoting the Objects of the Library Department of the National Education Association" — Sherman Williams, chief of the school libraries divisions. State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y. The president appointed a committee to consider these proposed by-laws, consisting of Professor Poulson, Miss Nelson, O. S. Rice, and Miss Finn. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 7 The second session of the Library Department was called to order by the president after which the "Star-Spangled Banner" was sung. The following program was presented : "School Libraries and Americanization" — Joy E. Morgan, state library school, Albany, N.Y. In the absence of Mr. Morgan, his paper was read by A. C. Kingsford, superintendent of schools, Baraboo, Wis, "The Present High-School Library Situation" — Irma M. Walker, librarian. Public Library, Hibbing, Minn. "Thrift in Reading" — H. E. Fowler, State Normal School, Lewiston, Idaho. "Developing the Library Habit" — Lillie R. Ernst, assistant superintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo. "The Public Library and the School" — Joanna H. Sprague, librarian. Public Library, Salt Lake City, Utah. Discussion. 375 376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library A business meeting of the Library Department was called at the Latter Day Saints' School, Thursday forenoon, July 8, at 9:30 o'clock. The report of the Sub-Committee on Reorganizing the School Library Department of the National Education Association read its report. This report was based on the suggestions suggested by the Committee on By-Laws with a few changes which were submitted after careful consideration. The report was adopted. A motion was made and carried to the effect that all committees except three, namely, the Elementary School Committee, the Normal School Committee, and the Committee on Reading Circles, be releast unless the incoming president sees fit to reorganize such committees. The report of the Nominating Committee was adopted unanimously as follows: President — Sherman Williams, chief of school libraries division, State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y. Vice-President — Martin Wilford Poulson, associate professor of education, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah. Secretary and Treasurer — Margaret Ely, Lakeview High School, Chicago, 111. It was moved and carried that it was the sense of the Library Department of the National Education Association that it encourage publishers in every way possible to maintain the best standards of workmanship and print in books and magazines for children; and that we request the publishers to make it possible for libraries to buy separate volumes of classic fiction from especially attractive sets. A vote of thanks was extended to the president and the secretary for what they had done to make the meeting a successful one. A vote of appreciation was tendered to the librarians of Salt Lake City for their assistance in regard to the program and the exhibit, especially Harriet Nelson, University of Utah; Joanna Sprague, Public Library, Salt Lake City; Mary Downey, State Depart- ment of Public Instruction, Utah; Minnie I. Margetts, librarian, Latter Day Saints' High School, Salt Lake City. A motion was past that the secretary of the National Education Association be askt to have separates of the proceedings publisht, procurable at cost price, if enough advance orders be sent in to make it feasible. The membership of the Committees not releast by the Library Department of the National Education Association are as follows: Reading Clubs and Other Plans in Operation for Promoting Home Reading by School Children. J. D. Wolcott, chief of library division, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. Mary J. Booth, librarian. State Normal School, Charleston, 111. M. W. Poulson, professor, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah. Normal School Libraries Committee: Willis H. Kerr, Emporia, Kans. Jesse H. Newlon, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Nebr. Mary C. Richardson, librarian. State Normal School, Geneseo, N.Y. Harriet A. Wood, supervisor of school libraries. Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn. J. A. H. Keith, Indiana, Pa. ' Delia G. Ovitz, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. Elementary School Committee: Annie Spencer Cutter, director children's work, Cleveland Public Library, Cleveland, . Ohio. Jasmine Britton, Board of Education, Library Division, Los Angeles, Calif. Nina Brotherton, supervisor of work with schools, Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh, Pa. Orton Lowe, assistant superintendent of Alleghany County schools. Court House, Pittsburgh, Pa. The meeting adjourned. Irma M. Walker, Secretary Department] SUMMARY OF INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 377 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS SUMMARY OF INTRODUCTORY REMARKS E. S. RICE, STATE SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOL LIBRARIES, MADISON, WIS. To make the world of print serve the highest good as well as the common good of humanity — nothing less than this is bound up with the school library cause. Over half of the people of the United States are without library privileges, which condition is made the basis of the enlarged program of the American Library Association. That association is in the midst of a campaign to raise two million dollars to better this condition of affairs. It is very likely that three-fourths or more of the people without library privileges do not care for library privileges, or would not know how to make use of them if they had those privileges. It is also very probable that half of the people who now do have library privileges do not make use of those privileges. Hence, we need, as a correlative of the American Library Association's enlarged program, a program of the National Education Association having for its purpose the training of the rising generation so that it will value library privileges and know how to use those privileges for its best good. The American Library Association's enlarged program has as its slogan *' Books for Everybody.' ' The National Education Association Library Program may well have for its slogan "Everybody for Books." These two slogans emphasize the two halves which make the complete whole. The National Education Association has played an important and indispensable part in educational progress in this country. Here is an opportunity and a duty in an important educational cause now pressing for adequate attention. As the center of this activity in the National Edu- cation Association, the Library Department needs to be aware of the responsibility resting upon it, and it should take whatever steps may be necessary to perfect and strengthen its organization so that it may be prepared for this important educational task. The best progress comes from within. School libraries receive, much in the way of cooperation from public libraries and public library organi- zations. But, unless school people, school organizations, and school agencies are alive to the situation, progress will be slow and halting, and often in wrong directions. We, as school people, should not for a minute be satisfied to be under guardianship in this vital field of school work. I 378 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library RELATION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS TO VARIOUS LIBRARY AGENCIES MARY E. DOWNEY, LIBRARY SECRETARY AND ORGANIZER, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH If every librarian could have some training in pedagogy and a reasonable amount of experience in teaching, and every teacher could have at least the short course of six or seven weeks in library methods, with experience in library work, our problem would for the most part solve itself, and we might hope for such cooperation between teachers and librarians that the service of the one would dovetail the other perfectly. Without this mutual understanding, thru training and experience, it may be doubted whether any librarian ever is capable of doing full duty to the schools, or whether any teacher ever will appreciate fully the service the library may render in supplementing the school curriculum from the first grade thru the university; or the part the library may play in the after-school life of every student. Those who teach often grow conservative as to accepting instruction themselves. So there arises the difficulty of teaching librarians pedagogy or teachers library economy after either have entered the one profession or the other. This difficulty might easily be overcome by including a certain amount of pedagogy with practice in teaching in the curriculum of library schools and a due portion of library economy with practice work in the normal schools. There should be such cooperation between normal and library schools that at least in some places, there could be an exchange of would-be teachers and librarians for study and practice in the particular subjects. The greatest services a librarian renders are not the menial ones of checking books in and out at the loan desk, and hunting up references on a subject, marking pages with slips, but her greatest functions are to inspire the reading habit, and to teach self-dependence in a library. The difference between the one and the other type of librarian is as great as that between the mother who thinks she loves her child when she picks up his play things and puts them away when he is tired of them or puts away his changes of clothing, and the mother who teaches her child to do these things for himself, according to the Montessori method, which the good librarian also applies. The wrong type of librarian is no better than the teacher who teaches reading wholly from the pedagogical point of a perfect lesson as relates to enunciation, pronunciation, punctuation, rhetorical effect, spelling, and definitions, but misses the greatest point for which her teaching is intended — the stimulation to the love of literature and the culture it may bring. Has the time not come in the relation between school and library agencies, when every community that has supervisors of manual training. Department] THE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL 379 domestic economy, music, and art may afford also a library supervisor for the public-school system ? Is not the latter fully as important, if not more so, than any of the others ? The technical schools of library training could furnish specialists for this service just as the schools of music, art, domestic science, and manual training do, and no more legitimate salary could be paid from the public-school funds. Running thru the whole school curri- culum then from the first grade to th'e end would be courses in the care and history of books, the cultivation of the reading habit, and self-dependence in the use of reference books. Would not the provision of a library super- visor be the missing link so long sought in the relation of the public schools to the various library agencies ? There is awakening also, here and there over the country, sentiment properly to meet the library and school situation but it is far from being general, which is the desired end. While making adequate library facilities one of the points in ranking high schools is bringing up the standard in some states, these states are far too few. The cause is fundamental in lack of understanding between library and school people and in the failure of educators to appreciate the library as the most essential laboratory supplementing the curriculum thruout the school system. While it was demonstrated thru a test of twenty-five years from New York across the Middle West states that the distribution of books for public library use by state departments of education could not be a success and following that experiment the administration of public libraries by school boards, too busy with the larger interest, rarely has been successful, there is little question but many library and school people now desire the establishment of a United States Department of Education, including a Bureau of Libraries, a plan already working successfully in a few states and gradually being followed by others formerly working under separate library commissions, till today it hardly requires a prophet to foresee the time when this will be, not only the general state plan, but also that finally adopted by the United States government. Success under this plan, as in any other, depends wholly on personnel, willingness to allow all work to progress untrammelled, and freedom from partisan politics. If such an idea could materialize, the millennium in the relation between public schools and the various library agencies would be attained. THE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL JOANNA H. SPRAGUE, LIBRARIAN, PUBLIC LIBRARY, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH In speaking to an audience of librarians and teachers the difficulty is the very serious one of presenting a subject on which we are -all agreed and which has been discust from every angle, in such a form as to have the least soporific effect. The ideal situation of course, and one that seems each year a little nearer of attainment thruout the country, is the practical 380 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library and well-selected library in and belonging to the school, administered by a trained librarian. Even this, from my point of view, is not absolutely an ideal condition unless the school librarian at least once a month says to the student, ''Do your research work today at the public library. " For I will place myself at once as belonging to the camp which believes in bringing the school to the public library rather more than in bringing the library to the school. We think that if a boy who is sent from the school to the library to study his lesson gets nothing more than the location of the library and the fact that it is headquarters for books, the assignment has been very well worth while. And we think too that a child who goes thru the schools, however well equipt these schools may be with books, without having been definitely directed to the public library, has been cheated. All children will not develop into readers, but all need and can make use of some books. Books like Ayer's Newspaper Directory, Moody's Railway Manual, A Directory of Manufacturers, are not ordinarily found in a high school library but are taken for granted in the public library. To know what they are and where they may be had may mean a good deal to the young man after he has left school. It is with the work done with the student after we have him at the library that this paper is concerned and, more specifically still, with the relations of the Salt Lake City Library with the city schools. It is a pleasure here to record the progressive and intelligent interest taken by the school system of this city, from the superintendent down, in library matters. Due entirely to this spirit of cooperation, the library has been able the last year to do experimental work along rather different lines from those before attempted. We place collections of books varying from 150 to 600 in each collection, in twenty-four of the schools of the city. Those schools having no col- lections are generally within walking distance of the main library or one of our branches, and we feel strongly that those pupils should come to the library. We stand ready to advertise the library in these schools, by book talks, by sending application blanks, or by invitations to our story hour. We must in the main, however, depend on the teachers to advertise for us and results indicate that they do not fail us. These collections contain always, among others, the books on the school supplemental reading list, and may be exchanged in part or as a whole as the teachers desire. The use made of these books, judging by their circulation, is remarkable, varying naturally in the different schools. Another phase of the work is done in the library with the high schools, always thru the English department, altho, of course, students from all departments receive the instruction. This last year however we have workt out the plan on slightly different lines, and it is of this plan, which has developt to the mutual satisfactiqn of the school and the library that I would like to give you some account. Department] THE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL 381 Our problem was to give instruction in the use of the library to the high-school Freshmen and Sophomores at the library on time schedueld and allowed by the school for the work, and to do this without school assistance at the library. Heretofore a teacher has been scheduled at the library for the library hour; this year it was an impossibiHty. The English department at the high school took the responsibility of the school end, and a class of about twenty was dispatcht each afternoon to the library to report to the reference librarian at 3 : 00 p.m. and to be dis- mist by her at 4 : oo p.m. A list of the students and a list of topics to be covered accompanied each class, and we had a class each afternoon except Saturday, including students from the East and West Side High Schools, and also from the L.D.S. High School. The librarian checkt the roll when they arrived and again- at four o'clock. At that time they were supposed to have finisht the required work and could leave or not as they liked. The instructions given at the school were that each pupil should select a topic from the list, pursue it at the library to the best of his ability, take notes, and give to the teacher at the high school either a written or an oral account of one article read by him on his subject. This, of course, gave the teacher a check on the library work done, but it by no means represented the whole of it. Instruction in the use of the card catalog we hope to resume next year with the Sophomore class, that is, if we are invited. In this class, a ty^t- written outline of the Dewey classification is given each student, and after a short talk, explaining the dictionary catalog, each is given a test question which requires him to follow a title from the card catalog to the place on the shelves. A large part of the opportunity of this work has been lost, if the book required to be found is not something worth while and of real interest to the student who gets it. I would suggest that the briefest possible notes be askt of the student describing the book he has been required to locate, simply to insure that he has given the book a chance. Lessons at the branch libraries begin with children of the fifth grade who come to the library in groups of about eighteen accompanied by a teacher. She assists in checking and following up the lesson. The selection of books used in the lessons has also in view the acquainting of the teacher with the books available for her use — a specially important matter where the collection of books is small, as in a branch. Lesson one for the fifth grade is very simple. Attention is called to the hour signs in the library, to the shelf signs, to the interesting books that are not story books, and the location of these, as well as to the location of stories and fairy tales. The librarian's vision is of a community in which every member uses the public library in as matter-of-fact and as matter-of-course a way as he does the street cars. If this is to be in a remote degree realized, it means that no child should leave school without having been brought 382 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library directly in contact with the public library. We must depend mainly on the school to bring or send him there. After that the responsibility is with the library. PICTURE MATERIAL FOR GEOGRAPHY CLASSES JESSIE L. BURRALL, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D.C. In no department of school work can the library render more interesting and effective service than in supplying picture material for geography classes. No subject presents a greater need for picture illumination, or supplies a greater wealth of illustrative material than does the subject of geography. Therefore, the picture section should take a prominent place in every well-equipt school library. We all remember our own geography lessons, studied from the best books obtainable years ago. We conned the page industriously or by compulsion, and tried to remember as many of the words as we could, gleaning most amazing ideas thereby, many of which had to be corrected in later years as we saw illustrations of the places about which we had read. But within the last twenty years, geogi:aphical pictures have increast with great rapidity. No portion of the world is too remote for the intrepid explorer, and the camera is a part of each traveler's equipment. Many important inventions in the line of printing and engraving have made available an abundance of pictures. This great advance in all branches of picture-taking and making has been of inestimable benefit to the schools. Consider, for instance, the saving in time and energy made by sub- stituting pictures of the whirling bobbins in a cotton mill, for the two or three thousand words needed to give a clear description of the process. Moreover, in reading the description, the child visualizes from his own background, building up his pictures from material in his own mind, and his ideas are often vague, if not incorrect. The ludicrous ideas that children get from familiar hymns and poems are often a source of amusement to parents and teachers. But have we ever tested the amazingly incorrect ideas that a child gets from reading unillustrated text ? Do we stop to think how much of an idea of a sky- scraper a child would get when all he learns from the text is that, " Chicago is famous for the number and height of her skyscrapers" ? How much of an idea of the docks, warehouses, and railroads of New York can a child acquire when he reads that that city is "the gateway thru which pours the freight of a continent"? How shall a pupil visualize New Orleans, San Francisco, Boston, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C, without pictures of them ? The demands of present-day life are such that every boy and girl must be equipt with a thoro and workable knowledge, not only of the United States, but of the world. He cannot travel because of the expense Department] PLANS FOR STIMULATING HOME READING 383 and time involved, so pictures of all the thronging places of the earth must be brought to him. The supplying of these pictures to the schools at cost has been one of the greatest tasks of the National Geographic Society. In order to save the energy of the busy librarian who often must work overtime, a new series, called the Pictorial Geography, is being publisht. Heretofore, it has been necessary for the librarian to cut and mount such geographic pictures as she could find in order to provide the required picture library. Literally hundreds of librarians spent precious hours mounting and cataloging pictures, for which no adequate text could be found. To meet the demand from librarians and teachers, the National Geo- graphic Society is now issuing the wonderful illustrations, secured by years of labor, on separate sheets of tough, durable paper. Each picture is accompanied by about two hundred words of interesting text, written especially for pupils. Best of all, the pictures are arranged in sets by topics, which saves the immense labor of indexing the separate sheets. Within the next few years, pictures will take their rightful place as the very best possible medium for teaching geography. Because the proper teaching of geography is a fundamental factor in the new training for citizenship, it is also the basis of all Americanization programs. Children cannot love and appreciate the far-flung beauties of our native land, unless in some way they can see them. How can we appreciate the grandeur of Shasta, Rainier, or the Grand Canyon if the only picture we have of them is the weak and inadequate one "home made'^ from descriptive text! A knowledge of the beauties of America must be a part of every pupil's life equipment. These are only a few of the many uses of a geographic picture library, the supplying of which is one of the pleasantest, as well as the most profit- able, part of the school librarian's work. SOME PLANS IN OPERATION FOR STIMULATING HOME READING BY SCHOOL CHILDREN J. D. WOLCOTT, CHIEF OF LIBRARY DIVISION, UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. This is a preliminary report of a committee appointed by the Library Department of the National Education Association to draw up a survey of methods employed thruout the country for stimulating and directing children's home reading. The members of the committee are: J. D. Wolcott, Librarian of United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C, chairman; Miss Mary E. Booth, librarian of Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston, 111. ; Professor M. Wilford Poulson, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah. The present paper briefly describes a number of examples of notably effective plans for the direction of children's 384 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library home reading in operation in various parts of the country and concerning which up-to-date information has recently been collected. In the fall of 1914 Superintendent Charles R. Stone, of Munhall, Pa., inaugurated a home-reading course for his graded schools, which has been so conspicuously successful in its operation as to become a model for other communities. After five years' operation of the plan, at first voluntary and later compulsory as applied to the pupils, Mr. Stone asserts his con- viction that it is the best idea evolved by him during his eleven years of superintending schools. The most encouraging result of the method is that the pupils come really to like books. The Munhall plan has been adopted and elaborated on a larger scale by the public schools of Youngstown, Ohio. For the year 1919-20, the school board of Youngstown appropriated funds for purchasing 4,600 volumes which were distributed among the schoolrooms in grades four to seven. The public library assumed responsibility for the handling and preparation for circulation of all these books. At the opening of school in the fall of 19 19, each teacher in grades four to seven found in her room a collection of twenty to forty books, according to the number of pupils and adapted to their grade. Each pupil was required to read out of school during the year at least eight books, selected from the approved Hst for his room, under penalty of losing 2J per cent from his reading grade for each book lacking from the required number. Those who read ten books received at the end of the year a certificate given by the public library and signed by the superintendent of schools, the librarian, the principal, and the teacher. For each additional five books read, a gold seal was attached to the certificate. The compulsory feature in the Youngstown reading project is so carefully subordinated that it does not hinder the development of a natural and spontaneous interest in the books by the children. After reading each book, a pupil was required to fill out a brief report slip thereon, not at all in the nature of an examination, but enough to satisfy his teacher that he had actually read the book. Each teacher was equipt for checking up her pupils' reading by means of a pamphlet containing detailed instructions for her guidance and a complete list of the books for her room, with a thoro description, 300 words in length, of each book. The Youngstown school board is so well pleased with the results of the first year's experience with the home-reading plan, that for the coming year it has appropriated funds with which to purchase books for grades three and eight, thus enlarging the scope of the scheme, and to buy more books for grades four to seven. The number of books purchast last year was found insufiicient to meet the demands upon them. Other measures for making the project more effective in future are contemplated. In Cleveland, Ohio, the children's summer reading is encouraged by an interesting plan — a summer honor-reading roll. This scheme is con- Department] PLANS FOR STIMULATING HOME READING 385 ducted by the branches of the Cleveland Public Library in cooperation with the school authorities. The object is to safeguard some children from reading too much and to stimulate and interest those children who read little or nothing during the summer months. Upon request of the child the children's librarian of the nearest branch copies a list of his reading during the summer and in the fall forwards it to his teacher. In September, children who have read at least one book a week during the summer have their names posted on an honor roll, which is displayed both in the branch library and in the schoolroom. The children who win honors for summer reading are also given personal certificate cards. Lynn, Mass., also had a similar vacation-reading course for children in 1919. A good example of methods employed to obtain interest in home reading in a progressive institution is afforded by the Minneapolis Central High School. The majority of teachers in the school use the general methods of oral and written reports on books by pupils in class, and call attention to books by lists, reviews, and posting on bulletin boards. Indi- vidual recommendation is employed so far as time permits. Many teachers give extra credit for extra book reports. One teacher gives the student a chance to raise his month's average from 3 to 7 points by reporting on extra books chosen from a special list. A special feature is advertising day, for which each pupil prepares on the book he has read outside the class the sort of talk he would use if he were trying to sell the book. The success of his presentation is judged by the number of students who have read the book before the next adver- tising day. Another method is to exhibit to the pupils in the classroom a library truck filled with books which the school library can supply. The state young people's reading circles successfully continued their ministrations during the past year. No new state circles have been estab- lisht, however, since the 19 19 meeting of this department, so far as our information goes. The Indiana young people's reading circle, the pioneer organization of the kind in the country, reports a sale during the past year of over 48,000 volumes. Many certificates and diplomas for reading performed were issued. The manager sent circular letters to county superintendents, trustees, teachers, and librarians urging them to help in every possible way to spread the gospel of good books. The Wisconsin young people's reading circle had an enrolment of 95,000 pupils during the school year 1919-20, a gain of 50 per cent over the preceding year's membership of 62,000. h 386 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library SCHOOL LIBRARIES AND AMERICANIZATION JOY ELMER MORGAN, STATE LIBRARY SCHOOL, ALBANY, N.Y. ''Americanization" is likely to suggest to many minds work done with people of foreign birth, but the word signifies vastly more. Americanization is the perfecting of every American citizen, native or foreign borlti, in the things that make America. And what are the things that make America ? It would take a long catalog even to list them all, but there are some especially important ones whose relation to the library may easily be seen. One thinks first of our American homes — our American ideal of home life— and of the position of woman in the home. I believe there is stich an ideal and there is no better way to spread that ideal than to encourage the reading of the outstanding biographies and the great novels that reproduce the spirit of the American home at its best. It enriches the life of any child actually to enter homes whose atmosphere is wholesome. In a lesser degree, but just as surely, life becomes richer by sharing such homes thru the medium of the printed page. A second thing that makes America is its industry. To earn a decent living honestly is the aim of every worthy citizen. This ideal has not been difficult to maintain in our rural and smaller communities where the worker's relation to his fellows is immediate and obvious. It has not been so easy to maintain in our industrial centers where both employers and employes have at times used un-American methods and have developt class antagonisms and narrow points of view. The library's relation to industry is twofold. It furnishes the books that deal with processes and methods, that apply scientific principles to the worker's daily task. But it performs a function equally important in supplying the books that give familiarity with the conditions that underlie wise industrial develop- ment and the books that minister to the spirit of the worker, help him to see his task in its broader significance as a part of the national life. Another thing that makes America is the land itself with its glorious mountains, graceful valleys, widespreading fertile plains, quiet flowing rivers, golden wheat fields, rich green gardens, and stately cities; the land to which often attaches the thrill of noble deeds and great achievements; the land which symbolizes the spirit of the conquering pioneer and the nation builder. It is not possible for the school by using any single text- book to develop love of the land in the heart of the child, but rich human associations can be built into his life by the use of many books — by free contact with the first-hand narratives of our varied geography and stirring history. A fourth thing that m^kes America is its language. Thru language the citizen has contact with his fellows.. Thru it he comes into possession of the inspiring elements in the nation's past; into harmony with the Department] PRESENT STATUS OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY 387 throbbing and varied activities of its dynamic present; and into appre- ciation of its hopes for the future. It isn't enough that the citizen be able merely to read this common language. He must come to look upon reading as an opportunity, as a responsibility, as a means of keeping himself in readiness to perform intelligently, the important duties of citizenship. A fifth thing that makes America is its government. In a democracy the people make the government and are in turn influenst by it. An ignorant, provincial people make a weak, selfish government, for in the end the government is neither better nor worse than the people themselves. The essential thing is that people shall read and think about their govern- ment and shall keep fresh in their minds the principles and conditions upon which good government rests. A sixth thing that makes America is its common experience. Perhaps this is the most characteristic thing, for it is out of this experience that our national ideals spring. On a small scale we see the importance of shared experience in the formation of friendships. Our dearest friends are those that have shared with us the significant experiences of our lives. These six things, then, suggest the importance of school libraries in Americanization — American ideals of home life, right vocational relation- ships, our glorious country, our enormous fund of ideas recorded in a common language, our government, and the rich experiences that are our history. America is approaching the morning of a great national reawakening. There are signs of recovery from the colossal selfishness that followed the war. The school library can foster this reawakening. You all know what the joy of personal discovery means. How it releases immense stores of hidden energy and quickens the best in men and women. It is this joy of discovery that the school library gives the child. It enables him — free from the restraints and compulsions of the classroom — to discover America, the altruistic, efficient, freedom-loving America, upon whose trained intel- ligence may depend the destiny of civilization. THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY LN THE UNLTED STATES IRMA M. WALKER, LIBRARIAN, HIBBING, MINN. Two hundred and sixty questionnaires on the high-school library were returned to the Library Department as well as over four hundred replies to the qualifications questionnaire. The replies cover a number of states, principally the Eastern, Western, and Middle West, the Rocky Mountain states and the Southern states sending in the smallest number of reports, if any. New York and Wisconsin appear to have the most strongly developt system of school libraries. 388 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library There was a variety of library arrangements; 51 per cent were full- time librarians. There was a large number of teacher librarians, who taught part of the day with designated periods for library service. A number of librarians divided the day between the public and the school library. Still others did school work in the public libraries which were on the school campus or adjoining lot. In such cases the school and library boards shared jointly in the expense, as is the case where the school library is a branch of the public library. In one case a separate public library was maintained by school funds. California boasts several endowed school libraries. There is no doubt but that the school library is going to be recognized as one of the most important of the high-school departments, and in many cases this has been the first year that it has been so recognized. In another two years its field of usefulness should be greatly enlarged. The report states that the reading-room should be located near the study hall but separate from it. It should be connected with the study hall by doorway, alcove, or passageway, but should be entirely separate from it. It should not be in the assembly or in a room used for recitation purposes. In the questionnaires we found that 69 libraries were on different floors from the assembly, 81 were located in a separate room on the same floor, 42 were connected with the assembly by an alcove or doorway, and 20 were located in the assembly or study hall itself. Libraries were situated in the basement, in recitation rooms in which classes were held, on the stage of the auditorium, in rooms above the noisy machine shops, and several were in galleries on a mezzanine floor above the assembly. One librarian found that great inconvenience was caused by placing the library between two study halls, which necessitated a great deal of passing to and fro. The seating capacity of the libraries was considerably below the 10 per cent of the enrolment which is the desirable standard. Nearly one sixth of the libraries reported that their reading-rooms were either poorly ven- tilated or lighted. Nearly every library reported that it lackt some standard article of equipment, usually a librarian's desk, magazine binders, newspaper racks and pamphlet boxes. These articles were desired, no doubt, because the lack of them, in crowded conditions, leads to so much disorder and confusion. In 30 instances the equipment was reported complete and satisfactory in every particular. These were new libraries or new buildings where there seemed to be a pride injhaving things as complete and up-to-date as possible. In some cases the equipment was made entirely by the manual-training department. It would be interesting to know whether this hand-made furniture stands up under continued usage, or whether it eventually sticks ox warps. Our own manual-training teacher recommended that the library bureau be used, because it is made by experts and is guaranteed not to warp. Department] PRESENT STATUS OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY 389 No librarian reported having a workroom, which is surely a much- needed adjunct, if books are to be unpackt, cataloged and mended. A few had library classrooms in connection with the library. ''The standard requirements for future appointments of librarians in high schools should be a college or university degree with major studies in literature, history, sociology, education, or other subjects appropriate to any special demands upon the library, as for example, those of the technical high school. In addition the librarian should have at least one year of post- graduate library training in an approved library school and one year's suc- cessful library experience in work with young people in a library of standing. Of the high-school librarians reporting, 179 were college and university graduates of an approved library school. Ninety-seven more were normal- school graduates. A number of these were teacher-librarians which partly accounts for the number of college graduates without the library school. Practically all of these, however, had had some extra training or practical experience in libraries. One hundred and fifteen questionnaires were rejected for lack of standard training, altho many of these librarians had had a long experience tho a narrowing one. In our questionnaire we find that 54 per cent of the school librarians are receiving less than the average wage of the average grade (not the high- school) teacher. Moreover 30 were receiving less than the minimum, 30 were receiving the minimum wage. Seventy-nine were receiving less than the average wage in the schools, 50 were receiving more than the average, 7 were getting the maximum salary while 28 had so demonstrated their value that they received more than the maximum. These figures include teacher-librarians, some of whom were principals as well, and so were getting more salary. Many extra duties have been thrust upon the librarian such as study- room discipline, hall duty, class adviser, secretarial duties, and the like. It seems that the library is the dumping place for odd jobs and for teachers temporarily out of a class. One library receives its books from the school milliner who doesn't have enough to do. Another librarian reports herself as also a teacher of domestic science and swimming. This lack of status indicated by the miscellany of duties has a direct bearing on the salary question. When the library is relegated to the basement or to the stage of the chapel or to some other out-of-the-way place it is a silent com- mentary on the fact that the library has failed to impress itself upon the school system as an indispensible source of information and inspiration. I believe that this body should go on record in a resolution of similar tenor and that a copy of it should be sent to the librarian and the principal of every school represented in Miss Ely's list. We might join the public librarians in a movement for similar recognition. Some librarians receive as low as $785 a year. An eighth-grade boy who comes to my desk earns $5 .32 a day as water boy, or $1,787 a year. How dignified do you suppose 390 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library the librarian looks in his eyes as she pleads fbr him to continue his education, when without it he can already earn more than she can ? The salary of the professionally trained librarian should hope to equal that of the trained laborer, and should be in accordance with the dignity of the profession. The book collections were of all sizes. Five libraries contained less than I GO books; nine libraries less than 500; fifteen libraries had less than 1,000; while the majority contained from 1,000 to 5,000 books. Eleven libraries contained over 10,000 books. For books several libraries spent less than $10 per annum, forty-two spent from $10 to $100, ninety-one spent from $100 to $500, forty-two spent from $500 to $1,000, and seventeen from $1,000 to $2,000. The standard expenditures for books per year is fifty cents per pupil, but library expenditures seemed to have little to do with numbers, perhaps it depended more on the needs of the various other departments of the school, and their dependence on the library for supple- mentary material. The money spent on magazines varied from $1 to several hundred dollars and the number taken varied from one magazine to two hundred. There was a difference of opinion as to the desirability of magazines in the high-school library, leaving them for recreation and current events. Many did not use magazine binders, since they are clumsy and troublesome. However, one would think with the poor binding done on magazines now that they would be a necessity. The minimum number of library lessons in the attainable standards is twelve for the high-school course. This is about the average number given, tho the number of lessons given in the high-school course varies from i to 150. The thoroness of the course seems to be in inverse ratio to the size of the schools, tho some of the high schools in large cities, as Chicago, Detroit, and Pittsburgh, have real organized and developt courses. Wisconsin on account of its teacher librarian law, gives by far the largest number of lessons in its schools. New York gives many lessons in its smaller schools. The large high schools are handicapt by their own numbers, by lack of space, and lack of the necessary number of assistants. In many places the public libraries assist in this work especially in the elementary schools. There has been a fine bit of cooperation thruout the country in this work. Libraries supported by school funds to supplement the school curriculum are on the increase, supervised by trained full-time librarians. The librarians do not, in actual fact, have the same status as teachers, and in spite of longer training, longer hours, and more varied service, are less well paid than the average high-school teacher. Many libraries are laboring under difficulties due to crowded conditions or temporary housing; this will be remedied in many instances by new buildings now in construction. New equipment will follow the move into new quarters. There should be more instruction, and more definite instruction in the use of books and libraries. Department] THRIFT IN READING 39 1 THRIFT IN READING H. E. FOWLER, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LEWISTON, IDAHO Various agencies are now accomplishing much in the conservation of human health; there is a nation-wide campaign for thrift in money; we are learning much about the saving of food and clothing; in all this activity toward overcoming our national vice of wastefulness, why not include thrift in reading ? Let it be understood that a campaign against waste in reading does not mean opposition to the splendid movement now under way to extend the privileges of libraries to those who have not had such opportunities. From this movement will come an impetus to the self-education of our people and to the promotion of better citizenship. Let us have more books, and still more books, just so long as there are readers needing them. But with this great increase in the number of books, there must be an ever- increasing demand for them. Here, then, is the problem; to bring about the fullest and most intelligent use of all the books available. First it will be necessary to consider the library as a business institution, which it is in a very real sense. The shelves of books represent a large investment of capital — of real money. Just as in a mercantile business, profits depend upon turnover, and the more frequent the turnover the greater the profits. Tho the gain accruing to the library from its clientele is intangible, it is nevertheless actual. If books stay on the shelves there is a real loss on the capital invested. Merchants avoid this loss by special sales which move the slow-selling goods. To complete the analogy, the librarian must find some way of holding ''sales" of the slow-moving books. In addition to stimulating the circulation of seldom-used books, there is the possibility of securing wider reading of good magazines which have only partially served their usefulness. If the library and school could cooperate in organizing a central agency which would collect and distribute periodicals donated by readers who have finisht with them, another con- tribution to thrift in reading materials would be made. Many a hospital, clubroom, restroom, or rural school would be glad to have for their reading tables second-hand magazines a few months old. Thus far only the need of thrift in reading materials has been con- sidered. Looking at the problem from a purely financial viewpoint, an unbelievable amount of money is literally thrown away on books which are not read — but which might serve readers if only a way were found of bringing book and reader together. No one can browse in a stack of books without discovering something new and interesting. The wonderful renaissance of library activity which has followed the war is due largely to the discoveries of our men in army camps and in the navy that there were thousands of interesting books that they never had known about. Unusual conditions brought them into contact with these books, and aroused new reading needs and desires. The task, then, is to take the books to the 392 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library readers by applying the methods of good business to the enterprise. Such methods are just as applicable to schools and colleges as to public libraries. Greater even than the task of cultivating thrift in the distribution of books and magazines is that of overcoming wasteful reading habits. This burden falls largely on the schools, and especially upon the English teachers. It begins with the earliest instruction in the art of reading and goes thru high school and college. But notwithstanding all that the schools have tried to do in teaching good reading habits the majority of men and women with university degrees admit that they do not know how to read. One says that he cannot concentrate on what he reads; another that he cannot read rapidly; another that he cannot remember accurately the important facts in his reading — and yet another that he lacks a sense of values in his reading.' Of late the public schools have been awakening to this failure, and in two ways, especially, have attempted a revision in teaching methods intended to make more intelligent readers. One change is a shifting of emphasis from oral to silent reading in the grades. In progressive schools the amount of time spent on reading aloud in recitations diminishes as the child advances, and in the junior high-school years the greater part of his work is devoted to practice in thought-getting from the printed page. Is it not worth while to call attention to the similarity between our mental and physical processes of digestion ? The simile is at least as old as Francis Bacon who put it so tersely; "Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested." And yet we are overwhelmed with books, bulletins, and articles on ''balanst rations," "a sensible diet," "how to eat and grow thin," "how to eat and grow fat" — all pertaining to our sordid physical selves. Only occasionally does one hear a weak voice in the wilderness protesting against the abuse of our mental digestive apparatus, and offering sensible advice about it. We were intended for mental ruminants, and we have degenerated into intellectual gluttons, bolting our reading-matter and failing in assimilation. In his stimulating little volume entitled "How to Live on Twenty-four Hours a Day," Arnold Bennett advises his readers to set aside ninety minutes of an evening to serious reading and reflection thereupon. He goes on to say: "I know people who read and read and for all the good it does them they might as well cut bread and butter They fly thru literature in a motor car, their sole object being motion; they will tell you how many books they have read in a year." Then he gives this advice: "Unless you give at least forty-five minutes to careful, fatiguing reflection (it is an awful bore at first) upon what you are reading, your ninety minutes of a night are chiefly wasted. " There is a single aim which actuates those who are working to increase the circulation of books and good reading material and those who are striving to train a new generation of thrifty and intelligent readers; this Department] THRIFT IN READING 393 aim is better citizenship. We are trying to develop a new and better kind of American thru a liberalized process of education. Certainly one great factor in this development will be the training of readers who can think for themselves. Such training can come only when our eyes are opened to the eiformous waste in the reading habits of the nation. It is the over- coming of this waste in reading and the setting up of higher standards for the reading public to which both librarians and teachers must dedicate themselves. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS ^ SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — George L. Towne, editor, Nebraska Teacher Lincoln, Nebr. Secretary — Beulah Brown, assistant primary supervisor St. Paul, Minn. Wednesday Forenoon, July 7 The Educational Publications of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Wednesday forenoon, July 7, at nine o'clock, in the Newhouse Hotel. The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented: "Do State Laws Help or Hinder in Securing Good Textbooks ?" — Arthur H. Cham- berlain, secretary, California teachers association, San Francisco, Calif. "Is a New Type of Textbook Needed for the English Course in the High School ? " — ^Howard R. Driggs, professor of English, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. "How Should Textbooks Be Selected ? (i) The Publisher's Point of View"— C. W. Taber, western manager, J. B. Lippincott Company, Chicago, 111. "How Should Textbooks Be Selected? (2) The Superintendent's Point of View" — W. R. Siders, superintendent of schools, Pocatello, Idaho. "Limiting the Spurious Output by Careful Editing" — J. W. Searson, head of depart- ment of English, Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President — George L. Towne, editor, Nebraska Teacher, Lincoln, Nebr. Secretary — Beulah Brown, assistant primary supervisor, St. PaijJ, Minn. The meeting adjourned. George L. Towne, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS IS THERE NEED FOR A NEW TYPE OF TEXT IN HIGH -SCHOOL ENGLISH? HOWARD R. DRIGGS, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Is there, strictly speaking, any such course as one in high-school Enghsh ? My observations, covering a wide range of first-hand study of high schools in every part of our country, makes me rather uncertain how to answer this pertinent question. About half the time given to high-school English is devoted to reviewing elementary English; the other half is spent on a kind of homeopathic college English. High-school English, strictly speaking, gets scant attention in most schools. Two reasons account mainly for the general condition just suggested. In the first place, the elementary language work, for the most part, is 395 396 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Educational Publications poorly done. Pupils come from the grade school without the first principles of language fixt in their tongue, fingers, and head. This makes it impera- tive that the high-school teacher train them again in the beginnings of English work. In the second place, the high-school teachers, fresh from college, naturally follow the college methods in teaching. The result is as indicated, a strange mixture of college and primary lessons, with the strictly high-school work almost entirely eliminated. Still another reason gives a prevailing college caste to the work. The texts provided have been, for the most part, written by college professors. They may know the subject well enough, but have had little or no contact with real high-school classes and less with elementary ones. We are just beginning to get another type of text from high-school workers. The foregoing results might have been anticipated. Our high school is of very recent development. It has leapt into being within recent years. We have had to take it and work out its problems quickly under difficult conditions. Developing texts and courses of study to supply this new need is a task that cannot be well done in a hurry. The problem has to be studied and experimented with to get the right results. This takes time and thoughtful effort. Another thing necessary is a clear objective. What is the chief pur- pose of the high school — to prepare pupils for college or to equip them for real life? Both, you say. Then must we not find a clear way to achieve these two ends in one ? It would seem that we must and can. The right preparation for college is also the right preparation for life. Pupils trained to study, to think, to use their language effectively, to live clean, useful lives, are surely meeting college requirements most effectively. The type of textbook needed by high-school boys and girls is one which drives straight at their own problems. To be most effective, it must open up the lessons of life vital to them. A language text that fails to provide vitalized studies in language from their viewpoint is a failure, no matter how systematically or skilfully it presents the technical terms and facts about language. Attempts have been made to produce such texts. In some measure those texts have succeeded, but has the perfect text been produced? Thousands of high-school teachers are eagerly looking for a demonstration of such a text. The next move *'up to the textbook writers and the publishers is either to deliver or to develop the goods." High schools are needing a well- arranged, progressive course in real English. A text is surely wanted that meets the pupils on their own grounds and gives them systematic and vitalized training in the use of speech, not for the sake of speech but for the sake of service. Here is an opportunity for both textbook writers and publishers to be of real service. Department] THE SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS 397 . HOW SHOULD TEXTBOOKS BE SELECTED?— THE SUPERINTENDENTS POINT OF VIEW WALTER R. SIDERS, SUPERINTENDENT SCHOOLS, POCATELLO, IDAHO Whatever method is adopted, textbooks should be past upon by those who will use them, working in cooperation with those who supervise the instruction. Textbooks should not be selected by laymen, nor by anyone incapable of passing upon them from a professional point of view. Textbook adoptions should be public for the following reasons: 1. That all who have books may submit them. 2. That no secret influences may be at work. While secret readers and expert opinion may be obtained, there should be a time and place set where the Book Commission will listen to book salesmen, and to publishers on the respective merits of their books. The report of the Textbook Commission to the authorities who will make the contracts should be based upon: 1. The expert opinion of readers selected for the purpose 2. On the opinions of the teachers and supervisors who will use the books 3. On the respective merits of the books as presented by those selling them (this taken into consideration with i and 2 above) 4. On material values as represented in price, giving consideration to quality of binding, paper, and letter press 5. The content of the books The following points are worthy of consideration in passing upon the content of textbooks: 1. Social in their viewpoint 2. Adapted to the needs of the present time 3. Absolutely true to the best principles of Americanism 4. Free from religious, political, sectional, or party bias 5. Pedagogical 6. Accurate 7. Well arranged for ready reference and consultation. The following well-recognized standards may be applied to evaluating the books from a material standpoint: 1. Paper: should be pure white without gloss. Of 0.076 mm. thickness. 2. Binding: sufliciently durable for the purpose contemplated. 3. Letter press: from new type, and plates. Illustrations clear, and adapted to explanation of the text. 4. Type: for the first year, the type should be 2 .6 mm. with 4 . 5 mm. space between the lines; for the second and third years, the type should be 2 mm. with 4 mm. space between the lines; for the fourth grade, the type should be i .8 mm. with 3 .6 mm. space between the lines; for the other grades, the standards below the adult readers. 398 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Educational Publications Standards for Adults: thickness of vertical stroke, 0.3 mm.; spaces between letters, 0.3 to 0.5 mm.; distance between lines, 2.5 mm. as a rule; maximum length of lines, which should be uniform, 90 mm. ; letters clear out, and distinct, with deep, black tops (for the reason that reading is done along the top of the line). Evaluating the Contents: two important studies in evaluating subject- matter have recently appeared in the Journal of Educational Research. In the February, 1920, number on ''The AppHcation of Scientific Method in Evaluating the Subject-matter of Spellers," and in the June, 1920, number on "Overlapping in the Content of Fifteen Second Readers." These studies are by and under the direction of Dr. Clifford Woody of the University of Washington. They constitute the most valuable contribution to this subject made in recent years. In the discussion on the "Evaluation of Spellers," Dr. Woody gives consideration to the many recent studies to determine what words are in common usage. Do the vocabularies of the spellers studied contain the words of common usage, or words of uncommon us^ge, and to what extent ? The spellers are compared with the W. N. Anderson list to determine: 1. What words are in the spellers and not in the list 2. What words are in the spellers and in the list 3. The list words only (for comparison) These spellers are then measured from the viewpoint of determining which' spellers list the words used most frequently, e. g., in the Anderson list 'there are 78 words which are used from 677 to 11,893 times in the 361,184 words of the Anderson list. There are ten sortings of these words ranging from the first one-tenth (of 78 words as above described), to the last one-tenth of 6,118 words used from one to five times. The speller words are measured against these frequencies of use to determine which spellers contain the most frequently used, and which contain the least frequently used words. The study shows, conclusively, that from 58 per cent to 77 per cent of the time devoted to spelling is spent upon words not commonly used. Dr. Woody in his Study in the Content of Fifteen Second Readers, com- ments upon the former practice of reading one text many times, giving credit to the value of the method in fixing the thought content. He Jhen points out that modern pedagogy demands the meeting of the vocabulary words (in a given grade, for example) in many different situations to determine (i) positive sight recognition, and (2) the various shades of meanings, and shades of meanings obtained by word blending. The enormous supply of supplementary reading upon the market, and the amount of money spent for the same make an evaluation necessary. Often the supplementary readers contain many of the same stories and much of the supplementary material of the basic texts. Dr. Woody's study shows the overlapping. Department] THE SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS 399 The books are first analyzed to show the number of pages devoted to folklore, to myths, to fables, to boys and girls, to rhymes, to birds, to plants, to fairies, to pets, to fowls, to plays and games, to historical and patriotic subjects, to conduct, to insects, to lullabies, and to other miscellaneous material. The majority of the books devote a preponderance of space to such closely related fields as folklore, stories, fables, fairy stories, myths, and a meager amount to stories involving boys and girls, birds, plants, pets, fowls, plays and games. The strange and fanciful have the greatest amount of space. The percentage of material from the studied second readers varies (to give a few instances), as follows: Instructive Material Imaginative Material 11. 0 88.9 23.6 75-9 16.0 84.0 0.0 100. 0 100. 0 0.0 The range of instructive material in these books ranges from 0.0 per cent to 100 per cent, with a median of 32 .0 per cent. The range on imagi- native materials ranges from 0.0 to 100 per cent, with a median of 67.9 per cent. One reader includes no instructive material, and 100 per cent imaginative material. Another reader is the reverse of this.' ^Only 15.3 per cent of subject-matter is devoted to real nature stories. Fifty-one and eight-tenth of subject-matter is devoted to folklore, fairy tales, and myths. There is not the right balance between instructive and imaginative material. There is room on the market for books of the balanst type. Of the fifteen readers studied, seven of the fifteen contained the selec- tion, "Over in the Meadow." ''The Four Friends," or better known, as "The Town Musicians," is found in six of the fifteen. The duplication ranges from three to seven selections making up the content of the fifteen readers studied. One reader had material entirely its own, and showed no overlapping. The value of the study is to enable the purchase of material different from that already in the hands of the pupils. THE SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS FROM THE PUBLISHER'S POINT OF VIEW C. W. TABER, WESTERN MANAGER, J. B. LIPPINCOTT & COMPANY, CHICAGO, ILL. Criticism often is raised against schoolbook prices. But whatever they are or should be, it is reasonable to suppose that if selling costs could • A complete printed copy of this address may be had, as long as they last, by applying to The Edu- cation Publications Section of the N. E. A., 2126 Prairie Ave., Chicago. / 400 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Educational Publications be reduced, a corresponding reduction in prices would follow. Suppose we examine a few of the educational barbed-wire entanglements that stand in the way of the publisher's objective, which is the making of the highest type of schoolbook possible and the selling of it at as low a price as possible, on a dignified, business-like basis, and still make a reasonable profit. Exchanges. — Commissioner Claxton condemned the practice of making exchanges and ridiculed it, using the illustration of the school man who would dare to ask the local shoe dealer to exchange an old pair of shoes for a new pair, or to allow him something for the old pair if he agreed to buy a new pair. The competition in the business years ago incited some foolish publisher to begin this practice and as a result all are now suffering from it, but the cost of making exchanges is reckoned as part of the publisher's selling expense, and if the practice did not exist the price of schoolbooks could be lowered. Do not think that the schools are getting something for nothing when a state compels a publisher to grant a 50 per cent exchange rate, or any exchange for that matter. This tax must be absorbed in some way and there is only one business-like way in which it can be absorbed. Desk copy-books. — This represents the premium-coupon system of selling merchandise, today condemned by all chambers of commerce. In the book business it is nothing but wholesale bribery on the part of the school system demanding it. ''If you refuse to furnish us a few desk copies of your book, we will refuse to adopt it," is a familiar communication received by publishers. A man who is educationally big enough to be the superintendent of a school system should be big enough to assume all responsibility for the selection of textbooks. To appoint a textbook committee to vote on texts means in many cases that the superintendent is afraid to stand before his constituency and say, ''/ did it. What have you got to say about it?'' The committee divides the responsibility as well as the censure of the community, if any. To leave the vote in the hands of teachers is an admission that he knows little about the subject under discussion. If several books are to be adopted a committee vote always means com- promises, and compromises should not enter into the solution. Here are a few features that frequently help in the adoption of text- books and which should not be considered for one moment: 1. Text written by favorite author of teacher 2. Text used or favored by my former instructors 3. Text contains some of my favorite devices or pet definitions 4. Text contains certain catchy devices 5. Other places known that are using it 6. I like the agent or the company representing the book 7. The agent lost out last time; he is entitled to something now Department] LIMITING THE OUTPUT OF TEXTBOOKS 401 8. I like or dislike the color of the cover, or the pictures 9. If it doesn't work out we can change it On the other hand, ask yourself these questions: 1. Is it teachable? 2. Is it within the ability of my teachers to use it successfully without special instruction and constant supervision ? 3. Is it well organized ? 4. Is it definite and specific enough in statement and does it afford the pupil a basis for a working knowledge of the subject-matter that may be utilized under varying conditions ? 5. Can the lessons be tested in the classroom, in the home, and real life ? 6. May the result obtained be measured ? 7. Does it represent modern methods and scholarship ? I LIMITING THE SPURIOUS OUTPUT OF TEXTBOOKS THRU EDITING J. W. SEARSON, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, KANS. Tricking the innocent public, poisoning young minds, and moral law- lessness may well be charged against the book presses of America, if one is to judge by the output. Textbooks lacking in patriotism and filled with foreign propaganda were revealed during the war. Many text- books containing glaring untruths which poisoned the public mind and many which advocated unsound doctrines in a democracy are spawned forth by a more or less irresponsible press. The evil of spurious output must be attacked at the source. No new textbook should be publisht that does not offer a distinctive, constructive improvement over the texts already in use. Each new text should offer a definite contribution to educational procedure on the part of both pupil and teacher. There are certain definite steps which should be followed in the making of distinctive textbooks which answer the highest needs of pupils, of teachers, and of the public. The following steps are offered in an effort to suggest a program which, if followed, will limit the spurious output of textbooks and will result in the publication of only forward-looking, distinctive, and constructive texts: 1. Publish no manuscript, regardless of merit, merely for the sake of sales. 2. Locate and cultivate authors with scholarship and real vision who can tell plainly and simply what they do, how they do it, and why they do it. Such authors are scarce, but with encouragement they may be 402 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Educational Publications developt from among the most promising workers in the educational field. The simple fact that a man is a prominent city superintendent whose system uses textbook^ by the carload or that he is a professor of something or other who is widely known should not justify publishers in accepting his manuscript regardless of merit. 3. Develop the author. Have him first report his lesson plans just as he finds them best adapted to classroom use. Have him study the conditions in all the classrooms in the territory to which his text is to appeal. Then let him revise the lesson plans to meet the conditions discovered. 4. Try the carefully written and carefully revised manuscript in the schools before publishing it. Have it tried by representative teachers who are teaching in the schools where such a text is to be used. The text should be revised in harmony with the criticisms and comments of teachers who have had experience with it in actual school work. 5. Make the text right mechanically. By diligent research and experi- ment, experts have discovered certain essentials of good mechanical manu- facturing. The printing should be clear, in the most legible type faces and type sizes, and in proper line and page lengths, with proper leading, good make-ready, and artistic make-up. The illustrations should be artistically drawn, an organic part of the text, and in sizes, colors, and message such as to appeal to fundamental child interests. The binding should be plain, simple, durable, and artistic in color and in cover design. The mechanical make-up of a text should be determined as carefully as are the contents. If these simple rules are followed, we will have more than mere names on the title pages of our textbooks. We will have contents sound and properly safeguarded. We will have books that are true to the best researches mechanically. Such a practice will involve patience, expense, and the application of fine intelligence to textbook making. The publisher who employs an editor who has the courage to insist on maintaining this high standard will earn and keep the confidence of the public and the good-will of practical educators everywhere. DEPARTMENT OF THE WIDER USE OF SCHOOLHOUSES SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Raymond F. Crist, director of citizenship, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C- Secretary — Margarita Spaulding Gerry, board of education Washington, D. C. Friday Afternoon, July 9, 1920 The Department of Wider Use of Schoolhouses of the li^ational Education Association convened in regular session on Friday, July 9, at two o'clock, in the Congregational Church. The meeting was called to order by the president, and the following program was presented : "The Night Schools in Kansas City, Kansas" — I. B. Morgan, vice-president of the Department for the Wider Use of Schoolhouses and director of continuation schools at Kansas City, Kans. ''The Correction of Brogue among the Foreign Born" — James L. Barker, professor of modern languages, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. The following ofl&cers were elected for the ensuing year: President — Raymond F. Crist, director of citizenship, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. ■* Vice-President — I. B. Morgan, director of continuation schools, Kansas City, Kans. Secretary — Margarita Spaulding Gerry, Board of Education, Washington, D. C. The meeting adjourned. Margarita Spaulding Gerry, Secretary THE NIGHT SCHOOLS IN KANSAS CITY, KANSAS I. B. MORGAN, DIRECTOR CONTINUATION SCHOOL AND VOCATION BUREAU, KANSAS CITY, KANS. According to the United States census of 19 10, the state of Iowa has the least illiteracy of any state in the Union, which is 17 per thousand in the total population ten years of age and over. Oregon and Nebraska come next with 19 per thousand. Then Washington with 20 and Kansas with 22. Massachusetts is ranked 24, the middle place in the list of states with 52 illiterates per thousand, and Louisiana 48 with 290. Among the cities having 25,000 and over Battle Creek, Michigan, has the least illiteracy in total population ten years of age and over which is . 5 of i per cent. Cambridge has 2.6 per cent; Kansas City, Kansas, 2.9 per cent, Boston, 4.4 per cent, New York 6.7 per cent. Twenty-five cities having a population of 25,000 and over have more than 10 per cent illiteracy and 5 cities with more than 15 per cent, the highest being Shenandoah Borough, Pa., 23 . 7 per cent, and the entire United States comes forward with a grand total of 5^ millions ten years of age and over unable to read and write. This is the condition in the richest and most progressive country upon the face of the earth. 403 404 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Schoolhouse To decrease this illiteracy, to dispel ignorance, and superstition, to establish a high standard of personal responsibility, to enhance the industrial and intellectual efficiency of the citizens, and to inculcate a lofty standard of unselfish patriotism, the free night schools have been organized by the board of education in Kansas City, Kansas. Here the French and the German, the Italian and the Austrian, the Slav and the Turk, all the tongues and kindred of Europe and a part of Asia sit side by side exemplifying the principle of the universal brotherhood of man, learning the same language, studying the same lesson, blessing the country of their adoption which has given them protection and liberty. The night school solves the immigrant question better than any other instrumentality. It wins the confidence of the immigrant without any effort. When the newcomer enters the portals of the public-school building he feels that exploitation there, at least, ceases. He recognizes the teacher as his friend and benefactor. He has no misgivings as to the motives of the school. The Ishmaelite feeling leaves him and he is born again into a more glorious and transcendent citizenship. One of the great problems in the night school is to educate and Americanize the mothers among the immigrants. It is readily seen that when the mother is Americanized, the home is Americanized. That means the neighborhood, the state, and the nation, and yet, the mother among the immigrants who needs education the most receives the least. The mother, busy with domestic cares, frequently does not extend her experience beyond the home, the church, and the store. To help the mothers, the women of the W.C.T.U. have been conducting classes in the homes, giving them lessons in English, sewing, cooking, and in the care of children. Red Cross classes in hygiene and care of the sick in the homes of the immigrants are also a help toward Americanization. Members of the Russian colony in the city were not found in the night schools. They were known to meet at frequent intervals in a hall of their own. This hall, the police raided, but did not find anything to incriminate the men. Some time after this the writer determined to make a raid also. He asked Professor W. W. Sullivan, of the University of Kansas, who was engaged in University Extension work in connection with the night school, to accompany him on this raid. With the government textbook in one hand and gentle peace in the other, the raid began. The raiders found the hall locked, not a soul was seen, not a sound was heard. It was learned that the frequenters of the hall could be found at that time in a poolroom not far away. The raiders entered the poolroom and made known to the men their intention of organizing a class in their own hall for all who desired to learn to read, speak, and write the English language and to study the operations of the government of the United States. At the appointed time a class of fifty was organized which proved to be one of the most faithful classes in the night school. Innocent persons are frequently misinformed and misled by designing, unscru- pulous, unpatriotic individuals. It is the duty of the government to give due attention to the individuals who disseminate pernicious and unpatriotic doctrines and it is the duty of the public schools to instruct and enlighten all the people thereby counteracting these evil influences. A very important lesson must be taught some classes of immigrants and some classes of native Americans as well. This great Republic is exceedingly jealous of the native or adopted son who strikes at the foundation of a free and popular government, a government of the people, by the people, and for the people, jealous of the one who construes liberty to be a license, whose arrogance and greedy passion tend to oppress his fellowmen and who is oblivious of the principles that all men are created equal and that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. The immigrant as well as every one else in a democ- racy must learn that liberty implies the practice of the golden rule, wise and unselfish civic aggressiveness, self-restraint, forbearance, self-sacrifice, faithfulness to duty and unwavering loyalty to the Stars and Stripes. I Departmert] NIGHT SCHOOLS IN KANSAS CITY, KANSAS 405 Teaching the immigrant to speak, read, and write the English language, the opera- tions cf the national and local governments, and lessons of true patriotism does not constitute all the work that is done in the night school for the immigrant. A machinist in one class began his work in long division. After acquiring some proficiency along this line he was introduced to common fractions. He was given the problem | — | and he answered unhesitatingly | although he could not place the operation on the board or on paper. I asked him how he solved it. He said, "If from | of an inch you take f of an inch, you have | of an inch left." When he entered the night school he had a problem to solve. It makes no difference if the problem is remote and apparently foreign to the student's ability, it will furnish motivations to his activities. Let me state the problem briefly. In the packing plant there is a cylindrical oil tank lying lengthwise, so many feet long and so many feet in diameter. How many gallons of oil does it contain ? Second, when the tank is not full, how many gallons of oil does it contain, the greatest depth of the oil being known ? Before the close of the night school term, he was able to solve this and more difficult problems. He is now master mechanic of a packing plant receiving a salary which many a teacher would be proud to receive. There is one factor that enters into the success of the night school that towers above all others and that is the successful teacher. Every successful teacher has a sympathetic heart and great resourcefulness. He possesses that inexplicable something called personality which grapples the students with hooks of steel and inspires them to a greater self-activity and to live a nobler, purer, and a more useful life. Emerson says, "In dealing with my child, my Latin and my Greek, my accomplishments and money stead me nothing, but as much soul as I have avails." It requires the true missionary spirit to make the night school a success. Announcements alone will not do it. You must go out into the by-ways and highways and invite them in. The night-school people are good workers under guidance of an inspiring teacher, but are also very easily discouraged under the instruction of an indifferent teacher. The teacher who teaches the subject and fails to teach the pupil, in the night school, at least, will soon find himself alone with his subjects. The night schools react upon the day high schools. The strenuous efforts put forth by the night-school people to increase their efficiency in their particular line of work are having a wholesome effect upon the day school. "Can any good come out of Nazareth?" is askt today in the same spirit it was askt in the days of the lowly Nazarene. When a number of sturdy square-shouldered fellows were passing thru the halls of the high-school building to their classes, each holding a primer in his hand and using his finger as a bookmark, a number of high-school boys who had been invited to visit the night school, ridiculed this class of beginners, but when they discovered that these same sturdy, squared-shouldered fellows were at that time holding positions of responsi- bility and remuneration in the great industries, they made their best bow to labor and learned for the first time to recognize worth whether it came from the cabin on the Kaw or from the palace on the hill. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE CLEVELAND MEETING, FEBRUARY 23-28, 1920 SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — E. U. Graff, superintendent of schools Indianapolis, Ind. First Vice-President — D. J. Kelly, superintendent of schools Binghampton, N.Y. Second Vice-President — H. C. Johnson, superintendent of schools San Diego, Calif. Secretary — Charl O. Williams, county superintendent of schools Memphis, Tenn. FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FORENOON SESSION— Tuesday, February 24, 1920 Reorganization Program President Graff called the Department to order. The following program was carried out: Community Singing — Led by Peter Dykema, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. "The Democratization of Supervision" — J. F. Hosic, head of department of English, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111. ^ "The Socialized Recitation" — C. S. Pendleton, assistant professor of English, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. "Dollar Education" — William Mather Lewis, director of savings division. United States Treasury, Washington, D.C. "America's Gift to France" — Wardlaw Miles, professor of English, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ. "Junior Red Cross" — John H. Finley, commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y. A motion was ni^de by J. O. Hall, Hutchinson, Kan., to have printed outlines of addresses for distribution at all meetings on Wednesday, February 25. Seconded and carried. President Graff instructed the secretary of the Department to confer with the execu- tive secretary of the National Education Association as to the possibility of carrying out the spirit of this motion. It was moved and seconded that the resolution for reorgani- zation of the Departnient, which was offered by F. M. Hunter, Oakland, Calif., be printed for distribution among the members of the Department. Carried. EVENING SESSION— Tuesday, February 24, 1920 The evening session met in the Shrine Temple, at 8 : 00 o'clock. The following program was presented: Community Singing and the Superintendent's Glee Club — Led by Peter Dykema, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Invocation — Paul F. Sutphen, Second Presbyterian Church, Cleveland, Ohio. "Five Decades of Educational Progress" — A. E. Winship, editor. Journal of Education^ Boston, Mass, "Five Decades of Rural Education" — Lee Driver, director of the Bureau of Rural Education of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg, Pa. "Current Tendencies and Problems" — R. W. Himelick, superintendent city schools, Fort Wayne, Ind. "Schools of Tomorrow" — Angelo Patri, principal school No. 45, New York, N.Y. 407 4o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland President Gra£f announst the following Nominating Committee: Frank B. Cooper, superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash,, Chairman; B. B. Jackson, superintendent of schools, Minneapolis, Minn.; Wharton S. Jones, superintendent of schools, Memphis, Tenn.; H. M. Maxson, superintendent of schools, Plainfield, N.J.; J. G. Becht, deputy state commissioner, Harrisburg, Pa. SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FORENOON SESSION— Wednesday, February 25, 1920 ^ The forenoon session of the second day met in Keith's Hippodrome, at 9:00 o'clock. Financial Program The following program was presented: Community Singing — Led by Peter Dykema, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. "Teachers' Salaries" — J. W. Withers, superintendent of public instruction, St. Louis, Mo. "Methods of Financing Large City School Systems" — ^William L. Ettinger, super- intendent of schools, New York, N.Y. "Planning a Comprehensive Building Program" — P. C, Packer, assistant super- intendent of schools, Detroit, Mich. "The Teacher Shortage" — J. P. Battenberg, president of Northwestern State Normal, Alva, Okla. EVENING SESSION— Wednesday, February 25, 1920 The evening session met in the Shrine Temple, at 8:00 o'clock. Americanization Program The following program was presented: Concert Numbers — Cleveland Musicians, provided by J. Powell Jones, Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Invocation — Dan F. Bradley, Pilgrim Congregational Church, Cleveland, Ohio. "The Teaching of Patriotism" — Theda Gildemeister, Department of Education, State Normal School, Winona, Minn. "Americanization under the New Hampshire Law" — Maro S. Brooks, deputy commissioner of education of New Hampshire, State House, Concord, N.H. "Integrity of the Liberal College Course" — Alexander Meiklejohn, president Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FORENOON SESSION— Thursday, February 26, 1920 The forenoon session of the third day met in Keith's Hippodrome, at 9:00 o'clock. The following program was presented : Concert Numbers — Cleveland Musicians, prcfvided by J. Powell Jones, Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. "A Federal Department of Education— The Smith-Towner Bill"— W. P. Burris, dean. University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio; W. C. Bagley, professor of education. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "Practical Workings of Smith-Hughes Law"— J. Stanley Brown, president Northern Illinois Normal School, Dekalb, 111. "Teachers' Organizations" — ^L. D. Coffman, dean, Department of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. EVENING SESSION— Thursday, February 26, 1920 The evening session met in the Shrine Temple, at 8;oo o'clock. The following program was presented: Community Singing — Kenneth Clark, army song leader, Community Service, New York, N.Y. Invocation— A. B. Meldrum, Old Stone Church, Cleveland, Ohio. Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 409 "Constructive Factors in American Education" — J. P. Garber, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa. "The Greatest Need in Public Education Today — Wise and Responsible Leadership" — E. C. Hartwell, superintendent of schools, Buffalo, N.Y. "The Educational Challenge of the Present World Situation "—Henry Churchill King, president Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. FOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FORENOON SESSION— Friday, February 27, 1920 The forenoon session of the fourth day met in Keith's Hippodrome, at 9:00 o'clock. Recent Innovation in Education The following program was presented : Community Singing — Kenneth Clark, army song leader, Community Service, New York, N.Y. "Compulsory Character Education" — Ernest A. Smith, superintendent of schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. "Physical Education in New Jersey" — Frederick W. Maroney, state director of physical training and hygiene, Trenton, N.J. "The Denver Opportunity School" — C. M. Cole, superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo. "Some Problems of Administration Confronting the Public Junior College"- — Jesse B. Davis, principal, Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. BUSINESS MEETING The meeting was called to order by President E. U. Graff. Frank B. Cooper, chairman of the Committee on Nominations, made the following report: President — Calvin N. Kendall, commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J. First Vice-President — Ernest A. Smith, superintendent of Schools, New Orleans, La. Secretary — Belle M. Ryan, assistant superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr. It was moved and seconded that the report of the Nominating Committee be adopted. Carried. C. N. Kendall was called to the platform by E. U. Graff and thankt the body for the honor conferred upon him. The report of the Resolutions Committee, with amendments, was then adopted. The resolution for reorganization of the method of electing officers, as introduced at the opening session by Fred M. Hunter after substitutions and amendments by A. E. Winship and D. W. Springer, was adopted in the following form: 1. Any active member of the Department of Superintendence may, between January I and February 15 of each year, file with the Secretary of the National Education Asso- ciation a nomination for each office in the Department, which nomination shall be placed upon the primary ballot as hereinafter provided. 2. In each January issue of the National Education Association Bulletin, the Secre- tary of the National Education Association shall print a notice calling for nominations for the several offices of the Department of Superintendence. 3. In each February issue of the National Education Association Bulletin, the Secretary of the National Education Association shall print an alphabetical list of all persons who have been nominated for each of the several offices by the date when the Bulletin is issued. 4. The Secretary of the National Education Association shall prepare printed primary ballots on which shall be alphabetically arranged under each office by February 15 of that year, together with the educational position occupied by the person named and the date when he joined the Association. 5. Each active member of the Department who registers before 5:00 o'clock p.m. on Wednesday of the week of the meeting shall be given a primary ballot on which he may indicate by means of a cross his choice for each office to be filled. In case three 4IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland nominations shall not have been made for any office, voters may write in the name of another candidate. 6. The Secretary and Vice-President of the Department shall constitute a canvassmg board to count the ballots cast by the active members of the Department and the result shall be reported by the President at the first regular session of the Department held on Thursday. 7. Election ballots shall be prepared by the Secretary of the National Education Association containing under each office to be filled the name of the two persons who in the primary ballot had received the largest number of votes for that office, arranging the names in the order of number of votes received. In case two or more persons were tied for second place in the primary ballot, all such names shall be placed on the election ballot in alphabetical order. 8. At the annual business meeting the active members shall elect the officers by majority vote from the nominations made as the result of the primary election, using the election ballots provided. Superintendent Wood of California moved the amendment to Dr. Winship's amend- ment as follows: Resolved, That a committee of five be appointed by the chair to report on the second day to meeting of 19 21 or such other suitable ways and means as may be necessary to carry into effect spirit and purpose of these resolutions. The question was called on adoption of Superintendent Wood's amendment. Carried. E. U. Graff appointed the following committee in accordance with the amendment of Superintendent Wood of California to devise a workable plan for the election of officers : A. E. Winship, editor, Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. R. G. Jones, superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio. H. Weet, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N.Y. J. W. Sexton, superintendent of schools, Lansing, Mich. E. G. Hartwell, superintendent of schools, Buffalo, N.Y. Invitations were extended by four cities in alphabetical order for the entertainment of the Department of Superintendence in 19 21, Cleveland being represented by R. G. Jones and San Francisco by Alfred Roncovieri. The ballot was taken with the following results: Cleveland, 106; Kansas City, 43; San Francisco, 132; Washington, 336. Inasmuch as 19 21 is inauguration year and that Washington is likely to be over- crowded at that time, D. W. Springer moved that the vote be referred to a committee of the officers elect to select the most suitable place for the department meeting. It was seconded and carried. R. W. Himelick offered the following report which was unanimously adopted: Your committee appointed at Chicago to investigate the standards for the appor- tionment of funds raised by school boards for current expenses, begs to report that some progress has been made by the Committee. On account of the financial problems con- fronting all school boards at this time, and because many school boards are making radical changes in the methods of handling funds it was impossible to have a report completed for this meeting. We, therefore, request that the Committee be continued and that it make its final report at the next meeting of the superintendents. The meeting adjourned sine die. Charl O. Williams, Secretary RESOLUTIONS OF DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE CLEVELAND, OHIO, FEBRUARY 23-28, 1920 The Department desires to express its cordial thanks to the City of Cleveland for its generous hospitality in entertaining this meeting. The school officers and teachers of Cleveland have been untiring in their efforts to provide for the comfort and convenience and entertainment of the members. The local committees have been unusually well- Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 4II organized and have attended to every detail of local arrangement with unexampled thoroness. The Convention Bureau of the Chamber of Commerce has been generous in its support and cooperation. Thru the courteous attention of its Secretary, the Department has enjoyed the advantage of commodious and well-appointed meeting places, and in other ways has enjoyed a session of exceptional comfort and convenience. We especially commend the splendid service of the daily papers of this city. 1. Whereas, The stability of our institutions and the future welfare of our civili- zation require, not only the better education of the present foreign element of our popu- lation, but also the careful education of the coming generation of citizens. Be it resolved, That the curricula of all public and private schools should include such instruction in American historv as shall lead to a better understanding of the long-proven advantages of our American form of representative government, as distinguisht from a pure democracy, and as shall show that domination by any class or group is destructive to all liberty; that all necessary changes in laws whenever the majority of our people earnestly desire them; that the right to own property is itself an attribute of liberty and an essential condition of social and political progress; that all kinds of labor, whether of hand or brain, are equally necessary and must have equal honor and consideration; that every man shall enjoy the right to work and to own and save the just fruits of his labor, that artificial restriction of output is an economic waste and that the essential principles of American constitutional government as establisht by our forefathers have made it possible for the people of America to enjoy the greatest degree of freedom known to the history of man. 2. We reaffirm our endorsement of a Department of Education with a Secretary of Education in the President's Cabinet, and generous appropriations by Congress to aid and encourage the states in the promotion of education witJi the express provisions that federal aid shall not imply federal control of supervision of education, and that education in all its phases shall be organized, supervised, and administered exclusively by state and local educational authorities, establisht by state laws, as provided in the Smith-Towner Bill, now pending in the Sixty-sixth Congress. 3. Resolved, That this Department recognizes the importance of special emphasis on instruction for thrift. 4. Whereas, The schools of the United States lost during the past year an unpre- cedented proportion of skilled and well-trained teachers, and, Whereas, The teacher-training institutions of the United States have at the present time only from 50 to 80 per cent of their pre-war enrolment, and. Whereas, This condition is largely due to the inadequate salaries paid to teachers, therefore. Be it resolved, That this Department commends the splendid work which has been done by boards of education, by social and civic organizations, and by state, county, and city superintendents of schools, in promoting salary increases in order to make it possible for competent teachers to remain in the profession and to induce the more able of our young men and women to enter this most important branch of the public service, and. Be it further resolved, That this Department commends the scientific investigation undertaken by the National Education Association Committee on Emergency in Edu- cation, which presented to the public and to the profession comparative studies of salaries and cost of living which have proved most helpful in state and local salary campaigns thruout the nation. 5. Resolved further. That the teaching profession has the right and the duty constantly to keep before the public the fact that increast expenditures for school maintenance and teachers' salaries are not measures for the selfish benefit of teachers, but for the upbuilding of a public institution, which American communities have always been willing to support on the most generous scale, 6. Resolved further. That the action taken by many states and localities in promoting and requiring physical education and training be commended and that this Department pledge itself to further the cause of physical education by every possible method. 412 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland SECRETARY'S MINUTES A. COUNCIL OF STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION President — Will C. Wood, state superintendent of public instruction Sacramento, Calif. Secretary — ^Annie Webb Blanton, state superintendent of public instruction Austin, Tex. Tuesday Afternoon, February 24 The Council of State Departments of Education of the National Education Asso- ciation convened in regular session on Tuesday afternoon, February 24, at 2:00 o'clock, in the Main Assembly, North Foyer, Hotel Statler, Cleveland, Ohio. The following program was presented : "Suggestions for a Practical and Effective Program of Americanization," Albert Shiels, director of committee for development of community councils, New York, N.Y. "General Discussion" — E. R. Snyder, state commissioner of vocational education, Sacramento, Calif.; Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo. "The Functions and Organization of a State Department of Education Considered in the Light of Present Needs and Problems" — C. P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis. General Discussion — Walter E. Ranger, commissioner of public schools, Providence, R.I.; L. N. Hines, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. Wednesday Afternoon, February 25 The following program was presented: "The Program of Supplying an Adequate Number of Adequately Trained Teachers" — ^John H. Finley, commissioner of education and president of the University of the State of New York, Albany, N.Y. General Discussion — M. B. Hillegas, commissioner of education, Montpelier, Vt. F. B. Pearson, state superintendent public instruction, Columbus, Ohio. " Financing a Modern Program of Education " — M. P. Shawkey, state superintendent of public instruction, Charleston, W. Va. General Discussion — Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash.; M. L. Brittain, state superintendent of schools, Atlanta, Ga. Business Session. The Council of State Superintendents gave a dinner Wednesday evening, February 25, 6:00 o'clock, in the Main Assembly, North Foyer, Hotel Statler. Annie Webb Blanton, Secretary B. ROUND TABLE OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS Friday Afternoon, February 27 Chairman — E. M. Rapp, county superintendent of schools, Berks County, Reading, Pa. The Round Table of County Superintendents of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Friday afternoon, February 27, at 2:00 o'clock, in the Y.M.C.A. Auditorium. The following program was presented : The general topic for the meeting was "Rural Teacher Shortage — Its Solution." "From Viewpoint of a Rural Teacher" — Marie Turner Harvey, Porter Rural School, Kirksville, Mo. "From Viewpoint of a Teachers' College" — Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "From Viewpoint of a County Superintendent" — H. V. Holloway, county superin- tendent of schools, Kent County, Del. An interesting discussion followed in which B re win from Illinois, Thompson from Utah, Miss Carney from Teachers College, Koch from the Pennsylvania Department of Education, Nettle from Utah, Superintendent Cary, the Commissioner of Education of Wisconsin, Superintendent Cooper of Baltimore County, Maryland, Wrolson from Utah, Whalen from Arkansas, chairman of the Department, E. M. Rapp, and others took part. The meeting was adjourned. Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 4I3 C. SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES OVER 250,000 Friday Afternoon, February 27 Chairman — C. Edward Jones, superintendent of schools, Albany, N.Y. The Department of Superintendents of Cities over 250,000 of the National Edu- cation Association convened in regular session on Friday afternoon, February 27, at 2:00 o'clock, in Hotel Statler, Cleveland, Ohio. The following program was presented : "Supervised Study in the Grades" — Alfred L. Hall-Quest, supervisor of secondary education, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. "Strengthening the Superintendency " — Edwin C. Broome, superintendent of schools, East Orange, N.J. "Continuous School Census" — ^John W. Davis, director Bureau of Attendance, Department of Education, New York, N.Y. "School Surveys as Professional Reading" — George M. Wiley, assistant com- missioner of education for the state of New York, Albany, N.Y. "Elimination of Waste in Education" — William J. Shearer, educational expert, Elizabeth, N.J. "Democracy in School Administration" — Annie Webb Blanton, state superintendent of public instruction, Austin, Tex. Superintendent Broome moved that a committee of seven be appointed from this section to study the matter of strengthening the superintendency and to report at the next meeting. Carried. D. SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES OVER 25,000 Friday Afternoon, February 27 Chairman — Frank L. Smart, superintendent of schools, Davenport, Iowa. The Department of Superintendents of Cities over 25,000 of the National Education Association convened in regular session on Friday afternoon, February 27, at 2 : 00 o'clock, in the Chamber of Commerce Auditorium, Cleveland, Ohio. The following program was presented: "State Laws and Regulations Pertaining to School Buildings" — Frank Irving Cooper, architect, chairman National Education Association Committee on Standard- ization, Boston, Mass. "Golden Deeds in Character Education" — M. A. Cassidy, superintendent of schools, Lexington, Ky. "The Relation of Silent Reading to Efficiency in Study" — Ernest Horn, professor college of education. State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. "The Present Status of the Junior High School" — Arthur F. Benson, principal Bremer Junior High School, Minneapolis, Minn. E. SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES BELOW 25,000 Friday Afternoon, February 27 Chairman — H. B. Turner, superintendent of schools, Warren, Ohio. The Department of Superintendents of Cities below 25,000 of the National Edu- cation Association convened in regular session on Friday afternoon, February 27, at 2:00 o'clock, in the Lattice Room, Hotel Statler, Cleveland, Ohio. The following program was presented : "Teaching Citizenship" — ^William D. Lewis, deputy superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. "Democracy in School Administration" — Annie Webb Blanton, state superintendent of public instruction, Austin, Tex. "Modem Health Crusade" — Charles M. DeForest. modern health crusade executive, • National Tuberculosis Association, New York, N.Y. 414 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE DEMOCRATIZATION OF SUPERVISION JAMES FLEMING HOSIC, CHICAGO NORMAL COLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL. The classroom teacher is a citizen and a public servant. In the former capacity he has all of the rights and obligations proper to a member of the American community. In the latter he has accepted the role of a servant of that community and has agreed to work under the direction of the super- visory officers appointed by the community thru their lawful representa- tives, the board of education. The proposal, recently made, that teachers should elect their supervisory officer, viewed as a right, is merely foolish. Viewed as a possible expedient for securing a better type of executive, however, the idea is worthy of some respectful consideration, tho there is not much ground for supposing that it would work. But in any event, the ' schools are maintained for the sake of the community as a whole, not for the teachers— nor yet for the janitors! Except within certain well-defined limits, the conception of the New England town meeting is not applicable to the groups making up the teaching population. But then neither is the conception of absolute monarch applicable to the supervisory oifficer. The fact that he is invested for the time being with a good deal of delegated authority does not justify him in playing the autocrat. To do so is neither humane, wise, nor expedient. His mission is to organize and coordinate the educational forces available so that they may render to the public the largest service they can. His function may be defined as that of democratic leadership in a group of co-workers, to the end that the pupils of the schools may make the largest possible growth in desirable ideals^ interests, knowledges, powers, and skills with the least waste of energy and the greatest amount of satisfaction to all concerned. The competent supervisor is an expert, fitted by rigorous special training, wide experience, and a well-balanst personality to secure the full cooperation and most effective service of the workers placed in his charge. He is indispensable, and where he is actually functioning, there is little excuse for an agitation for more democracy in the school system. If agitation there is, it will be found to spring mainly from a desire to lead rather than to be led. In fact under the guise of democracy devoted may often be described, only too thinly concealed, the ugly form of bolshevism rampant. Now is the time for genuine educational statesmanship. The war has quickened the social consciousness. New ambition has been awakened in the breasts of many hitherto content with humble station. Recon- struction is the watchword. Discontent is growing. Agitation for higher salaries, necessary under the changed conditions, invites the demagogue and threatens our morale. Never was there greater need for the formula- tion of educational policies upon the basis of fundamental and enduring principles. Superintendence! DEMOCRATIZATION OF SUPERVISION 415 Let us consider briefly some factors involved in democratic supervision. They include at least the following: (i) a clear delimitation of the super- visory function; (2) genuine, constructive leadership; (3) adequate pro- fessional preparation of the supervisor; (4) scientific and impersonal standards by which to determine results; (5) recognition of the human element. The typical supervisor is the principal of a school. As matters stand, most of what supervision we have in our schools is done by the man on the ground. In the nature of the case it must be so. Unfortunately, however, the principal ordinarily has so many obligations that his work as supervisor is too often crowded out. He must organize the school, carry out the policies and mandates of his supervisors, look out for the plant, and secure the cooperation of the community. His administrative and general civic and social duties provide ample excuse for neglecting the task of leading his teachers in the activities for which the school is actually kept up. At the worst he boldly disclaims responsibility. ''I select good teachers," he says, "and let them entirely alone." How he expects to secure con- tinuity and coordination, to say nothing of enthusiasm and esprit de corps, he does not explain. A principal of this type is of about as much use to his teachers as an Indian cigar sign, so far as actual encouragement and guidance are concerned. He believes in absent treatment. The principal who is alive to the importance of supervision studies the work and needs of his teachers. He invites suggestions. He encourages initiative. He makes sure of results. He disseminates optimism. He sheds light. In short he plays a many-sided r61e; he is coach, cheer leader, chairman, good soldier, chief performer, friend, fellow-worker^ — first in enterprise, first in effort, first in appreciation, and first in the hearts of his colleagues. And his teachers are students too. They become conscious of prob- lems to be solved, experiments to be tried, goals to be reacht. They are encouraged to plan, devise means and execute, to measure their results, and to judge for themselves the degree of success or failure they have attained. In short they are willing pupils of a good teacher. They follow •because the leader leads. Of course the leader is prepared. He was not chosen from the ranks merely because he was a ''good fellow," after the cheerful American manner of regarding each person as able to fill any office in the gift of the public merely by virtue of his being a citizen, oi* at least a resident. He recognized the unique opportunities of the supervisor and made himself master of so much of tested and tried experience in that calling as has so far been collected and made available. But no amount of scientific management will ever eliminate the human element. Ford tried engineers in his motor plant. He got them from America and he got them from Europe. And they worked wonders. But 4i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland the real miracle was performed by an Episcopal clergyman. He talkt with the men. He learned about their family troubles, their ailments, and their discouragements. He reacht and helpt the individual by personal and sympathetic contact, and the output of the factory was doubled and trebled. Each man, says Mr. Marquis, was shown just what he was to do and how to do it, but above all he was inspired with the will to do it. The will to do it! It is in securing this that mere scientific management fails, that absent treatment fails, that incompetence and blundering fail, that autocracy fails, while democratic methods succeed. We want genuine esprit de carps in the ranks of the teaching force and only genuinely social methods of leadership will get it. We want our boys and girls brought up in the spirit and practice of democratic living, and only social methods in school and classroom will accomplish this. Prussian teachers grow petty tyrants or dependent underlings. So long as our chil- dren merely learn lessons from a formal book to recite in a formal recitation to a formal teacher, memorizing the Constitution will contribute very little to the future welfare of America. Democracy is learned through experi- encing it. Pupils, too, must participate. They must purpose, plan, execute, judge, and appreciate. They must face common problems as organized groups and solve them cooperatively, with freedom for initiative and individual contribution. They must find in the school the life typical of the ideal community. They must be trained for democracy thru democracy. This is the real justification for supervision and the final and sufficient ground for urging that it be democratized. This is why "discipline" must progressively be supplanted by cooperation. This is why teachers should be consulted regularly by the supervisor, why they should be organized for the purpose, in order that the work may be more perfect and the community better served. This is why the concept of democracy should be more clearly defined, the standards of supervision set higher, and the training of supervisors made more and more rigorous and complete. A generous enthusiasm for the best things of life, a human sympathy that can touch all his colleagues, coupled with a true conception of his office and an adequate preparation for it, these characterize the genuine demo- cratic American school supervisor. All honor to his wisdom, his courage, and his devotion. Hats off to him! "May his tribe increase!" THE SOCIALIZED RECITATION CHARLES S. PENDLETON, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. The American public school is altogether an institution for social service. It is maintained at public expense and for civic purposes. Its business is to take the raw stuff of the children of the nation and from this I Superintendence] THE SOCIALIZED RECITATION 417 to develop the finest possible quality of personal worth and citizenship. Its efficiency is measurable only in its output; its productivity in human quality. Furthermore, the really effective school educates without dis- cards. It works with a flexibility as limitless as are human differences with all the children of all the people. It brings each child in every community to his own highest possible development, not for his sake alone, but also for the sake of the commonwealth. This is the school which we serve, and we teachers are invaluable public servants. Education must be a unit, every phase of the school contributing its best and correlating with every other. That which pertains to the class- room can most productively be originated in the classroom and later be refined and extended in scope. Actual teachers, dealing with real pupils under normal conditions, should teach not only to serve the large social objectives of education, but also to develop, for the system and for all schools, new procedures of instruction. There should be wide-open avenues for publicity and for interchange of thought. Personal credit should be given for contribution; there is no other incentive quite so great. And ultimately all phases of the system should be brought to bear, each from its angle, upon the best suggestions. The socialized recitation is not a modified recitation, or any recitation at all, in the conventional sense, but a substitute for the recitation as a classroom procedure. Further, it goes beyond the classroom and becomes an attitude of the school. It is essentially not a concrete, specific method, but rather a point of view. It does not necessarily mean this or that particular procedure. But it nearly always does mean the prevalence in the typical classroom of seven conditions. Let us consider these in detail. In a socialized school every pupil develops and exercises initiative. He must have a self-starter. He must have self-dependence. He must be an individual as well as a member of a cooperating group. He must be able to use his peculiar powers to help the group, and he must on occasion be able to subordinate himself to the common effort and the common good. There is a tremendous education here in personal effectiveness — in execu- tive power, if you please — the sort of thing that commands the greatest prizes in the real world beyond. A large part of this kind of development, so invaluable in a true education, comes only indirectly from the teacher, tho he is always conscious of it and always back of it. He sets the condi- tions; and the boys and girls, living a normal life tho at high tension, react upon and educate each other. There is a far-reaching endeavor to make the school as much as possible like the real world. The typical old kind of school resembles nothing there closely, except the penitentiary. Its pupils go forth, so far as the school predetermines it, into a strange environment. The socialized school, however, in ideals, in conduct, and in subject-matter, endeavors to be an 4i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland understudy for American citizenship and the fullest realization of the oppor- tunities of life. It teaches facts; but Americanism, it holds, is less a matter of informational knowledge than of habits of conduct. The attitudes and predilections to action which will serve best adults, in the business and play of our adult lifQ are specifically ingrained into the fabric of the school. Education aims to serve society directly. It must be granted, no doubt, that the socialized recitation has short- comings and limitation. Some of these may be overcome as we experi- ment; others may not be. It seems, for instance, to be much better suited to good teachers than to poor teachers — to enable the former to teach better but the latter to shirk work and to relax or lose utterly what little grip on their classes they otherwise have. It seems to get better results from excel- lent and good pupils than from the inherently dull. It is apparently less well adapted to the opening lessons on a subject of a phase than to carrying forward and amplifying work already begun. It consumes, in general, more time per unit of subject-matter than the recitation system; the question is whether the results are commensurate. It is full of pitfalls for teachers weak in ''discipline." It brings many unhappy moments to teachers poor in scholarship or deficient in general information; such may steer adroitly past the Scylla and Charybdis perils of a ten-page lesson, carefully crammed and personally conducted thru a recitation period ; but will go surely upon the rocks or into the depths during a socialized hour. These are only a few of the difficulties the idea presents. DOLLAR EDUCATION WILLIAM MATHER LEWIS, DIRECTOR, SAVINGS DIVISION, UNITED STATES TREASURY DEPARTMENT, WASHINGTON, D.C. Shaken out of the lethargy of routine existence by the cataclysm of war, people are thinking more than ever before. Today the supreme ques- tion before the world is this, "Will constructive or destructive thought prevail ? " If destructive thought prevails, the work of the civilizing forces of the -past may crumble beneath the brutish blows of revolution. If constructive thought dominates, the world is to move onward in orderly evolution. Today too many of those who should lead in constructive thought are standing impotent and afraid amid the clamor of the destruc- tionists, weakly inquiring: ''What will the end be? Is society to be dismantled and government overthrown?" Habits of conservation must replace the habits of wastefulness for which America has been notorious. The days when the abundance of natural resources and attending opportunities made existence comparatively simple are passing in America, as they long ago past in Europe. From now on knowledge of economic laws, practice of conservation, and scientific pro- Superintendence) DOLLAR EDUCATION 419 duction must rule. The American youth must hereafter reahze that pros- perity will not come thru the luck of the forty-niners, but thru keen training and determined application. The mushroom millionaire of the moving- picture theater and the oil-well advertising must be overshadowed in popular esteem by the man with the knowledge and grit and strength to win his way to the top and to stay there. It is constructive thrift that can be taught to Americans. It is as easy to vivify thrift, to dramatize it, as to dramatize any other subject in the curriculum. When a boy of twelve in California writes me that he has learned thru his War Savings Stamps how money roUs up and that he now has earned and saved $65 toward a coveted college education; when a newsboy is pointed out to me as the only one in a schoolroom who has never mist a week in purchasing a Thrift Stamp; when reports show me that the school children of Texas own about $12,000,000 worth of Thrift and War Savings Stamps and that the boys and girls in Ohio each bought an average of seven dollars' worth of these securities in 19 19; when I learn of the economical use of school supplies and the care of the school furnishings in those insti- tutions where the students earn and save, I know that there is something in thrift practically applied that stirs the imagination of our future citizens. There is much talk about vitalizing education. Here is an opportunity to accomplish it. School leaders have it within their power, not only to vitalize and practicalize the school curriculum, but to fortify permanently the economic strength of the nation. In the past generation, there was not the need for thrift that there is today. Wasteful America became so because of the tremendous natural resources everywhere abounding. Tramping thru the woods of France and Belgium, I have seen that wherever trees had been cut down new ones had been planted in their places. Necessity had taught them thrift. Talking to a prominent lumberman in Wisconsin later, I askt him if he and his associates were replacing the pine they were cutting off in that region. He assured me that they were not and, furthermore, that the woods would be gone in a very few years and then they would move to the Pacific slope and cut off the timber there. The seemingly inexhaustible supply of American timber made for wastefulness. Out of 850,000,000 acres of virgin forest the United States has not more than 150,000,000 left. Today we are told that the wood situation in this country is serious, that timber is being cut down or destroyed each year three times as fast as new forests are growing and unless the forests are replenisht within a comparatively few years we will be faced by a lumber famine. Conservation of this resource therefore becomes vitally interesting to the schoolboy of today. The policy of the Savings Division of the Treasury is to secure the absorption of the thrift movement by the great organizations which influence American life. It would take such a force in the Treasury Department to promote thrift among the children of America that the expense would be I 420 . NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ' [Cleveland prohibitive and the work at best would be of passing value. But when the great American school system adopts the promotion of thrift education then the matter is on a sound enduring foundation. Thus while the Treasury Savings Movement is to be a permanent and growing element in our national life the active promotion of thrift in our great organizations will come from the logical place — from the inside not from the outside. You are, therefore, serving your government, as well as your pupils, by taking over the responsibility and the active direction of the thrift move- ment as it has to do with American youth. While, I repeat, we are fully conscious that whatever practical form the Savings Movement may ulti- mately take in the school it must be workt out and thought thru by the school leaders themselves, yet the Treasury Department is eager that the principles upon which it has founded the Savings Movement, namely, proper knowledge of the value and the use of money, shall be taken as the foundation upon which the larger movement in thrift may be workt out in the schools. The Savings Division has not confined its efforts to this phase of thrift only to keep the movement within the legitimate function of the Treasury Department, but because we are convinst that the proper interpretation of the value and the use of money is the soundest basis upon which any thirft movement can be establisht. Therefore, we do not hesitate, for our country and its future citizens, to ask that in the plans for thrift education the securities of the nation find a place, and, beyond that, we urge with all intensity that constructive thrift, the thrift of production and conservation and the creation of popular capital may by this great body be made an inherent part of the American school system. Constructive thought is to prevail; the lessons of the war are not to be forgotten. The American school, most admirable of all our national institutions will not fail in its high privilege of making thirft a safeguard of national strength; of making the citizens of coming generations able to wage a winning fight against the hordes of destruction. AMERICA'S GIFT TO FRANCE L. WARDLAW MILES, HEAD MASTER, OILMAN COUNTRY SCHOOL, - BALTIMORE, MD. The America's Gift to France Association has been formed with the purpose of erecting in France a heroic statue which will be placed near the village of Meaux overlooking the Marne River, the place where the first German advance on Paris was arrested by the French on September 6, 19 14. This statue is to be presented as a gift from America to France. It is considered that it will prove a suitable return for the Statue of Liberty which was presented by France to America in 1886. The Statue of Liberty Superintendence] AMERICA'S GIFT TO FRANCE 421 was paid for by popular subscription and small amounts poured in from every corner of France. It is particularly desired that the memorial gift from America will be subscribed to in a similar way. It will cost about $250,000, which was about the cost of the Bartholdi statue. Obviously the gift will be greatly enhanst if the cost is made up of a great number of small subscriptions rather than of a comparatively few large ones. As will be recalled the village of Meaux marks the spot of the German army's nearest approach to the city of Paris. This little village is in fact only some twenty-seven miles from the center of the French capital. It was here that the French under General Joffre finally turned the hitherto victorious army of von Kluck. Marshall Joffre and Marshall Foch'will select the site of the statue which will probably be on the hills above Meaux at the fork of the historic national highway first built by Caesar and later repaired by Napoleon. The statue is to be of colossal size and according to the present plan of the sculptor will present the spirit of liberty as a woman struggling courageously against her enemies. This central figure will be reinforst by others representing probably the allies of France, the whole group taking the general form of a pyramid which Mr. MacMonnies, the distinguisht sculptor who has donated his service to its composition, considers symbolic of defensive strength. , This project of America's gift to France should make a peculiar appeal to the schools. It is obvious that to have it made up of a large number of subscriptions from school children would be peculiarly suitable. The interest of the school children should be aroused by the introduction of a certain amount of matter dealing with the history of the battle of the Marne which can easily be introduced into the regular work of history and geog- raphy, and of arithmetic as well. The subject of a number of compositions can be advantageously supplied by topics dealing with the battle of the Marne. It is intended to stimulate the interest of school children by a national essay contest, the awards for which will probably be given in the form of medals. Moreover, such towns and cities as have effectively contributed to the fund will be named in a book prepared and placed for reference near the statue at Meaux. At the present time when the outlook upon world-politics is in so distressingly a chaotic condition, the project of America's gift to France with all its implications for improved international relations is peculiarly appealing. To the regret of those who expected that the victorious cessation of the war would necessarily bring international good-will, it is indeed disillusioning still to see the situation which Tennyson described as. The nations snarling at each other's heels. France and America have always preserved a friendship which is something more than the dream of Utopians or the rhetoric of orators. It cannot be merely this when Frenchmen have died for America, and Americans for France. From the limited observations of the speaker he can testify to 422 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland the interesting fact that soldiers drafted from all strata of New York's social life fraternized on and near the front line surprisingly easily with the French. And this in spite of the fact that there was usually no common speech possible. Of course we are all aware that there has been another side to the question, but it seems to me that this side was the less important and less significant. Surely if it is possible for American school children to sense anything of another civilization that of France ought to be particularly beneficial. French clearness of vision, apprehension of form, and union of delicacy with force, are all things which our pupils lack. It was the fortune of the speaker twice to pass thru scenes of the battle of the Marne just four years later. The story of the desolation and devastation has often been told and needs no recounting now. At Chateau-Thierry I saw the German signs still upon the streets and even marks of shells and machine-gun bullets. What particularly imprest me was the difference that I observed that had been accomplisht in the few weeks between my two visits. France had in that small time begun already to repair and rebuild. The spirit of liberty which had hurled back her enemies was already proving itself as brave in peace as in war. FIVE DECADES OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS A. E. w'lNSHIP, EDITOR, "JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON, MASS. Fifty years ago there was not a high school, city school, normal school, academy, seminary, college, and few universities with a laboratory. Now there are 10,000 laboratories in the schools and institutions of the United States. Then there was not a bench, hand tool, or machine in any school or institution in the United States, now there are 10,000 schools with mechanical equipment. Then there was but one school or college in the United States that had any respect for educational agriculture or school gardening, now there are thousands of schools giving attention thereto. Then there were few cities that had drawing, now there is no city that does not have it. Then there were few cities that had music taught, now there are few that do not. Then there was not a school gymnasium in the United States, now there are thousands. Then there was not a piece of play apparatus in any school grounds in the United States, now there are 100,000. Then there was not a college graduate in any normal-school faculty unless by accident, now there is no member of a normal-school faculty who is not a college graduate unless by inheritance. Superintendence] FIVE DECADES OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 423 Then there was not a school that did not require all learning to come from books, now there is not a city school, a high school, a normal school, and scarcely a college or university that limits its education to book work. Then there was no psychology that was not built on "intellect, sensi- bility, and will," words no longer heard except in the pulpit and by ancient and honorable professors. Then the subject was the only subject of thought and the child was the subject for applied physical action. Now the child is of interest mentally, aesthetically, and physically; he is subject for. improvement rather than reprovement. In 1870 there was no studying of anything by doing anything. The school was a book affair. Book-minded children and youth learned a great deal while those who were not book-minded learned little. The student who actually visualized the experiment he was describing had fine mental discipline and appreciated science. There was no compulsory school law dreamed of, so that only those stayed in school who could learn from books, and as they were never hindered by non-bookish students they made great strides. As there was no showdown required and as estimates were impressionistic in their nature scholarship ranked high. That was the condition when the American school entered the decade 1870 to 1880. How did we come from the then to the now, from there to here ? Nothing in human nature comes without some push by human nature. Some human thought has been the carrying power over every sticking- point which the gravitation of human nature has always created. The decade of the seventies was memorable for the introduction of science and laboratories into colleges and universities, into some normal schools and high schools, and the establishment of many agricultural colleges, and the development of state universities. It was a decade in which the autocracy of book education was challenged. Colonel Francis W. Parker was the great personality in progress in that decade. The decade of the eighties was the recognition of the child as superior to the subject, and G. Stanley Hall was the commanding figure in the progress of that decade. The decade of the nineties was the liberation of the high school from the tryanny of the preparatory schools and the introduction of electives into the universities, and Charles W. Eliot was the chief champion of progress. The first decade of the twentieth century was the promotion of pro- fessional education to scholarly rank, and James E. Russell made the great demonstration which universalized the professional spirit in university colleges of education. The second decade of the twentieth century has put the education of the community in action, and here we find the leadership along different 424 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland lines in the hands of Cora Wilson Stewart, who has done more for the education of native adult illiterates than all other American educators in a century; of Josephine Corliss Preston, who first made rural com- munities realize community responsibilities for the comfort of the teacher; Emily Griffith, of Denver, whose Opportunity School is the greatest single contribution to city community service to those who hunger and thirst after knowledge, that America has ever known; Marie Turner Harvey, whose rural community demonstration has won the admiration of all patriots, and Mabel Carney, who was first to marshal the forces of country- life progress, and other noble leaders who made the decade just closing, the noblest of all time. It would be as ungracious as it would be negligent not to call attention to the fact that in this great community demonstration women were the leaders, and I venture the suggestion that woman's new place in national councils came all the easier because these women revealed the communities unto themselves. CURRENT TENDENCIES AND PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION R. W. HIMELICK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, FORT WAYNE, IND. The people of this country believe in the public schools. They are the outgrowth of and rest upon sound democratic principles. In the main, they are essentially good. There are tendencies here and there that should be checkt or turned into proper channels. In some instances the schools have not kept pace with the growth and changes in civilization. Direct these tendencies into the right channels, speed up wherever there is an inclination to fall behind, and our schools will still be the best in the world in which to train people to live in a democracy. The people believe in the teachers of this country. They believe in their honesty and integrity. They have faith in their ability to do their work and to do it well. The teachers are not asking for pity. They want what they are teaching daily in their schoolrooms, justice and a fair chance in the great game of life. There are tendencies in the social and economic world that sometimes catch the teacher unawares. Give him time and he will stem the tide. He has an abundance of problems. Many of them are perplexing. Stand behind him and he will not fail. Some day the schools and teachers will come into their own. Men in all walks of life will come to know the debt they owe to the schools and the teachers. The school is the universal home. While most people are conscious of the debt they owe to the home, many are slow to express that appreciation. In considering the tendencies and problems in education we are con- cerned with three things: the teacher, the school, and the product of the school— society. Time permits of only a brief mention of a few of what we Superintendence) CVRkENT PROBLEMS IN^EDUCATION 425 believe to be the most important phases of the work of the teacher in the school as he molds society. Education has had and always will have a tendency to drift into formalism. Our memories are too good and our vision too weak. It is so much easier to follow tradition than to blaze a new path. We must reconstruct our whole educational philosophy. Our educational terms in many cases have become tinkling cymbals and sounding brass. New life must be instilled into every school activity. The school needs decentraliza- tion. Its influence should permeate every institution. Its business should be the production of a contented citizenship, working in harmony for the best interests of humanity. The school has been so completely removed from the institutions and life which it is to serve and into which its product goes that in many cases it has become merely an end in itself instead of a means to an end. We have become engrost with the things which are taught and the machinery to be used and have in a measure lost sight of the real business of the school — the making of men and women. This tendency toward formality grows as we move from the kindergarten to the college. Almost everything in the kindergarten and primary grades deals with habit formation, which should be the important factor thruout the period of youth. In the upper grades, high schools, and colleges emphasis is laid upon the subject-matter, as if it contained the stuff out of which manhood and womanhood were made. Subject-matter is just as important for the criminal as for the constructive member of society. In many cases the former makes the greater use of it. We can get information from books and stones and running brooks. We need it and must have it. But only from a great teacher do we get inspiration to be better members of society. A true teacher never loses sight of his real work. There has been too much of a tendency to feel that somehow or other the boys and girls will just grow into useful men and women. No greater fallacy could exist. The schools ileed to adopt a constructive and positive policy. We have it for the academic side; we mu6t get it for the human side. If the schools fulfil their mission they must do more than prepare the individual to earn a living. It is only half of life to live. Too much stress has been placed upon the mere minimum essentials in subject-matter to be transformed into knowledge and not enough upon the ability to use this material to think constructively and the formation of right habits which constitute real manhood. Reading is important, but only in so far as it enables the child to converse daily with a multitude of great minds in order that he may catch glimpses here and there that will help him to be a congenial member of society and properly perform the tasks which fall to him. The same thing may be said of every other sub- ject taught in our schools. We invite visitors to our schools and point with pride to the various forms of mental gymnastics, and justly so. Would 426 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland that we could point with equal pride and with equal confidence to the pro- duct of the school and to the habits which have been formed that will carry the men and women thru the crises of life. , The country for a time bowed its head in shame because of the illiteracy discovered by the selective-draft scheme. Yet the whitest states in the union, so far as health and cleanliness of its soldiers were concerned, were those darkest in illiteracy. The account which the young men from those states gave of themselves in the great world-war made the people of the nation proud of them in spite of the fact that some could not read and write. Men need these things, but they alone do not make men. Our notion of illiteracy should be revised. Any person who does not possess a reasonable amount of the elements which constitute the type of manhood essential to make for desirable citizenship in a democracy is illiterate and a menace to society. The most dangerous illiterate may be one who holds a diploma from a university. He possesses the ability to read but uses it for his own selfish purposes. He can write but uses his skill to blight men's souls. Such a man is wilfully ignorant, a parasite in time of peace, and a slacker in time of war. The menace to our country is not centered in the ignorant reds but in the academic ones. This country has been the most notable example of a free government because our forefathers loved and cherisht liberty. At first there came to our shores only those who knew the right and were willing to do it. But, alas, when these true and tried patriots had fought the battles against nature and opened up the avenues to the great natural resources, there came to our shores another class. These people at first gave us little concern. They lived unto themselves. They did not master the elements of democracy. We depended upon force to keep them in their places. Education played a small part. As the years past, we became farther and farther removed from the principles and teachings of our forefathers. The people began to realize the danger of such a vast uneducated, unassimi- lated population. Laws were past in rapid succession. Today, my friends, we are face to face with the most serious problem that has ever confronted a nation. From every platform and from every walk of life men are saying that the only solution of this difficulty is education. The United States must be both a melting-pot and a smelting-pot. Into this smelting-pot it will be necessary to put many of citizens whose ancestors came over on the "Mayflower." There has been and is yet, too great a tendency to belittle the teaching profession and the teacher. There is no nobler work than the training of the youth. It does not require much brains and but little training to stand behind a counter and tie up packages and send from the store a satisfied or dissatisfied customer. The fact that a man turns his whole life over to making a little money is no indication that he possesses any unusual intel- ligence or that he is engaged in an honorable business. The ministry or Superintendence] ^ CURRENT PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION 427 medicine does not offer as great a field for service. The work of most of these is merely incidental. What they do passes with each generation. The world and communities in which they lived soon forget all about them and their work. But not so with the teacher. He has a man's job. In his hands lies the destiny of the world. You cannot forget your teacher because he is always with you. He has given the trend of your thoughts and has shaped your destiny. He goes with the man in the factory, and banker in his place of business, the clerk to the store, and the boy to the field. The teacher is the noblest Roman of all. He has taught us all to think. He is the past master in every activity of life. He deserves the united support of humanity. This great organization assembled here could render no greater service to the world than to resolve itself into a ''Booster Club," with a determina- tion to go before the people and place the teacher and the teaching profession where they really and truly belong. Until we do this we are working in vain. First of all an effort should be put forth to establish a real teaching profession. To do this a high standard of professional training should be establisht. So long as the world believes that just anyone can teach, we cannot hope for much advance. In the complex society which we have today I am of the belief that we had just as well close thousands of schools taught by people who have no training and no vision. Such teachers can give nothing except the mere rudiments which under present conditions could and would be given in the homes and upon the streets. It will take time to fill the schools with men and women trained for the work of a teacher. Encourage those who do train by paying adequate salaries and our normal schools and schools of education will soon be filled. The salary, however, is not the only thing that keeps men and women out of the teaching profession. We are compared with all sorts of people as if we were mere creatures with no other purposes in life than to be used as a standard of measurement. Any comparisons in democracy are fatal. Comparison establishes classes and invites class struggle. The teachers of this country should be paid adequate salaries because they are teachers and deserve it. Let the man who digs in the sewer and was once a pupil of mine get ten times as much as I do, I should say, " God bless him in the service which he renders society." All that I ask is pay for the service which I rendered. No teacher today is asking for more. But as I have said we want more than mere dollars. Every true teacher knows that he has enlisted in a noble calling. The lawyers, bankers, ministers, merchants of tomorrow are his students today. The teacher deserves some recognition for the success which these men attain. But, alas, we are merely dubbed as school ''Marms" and "Ichabods." As teachers we stand partly in our own light. We are not a united body. We speak too lightly of our own profession. We let pass 428 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IQeveland unchallenged many uncomplimentary remarks about the profession. We are not boosters for our cause. We offer too many apologies as to why we are teachers. The people need to be educated as to the work of a teacher. The mere teaching of subjects has been strest too much. The public regards this as a very simple matter. They cannot see that such work is very difficult and worthy of a decent salary. If teaching does not mean more than the handling of the subject-matter, the teacher is probably getting all that he deserves. The schools must create a public consciousness that will not tolerate within our midst destructive forces under the guise of personal liberty. Every man should have a right to say and do as he pleases so long as he pleases to say and do the things that make the world a better place in which to live. No man, even tho he is styled a professor, has any right to say, "We must broaden the flag and make it big enough to include another star and that a red star." Such men are traitors to their country and deserve to be treated as stich. May we therefore as citizens and as teachers under these Stars and Stripes lift our eyes from the mere formalities of the school and look out over the countless multitudes of children eager to be true Americans and from them catch new inspiration for our tasks. While yesterday is but a dream and tomorrow is but a vision, may we perform our duties today, so that the dreams of yesterday will have in them no regrets and the vision of tomorrow be a perfect man. THE NEW SCHOOL ANGELO PATRI, PRINCIPAL, SCHOOL NO. 45, NEW YORK, N.Y. The New School believes in freedom. It believes in the freedom that frees a child from ignorance, frees him from bad habits, frees him from the tethering influences of the half-done job, frees him from the interference of the unthinking teachers, frees him from himself, and lets him lose that self in the joy of self-expression thru service. The New School provides the child with the thing he asks for, a job. The American child wants to work. It is in his blood. We are a race of workers. The first settlers in this country workt with might and main. The American child demands work. He asks only that it be suited to his size and strength, that it be useful, something done for somebody, and that he may see it thru from start to finish. He longs to feel the pull and the push of power that comes thru getting the job done. He delights in the feeling of growth thru responsibility well carried and tested. Children are workers. All children are workers. Some may wish to work with words. They would paint the fancies that flit thru their minds Superintendence! THE NEW SCHOOL 429 in beautiful phrases. They would bring beauty into plain places. Why not ? The world needs workers that bring beauty to lighten its life. Some are workers in wood, some in metal, some in color, some in music — for each his work or he cannot grow to his fulness. Work for the body and play for the soul. A child's work grows out of his play. For years his work in life is to play. Play is as necessary for the growing child as food to his body. Luther Gulick used to say that play was the fun of the soul. Gradually the play idea merges into work. The joy should never be lost. It should be carried over to the daily duties in rhythmic, joyful self-expression. Day by day play is essential to the growing child. If the child is not- guarded he will cease to play and his growth will be checkt. Thru play habit should be put in so hard that the child will carry it all thru his life. So the New School is equipt^shops, playgrounds, studios, laboratories, libraries, classrooms. It shall provide for the very different growth of its ever different children. There must be a place for the gifted child. His gift means the outward reach of his nation. Kill off the gifted children and you cut off the hands that are reaching out for the prizes of the world, that they may lay them at the feet of their people. Make room for the gifted child. There is room for the slow child. He is not mockt; he is not branded. He is accepted on the basis that he was so created. It is no sin for one to grow slowly because his neighbor grows swiftly. It is the natural, normal thing for him to develop at his own rate of speed. The New School does away with failures. If a child is accepted on the basis of his original equipment, given an opportunity to develop that equipmdlit to its full, and remember that has never yet been done for the slowest child in our classrooms, how can he be called a failure ? How do we know that the slow-growing child is a failure? How do we know that the swift-growing one is a success ? It takes a century to grow an oak and a poplar will become a tree in ten years. Give each child his opportunity. Make the school fluid enough to grade him in subjects, rigid enough to make him acquire a thoro working knowledge of the three R's. The New School holds fast to the routined day for the child. He needs the day by day lesson to form the habit of thoro, systematic work. He must get the idea of carrying a thing thru to the end. Giving a lesson on Monday, skipping Tuesday and Wednesday and beginning late Thursday afternoon where he left off at ten-thirty on Monday morning, is not good for a child in training. It is not the subject that counts, it is the effect on the child. If he gets the habit of laying aside the job until a more convenient season he lays the foundation for a slipshod, inaccurate, unhappy, life. 430 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Qeveland The child who has never followed the routined day, the same lesson at the same time every day, until the need for that lesson has vanisht, has not acquired that sense of duty, that higher sense of responsibility, that turns work from dreaded drudgery to a joyful service. We hold to the routined day as we hold to the Ten Commandments and the Constitution of the United States. How shall we know that a child is growing? We have a habit of indicating our ideas of his growth by the letters of the alphabet and terms of per cent. What is behind those marks? The standard tests and measurements ? Our personal opinions ? The New School stands by the life tests: The growing child is good to look at. His body is clean and his eyes are clear. He glows with health. The teacher in the New School is a child specialist, a highly trained expert. He understands that this wonderful building, with the varied equipment that fills the needs of the children is the educational culture in which the children are to grow. He knows that the children have to do their own growing. He sets the day's work for the children's need and lets them do the rest. He takes the scientist's attitude. He. never imposes; he leads, directs. Always he is alert to catch the little signals that the children send out and shifts the day's work again to their needs. By these signs shall you know a growing teacher: He is good to look at. His eyes are clear and his body is clean with the glow of fine health. He is easy to live with for he is happy. He is living up to his possibilities every day and that makes for perfect contentment in a teacher. He can shoulder responsibility. He can start a job and carry it thru to completion. These are life tests. These are better than the alphabet, better than per cents. They can be demonstrated any time, any place, with any teacher and they will come true. The children, the teachers, and the parents of the New School grow together. America began in the schoolhouse. It was there we held the spelling bee, the choir practice, the donation party for the minister, and all the important town meetings. The people must come back to the school if the school is to live. It is for us to find the gifted folk of our community and draw them to us. Inter- est them in the life of the school. We must push the school out into the community and draw the community back to the school. The school will keep alive as long as it keeps in touch with its people. The life of the people is constantly changing. The life of the New School will change from time to time to keep step. Its science, its art, its literature, its work and its play, its discipline, will grow out of the life of its community. Superintendence] ^ TEACHERS' SALARIES 43 1 The curriculum of the school will grow out of the best ideas of the people it serves. The people will grow by contact with their school, for we love whom we serve and we grow by serving. TEACHERS' SALARIES JOHN W. WITHERS, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRI^CTION, ST. LOUIS, MO. The problem of adjusting pay for teachers has been one of the most difficult that the city superintendent has had to meet since the United States entered the war. In St. Louis we have had four salary increases within the past two and one-half years. The first two of these were regarded as permanent modifications of existing schedules and the last two were temporary flat increases of equal amounts placed on practically all salaries in the Department of Instruction. The first increase was made in June, 1917, $218,000, the second in November, 1918, $534,000, the third in September, 1919, $270,000, and the fourth, February 11, 1920, $250,000. These make a total of $1,272,000 placed on salaries of 2,833 persons or an average of $449 to each. Last November at a special election called for the purpose, the people authorized a tax increase from 60 to 75 cents on the $100 of property valuation with the understanding that the additional revenue thus received should be used entirely for the maintenance of the schools and chiefly for still further increasing the salaries of teachers. This tax increase, which will not be available until January, 192 1, will add approximately $1,250,000 to the present annual receipts of the Board of Education. Accordingly new schedules are now being prepared which will be presented to the Board at the March or April meeting. These schedules if approved will add approximately $750,000 more to the four salary increases already made and provide a total average increase of somewhat more than $700 over the salaries that were being paid in June, 191 7. These new schedules provide a minimum of $1,200 for regular elementary teachers and a maximum of $2,100, a minimum of $1,600 and a maximum of $3,200 for regular high- school teachers and of $4,000 for high-school supervisors. The maximum salary for elementary principals of our largest schools which vary from eighteen to twenty-six rooms will be $4,000, for elementary head supervisors $4,000, for junior high school principals $4,500, for high-school principals $5,000 and for assistant superintendents $6,000. m Changes similar to these which have taken place in St. Louis have occurred in practically all other American cities since the United States entered the war. In preparing the new schedules which I am about to present to our Board of Education, and in attempting to make them rational, / 432 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland just, and defensible, I found it both interesting and profitable to study the new schedules of some of these cities, especially of those nearest St. Louis in population and wealth. For purpose of comparison in the present address I shall use Boston, Cleveland, and Detroit as being on a level with St. Louis; Chicago and New York above; and Jersey City, Buffalo, and Milwaukee below in population and wealth. I have come out of this study strongly imprest with the following convictions: That maximum and minimum salaries are of little value -in deter- mining how well or how poorly any city is paying its teachers as compared with other cities. For this purpose the average and median salaries actually paid for the various types of service are necessary. That all cities should publish in their annual reports for purpose of comparison, tables setting forth all salaries paid and the number of persons actually drawing each salary. Such tables would also enable a city to compare itself at any time with its own past record in respect to salaries paid. That even in the latest changes reported there is abundant evidence that salary schedules are now being revised in a very haphazard, super- ficial, and unscientific manner. Remarkable differences are found where apparently none should exist, differences which cannot be justified on any but purely local grounds. Among the nine cities whose schedules I have read, the qualifications expected of elementary and high-school teachers at the time of their appointment are practically the same. The cost of living and general economic conditions are not materially different and yet there is a wide variation in the salaries paid. For instance the minimum salary for elementary teachers varies from $900 in Buffalo to $1,500 in Detroit, a difference of $600 or 66f per cent of the minimum in Buffalo. The maximum salary of elementary teachers varies from $1,020 in Mil- waukee to $2,600 in New York. The minimum for high-school teachers from $1,050 in New York to $1,750 in Detroit, and the maximum from $2,300 in Buffalo to $3,600 in Chicago. The maximum for elementary principals varies from $2,880 in Cleveland to $4,250 in Chicago. The maximum for high-school principals from $4,100 in Buffalo to $6,000 in Jersey City and Detroit, assistant superintendents from $4,200 in Milwaukee to $7,200 in Detroit. In the fourth place I am convinst of the serious need for both the profession and for the public that a commission be appointed by the Department of Superintendence for the following purposes: To analyze thoroly the problem of salaries and of salary schedules in its essential elements. To determine the factors which should rightly enter into the making of schedules and the assignment of the employes to their proper places in such schedules, and to give to each of these factors its proper weight in Superintendence] TEACHERS' SALARIES 433 determining the amount of salary that ought to be pB,id. Among the questions which need to be answered more satisfactorily than has hitherto been done are such as the following: What influence if any should sex exert? This is an old question which has sometimes been acrimoniously discust but has not yet been satisfactorily settled. What recognition should be given to native ability and teaching per- sonality ? Should the manner by which a city selects its teaching material influence the salary paid? In selecting students for the Harris Teachers College in St. Louis, for instance, it was our practice for several years to admit any graduate of our city high schools who desired to enter. The result was that we secured a considerable number who had ranked during their high-school course in the lowest third or fourth of their classes. Dur- ing the course of training many of these had to be eliminated. Later we changed the entrance requirements so that only graduates who had stood for four years in the highest two- thirds of their classes at the high school were admitted without examination. Since this change in the admission requirements has been made a larger percentage of the students have come from the highest third of their classes. In the last class that graduated 70 per cent had stood in the highest third of their classes in the high schools. Altho we have not changed the length of the course at the college, our experience has been that the city would be justified in paying considerable more for this type of young teacher than for that which we originally secured. How and to what extent should experience count? Should mere length of service, regardless of any increase in efficiency automatically carry with it an increase in salary ? Should experience in the city in which the teacher is employed count for more than an equal amount of experience gained elsewhere ? Should automatic increases based on actual or antici- pated improvement in service, be allowed ? If so, how much, how often, and for how long should such increases be paid ? Should it be greater or less for a high-school teacher than for an elementary teacher? For a principal or supervisor than for a teacher ? Should the amount of automatic increases vary from year to year in the same position or type of service ? Should the number of years of automatic increase vary with the type of position, with the amount of general and professional education of the teacher, with professional interest and native abflity and continued growth of the teacher? Should the automatic increase allowed be terminated in _any case where actual improvement is not shown ? What influence should efficiency and skill exert? Should difference in rank among teachers be recognized? How many ranks should there be? On what basis should difference in rank be determined ? Should the ratios of the number of teachers in the higher to the number in the lower ranks be limited ? How should this be done ? 434 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland What should be the influence of supply and demand ? Should salaries be higher in any type of position simply because of the scarcity of teachers ? Should it be lower on account of the abundance of teachers? What difference, if any, should there be on account of the scarcity of men teachers ? How much influence should the standard of living expect and the actual cost of living exert ? Should salaries of teachers, considering the reduced value of the dollar, be relatively higher or lower now than they were before the war ? In all the cities studied the latest salaries are for the most part relatively less than they were before the war. What economies may be safely practiced in the present management of the schools in order that teachers' salaries may be increast and the general efficiency of the schools be improved ? What relation should the total cost of administration and supervision bear to the total cost of instruction in a city school system ? To answer these and numerous other questions that arise in the general study of teachers' salaries such a commission as I have recommended would need to define the basic principles in accordance with which all salary adjustments should be made and attempt to standardize as far as this is possible and desirable the various types of service needed in a great and complex modern city school system, the qualifications needed and the salaries that should be paid for each of these types. This would be hard to do, but to make a serious attempt in this direction would do much to clear up, rationalize, and stabilize the present more or less chaotic procedure. METHODS OF FINANCING LARGE CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS WILLIAM L. ETTINGER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. With your indulgence I shall not, in the brief time allotted to me, attempt to discuss the larger problem of methods of financing large city school systems, but shall confine my presentation to present problems in financing the school system of New York City, which are probably more or less typical of the larger cities of the United States. New York City has a population of nearly six millions, distributed over a territory of three hundred and sixteen square miles and comprising five counties of the Empire State. The city presents the most diverse aspects, geographical, industrial, and social. Physical conditions generally are of the most urban character; yet there are sections as primitive in every way as any rural locality. Broadway and Juniper Swamp Road are both city thorofares. There are sections poor beyond description, but there are also Fifth Avenue and Riverside Drive. Business interests and occupations are varied and manifold in contrast with those communities where the interests of the inhabitants are bound up in some one of several industries. We have the pushcart peddler as well as John Wanamaker. Superintendence! METHODS OF FINANCING CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 435 Races and creeds have, largely segregated themselves in colonies within the city. New York City has been called the gateway of the nation, the melting-pot, the modern Babylon. New York City is a community of great wealth, for the assest valuation of its real and personal property liable to taxation in the year 19 19 was approximately $8,700,000,000. Taking 1920 as a typical year, I will enumerate briefly the costs of the school system in terms of the fundamental classification usually adopted by accountants of school finances. The cost of salaries paid to a total of 27,250 instructors, amounted to $42,95^0,000, a sum which this year will be increast many millions if pending salary legislation is adopted. The cost of supplies will be $1,950,000. Another cost of great magnitude is that incident to the acquisition of sites and the erection of buildings and the purchase of equipment for the same. Over the whole matter of housing and seating pupils. New York City was recently in a state of financial breathlessness, like a person who has speeded after a moving automobile, only to find it drawing farther away. Such a person usually slows down, sometimes stops, and wonders if there is not another way of getting to his destination. So New York, a few years ago, hesitated long enough in its building program to examine and then flatly reject the skilfully exploited Gary plan of duplicate school organiza- tion. Once more we are speeding behind the part-time problem, but with more definite purpose and greater effort. At the present rate of speed there is an excellent chance of overtaking part-time, if we do not collide with some financial obstacle, like the pay-as-you-go policy, the erection of buildings out of the tax levy, instead of issues of corporate stock. To visualize the school plant which New York City has already pro- vided, you must think of a building, the site of which would occupy over three-quarters of Central Park or two-fifths of the total park space of Cleveland, the floor space of which would equal one square mile, and the accommodations of which, a total of 825,000 sittings and 18,000 classrooms, would seat all the school children of Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, St. Louis, and Cleveland. During the school year of 19 17-18, the school dollar was distributed in the following manner: Cents Salaries of principals and teachers in day schools 78 . 8 Operation of school plant 6.9 Textbooks and supplies, day schools 3.5 Educational administration and control 2.9 - Maintenance of school plant 2.9 Evening schools 2.0 Auxiliary agencies i . o Business administration i . o Miscellaneous \ i . o 436 , NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland In the state of New York the theory that education is a function to be controlled by the state has been upheld by the Supreme Court of the state in a long series of interesting decisions and is the theory underlying the provisions of the recently enacted Stated Education Law. It was the intention of the State Department of Education in framing the said statute to relieve the Board of Education of municipal control by treating the City Charter, so far as it related to schools, with certain exceptions, as tho it were a blank on school affairs and thereby to invest the Board of Education with powers commensurate with its great responsibilities. The tendency toward reversion has been very noticeable during the present political administration and the preceding one. During the incumbency of Mayor Mitchel, the administration's keen sense of responsi- bility for the tax rate and the growing competition for funds among various highly commendable municipal activities and especially the conviction of the said administration that thru the adoption of the Gary plan of school organization, great economics, especially in the matter of expenditures for sites and buildings, would be effected, led to an assumption by the city authorities with the tacit approval of the Board of Education, which meant that the seat of authority was the Educational Committee of the Board of Estimate, rather than either the Board of Education or the pro- fessional staff. Indeed, for all practical purposes, the Board of Education was reduced to a city department, and the professional staff was subordi- nated to a body of laymen acting upon the advice of an imported expert from Indiana, who rendered only part-time service. It was not strange that the professional staff looked forward with great expectations to the enactment of a new State Education Law in 191 7, which was intended to terminate forthwith such unfortunate dual control between the State Department of Education, on one hand, and the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, on the other. The unwarranted usurpa- tion of authority on the part of the present Board of Estimate and Apportionment, against which vigorous remonstrance was made by the Superintendent of Schools, was such as to deprive the Board of Education of its most vital powers. Nor was such a development unexpected. The remarkable growth in municipal activities has so increast the amount of taxation and the total of the city debt, that the city authorities, whose point of view is wholly political, strive to the utmost to keep taxes from advancing. They seek, therefore, to obtain, over the school system, financial control such as they exercise over other municipal activities. Such attempts by municipal authorities to exercise financial control in order to keep budgets from rising can be effectuated only by passing judgment upon proposed expenditures in the school system, and thus they indirectly encroach upon the field of educational policies and school administration. Superintendence! A COMPREHENSIVE BUILDING PROGRAM 437 The evils that have arisen as a result of such control may be summarized as follows: a) There has been a diversion of State moneys from the funds of the Board of Education to the general city fund for the reduction of taxation. b) There has been a segregation of our school funds thru innumerable budget lines, the result of which has been to place the Board of Education in a financial straitjacket. c) There has been determination of educational policies by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, whether they be matters as to the location or the type of a school or the extension of an educational activity. d) There has been a denial to the Board of Education of that complete authority which the statute apparently confers and which is intended to be commensurate with the grave responsibilities which devolve upon the Board of Education. Many of the most pressing national problems must be solved thru the agency of the schools. The richness and efficiency of our school systems measure the vitality and richness of our national life. Fortunately, there is at least one aspect of conservation to which the country as a whole is heartily committed, namely, the conservation of our children thru the agency of our educational systems. Our schools are the peoples'. What they are today is what the public has required. What they will be tomorrow depends upon what an enlightened public demands. I feel supremely confident that public opinion in the light of full information will always cheerfully and generously approve proper financial support for public education in order that our, schools may enable a triumphant democracy to maintain the world leadership won on the battlefields of France. PLANNING A COMPREHENSIVE BUILDING PROGRAM p. C. PACKER, ASSISTANT CITY SUPERINTENDENT, DETROIT, MICH. Need for planning a comprehensive building program for the schools of any city is not new. It has, during the past year, however, gained and is continuing to gain more and more attention of those who are directly responsible for the amount and character of construction to be made. The war, with its attendant delay in construction, has left not only the schools far behind but the business and industry of the nation as well, not to mention actual lack of shelter for families. With all these forces competing for labor and material, both of which have advanst greatly in cost during the past few years, it is evident without argument that if the schools expect to secure their minimum building needs for the next few years, great care must be exercised each year to include only the known essential requirements. 438 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland This paper has for its purpose not the pointing out of "the way" in which a building program must be evolved, but one way in which a large city has planned to meet the problem of properly housing some 17,000 children now on half-day schooling, and a yearly growth of school popula- tion in excess of ten thousand. While the overload of children as compared with present capacity provided is large and the yearly percentage of growth larger than most cities, still the necessity for careful planning is no greater than elsewhere. For, if any city expects ultimately to have a well-workt out and well-ordered public school system, as far as buildings are concerned, it must plan carefully even tho but one building is constructed each year. Besides this, in many places with increast construction costs, all available funds for building will be demanded to provide just the bare necessities. It is therefore imperative in most budgets that a minimum building program be not loaded with askings which represent the personal desires of some faction or ward heeler. For these and other reasons which time does not permit discussing, the Detroit Board of Education decided to approach its building problem from a scientific point of view. THE TEACHING OF PATRIOTISM THEDA GILDEMEISTER, WINONA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WINONA, MINN. Gilbert Chesterton says that we give no thought to an object until its defect is evident, that we talk not of health till we are ill, of courage till fear assails us, of honor till we are graft ridden. Tho his philosophy is often laughed at as "upside-down philosophy," and he is cartooned as standing on his head at sunset so that, as he sees the sun approach his nose, he says, "How beautiful the sunrise is tonight," we know that his idea is applicable in one instance, for of loyalty or patriotism we Americans said little until the recent war showed us our national defect. With the evidence that we were not a unitedly patriotic people we awoke to the problem, and for two years the subject has been treated in every periodical of any impor- tance, and heard on every' platform; the government has issued many excellent helps, and, considering the brief time that has elapst, authors have produced an inconceivable long list of books and pamphlets on the topic, while economists and sociologists are diagnosing the situation and proposing remedies that are eminently practicable. Out of all this there has evolved a new or at least a richer meaning for patriotism, one that we are anxious to see perpetuated, and, consequently, taught to our youth, both native born youth and citizens of foreign birth who, equally with the youth of America, are "the hope of the world." Since the word patriotism is derived from the same root as is "paternal," we expect, and find, that patriotism contains the idea of affection such as is given a father, and that the earliest manifestations of the feeling were Superintendence! THE TEACHING OF PATRIOTISM 439 respect for, or loyalty to, or dependence upon, the family's natural protector, the father. Later, this feeling, with its expression, was extended to the father of the tribe — the patriarch. Much later to develop was loyalty to an ideal, an institution, or a country, which "fathered" the individual. That is, our present idea of patriotism may be thought of as the climax to a long series of related terms, such as affection, respect, service, allegiance, perhaps partisanship at one stage of the journey, civic duty, citizenship, loyalty, and patriotism — the last term embracing all the best of each of the others as each is expanded to apply to the institution we call country, or, above local country, society — the human race — or a world-nation. It is in this largest sense that I use "patriotism" tonight, not as a mere emotion, nor as a mere outward form, such as applauding at patriotic "catch words" and platitudes, not the acceptance of a country's protection coupled with fitful or passive voting and merely refraining from harming the country, but, rather, as active participation in what makes for the betterment of that country — "patriotism as the feeling which moves the individual to identify with his own the interests of the social group to which he belongs, and to act and speak accordingly." The elements of individual (and national) personality which develop with one's growth in this sort of patriotism are at least three : The realiza- tion of the right relation of "mine" to "thine"; ability to think; and willingness to sacrifice for ideals. When "my" interests expand to take in "thine," and when in "thy" problems I see "my" own, patriotism is in its first stage, the product of ,. which is self-confidence coupled with faith in others. This interaction of the "me" and the " thee" leads to the right interchange of service and hence of leadership. To keep the proper balance, individuals must think clearly and independently, whether leading or serving. Each must perform his duties in return for his rights, even at a sacrifice. There can be no place for indolence, self-interest, and narrow partisanship, but room only for industry, high ideals, and willingness to sacrifice to prove the efficacy of those ideals. To teach patriotism we must inspire ideals that are worthy of sacrifice, ideals which appeal to one's highest intelligence, judgment, and philosophy of life, rather than to mere emotion or instinctive tendencies. Next we must help pupils translate these ideals into everyday action and, inversely, see in everyday actions interpretations of these principles. This is no new doctrine. From earliest times the avowed function of education has been "training in citizenship," but as ages pass and life increases in complexity, the doctrine must be ever newly applied. Straight thinking and wise judg- ment are needed in every age to prevent the clamorous needs of the day from overshadowing fundamental, eternal, aims of education. For example, our present problem of Americanization must not overshadow the larger one of teaching a patriotism* which makes the individual identify with his 440 NATIONAL EDVCATtON ASSOCIATION [Cleveland own the interests of the world in which he lives, and to act and speak accordingly. "America first," should be only a sign post on the road and not the end of the journey. Not only do adult foreigners need to be given control of our language and an intimate knowledge of American ideals, but our school children need the same. Thru language and comradeship they grow to understand others and thru that understanding come to know themselves as a part of all life, as free personalities with power to identify with their own the interests of the group in which they live. To name all the means which any school offers for direct training in patriotism would take too long; enough it is to realize that the teacher who is helping children grow in power to attend to the work in hand, to take directions when necessary and carry them out promptly and correctly, to meet individual obligations, each doing his share, paying for what he receives in honest measure, scorning to ask for individual concessions, help- ing to make law and then to keep that law, acquiring daily a greater quantity of tools (knowledge) as well as greater facility in their use — that teacher is already teaching patriotism, pointing the way to identify the ''mine" and the 'Hhine," to cooperate more and more intelligently, to find ideals worthy enough to impel sacrifice for their sake. If the simple daily tasks are loyally performed there will be no question about patriotic response (in whatever form it is needed) when crises arise. Large, dramatic situations and demands secure ready reaction, but it is hard to realize that there is equal need of high patriotism in the unnoted daily duties. For two years America showed her patriotism in large ways. Now, in the reconstruction period and in the years of peace and friendship which we hope are to follow, we shall have constant need of the harder, inconspicuous patriotism. It must show in good manners, in deference to proper authority, in faithful work done even when no "boss" is keeping watch, in refined thought and greater intelligence, in using public property economically and for good purposes, in brief, in self-approved activities of every sort. How shall we fulfil the hope that in America each may attain to what he will, provided that his will is identified with the best interests of the whole ? Shall we teach thrift and frown on greed ? Shall we make America the greatest of nations because we keep alive the best in every race that comes, welding all into a new Americanism? Shall we avoid "provincialism" which makes us think all who do differently from us are odd or open to ridicule, and grow more patriotic by broadening our horizon, identifying with our own the human interests of all the brave ones who have left home and kindred for the sake of ideals ? Shall we help them realize their ideals, and love America as the land where dreams come true ? Thru our sympathy for all, whether rich or poor, weak or strong, a* muzhik or a prince in soul, as we fulfil our obligations and think less of Superintendence! AMERICANIZATION IN NEW HAMPSHIRE 441 our rights and privileges and more of making American ideals work, we shall develop the richest possible meaning to patriotism! When we American teachers have sent- around the globe the influences of individual freedom identified with the highest interests of the world-group, then we shall have a patriotism of which to be proud (but of which there will be little need to talk) ! AMERICANIZATION UNDER THE NEW HAMPSHIRE LAW MARO S. BROOKS, DEPUTY COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR . NEW HAMPSHIRE, CONCORD, N.H. The educational act past almost unanimously by the New Hampshire legislature in March, 1919, was far-reaching in its consequences. It gave the school system of the state the prestige and backing of a state board of education, consisting of the governor, ex-officio, and five members. The law states, "The members, not more than three of whom shall belong to the same political party, shall not be technical educators, nor professionally engaged in school work, but public-spirited and interested citizens willing to serve the state without pay and to give the time necessary for an under- standing of the educational need of the state, and of the best way to supply them." The law put into the hands of this board "the same powers of management^ supervision, and direction over all public schools" as are possest by "the directors of the ordinary business corporation," but it did not diminish in the least degree the responsibility of the local school boards. It defined a standard school as "one maintained for at least thirty-six weeks in each year, in a suitable and sanitary building, equipt with approved furniture, books, maps, and other necessary appliances, -taught by an approved teacher, directed and supervised by an approved superintendent, with suitable provision for the care of the health and physical welfare of all pupils." It provided that every superintendent should be nominated by the local board and elected by the state board, so that the superintendent might be responsible both to the local community and the state and at the same time have the advantage of being a state officer. It fixt a minimum school-tax rate of three dollars and a half on a thousand and promist state aid to every town that should raise five dollars on a thousand for school purposes and should find the sum thus raised insufficient to maintain the required elementary and special schools. The entire act is aimed at equalization of opportunity for the children of the state and the cultivation of American citizenship. " The administration of the work of Americanization in teaching English to non-English-speaking adults and in furnishing instruction in the privileges, duties, and responsi- bilities of citizenship is hereby declared to be an essential part of public school education." Under this provision the local school board has the same responsibility for carrying on the work of Americanization as for 442 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland maintaining elementary schools, and every superintendent of schools is director of Americanization in the town or city over whose educational destinies he presides. So far as we have been able to learn, no other state in the Union has outlined by law a similar policy. New Hampshire has long been accorded the distinction of being a vacation state. She is now giving free rein to her ambition to be an "education" state. The most striking provision of the New Hampshire law concerns the teaching of English in private schools. In 191 8 the New Hampshire Com- mittee on Americanization and the Bishop of the Roman Catholic church in New Hampshire, Bishop Guertin, made an agreement relating to the teaching of English in private schools. This agreement was incorporated literally into the text of the law, Section 13 . Paragraph one reads as follows : 1 . In the instruction of children in all schools, including private schools, in reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, geography, physiology, history, civil government, music and drawing, the English language shall be used exclusively, both for the purposes of instruction therein and for purposes of general administration. It will be observed that not only must the instruction in the ordinary subjects of the elementary school be in English but the administration of the schools must be carried on in English. Let me anticipate your question as to whether this provision of the law is being fully enforst by stating frankly that it is not. Not yet. In one of our back-country towns, there are five old ramshackle schoolhouses not one of which can be made to con- form to the standards set by the State Board of Education. Can we insist that the school board of that town conform immediately to the law by providing four or five new buildings ? We cannot. Neither can we expect a school that has been conducted largely in a foreign language to be equipt immediately with English-speaking teachers. By allowing a reasonable time for readjustment, we are only trying to use whatever God-given com- mon sense we may chance to possess in carrying out the provisions of the law. Paragraph two reads: 2. The exclusive use of English for purposes of instruction and administration is not intended to prohibit the conduct of devotional exercises in private schools in a language other than English. In other words, no objection is made to religious instruction in French, Polish, Greek, or whatever language may be spoken by the race-group served by the school. This means that there is no chance for any suspicion of persecution or oppression in any form. The third paragraph goes farther still: 3. A foreign language may be taught in elementary schools, provided the course of study (or its equivalent) outlined by the State Board of Education in the common branches, that is, in reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, geography, physi- ology, history, civil government, music and drawing, be not abridged but be taught in compliance with the law of the State. A private school, then, may teach a foreign language or any number of foreign languages, so long as it does satisfactorily the work prescribed for the public schools. Superintendencej AMERICANIZATION IN NEW HAMPSHIRE 443 Nearly all the large private schools in New Hampshire are the parochial schools of the Roman Catholic Church. Sixteen thousand of the children in these schools have French-Canadian parents. Let me call your atten- tion to the loyal way in which the French Bishop of the diocese of New Hampshire has done his part in fulfilling the agreement and in carrying out the law. He has created a Diocesan Board of Education and appointed a diocesan superintendent of schools to whom he has "delegated full authority for the supervision of all schools within our diocese." Let me quote from the Bishop's Episcopal letter to the clergy: These three articles as approved by us admit of no evasion or equivocation. They are intended to serve as the foundation of a working program for our schools and their incorporation into that program demands the surrender of nothing that is vital to the well-being and progress of any Catholic school. Due provision is made for religious instruction and for the teaching of any language that may be desired in addition to the course of studies (or its equivalent) outlined by the New Hampshire Department of Public Instruction. A portion of the law applies to children in private schools of elementary grade, all of which, whether they be one- or two-pupil home schools or parochial schools of 1,200 or 1,400 pupils, must be approved by the State Board of Education. The law makes provision also for minors between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one who are unable to speak and read the English language understandingly.- With certain exceptions, these minors may not be legally employed on the penalty of $50.00 to be paid by the employer for each infraction of the law, unless they attend school. Towns or cities in which reside or are employed fifteen such minors or twenty non-English speaking adults must maintain evening or special day schools. Comparatively few minors have askt for exemption and still fewer have abandoned their employment rather than attend school. This fits in with the revision of the Kenyon bill, as it past the Senate. It would seem to indicate that in our state, at least, the number of minors who resent the raising of the compulsory school age from sixteen to twenty-one is negligible. Let us suppose that we Could compel every foreign born adult in America to attend school. Let us suppose that everyone of them could learn and would learn to speak, read, and write the English language, assimilated all the facts of our history from C. Columbus to W. Wilson, understood our government (including the United States Senate), would that prove that they would all be 100 per cent Americans? Do the leaders of the Reds and of the I.W.W.'s know our language, our history, and our system of government? Certainly they do and stand ready to ''plug in" wherever and whenever they think they see a hole. In New Hampshire we are trying to motivate our evening and special day-school work. How are we doing it? First of all, we are trying to socialize our evening schools. You have seen many a school, I am sure, in which there was a class in cell No. 7, one in cell No. 8, another in cell No. 9, and so on. When the hour and a half or two hours were over, the 444 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland class got up and left and that was all there was to it. Like some day schools, it wasn't a school at all — it was a collection of classes. Thru social activities arranged by the pupils themselves (with the help of the teachers, of course) lessons in democracy and representative government are taught. Thru these social activities in which out pupils ask their friends to share, recruiting of new pupils is automatically done and contacts between members of different races are formed. More important still, some good and thoroly Americanized Americans who may be trusted to act like human beings are invited to meet these new Americans and take part in the festivities. We believe that the word ''contacts" is the biggest single word in Americanization, and the establishing of friendly contacts is the biggest factor in the possibilities of success. I do not need to remind this audience of what it means to establish friendly contacts between home and school. You know what all this means for the discipline of your school and for the prevention of misunderstandings. In the work of Americanization it means everything. We do not look upon Americanization as a drive that can be carried on with bands and fireworks, but a long-time campaign of interpreting America to the foreign-born, as someone has said, ''in terms of fair play and the square deal." In reality, Americanization is a process that must take place in the minds and hearts of the foreign-born themselves — a process that we can facilitate but not force. Ifi the meantime, we must do all in our power to create such an attitude on the part of American-born that our new Americans may be enabled and encouraged to contribute of their best to the upbuilding of America. A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION I. W. p. BURRIS, DEAN, UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI, CINCINNATI, OHIO I am in favor of a federal department of education for the better adminis- tration of all educational work which constitutionally belongs to the federal government, as such, including the invaluable work now conducted by the Bureau of Education. There are unquestioned advantages in bringing together under a common direction all of the services of the federal government having to do with education, but I am opposed to the administration of such a department by a secretary of education to be appointed by the president as a member of his cabinet. It is neither imperative nor desirable. The principles which have dominated the organization and traditions of the president's cabinet are so well known that it is hardly necessary to mention them or to call them in question. Recent events abundantly illustrate their practical operation. The president's cabinet is his official family, the members of which are selected with political purposes uppermost Superintendence! A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 445 in his mind. Members of this cabinet retain office only so long as they serve the political purposes of the president, and the exceptions to this are rare and inconsequential. This practice is so thoroly establisht that no one disputes either its existence or its propriety. It is right and proper for the president to have as his official family the men whom he personally selects, and their terms of office should be at his pleasure. For anyone to suppose it would or should be otherwise with a secretary of education appointed by the president as a member of his cabinet is an unwarranted supposition, and if he is to be deprived of all power, as the advocates of the Smith-Towner bill now insist is the case in its amended form, of what poHtical use can he be ? Ours is a government by parties, and the instances in which cabinet officers use their offices for party ends are so numerous that we dare not subject our educational interests to this hazard of party politics. Cabinet officers do have control and Senator Kenyon, himself a member of the educational committee of the present Congress, has recently declared that because of the great powers which cabinet officers have developt in the government, he would endeavor to have a plank inserted in the platform of the Republican party requiring the presidential nominee to make public his proposed cabinet appointments thirty days before the election. For the administration of a federal department of education I favor an independent administrative federal board of education, acting thru executive officers whom they select. However unsatisfactory such independent administrative boards may be for the administration of other matters, education calls for just such a board. It is a form of administration which is consistent with the nature of educational work and the relations of such work to government. To this, experience in our best city and state systems of education and in the administration of colleges and universities bears eloquent testimony. And just because education should make govern- ment instead of government making education, the relation of education to government should ever3rwhere be one of relative independence. The very nature of education, particularly in democracies, makes it a privileged institution with a large degree of autonomy in administration. For this reason we should once for all recognize the important principles that the administration of education should be as completely separated as possible from the administration of other affairs. It is especially important that we should do this in a country where we have government by parties, and it is no more desirable for the president to appoint the chief executive officer for education in the federal government than for governors and mayors to appoint such officers for the smaller units of government. No city would tolerate the practice, and all states where it persists are trying to free themselves from it. With regard to the best manner of constituting a federal board of education, Uttle need be said here. For obvious reasons the ex-officio 446 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {Cleveland board is undesirable. The method of popular election is impracticable. The best method is by presidential appointment. The term should be longhand the board should be small. Nine members, the same number as in our Supreme Court, appointed at the beginning so that they shall retire in rotation, one each year, their successors thereafter to serve nine years, is the ideal arrangement. The long term would prevent personal and poHtical control by the President, and the responsibility for bad appointments would be so clear that he would be constrained to make good ones. The possibility of abuse would be further prevented by confirmation in the usual way, but confirmation by the Supreme Court would be better still. Let there be the usual provisions for removal of members of this board on grounds of immorality, malfeasance in office, incompetency, or neglect of duty, with the further provision that the president shall have the power to remove any of his own appointees for reasons satisfactory to himself. And then let this federal board of education, thus constituted, choose as its chief executive officer a commissioner of education, and upon his nomi- nation such assistant commissioners of education and other agents as may be necessary for the efficient administration of our federal educational activities. In this way continuity in the development of well-thought-out poHcies would be assured. Patronage in the appointment of a large number of assistants would be prevented. In a word, the federal government would put its sanction upon those principles of reform in educational administration which are gaining in recognition in all lesser units of organization thruout the nation. That these principles are sound no one can deny. They have stood the test of experience, whether the unit be large or small. They are con- sistent with the nature of educational work in its relation to democratic government. Every important volume on educational administration defends them. Dr. Snedden championed them to the last at the time the unfortunate arrangement was made by our Federal Board for our Vocational Education. When the Emergency Commission had the original edu- cational bill in preparation, Commissioner Claxton advocated a federal board of education in accordance with them. So did Dr. Prosser. Why then, you may ask, were they not followed ? The answer to this question is to be found in the attitude of President Wilson and Congress. They were opposed to the creation of any more independent administrative boards, overlooking the important fact that however unsatisfactory such boards may be for the administration of other matters, education, above all other interests, calls for just such a board. President Wilson has insisted that in view of the threefold organization of our governmental functions, all administrative boards belong to the execu- tive department of the government. As the chief executive he holds that the president has to take the responsibility for all the acts of his sub- Superintendence! A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 447 ordinates. In recent years Congress has provided for certain boards and commissions whose employes the president appoints but whom, practically, he cannot remove. Under these circumstances he complained that there was a disastrous discrepancy between the responsibihty of the president and his authority which the pubhc could not understand. Consequently, he insisted at the time the Federal Board for Vocational Education was created, that if there was .to be a board, the majority of its employes should be appointees over whom a president would have complete control. But this position is unwarranted, for at the time our government was founded education was not regarded as a function of the federal govern- ment at all and this is to be remembered in all subsequent legislation on the part of the federal government with regard to education. Education, indeed, as Professor Hollister has pointed out recently, has become a kind of fourth thing and should be relatively independent in its administration over all of the original threefold governmental functions which were in the President's mind. So far as the attitude of Congress was concerned, suffice it to say that it, too, was opposed to the multiplication of independent administrative boards, at least those members of Congress who were consulted by the Commission, and knowing these things the Emergency Commission fol- lowed the plan which appeared most agreeable to Congress without any serious attempt, apparently, to show a better way. These were the essential circumstances, as I gather them from corre- spondence, which led to the decision to draft a bill which provided for a cabinet officer instead of a federal board of education. But whatever the form of organization for a federal department of education, I am opposed to any form of federal control, direct or indirect, over any kind of education work undertaken by the states, hence I am in favor of an amendment to the Smith-Hughes law under which the federal government now practically dominates the conditions under which agri- culture and home economics shall be taught in high schools everywhere, so as to preven-t this. I am opposed to federal control over any form of education undertaken by the state, not only on account of its unconstitutionality, but also on account of its undesirability. Such control, whether direct or indirect, in the impressive words of a letter from Hon. Elihu Root on this matter, "calls for the exercise of power by the federal government which has not been committed to that government by the people of the United States in their Constitution, but has been reserved to the several states. It seems equally clear that no such power ought to be committed to the federal government, because it would be absolutely inconsistent with one of the two primary purposes of our system of government, that is to say, preser- vation of" the right of local self-government in the states, at the same time with the maintenance of national power. " 44^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [aeveland The unconstitutionality of federal control over education in the states has everywhere been conceded, even by the advocates of the Smith-Towner Bill. They declare in the most emphatic way that this bill has not such control. They appeal for its passage on this ground. They flood us with propaganda in its behalf. They harvest unnumbered resolutions of indorsement. But I am not convinst. Nor was I imprest in favor of the bill by the hearing of the Congressional Committee at which two repre- sentatives from the American Federation of Teachers and one from the American Federation of Labor were present, but not one single solitary school superintendent from the entire nation. Federal control, large federal control, is there in spite of all efforts to disguise it. No such national program for education as that contemplated in this bill can be carried out without a large measure of federal control, both direct and indirect, and, as I have pointed out, if it is to be administered by a cabinet officer, this control is inevitably exposed to partisan influences. How, for example, can the federal government equalize educational oppor- tunity within the various states without control? And is it reasonable, indeed, to expect the federal government to make large appropriations without exercising control over the expenditures in some form, when such appropriations are conditioned upon the willingness of the state to match the money *' fifty-fifty " as provided in this bill ? For in order to say that federal funds have been properly used it is necessary to ascertain whether or not each state has matcht the federal appropriation and has used the money according to the intention of the federal law. This in itself gives to the federal government indirect authority over state appropriations, and it means that state money must be expended under the conditions of the federal act. In other words, by relying upon the conditional patronage of the federal government whose money is, after all, collected from the people, the states actually submit to the control of the federal government in spending their own money. That is exactly what we now have under the Smith-Hughes law governing vocational education. Let us not deceive ourselves, therefore, into thinking that federal encouragement of anything does or should or really can exist without federal control in some form whenever appropriations are made upon definitely specified conditions. To summarize, I am in favor of a federal department of education in which to bring together under a common direction all of the legitimate educational activities of the federal government, but I am opposed to the administration of this department by a cabinet officer. For the adminis- tration of such a federal department of education I am in favor of an independent federal board of education, acting thru expert executive officers whom this board selects, but I am opposed to any form of control by this board, direct or indirect, over education in the states. I am in favor of Congressional appropriations to the states for educational purposes upon application of the states accompanied by satisfactory evidence of Superintendence) A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 449 indigence in spite of diligence, but I am opposed to conditional appro- priations to the states by the federal government, because of the federal control which this procedure inevitably entails. And since federal control over education in the states is admittedly unconstitutional and undesirable, I am opposed to the proposed "fundamental beginnings of a national program for education" as inconsistent with these admissions, which call for a plan of administration for our federal educational functions that disregards the inherent relations of government and education in a country like ours, and which in the end would lead the states to surrender their birthright for a mess of federal pottage. Other ways — more constitutional, more desirable, and more American — will stimulate the states to measure up to their full responsibilities. The inspiring examples of some of them are already at work. A federal department of education, such as I have indicated, will encourage them thru publicity, thru research, and thru an appeal to state pride or sense of shame. It must not yield to the influences that are now working for the ''beginning" of a program of cen- tralization that would end in the destruction of the very substance of Americanism, which is individualism, self-reliance, initiative, and respon- sibihty. II. WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. The principal question at issue just now, in connection with federal cooperation in the support of education, has to do with the establishment of a federal department of education as proposed in the Smith-Towner bill. I shall consequently limit my part in this morning's program to a brief consideration of the reasons for the creation of such a department. We are generally agreed that the federal government should participate in the support of public schools thru direct appropriations to the states. In no other way, we maintain, can the gross inequahties of educational opportunity now existing thruout the country be significantly reduced, and in no other way can the nation be assured of that high level of trained and informed intelligence which effective democracy needs above all else, and which a pervasively efficient system' of public elementary and secondary schools alone can produce. If this contention is granted there must be in the federal government an agency for the administration of these funds. Such an agency may assume one or another of three possible forms. The present Bureau of Education may be intrusted with this duty; or a board of education analogous to the existing Federal Board of Vocational Education may be created; or an executive department of the government, analogous to the existing departments of agriculture, commerce, and labor, may be establisht. / Regarding the first of these possibilities — delegation of the proposed responsibilities to the present Bureau of Education — there is, I think, no 450 A'^ TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Cleveland debate. As a group of professional workers engaged in the most important branch of the public service, we believe that our cause should be repre- sented in the councils of the nation in a way vastly more dignified and fitting than that which is provided by a very subordinate office in a huge but nondescript department. We do not like to think that the titular head of American education must take orders from any official less impor- tant or less responsible than the president himseK. As a group we have urged upon Congress a much more liberal support of the Bureau of Edu- cation. We know how futile have been our .efforts. It is revealing no secret to say that^ the Bureau of Education has but a negligible influence in Congress. It can have but a negligible influence as long as its official status is negUgible. Some of the ablest men in our profession have been at the head of this Bureau only to be subjected to the humiliating experi- ences of a subordinate and very minor official. I believe that I speak for this group when I say that we do not propose to have the spokesman of our cause at Washington treated lonjger in this disgraceful fashion. A slap at the Bureau of Education or at its Commissioner is a slap at every one of us, and if we fail to feel the sting, our professional integument is so thick as to render us unfitted for the fine service that we represent; if we fail to resent the treatment, our professional self-respect is utterly inadequate to the high spirit that our responsible calHng demands. This is not a personal matter. It is not, indeed, an entirely professional matter. If, as individuals , we elect to play the part of Uriah Heep, and to accept blows, rebuffs, and insults with a thankful humility, I suppose that we have the privilege; but the service that we represent is another thing. It is our business to see that the conditions surrounding that service are consistent with its fundamental social significance. The most glaring inconsistency today is the subordinate status of our service in the councils of the national government. We are, I beheve, a unit in insisting that this must be remedied. You will agree with me then, I am sure, that the large extensions of federal participation in public education that we contemplate should not be administered by the Bureau of Education in its present form. The second possibility is an independent federal board of education directly responsible to the president but without status as an executive depart- ment. The analogy here is with the approved types of state and municipal school administration. The analogy requires that the board, if constituted, should elect a professional executive — a national commissioner of education, who will be directly responsible to the board and thru the board to the president and thru the president to Congress. The commissioner might, indeed, be appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, but in this case the analogy with state and municipal administration breaks down, and it is upon the alleged excellence of the approved state and city practice that the proponents of a federal board rest their case. Superintendence] A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 451 It is unnecessary with this audience to point out the fact that there is but a very Hmited analogy between the state and local school administration and the functions to which a federal board would necessarily be Hmited. Such a board could not levy taxes as can many local school boards; it could not appoint teachers for the local schools; it could have nothing to do with licensing teachers, with adopting textbooks, or with approving courses of study. In so far as the argument for a federal board rests upon an analogy with state and local boards in those particulars it rests upon something that does not exist, and consequently falls of its own weight. But a federal board has been urged most strongly on the ground that it could appoint an executive who, as commissioner of education, would be the titular head of American education. Appointed in this way, it is urged, the commissioner would be removed from politics; his tenure would not be limited to the period during which a certain president or a certain pohtical party happened to be in power. The commissioner, in short, would hold office during life or good behavior and could presumably carry to a completion far-reaching policies and programs. This, I think, is a fair summary of the case for a commissioner of education to be appointed by a board which in its turn is to be appointed by the president. The suggestion sounds plausible, but it reveals on analysis some fundamental weakness. In the first place, if a commissioner were appointed by a federal board, he could not, under the terms of the Constitution, be an officer of the government. As you all know, every important officer of the government who is not elected or otherwise provided for in the Constitution, can be appointed only by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate. Minor and inferior officers may, in the discretion of Congress, be appointed by the president alone, by certain of the federal courts, or by the heads of executive departments. But no one of these three ways covers the appoint- ment of a commissioner of education by a federal board. If the federal board appointed a commissioner, the latter would be legally only an employe of the board. He would not even be an inferior officer of the government. The so-called "Director" formerly employed by the Federal Board of Vocational Education had legally and officially only the status of an assistant to the Board. Do we wish to have as the titular head of American education a person who is absolutely without official status in the government? Even our present condition is better than that. There is another possibility, of course. A law might be past empower- ing the president to appoint a federal board of education and to designate one of its members as president of the board with the powers and preroga- tives of a commissioner of education. This man would be an officer of the government; but in this case the alleged advantage of the federal board would not be met, for the president would appoint the officer with 452 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland the advice and consent of the Senate, or without this advice and consent if we were wilHng that the oflSce should be legally a minor and inferior post. In either case the element of politics enters to the same extent as in the appointment of a secretary of education, and with none of the advantages of the latter plan. Furthermore, if the president of the federal board served as a federal conunissioner, the board itself would have few functions except those of an advisory character. It would be a convenient group behind which the Commissioner could hide in time of trouble. I submit that we do not desire or need a group of this sort. We desire that the office will be so constituted that our professional spokesman at Washington shall be forst to stand on his feet and look his colleagues in the eye without the privilege of hiding behind a group of laymen if he should try to ''put something across" that is against the best interests of public education in America. Our discussion heretofore has assumed that education should be entirely free from politics. It is clear that the federal-board plan if it kept education out of politics would achieve this end by denying to the commissioner of education appropriate status as an officer of the government. And this I contend is too high a price to pay for any of the alleged advantages of the plan. But is the basic assmnption justified ? Is it desirable to keep education out of politics in the sense that this proposal involves ? The association of education with politics is unsavory because wherever the two terms have been linkt in the past, the word ''politics" has referred to pohtical practices of a very special, altho far too prevalent, character. The political machines of local communities, and especially of the large cities, have not infrequently attempted to control the schools for corrupt ends. The appointment of teachers (and more especially of janitors) has been tempting bait to the neighborhood political "boss"; the control of supplies, especially those that are supplied by local dealers, such as fuel, has offered an opportunity for petty "graft"; while the purchase of land and the construction of school buildings have often served to line the pockets of small men intrusted with responsibilities far beyond their powers and confronted with temptations far beyond their strength. "Politics" in this perverted sense of the term should not be associated with education or with anything else that is decent. But why should education hold its skirts aloof from politics in the true sense ? Can it afford to ignore the method thru which democracy strives to attain its ends? Agriculture has been in politics; labor has been in politics; business and commercial enterprise has been in politics. For a great cause to be in politics means that the people are thinking about it. Whenever the people think hard about education, forthwith education enters politics. There is no escape; education should seek no escape. Indeed, the sooner the great questions of education are placed squarely Superintendence] A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 453 before the people, the sooner the problems of the school will reach a satis- factory solution; and the only way to place these questions effectively before the people is to make them incisive political issues. To establish a federal department of education would undoubtedly do more to keep education out of politics in the wrong sense and in politics in the right sense than could any other measure that the people can take. To dignify education, to give it a national recognition and a national sanction, cannot fail to make the local communities more careful about the men to whom they intrust the management of their school affairs. To have at Washington a secretary of education, privileged to sit at the council table of the nation, will make more important than it ever has been in the past the chief educational office of each state. If we do not wish education to become a matter of serious concern to the nation, by all means let us keep it out of national politics. I quite agree that one way to keep it from obtruding its unwelcome presence upon legislators presumably concerned with really serious problems of national welfare is to have a federal board of education with a harmless little com- missioner of education who will stand in the ante-room, hat in hand, waiting to be called, while the important officials of the government are seated around the council table working out the nation's destiny. If you desire the public-school service to be represented or misrepre- sented in this way at Washington, you should lose no time in repudiating your last year's unanimous vote calling for the immediate creation of a department of education with a secretary in the president's cabinet. But I take occasion to warn you of difficulties in your path if you attempt to have past in Congress a bill creating another independent board or com- mission. Congress itself is solidly against this policy and properly so. It would take today little less than a miracle to conquer this opposition. You are thrown back, then, upon a continuance of thepresent Bureau — but, if your dearest wish is to keep education out of national politics, this will serve just as well. The Bureau of Education is not in politics and in its present form it never will be — and for the same reason that I shall never be a millionaire. Of course I can tell you that I would not deign to soil my hands with so much filthy lucre — but you know better. What should we have in Washington to represent in the nation's councils the most important enterprise in which any democracy can engage ? The answer has been given by the public school workers of the nation again and again. For a quarter of a century it has been reiterated at nearly every session of the National Education Association by ringing resolutions against which I have never heard a voice raised in dissent. The same answer has been given by this Department of Superintendence in resolutions against which no single vote has been recorded. The same answer has been taken up by organized labor. It has been echoed and re-echoed by the organized women of the nation. These organizations outside of our profession have 454 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland an interest at stake in public education second in justification, intensity, and importance to the interest and the stake of no other group. They have spoken in no uncertain terms. What the National Education Asso- ciation has always stood for, what the friends of pubHc education have stood for, and what the enemies of public education have fought against in season and out, is a department of education with a secretary in the president's cabinet. May I state briefly the reason why I believe the creation of such a department to be an imperative necessity? In the first place we are agreed that the federal government should participate in the support of public schools. Under the budget system which is soon to be adopted by the federal government, the schedules of revenues and expenditures will be prepared by the president's cabinet. I want the cause of education to be represented in that cabinet. A most significant statement is reported to have been made in Congress less than three months ago by a shrewd and influential member. He was speaking in opposition to the Smith- Towner bill, and he said in effect to his fellow-Congressmen: "If you don't wish to pass increasingly large appropriations for education, kill the Towner bill,*' for, he said, "under the budget system the cabinet will very largely apportion the expenditures. The Secretary of War will tell you what he wants for guns and fortifications, the Secretary of the Navy will tell you what he wants for battleships and cruisers, and then the Secretary of Education will tell you what he wants for the schools and the children. After voting large sums for the army and navy, " he added, "you could not have the face to refuse equally large sums for education. So," he con- cluded, "your best way out of that predicament is not to have a secretary of education. " Let me repeat this advice to you school men and school women of this country: If you do not wish to have large appropriations for the schools and the children, lose no time in repudiating your last year's resolution indorsing the Smith-Towner bill and in effect approving the poUcy of the Emergency Commission who apparently labored under the delusion that pubhc education needed large appropriations. Personally, I still hold to that beUef, but I am only human and may be mistaken. I beUeve in a department of education because I am convinst that in no other way can be made vocal the educational needs of the nation, as a nation. I wish to see in the President's cabinet a person whose exclusive business it will be to lee that the next generation gets a square deal, not only in this state, or that county, or the other city, but wherever boys and girls are growing into responsible American citizens. I wish to see the chief spokesman of our cause in a position equal to that of the spokesman for the nation's defense, for the nation's commerce and industry, for the nation's agriculture, and for the nation's labor. I wish to have him in a position where he can offer counsel to men who will be his colleagues on the questions Superintendence] A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 455 that arise when their problems cross lines with those of education — ^and I wish him to Be in a position where he can offer such counsel freely and frankly. There are problems of naval education and of miUtary education and of agricultural education; we need a man in a responsible and influential position who can make known the points where these varied and extensive educational programs can be made to contribute to the solution of the basic educational problems, and where, it may be, they work at cross-purposes and to the detriment of the broader educational interests of the nation. I beheve in a department of education because such an agency is needed to integrate the educational forces of the nation. In discharging this function, leadership and not law must be depended upon. One of the first steps that a secretary of education would take would be to call a conference of the chief educational officers of the several states for the consideration of national educational poHcies, Any policies that this conference adopted affecting state and local education could, of course, be carried into effect only thru cooperative state action. With the prestige attaching to a depart- ment of education, the leadership essential to this — the only — ^method of working out the nation's educational problems would come most readily — and yet not so readily that the secretary of educatiofi could become in any sense an educational dictator. Whatever plans he proposed would be subject to correction, even to rejection, by the conference. Only a true leader with convincing poUcies could wield a lasting influence; but the best leader and the most convincing poKcies would be seriously handicapt without the prestige which a federal portfoKo would provide. If the state officers, after having come to an agreement in conference, could go back to their legislatures with well-matured plans that had the sanction of a recognized federal department, the chances that their proposals would receive adequate attention would be greatly increast; while the secretary of education, having the backing of this representative group, could in his turn make a strong appeal to the President and to Congress for whatever federal legislation the conference might propose. In a similar fashion, the secretary of education would call together the siiperintendents of city schools, the leaders in rural education, the presi- dents of the state universities and of the land-grant colleges, the presi- dents of the state and city normal schools, and other groups representing in the several states educational interests that have an important national bearing. Thru leadership of this type every significant value of a federal system of education could be realized without imposing upon the country a centralized and autocratic form of school administration and control. Under the terms of the Smith-Towner bill, indeed, the right man as secre- tary of education could do a maximum of good; the wrong man could do only a minimum of harm. I believe in the federal department of education because it is needed to represent the people and the government of the United States in the solution 456 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland of international educational problems. Under the League of Nations, these problems will inevitably become of large importance in the future. Educational commissions from foreign nations visit the country every year ; these commissions have increast in number and importance since the close of the Great War; they will be more numerous and vastly more important in the years that lie ahead. Provisions for the reception and entertainment of these commissions have been patriotically undertaken by private and philanthropic agencies largely because we have had no national educational official of the rank and prestige demanded by relation- ships of this sort. International educational conferences are also clearly predictable; plans indeed for an important conference were initiated by European educators in 19 19, and the United States would have been askt to call such a conference had not our delay in ratifying the peace treaty and joining the League of Nations caused an indefinite postponement of the enterprise. Such conferences will, however, play an important part in establishing the new world order and for appropriate participation in them a federal department of education is needed. ' Above and beyond all other considerations, a federal department is needed to give to education the status, the dignity, and the influence that it should have in a great democracy. It is needed to put the seal of the nation's approval upon the most important enterprise in which the people as a whole can engage. We cannot consistently be a nation in every other collective interest, and still remain in education forty-eight separate and distinct entities. The price that we have paid for our failure to have education adequately reflected in our national life has already been counted up in the heavy toll of illiteracy, limited literacy, health deficiencies, and alienism. National subventions to the states will do much to remedy these national weaknesses; but, taken by themselves, they will be an incomplete solution of the problem. To meet the final condition there must be in our government a department of education second in significance to no other department, with a chief who is subordinate in rank, prestige, and influence to no official less important than the president himself. I have no disrespect for those who fail to agree with every item of the program embodied in the Smith-Towner bill. I am sure that those who would amend the bill are as sincere in their convictions as I am sincere in mine. The Emergency Commission, which I have the honor to represent on this program, has not been blind to its responsibilities. It is not insen- sitive to them now. Thru debate and discussion, and especially thru the contributions of those who at one time and another have disagreed with us, our own vision has been extended, our thinking has been clarified, our conclusions have been stabilized. I wish that I could tell you in detail what men and women, not members of the Commission, have contributed to the Smith-Towner bill — those who, hke Mr. Blair and Mr. Carey, Superintendence] A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 457 have disagreed with us at certain important points and those who, like Mr. Waldo, Mr. Hunter, Mr. Thompson, and others too numerous to mention, have supported the program from the outset. In dealing with problems so far-reaching and so fundamental in their significance as are those that the Smith-Towner bill strives to solve there can be no question either of exalting or of humiliating men individually, there can be no question of magnifying or minimizing professional groups. I have been told that certain superintendents feel that their problems have not been given sufficient consideration by the Commission. Superintendents con- stitute a clear majority of the working personnel of the Commission; I do not think that the seven city superintendents and the five state super- intendents who belong to the Commission would have permitted any action derogatory to their group. It is true that no bulletin has been publisht treating of the specific problems of the city schools, but in justice to the Commission it should be said that such a bulletin was authorized and that a city superintendent, a member of the Commission, was askt to prepare the material. I am sure that when this bulletin is issued, the members of this Department will agree that the Commission has been very far from neglecting their specialized but none the less important problems. Much as we are unwilling to regard the Smith-Towner bill as a perfect measure, however, it still remains true that, if we had delayed the intro- duction of the bill until it satisfied every member of the profession, our program would still be in the realm of speculation, and organizations outside of the profession would have taken up the task. We believe that we have put before Congress a bill that embodies the reforms that are most essential to the nation at the present critical juncture of educational development. For the great items in this program — the removal of adult illiteracy, the Americanization of the immigrant, the promotion of health and vigor, the vast improvement of the rural schools, and the adequate preparation of teachers — no substitutes have been proposed, no additions and no subtractions have been suggested. Above all, what we need to effect any reform on a nation-wide basis is united action. The enemies of pubUc education will capitalize to the utmost every break in our ranks, every sign or symptom of divided counsels. We must settle our differences among ourselves. To take our quarrels to Congress is to destroy every chance of success. And in the meantime, the educational crisis is increasing in its seriousness. Teachers are leaving the service in unprecedented numbers; our normal schools are drawing smaller and smaller contingents of recruits; the educational departments of the colleges and the universitiesi are reporting lower and lower registration altho the number of college students is larger than ever before; and our public-school service is suffering most seriously where strength and efficiency are most sorely needed — namely in the rural and village schools which enroll nearly 60 per cent of the next generation of American voters. 458 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland But if this situation is serious beyond all precedent, it also offers to our profession the best opportunities that it has ever had for initiating a thoro- going reform. The public is aroused as never before. We can get a hearing that we should never get under normal conditions. Shall we avail ourselves of this opportunity? Shall we work together and fight together for a school system that will be worthy of our democracy — a school system that will be loo per cent efficient instead of lo per cent? Shall we proclaim, now that we have the public ear, that the only solution of the educational problem of this great democracy is to put a mature, a well trained, and a relatively permanent teacher in every classroom in the land? Shall we seize the opportunity that is present — or shall we drift with the tide — concerning ourselves with petty jealousies and incon- sequential squabbles? Shall we demonstrate the ability of the public- school workers to think in big terms, to frame comprehensive policies, and to construct far-reaching programs? The opportunity is ours today in a measure that may never come again. Shall we grasp it, and work together, making every personal sacrifice for our great cause, forgetting our differences, remembering only that in all likelihood the greatest stake of the age depends upon the outcome ? And I do not speak boastingly or insincerely. West- em civilization hangs today in the balance. Every gain that the race has made is threatened with destruction. Only a thin line separates France and England and Italy from the menace of barbarism. Upon our nation may devolve the responsibility of keeping the torch aflame. Upon the trained intelligence, the clarified insight, and the disciplined will of our people in all likelihood will depend the fate of the world in the decades that are to come. First, last, and all the time it is an educational problem. It is your problem and my problem, your duty and my duty. At no time in the history of our profession has the need for devoted, consecrated, united action been so imperative as it is today. Let us stand shoulder to shoulder with unbroken ranks and see the battle thru to a glorious victory. TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS' LOTUS D. COFFMAN, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. To what kind of an association shall teachers belong? Shall they join the American Federation of Teachers, which is affliated with the ' Since this paper was written the writer has been led to believe that there are those who regard it as an attack upon organized labor — upon the right of labor to organize. Nothing could be farther from my thought. The right of labor to organize, in my judg- ment, is inviolable and necessary. Others have seemed to feel that the paper is a subtle attack upon the educational program of organized labor. While I do not see how such an interpretation can be given to any sentence or paragraph in the paper, I am pleased to have this opportunity of paying my respects and of acknowledging my indebtedness, to organized labor for the comprehensive and progressive educational program which it has formulated. In the preparation of this paper the writer had possession of and was granted the privilege of using certain statements from an unpublisht paper by Mr. R. R. Price of the Extension Department of the University of Minnesota. Superintendence] TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 459 American Federation of Labor, or shall they maintain an independent organization of their own? This is the question which thousands of teachers are being called on to answer. All matters of a temporary or expedient character should be swept aside in an attempt to arrive at a final and sensible answer to the question. The American Federation of Teachers bases its appeal upon the assumption that teachers are merely employes, hired men and women, not members of a profession; that they are the objects of economic and intellectual exploitation and oppression; that affiliation with union labor will exhalt and dignify them as they have no dignity to lose, that they are a helpless, hopeless, disorganized aggre- gation of units, without business or collective sense; that their serviUty, due to autocratic and Prussian methods of administration, is notorious. The force of the appeal of such facts comes at a most fortunate time for the American Federation of Teachers. Conditions thruout the country are unsettled. The cost of living is still rising. Labor has raised its wage scales enormously thru the influence of the unions. Teachers, on the other hand, are finding it increasingly more difficult, if not impossible, to maintain their former standards of living. Many are leaving teaching, attracted by more remunerative opportunities in other fields, and their places are being taken by the untrained and unqualified. The public expresses an interest in the situation, but remains too inactive. Labor extends a welcoming hand, saying, "Join us, we have the power and the votes to bring quick relief." It points to its record of achievement, it shows how it has bettered its own condition; it shows how it has actually helped teachers in certain localities. Moreover, this argument apparently has the sanction of some of the most distinguisht educators of this country, the most distinguisht of whom perhaps is Professor John Dewey. Professor Dewey tells us that " teachers have not had sufficient intelligence to be courageous" and suggests that the intelligence necessary to be courageous can be acquired by joining with labor. Furthermore, he curiously and naively suggests that affiHation with labor will give teachers "faith in their calling, faith in one another, and the recognition that they are the servants of the community." In other words, if teachers are to have faith in their work, faith in their co- workers, and respect and recognition for the idealisms, the social obligations and forms of social service, they are expected to discharge as members of the community, they must join with some organization which differs in purpose, in nature, and in membership from the usual teachers' organization. The proposals of the American Federation of Teachers are deserving of the most serious consideration, because it is deliberately at work setting up an organization within our ranks. Its delegates appear at our state associations and visit our cities, seeking the estabhshment of local unions. There is time enough for me to discuss only a few of the objections which may be raised to its activities. 46o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland Among these I would mention: First, teachers are not laborers merely. If they are, then so are the doctors, lawyers, nurses, ministers, the followers of every profession. Truly they all work, but they do more than that. They recognize their social servantships and ethical obligations. They consider the oppor- tunities for service and the by-products of their work of more importance than the economic returns they receive. When the professions are accept- able to the unions, then all the people of this country will be joined in one great union, and that union will be the United States of America. Second, the purposes, methods, and problems of organized labor are essentially and fundamentally different from those of the teaching pro- fession. "They aim at different objects; they handle different materials; they deal with different problems; they work in a different atmosphere; they develop different attitudes." Labor works with inert materials; teachers with impressionable human nature. Labor seeks a standardized product; teachers, the development of initiative and originality. The methods of labor are static; those of the teacher, dynamic. The laborer is an artisan, the teacher an artist. So long as these differences prevail they cannot covenant together without loss to both. An alliance between them is an unnatural alliance. Third, labor believes in equal pay for equal work. It has made its hardest fight for the acceptance of the principle that men doing the same kind of work shall be paid the same wage, regardless of efficiency or output. Transferred to the field of education, this means equal pay for equal posi- tions, and by equal positions is meant teaching the same grade, the same subject, or the same number of hours. To institute a union wage plan for payment of teachers means that the merest tyro will receive as much salary as the most competent teacher. It means that inefficiency and incompetency are protected and perpetuated. In this connection it should be remembered that the interests of the teachers and the interests of the school are identical. Whatever interferes with one will interfere with the other. Every plan, policy, or redress of griev- ances to correct economic wrongs of teachers must be considered in relation to its influence and effect upon the schools. Schools are not social agencies created and set apart for the special benefit of teachers; quite the contrary, teachers are made for schools. For these reasons present benefits must be considered in terms of their ultimate results. An immediate gain for the teacher that results in permanent harm to the school will, in the long run, leave the teacher worse off than he was before. This being true, the slogan of the professionally minded teachers will not be equal pay for equal work, but equal pay for equal work of equal worth. Fourth, the weapon of the union is the strike, but recognizing that it would be contrary to public pohcy for teachers to strike — the American Federation of Labor has guaranteed local autonomy in this matter to local Superintendence] TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 461 federations of teachers. Disregarding entirely the reflection, which this guaranty implies, there is something which these teachers cannot escape. They cannot escape having their psychological processes, biases, and attitudes colored and influenst by those with whom they are associated. It will be more and more difficult for them to maintain that freedom of thought and unprejudist judicial-mindedness so necessary for fair discussion and just decision when the strike is the subject of consideration. Moreover, the public is gradually crystalizing its views on the strike problems. It holds that a strike of public servants is a strike against the government itself. This issue was clearly settled in the Boston police strike. The overwhelming vote given Governor Coolidge at the time of his election was an emphatic expression of public opinion that those who hold positions of public trust and honor cannot violate them. However, even tho the American Federation of Labor guarantied autonomy to local teachers' unions and even tho state teachers' associations frown upon strikes, they are actually occurring. The pubhc cannot acquit itself easily of the enormous folly of permitting teachers to become dis- contented. Prudence, good sense, and a high conception of pubUc welfare should have induced the public long ago to have remedied conditions. It did not do so. Consequently thinking people are forst to debate some of the remedial measures advocated by certain groups of teachers. It is a serious thing to deny any body of free men the right to strike, but we must do so in the case of policemen, soldiers, and teachers. When policemen may decide for themselves when and in what manner they will enforce the law, a dangerous form of militarism has been created. When teachers may decide for themselves when and in what manner the schools shall be kept open, the foundation of government at once becomes insecure. Democracy can never be attained by the surrender of any phase, or any part of its force, or its standards of public service to a special interest. Neither the state nor the public can become the instrument of a special class. This tradition is not a fiction, it is an ideal of social policy which cannot be abandoned. Perhaps the greatest single poHtical achieve- ment of all time is the subordination of the individual to the state in the interest of the common good. It is this ideal as much, and perhaps more than any other, that the school seeks to safeguard. Its preservation is our sole assurance for social progress. A few minutes ago, I said that teachers' unions affiliated with labor must inevitably become sympathetic with the methods of those from whom they receive support. At any rate, if they do not do so, it is not likely to be the fault of labor. A story is told which illustrates the point I have in mind. A miner was on a strike. He became ill and sent for the doctor. The doctor came puffing in almost exhausted, claiming that he had been working from fourteen to twenty hours a day. The miner, looking up, said, "Why don't you strike for shorter hours ?" The doctor 462 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland said, "Well, suppose the doctors did strike, who would be here to minister to you when you are sick?" "That's so," said the miner, scratching his head, "who would?" Then he had a bright thought. Looking up at the doctor, he said, "Why don't the doctors organize a union and affiliate with the miners' union ? Then we could strike for you. " The fifth objection that I have to the affiliation of teachers and labor unions is that it will intensify class spirit and class antagonism. The American Federation of Teachers, unless it has recently changed its con- stitution, does not permit those persons on the public school staff who are presumed to be in disciplinary relations to teachers to be members of it. Such an arrangement must result in arraigning a part of the group against the rest of the group. A schism in the ranks of teachers at any time is unfortunate, and it is doubly so when it is forst by semi-secret organizations and caucuses of teachers. Class consciousness may be an unmitigated good, or an unmitigated evil, according to whether it expresses itself in a social consciousness, or degenerates into class mindedness. Certainly our recent experiences in dealing with it in this country justify us in saying that it is the most insidious virus in American life today. To indoctrinate the teaching force with this idea so that it is arrayed against the supervising and administrative force will jeopardize the standing and influence of the public schools. It is unfortunate from another point of view. It will result, if indeed it has not already done so, in an attempt to discredit administrative and supervisory positions. A representative of the American Federation of Teachers recently said to a body of teachers, " Superintendents are creatures of capitalistic boards of education. Talent and ability are not found in such positions; only mediocrity will be found there. Real intelligence is found among the teachers." A grosser misrepresentation of the facts could scarcely be uttered. The truth is that neither talent nor stupidity belong to either class. They are found in both. Everywhere we hear pleas for more opportunities, wider privileges, and better salaries for teachers. Who is making similar pleas for superintendents? Almost no one, and yet such pleas are needed quite as much for superintendents as for teachers. The shortage of competent superintendents is growing more serious every day, due partly to the discontent and unrest among teachers. Between teachers and superintendents, there should be coopera- tion, not division; union of effort, not separation; collective, not divided, responsibility. This has actually been achieved in many places, but it must be an accomplisht fact in more, before the future of the schools is secure. The difficulty which arises when groups begin to think in terms of their interests or grievances is that they will emphasize their rights to the neglect of their duties, their privileges to the neglect of their obligations, their wishes to the neglect of their responsibilities. The ultimate Superintendence] TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 463 goal is obscured by the thing near at hand. The truth is that democracy has been on trial too long to be lost in any sudden burst of enthusiasm for human freedom. All human freedom is limited by its capacity for stable and efficient self-control. Democratic nations have died only by self-slaughter. Our nation faces the task of reinterpreting its ideals and of readjusting its life. In the future, there will be less talk of rights, and more insistence upon duties. If we, as individuals, or as classes or special groups, do not volunteer for new life, we shall be drafted. President Eliot recently declared that democracy is now on trial, that unless we effect a highly efficient organization with national unity as its goal, we must fail. If education is not used to promote the resources of the nation as a whole, but to divert these resources into individual or class channels, it becomes a source of weakness instead of strength. A sixth reason for objecting to the affihation of teachers' organizations and labor unions Ues in the failure to make a proper distinction between private work and pubHc service. The teacher is the social servant and the employe of all classes. He cannot favor one against the other. He has accepted a position of trust and honor, which he is privileged to reUnquish, but which he is obHgated to fill, while in office, with fidelity and impartiality. And herein lies one of the inherent weaknesses of organized labor in continuing to invite and urge such affiliation. We have taken great pains in this country to safeguard and protect the freedom of the schools. We have excluded politics and ecclesiastical control; we have consistently refused to permit the schools to become fertile soil for any propaganda, except that of a patriotic charac- ter. Public opinion is particularly sensitive to any departure from this policy, and for organized labor to seek to absorb into its membership the teachers, is to arouse apprehension and protest immediately, and to provoke prejudice against the source from which the proposition comes. In other words, organized labor cannot afford to solicit the affiliation of the public school teachers, or of any otrfer pubUc employes; it sacrifices thereby too much of the confidence and good will of the public. Not only will there be an aUenation of pubUc support for organized labor, but an ahenation of pubUc support for pubHc school teachers as well. Teachers must not at any time forget that they are public servants deriving their support from the public and answerable in loyalty and devotion to the whole pubHc, not to a class. The schools must remain the unprejudist sources of information and instruction for the estabhsh- ment of wholesome pubUc opinions. To make them partisan is a deadly stroke at the very foundation of democracy itself. Seventh, there is danger that affiliation with organized labor will result inevitably in a lowering of professional standards among teachers. These are now much too low. Perhaps not more than 25 per cent of the teachers of this country can be regarded as adequately trained for the positions 464 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland they hold. To admit recruits, known to be poorly trained, and to insist that they be paid as much as the trained and the competent, will mean a return to the intolerable conditions that existed twenty or more years ago when there were practically no well- trained teachers. Two of the main arguments advanst by the American Federation of Teachers are based upon the desire for more power and more money. These are natural cravings. The American Federation of Teachers insists that teachers should have more of a voice in the determination of school affairs. No one denies this as a general proposition. Indeed they have already a cooperative arrangement with this end in view in many places, and hundreds of other places are at work' at the problem. And the inter- esting fact is that these things have come about naturally, logically, without the assistance or advice of outside delegates. The number of communities and states thruout the country that have taken steps to improve the salary situation without relying entirely upon the assistance of organized labor is striking. Virginia increast its appro- priation for teachers' salaries by $800,000 to aid rural school teachers and to lengthen the term. Texas appropriated $2,000,000 in 1919-20 and an equal amount for 1920-21 for the same purpose. South CaroUna raised the salaries of high school teachers 36 per cent; Indiana from 25 to 30 per cent. New York past the most important salary law in its history with many agencies backing it. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Georgia, Con- necticut, have estabhsht new schedules, or have them pending. The very remarkable advance of salary legislation in Iowa was due to the effective work of the state teachers' association. Exceptionally effective work is being done by the state teachers' associations of Ohio, Michigan and Miimesota. These are only a few of the cases that could be cited . Now the important question is, who initiated the movements which resulted in these advances, and who supported them. If I am correctly informed, they were started by some professional organization of teachers and eventu- ally received the support of all classes — orgS.nized labor included. This is as it should be. In presenting this list, I should not omit New Mexico, where one of the most interesting tests is being made. The teachers of that state at their state meeting past a resolution taxing themselves on a pro rata salary basis for the raising of $15,000 to secure legislation for better salaries. They estabhsht the minimum salary at $1,200, but the chief paper of the state in a ringing editorial showed that the minimum should be $1,800 and urged that that be fixt as the standard. A volume could be written describing other important t)rpes of work these associations are doing. Everywhere where teachers have sought to maintain the unity of the profession, they have found it easy to cooperate with all other social agencies, rather than to compete with them for public favor. Affiliation with organized labor may help in developing a feeling Superintendence] TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS 465 of solidarity and may secure some economic gains, but it will not secure solidarity and economic gains commensurate with those secured where teachers are organized on a professional basis. More than that, the breadth of view of the service of teachers as citizens will be narrowed rather than broadened by the latter relation. One can scarcely serve two masters and profit equally from both. Referring to the kind of freedom which a teacher should possess, Mr. C. E. Myers in a recent issue of School and Society y declares that if teachers, recognizing their weakness, seek protection under the arms of "labor" they will be losers in freedom of spirit and particularly in that freedom which carries over in teaching and makes for democracy in education. The issue is clear cut. Mr. Myers' argument may be summarized as follows: Shall teachers with the economic and moral support of one class organization attempt to dictate the terms of their own labor and the education which all classes must receive ? If democracy is to be safe, the teachers of our future citizens must be able to remain free from class preju- dice as professional pubUc servants, must see the justice of the claims peculiar to any class, and labor to dispel the ignorance and to cultivate that unselfishness which makes class disputes impossible. To be sure, teachers must exercise their responsibiUties and rights to promote better citizenship. The type of democracy which they should advocate within the school should be one which enables them to cooperate with each other and with the representatives of all the people, all classes, and all organizations, to the end that all classes and all individuals will be given an equal opportunity to live happy and useful lives. Now I return to the question with which I began this paper: To what kind of association shall teachers belong? To one where they are subservient to a strong class organization, or to one dominated by professional purposes, aspirations, and ideals where they continue to be a professional group of free pubUc servants ? It is my opinion that the resolution recently adopted by the Edu- cational Council of the State Teachers' Association of Colorado, outlines the correct program in the last paragraph, which reads thus: The teachers of America should be associated in a national association with the state association as units of the national association, with local associations thruout the various states members of the state associations; that each of these units should keep itself free, unincumbered and unattacht, in order that, by the independence of its position, it may lay its program for the benefit of public edu- cation before any and all organizations which ought to join with it in improving educational conditions. This would give us a strong cohesive self-conscious organization, actuated by a desire of worthy service worthily rendered the state and in which the feelings of professional spirit and pride would be augmented by the consciousness of numbers and influence. 466 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland CONSTRUCTIVE FACTORS IN AMERICAN EDUCATION JOHN P. GARBER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. There is one thing that is quite clear from the beginning and that is that the successful solution of some of our problems must be thru the slow process of transformation upward, as our insight and purpose unfold, rather than thru any sudden change. There are and always will be errors and difficulties attending our solutions owing to imperfect knowledge of condi- tions and because, as David Harem says, "There is as much human nature in some people as in others, only more"; there are and always will be obstacles to progress due to outright sin and human selfishness; and there are and always will be problems that even the wisest will find too vast and intricate for immediate solution. But certain fundamental things imderlying our unrest and our fears as a people are already becoming clear. There are things that are of special significance to us as educators, things for whose best solution society is turning more and more earnestly and hopefully to the schools. Allied with the stand against spurious principles of liberty is the need of developing a higher regard for our human resources. Autocracies and aristocracies, in which the welfare of the nation depends so largely upon the will and the wisdom of the few, can be wasteful of human life, but democ- racies, in which the strength of the nation depends upon the will and the wisdom of the many, dare not be so. The appeal of our tremendous natural resources has in the past partially blinded us to this fact. But we are facing conditions that make it imperative that we not only conserve our material-resources but above all else our human resources if we would retain the world leadership to which destiny seems to have called us. Fer^ero, the Italian historian, in reply to a message from the New York World as to what he regarded as the greatest need of mankind for the year 1920, said, "Wisdom and bread" — bread to furnish physical development and power to the human machine and wisdom to see to it that its physical development and power are used for meeting the world's highest spiritual needs. Those of us dealing with developing human life realize something of its supreme value and as we catch glimpses of what our schools might and should be are imprest with the need of getting the full message of its impor- tance over to the public. From the financial standpoint alone, even the lowest estimates of the value of a human life place the worth of our no milhons of people at 2I times as much as that of all our other resources. The waste from preventable sickness and neglected opportunities for adding to the years of productive life mounts up to the billions. And all such estimates take no account whatever of the increast and improved results arising from physical vigor and its more vital power of initiative and thought. That we have failed to use the highest and best that our immi- grants can contribute is evident. That the possibilities of the child are Superintendence] FACTORS IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 467 just beginning to be well explored is also evident. And what can be done educationally for our adult population is still largely an untold tale. There is great need of a fuller development of the spirit of cooperation. Ours is a sturdy government, framed in the interests of a virile and fearless people well able to protect their own interests. This of itself tends toward competition and a survival of the fittest and often makes it much easier to talk about sincere cooperation than it is to secure it. Altho it is one of the glories of our democracy that an individual with* the necessary ability and energy may rise to the highest positions regardless of how lowly his starting point, the danger of class distinctions arising and the sub- mergence of whole groups occurring under the strenuous competition of such a sturdy people is a real danger. The friction between Labor and Capital is mainly the result of the fear of a large and vigorous group of our people that under the pressure of our modern industrial systems their interests will be submerged. The unwarranted use of the terms ''labor," "capital," and the "public," as if they represented separate and distinct groups and interests, has helpt to foster this fear. There are certain very specific needs that are evident for the schools: a) There must be more money for the schools, more money with which to erect the t3rpe of buildings and to establish the tjrpe of equipment that will best meet school and community needs; ample funds with which to secure and retain competent teachers, teachers who represent the very cream of culture, professional training, and experience; ample funds with which to provide the types of opportunity for each child that will enable it to make the best preparation possible, within its himaan limitations, for success and satisfaction in life, no matter what its handicaps may be; more, money with which to secure adequate service for laying the foundations of vigorous health and with which to remedy physical defects and to prevent the spread of contagion; more money with which to extend recrea- tional facilities; money with which to extend and improve all of the oppor- tunities for our boys and girls to make the transition from the school to life; money with which to open the way for our immigrants into our best American life and thought; and ample funds with which to place before all, whether young or old, the opportunities for the knowledge and training that will give the maximum assurance of vision and success in life. h) The public must be led to take more active interest in their schools. It is not easy, of course, to arouse the public interest and support for things on the basis of their relative importance. This is a matter of development. But if the press, the pulpit, the platform, and all the other agencies that so directly mold public opinion, were seriously and systematically to assist in this great work, educational influences would be tremendously strength- ened. c) And, finally, we must not lose sight of the fact that the spiritual side of life is, after all, not only the more important but also the more 468 ' NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland enduring. True living is measured in satisfactions rather than in accumu- lations. Therefore the wider the horizon of life and the greater the measure and the better the quality of its resources, the fuller its satisfactions. The lack of training that shuts anyone out from the keen enjoyment to be gotten from the records of what men have wrought and thought, to be deprived of the visions of beauty and harmony furnisht by music and art, to have a restricted knowledge of the wonderful world in which we live, to know little of the revelations and marvelous accomplishments of science, and to lack the information necessary to appreciate something of the great issues of society — this, in these days, is little short of a calamity. We are facing great issues, and must face them with courage and confident hope. The world-unrest is full of menace, as educators we are laboring in troublous times. But if, as an organization, and if as individuals in our respective fields of work, we labor with wisdom and courage, it may be that after all we are facing the dawn of better things, an educa- tional renaissance that shall do much toward lifting the world to a higher plane. THE GREATEST NEED IN PUBLIC EDUCATION TODAY— WISE AND RESPONSIBLE LEADERSHIP E. C. HARTWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BUFFALO, N.Y. In the typical American city of the first class, thousands of little chil- dren will be in school for only half time, or will be in hopelessly crowded rooms, church basements, temporary makeshifts and antiquated school- houses built in the James Buchanan style of architecture. The board and superintendent will find their teachers grievously underpaid, many of them improperly trained, and not enough of any kind or quality. They probably will discover their school system starved on its supplies, repairs, equipment, and books. They frequently will find political, and otherwise vicious, traditions of school management, a discouraged teaching body, an indifferent press, and, in the main, an uninformed public. The attendance department will be insufiicient to meet the requirements of the law. The health department will likewise be inadequate. So also will the office force, for there is an ever-increasing mass of legislation regulating reports, demanding statistics, directing activities, and imposing obligations. The Tax Dodger's League is exercised over extravagance and with a rocketing tax rate, the financial officers of the community are frantically seeking a way to keep the city's expenditures within the limit of the law. It is not the United States Commissioner of Education who is held responsible for the success of the local school. Neither is it the state department, the National Education Association, the American Federation of Teachers, the local teachers' advisory councils, the parents' associations, the Federation of Labor, the chamber of commerce, nor the graduate Superintendence] EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGE OF THE PRESENT 469 schools of education. It is the local superintendent of schools. His is the trust; his the opportunity; and, whether he wishes it or not, his is the responsibility. I have no quarrel with the public when it holds him thus responsible. On the contrary I sympathize with the parents' associations who look in vain to their superintendent for wise educational leadership. I sympathize with the teacher whose superintendent fails to fight her battles for adequate salary, sufficient books, proper working conditions, reasonable enrolments, and constructive supervision. I agree with the graduate schools of education when they declaim against the incompetent and untrained superintendent, and I certainly concur with the National Education Association Commission in its asser- tion that American public education is today passing thru a great crisis. The shortage of teachers, the low salaries, and inadequate training have been and are large contributing factors in the creation of this crisis. Their immediate correction is imperative, but the development of a wise and responsible leadership is the parmount need in American education today. Higher salaries of themselves will not correct incompetence, reduce enrolments, or revise courses of study. Increast expenditures for buildings will not produce the educational millenium. Without constructive leader- ship, the salary question can never be settled with justice to the teacher nor with justice to the public who must pay the bills. The financial impasse in which many of our cities find themselves will continue a matter of strategic strength to all those forces so constantly alert to embroil our schools still further with municipal politics. Inade- quate housing facilities, abnormal enrolments, and insufficient equip- ment will remain unremedied. Courses of study will degenerate into a hodge-podge of medieval inheritance, ante-bellum traditions, local prejudice, and experimental fads. Leadership is what the profession needs and the superintendent of schools, already charged by the public with the responsibility, is the one to whom we should look for its development. THE EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGE OF THE PRESENT WORLD SITUATION HENRY C. KING, PRESIDENT, OBERLIN COLLEGE, OBERLIN, OHIO What are some of the demonstrations of the war and of after-the-war conditions that particularly concern educators, and some of the consequent demands made upon education today ? I think the world has never had such a demonstration of the power of education as the German nation showed in this war: drilled from kinder- garten to university into the philosophy of the state as above all moral 470 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland obligations, and into a materialistic interpretation of the survival of the fittest; drilled into these things until practically the whole nation had its ideals and hopes changed; until the whole nation responded with one formula, with one mood, almost with one gesture. The spirit of it was not a thing to be imitated, but the proof of the stupendous power of education was most impressive. As such it is a distinct challenge to American education. The plans of the American government for its army in the war were such as to bring out with unusual distinctness the advantage of the edu- cated man. The later plans for the education of the army during the period after the armistice also strongly accentuated the value of education. I think there can be no doubt that value was brought home as never before to thousands of men, and the prestige even of higher education was greatly strengthened. It is a part of the business of American education now to make the most of this deepened conviction of the value of education. But in spite of this new conviction of the power and value of education, I fear we must confess that the war revealed the comparative failure of our American Education of the ideal side. As an educator one makes that statement with reluctance. But I fear that we cannot deny that the war made fairly clear that we had not succeeded in penetrating our American youth with the deeper and finer aspects of education in the degree that we hoped was true. I am afraid we must admit that many of our American soldiers never got into mind the real aims of the war; never clearly per- ceived what the essential elements of democracy itself are, nor those great moral principles that were involved in the war. So far as this is true, it brings a definite challenge to American edu- cators to make sure that their work is permeated at every stage with the great method of the moral law: "mental and spiritual fellowship among men and mental and spiritual independence on the part of the individual," that we thus make certain that our pupils come to convictions and insights which are truly their own. At the same time, this comparative failure of our education on the ideal side suggests the necessity for a more definite and discriminating moral education, and for clear-sighted and far-sighted training for democ- racy— the training of citizens who can think; who know the peculiar necessity, in a democracy, of self-discipline; who acknowledge the obliga- tion of the privileged as applying at every stage; and who hold the basic conviction of the value and sacredness of every person, without which no true democracy is possible. It is not too much to say that every one of the larger aspects of the war proclaims the necessity henceforth of the international mind for every nation, and for every citizen of that nation, that means to count intelligently and with full value in the life of the world. The attempt of a provincial patriotism to withdraw into our old selfish isolation is futile stupidity. Superintendence] COMPULSORY CHARACTER EDUCATION 471 And it belongs to the educator most of all to make certain that the new generation has learned this all-embracing lesson of the war, and knows that a true internationalism is no foe of a true nationalism, but that each requires the other rationally to complete it. There probably was never so conscious and deliberate an attempt as Germany made to reverse the moral standards of the race. And that the collapse of our civilization was so near, meant that the spiritual roots of our civilization were shallowly grounded, its Christianizing too superficial. We cannot run away from the task so arising. All the ideal interests of the race are at stake. The call is for spiritual power great enough to master the world and to bind all its resources of wealth and power and knowledge and beauty to the chariot of the ongoing purposes of God. And a great share of this responsibility rests upon the teacher. COMPULSORY CHARACTER EDUCATION ERNEST A. SMITH, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH John Galsworthy in the current Atlantic Monthly declares that for the future of civilization states must reorganize education spiritually. The world-war and its aftermath have brought a flood of educational plans and laws in Europe and in America. A disposition to attempt large things Jias been dominant. Singling out one of the lines of activity, there comes into view a competition entered into by the forty-eight states of the union for the formulation of a program of character education. One state has ventured to enact legislation that empowers the public schools to assume the responsibility of the moral training of its youth. Utah by the law of 19 19 requires that all boys and girls up to eighteen years of age be at school or at work. They register once a year for a twelve month enrolment and are supervised the entire time. This innovation means that Utah has abandoned the traditional scheme of caring for the pupil thru only one thousand hours a year in the school- room. The state also undertakes the direction of this child for the other three thousand active, wakeful hours of the year. School is life, you say. Yes! And there is more life each day, abundant and diversified, beyond the walls and the grounds of the district building. Inevitably the youth of twelve years and after is destined to meet a social environment that is new, is definitely formative, and too often sharply divergent from what he has hitherto known in the home, the school, the church of his particular group. How shall he safely use the unaccustomed liberty of action? How shall he wisely exercise a new-felt independence of judgment ? How shall the natural instincts of boys and girls for self- expression and for achievement be directed, so that with no loss of power, purpose, and vision, they shall pass on to worthy and successful manhood 472 NATIONAL. EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland and womanhood? How shall the unfolding and the development of the adolescent be judiciously and inspiringly consummated? For if democ- racy is to be made safe for the world, then in the smallest, least populous settlement as well, as the teeming centers of great cities, our children must be socialized for all the responsibilities of modern life in the American Republic. Several factors have cooperated to bring the Utah program to pass. The demands of the Federal Government for war work service brought to the schools a sense of their collective responsibility to the republic. There came a new realization that the State owed it to the nation and the com- mon good that its youth be not only mentally alert, but also physically vigorous and fully trained in patriotism and civic virtues. In the adminis- tration of the Smith-Hughes law for vocational education the provision for home projects requiring six months led to planning school work for an entire year. The idea of employing inspectors for twelve months became familiar. The successful experience of a church institution, the Ricks Normal College, known as the Rexburg plan, was a potent influence also. Here subjects are pursued thru summer vacations and the work is supervised and graded by teachers. Reports are made upon social, economic, health and religious welfare and count in the year's record. The discipline and training of the majority of the Utah people contribute to the favorable acceptance of the new educational laws. The moral instruction of youth is a cardinal tenet of the dominant church and the close supervision of personal affairs is an accepted practice. The distinctive feature of the law is its practical training in character education. The aim is moral expression and action. The case in not rested upon a scheme of moral instruction such as prevails in France, where the teacher discusses abstractly before the class various forms of conduct. To be sure the imparting of moral precepts and of ethical knowledge is not neglected. The elementary schools have morals and civics presented as closely allied subjects. All know Hutchin's code with its ten Laws of a Good American. In the junior high school the pupil fills out the score card of the Good Junior Citizens, judging himself on the points of his care of himself, con- duct, reliability, cooperation, obedience, initiative, thrift, and community service. Similar standards appropriately developt are designed for high schools. The molding influence of the teacher is ever invokt. The appro- priate subjects in the course of study are utilized for lessons in character culture. But the efficacy of the Utah program is based upon its positive assign- ment of work to be done. The law went into effect September i, 19 19. The registration up to eighteen years was made. The location of each youth is known and record follows, if removal elsewhere in the state occurs. Superintendencel COMPULSORY CHARACTER EDUCATION 473 Every district must provide school opportunity for twelve months and for which school credit will be given. Enrolment is invited in one, at le'ast, of the several courses offered in agriculture, farm mechanics, trades and industries, home economics, personal hygiene, physical education, music, systematic reading, etc. The youth are urged also to enrol in one voluntary out-of-school organization at least, such as, the Boy Scouts, Campfire Girls, Y.M.C.A., various boys' and girls' associations, clubs, societies, orchestras, etc. Part-time pupils are assigned to groups for vocational guidance. School credit is given for Junior Red Cross work, thrift stamp activity, clean-up campaigns and any community service. The machinery for operating the law involves first the employment of inspectors and advisory teachers for the whole year. Three sets of reports are used for checking vocational activities, health habits and out-of-school activities. Complete and specific details are covered. The health-showing includes the use of narcotics, care of persons, sleeping habits, kind and amount of recreation. A half year's experience does not admit of extensive conclusion as to results. Voluntary action in some areas preceded the. law's going into effect. The compulsory feature to eighteen years of age has brought several thousand pupils back to the full-time schools. The various features of the new act will be gradually adopted in the several cities and countries. Many boards of education have employed full-year supervisors. The enrolment of pupils in health-habit courses has been quite large in some sections. Gratifying reports are made as to a decline in the use of narcotics. An increase of juvenile delinquency during vacation periods has been hitherto common. In the rural districts school authorities are juvenile court officials. The program for out-of-school activities cannot fail to remove fruitful sources of wrong-doing. The superintendents of the State hail the law of 1 919 as a call to civic and moral righteousness for all the youth. The cooperation of the various agencies of the community in the character growth of the boys and girls is one of the vast potencies for good in the program. Such an organization has been formally effected in Salt Lake City. The possibilities of using the Boy Scout movement to supplement the schools are also developt. In addition to the troops formed in connection with churches and fraternal orders, the Junior High Schools are organizing troops, whose activities are apart from the school, but the influence of their spirit is strongly mani- fest among the boys daily. The instincts of achievement, the qualities of initiative, loyalty, self-reliance, and helpfulness which belong to the Scout are the basic essentials of efficient character formation that must obtain in every school that adequately functions in boy life. An interest in community welfare is truly a moral habit. In the boy's cooperation with school, church, business, recreation, whatever the group, his attention has been gained, his emotions quickened, and his energies 474 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland enlisted. He has learned to give himself whole-heartedly to something worth doing. He has a joy in action for the thing was of his free choice. But the moral life has another aspect in addition to that of service. It must include excellence of personal character. The traits and the dis- position are subjects for culture and training as much as are the abilities and talents of the pupils. Good temper, fidelity to trust, fair play, care for others, civic responsibility, are matters of habit. They are nurtured and enforst by practice. Ideals gain genuine value only as they are exprest in conduct. The concepts of democracy may be said to be moral rather than intellectual. They involve cooperation and reciprocity. With one's rights, he must also recognize his duties. A duty can never become a vital, energizing force until it is fixt in habit. This is the new realm of educational endeavor that Utah would earn- estly and resolutely enter, having its schools take over the character guid- ance of its youth and striving to make sure that precept is transmuted in practice. The state has adopted as its slogan in its experiment the senti- ment exprest by the great Secretary of the Interior, the lover of boys and girls, Franklin K. Lane, in his memorable utterance, "America is a spirit. America is an inspiration. It is the constant and continuous searching of the human heart for the thing that is better." PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN NEW JERSEY FREDERICK W. MARONEY, M. D., STATE DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL TRAINING AND HYGIENE, TRENTON, N. J. The Pierson Physical Training Law enacted at the 19 17 session of the New Jersey Legislation was past with practical unanimity by both Houses. Extracts From The Law Relating to Physical Training. A supplement to an act entitled, "An act to establish a thoro and efficient system of free public schools, and to provide for the maintenance, support, and management thereof," approved October 19, one thousand nine hundred and three. There shall be establisht and made a part of the courses of instruction in the public schools of this State what shall be known as "A course in Physical Training." Such course shall be adapted to the ages and capabilities of the pupils in the several grades and departments, and shall include exercises, calisthenics, formation drills, instruction in personal and community health and safety and in correcting and preventing bodily deficiency, and such other features and details as may aid in carrying out these purposes, together with instruction as to the privileges and responsibilities of citizenship, as they relate to community and national welfare, with special reference to developing bodily strength and vigor, and producing the highest type of patriotic citizenship; and in addi- tion for female pupils, instruction in domestic hygiene, first aid, and nursing. To further promote the aims of this course any additional requirements or regulations as to medical inspection of school children may be imposed. Every pupil, excepting kindergarten pupils, attending the public schools of this state, in so far as he or she is physically fit and capable of doing so, which fitness shall be deter- Superintendence] PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN NEW JERSEY 475 mined by the medical inspector, shall take the course in physical training as herein provided, and such course shall be a part of the curriculum prescribed for the several grades, and the conduct and attainment of the pupils shall be markt as in other courses or subjects, and the standing of the pupil in connection therewith shall form a part of the requirements for promotion or graduation. The time devoted to such courses shall aggregate at least two and one-half hours in each school week, or proportionately when holidays fall within the week. Soon after the law was past, the Commissioner and his assistants outlmed a course of study and, with the approval of the State Board of Education, issued three monographs, one for the use of Grades I to VI, another for Grades VII and VIII, and a third for the high school of Grades IX to XII. These monographs are broad in scope, adaptable to both city and rural schools, and are filled with useful material. They emphasize the teaching of true citizenship; they stress the importance of developing health habits rather than the memorizing of hygiene facts; and they bring forcibly to the attention of the teachers the necessity and opportunity for joy and pleasure in conducting and executing the prescribed lessons. In addition to placing the monographs in all of the schools, the Depart- ment of Public Instruction conducted a series of meetings thruout the state early in September of 191 7. The county and city superintendents, the supervising principals, principals, helping teachers, and physical training teachers were invited to these meetings. The principal features of the program were: The Commissioner and his assistants explained the course of study. The informational phase of the law for both the ele- mentary and the high school was carefully covered. Experts in physical training from New Jersey and nearby states, made clear the technical material of the monographs, and time was allotted for open discussion. Following these meetings, there were talks and actual instruction given by physical training teachers at the County Institutes, which were held during the early fall. There is no doubt but that these meetings did much to launch the movement successfully. The teachers took up the work with enthusiasm, and soon was manifested the necessity of employing a physical training director to outline a permanent policy for the state; to conduct institutes for physical training teachers; to inspect school systems; to supervise normal school courses in physical training; to encourage teachers in their endeavor to live up to the spirit of the Physical Training law; and to meet with boards of education and parent teacher associations so that their sympathy and interest might be more thoroly aroused. There- fore, in 19 18 the present State Director of Physical Training was appointed. It seemed advisable to teach classes of children whenever possible, for physical training lends itself to visual instruction as perhaps no other subject in the school curriculum does. Actual teaching does much to clear up mistaken ideas of the subject; for while the course of study embraces athletics, gymnastics, apparatus work, setting up exercises, games, dancing, hiking, swimming, in fact all phases of motor activity which will make for 476 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland more intensive and more efficient physical training. A great many teachers have accepted physical training as implying a cold formal presentation of muscle movements devoid of enthusiasm and the spirit of fun. We believe that there should be hygiene, educative, recreative and corrective exercises in every lesson; but we also believe that if the value of our work is to carry thru after the child has left school and gone on into business, into college, or into a professional career, it should give to him a fund of exercise material and a love of out-of-door activities that will keep him young and strong, alert and enthusiastic. The physical training program has stimulated the forming of health clubs thruout the state. The credit for this work is due in a very great measure to the splendid examples of the helping teachers, and the County Superintendents. At the present time it would be difficult to find a rural school without its health club. Many of the rural and city schools are following out the program of the Health Crusader branch of the American Anti Tuberculosis Association for the inculcation of health habits thru daily chores along health lines. Employing boys and girls as assistants in physical education has de- velopt leadership. It is good training for a boy to stand up in front of a class to direct and correct physical exercises. This new feeling of con- fidence, if carefully guided and directed, can do much to vitalize and make more interesting the other lesson activities. It can give a high type of morale to the classroom which will mean better work and a keener appreci- ation of the pupils' privileges and responsibilities. At the present time, there are nearly four hundred special physical training teachers employed in our schools. We need more, for physical training is not a subject that every grade teacher can handle without the help and supervision which is possible when there is a trained physical training teacher on the faculty. School boards should in so far as their funds permit, employ trained physical training teachers if they wish to realise the maximum benefit from the work. There never has been a time in the history of our country more propi- tious for a wide-spread campaign to popularize the subject of physical training. The lessons of the war, the academic and economic losses to our communities as the result of disease, which to a great extent is preventable, will all too soon be forgotten unless we capitalize our experiences. There is no short road to health, or to physical well-being. We raise or lower the standards of our resistance to disease by our daily habits of eating, sleeping, bathing, working, and exercising. Physical training is only one phase of a health program but it is an important phase. Daily exercise is essential for the health of the teacher and the pupil. Superintendence] THE DENVER OPPORTUNITY SCHOOL 477 THE DENVER OPPORTUNITY SCHOOL CARLOS M. COLE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLO. In 19 16 the Denver Opportunity School was organized as a part of the public school system. It is supported by public school money and belongs to School District Number One, City and County of Denver. Many traditions with regard to public-school organization were abandoned in the establishment of the Opportunity School. The school operates continously from 7:30 a.m. until 9: 15 p.m. Any person may be received as a student who is fourteen years of age or over. Students range from fourteen to eighty-four years. There are no academic requirements except that the student, in the estimation of the principal, shall be capable of doing the work to be undertaken. The student may attend as many hours weekly as his regular vocation may allow. He may devote one hour weekly or twelve hours daily. There are no regular class promotions at the Opportunity School. Pupils are advanst when they show fitness for higher work. There are no regular marks of scholarship. A pupil going from the Opportunity School to a neighboring high school may receive special grades for entrance. The purpose for which the school was establisht was to supply "the instant need of things" as Alma and Paul EUerbe have exprest it in their appreciative article in Harper's Magazine. The idea back of the school and the methods of conducting it are so simple that visitors, journalists, business men, and others who investigate are apt to look for the spectacular and report only on the plainly evident spirit of the helpfulness which prevails. Classes are formed, with little formality, upon the request for any useful subject. A boy appeared one day and askt the principal for help in sheet metal work. The principal askt him if he could find other students inter- ested. He said he thought he could. She askt him if he knew where the best sheet metal workman in the city was working. The boy gave her his name and establishment. The principal instructed the boy to interview this man and make arrangements with him to come to the Opportunity School certain hours of the day and evening as a teacher. The next day a class of twenty-five appeared and the skilled mechanic was teacher. This is the usual method of forming classes. Classes have been organized in automobile work, telegraphy, type- writing, shorthand, salesmanship, dressmaking, millinery, acetylene weld- ing, vulcanizing, cooking, sheet-metal work, electricity, machine-shop work, wireless, manicuring, hairdressing, commercial art, mechanical drawing, prospecting for minerals, correction of speech defects, English for foreigners, citizenship for those seeking naturalization, seventh and eighth- grade work, and most high-school subjects. 478 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland A well organized employment department with a manager is operated in connection with the school. Students learning of positions in the com- munity report them to the employment agency. A suitable person is recommended by the manager. The business men of Denver have con- fidence in the recommendation of the Opportunity School and there has been no difficulty in making proper connection between the school and industry. Instructors in vocational subjects are chosen by the principal from the shops and business houses of Denver. These teachers are employed by the day and may be discharged at any time by the principal without reference to the administrative ofiices. The principal may organize classes, hire and discharge teachers, and determine the policy of the school. The only requirement is that she shall send immediate information of all these things to the administrative ofiices. The Opportunity School in Denver is operating now the fourth year. When it was organized in 19 16, it was expected that the enrolment would be in the neighborhood of 200. The first year the enrolment reacht 2,000; the second year 4,000; the third year, 6,000; the enrolment of the first ten days of tlie fourth year was 3,000. It has served since its organization 10,000 people. It is contributing directly to the welfare of thousands of Denver people. Five hundred and thirty-seven boys from the Opportu- nity School served in the Great War, and there were none more loyal. Since the Great War 400 wounded soldiers are being trained in this school. It has trained hundreds of foreigners in citizenship classes. It is cheaper to educate these people than to imprison them later as I.W.W.'s. It is our hope that some time there may be facilities great enough for the Opportunity School. There would be students to fill a building cover- ing the block if we had the building, the equipment, the teachers, and the money for operation. But we believe that the people of Denver will supply these needs and that there will be a greater Opportunity School with a larger golden sign over the door, and underneath it this legend: "This school is for anyone who needs to learn any useful thing any time." This will be the people's university. SOME PROBLEMS OF ADMINISTRATION CONFRONTING THE PUBLIC JUNIOR COLLEGE JESSE B. DAVIS, PRINCIPAL, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. According to the recent report of the Bureau of Education on the Junior College, this institution is classified under four divisions. There are the junior college, or lower division of the university, as at the Univer- sity of Chicago, the normal school accredited for two years of college work, the small private college which has limited its course to two years beyond Superintendence] SOME PROBLEMS OF ADMINISTRATION 479 the standard high school, and the public high school which has extended its work to include the first two years of the college. As the report referred to has a very complete summary of the history and status of the junior college to date, the discussion here presented will be confined to a few of the problems which are confronting the administrator of a public junior college. The first problem which the promoter of the public junior college has to meet is the question of cost. Some citizens and board members will take the position, once held in regard to the high school, that we have no right to tax the public for so-called "higher" education. It is also true that boards of education in general are reluctant to appropriate money for projects which are new or for which there is not an evident demand on the part of the taxpayer. Therefore, it is the task of the educator to create this demand even before he has an opportunity to demonstrate the advan- tages of the projects involved. He must be content if he is permitted to begin in a small way and prove his case in spite of serious handicaps. He must face the fact that the per capita cost of instruction in the junior college will be slightly greater than in the high school. The classes will be smaller and the pay for teachers will be larger. There will be additional cost for administration and for library and laboratory facilities. To offset this added expense some junior colleges are charging a tuition fee ranging from a very nominal sum to two hundred dollars per year. This custom gives rise to a very nice legal question that can be settled only in the courts. Have we a right to charge a tuition fee to students who are of legal school age and who are legal residents of the school districts ? Can such fees be charged in those states that distribute the state funds to the local districts upon the basis of the school census, i.e., on the basis of the number of inhabitants between the ages of six and twenty-one ? As test cases have not yet been tried with respect to the junior college, fees will continue to be askt until the public has accepted the junior college as an integral part of a free public school system or until it is decided that it is an extension of the state university, supported wholly or in part by the state. At present there are two types of curricula to be found in junior colleges; Those which -articulate fully with the work of the university and which are credited with full value upon transfer to the higher institution. Such curricula include the usual literary curriculum, the pre-medical and pre- law curricula, and an engineering curriculum. On the other hand, there are to be found a number of two-year curricula which are intended to com- plete the training of the student for the purpose of entering the more advanst positions in business, industry or semi-professional fields. Such curricula are planned for the preparation of those who would become business executives, accountants, secretaries, librarians, nurses, foremen in industry, or those who would enter occupations requiring some training beyond the high school. 480 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland The administration of a junior college program of classes in the same building with the high school necessitates a scattering of class periods thruout the day. College students, of necessity, must have greater freedom in coming and going, in passing about the building than do the high-school pupils. This freedom will often be abused and troublesome ques- tions of discipline will arise. The college man does not like to be called to time by a high-school teacher for breaking some rule against being where he should not be when he should not be, etc., all of which seems very petty to him. He resents it and is discourteous to the teachers, and the feeling that the two institutions might better be in separate buildings is emphasized. / The future will probably show that a separate building will house the junior college in cities having more than one high school as soon as the number of students enrolled warrants the expense of building and the extra cost of a separate administration. The Public Junior College has come to stay. It is now recognized as an integral part of a public school system as evolved in modern educational progress. It is destined to become a free institution open for the ad vans t training of men and women for the higher positions in business and industry, as well as for admission to the professional schools of the university. When ultimately housed in a building of its own, serving its community and the neighboring territory, it will become in a real sense "the college of the masses," and the just pride to the supporting populace. SHORTAGE OF TEACHERS MARIE TURNER HARVEY, PORTER RURAL SCHOOL, KIRKSVILLE, MO. That the teachers of America now in the field rests the responsibility of solving the many new problems of reconstruction for the next decade is a well-known fact, but so serious is it that we must reiterate and reiterate it to comprehend its gravity. We cannot overemphasize the intolerable situation that we must face for several years, that there are approximately 200,000 one-room schools in the United States and a considerable number of consolidated schools of varying types in varying stages of development other than the ideal types resulting from such leadership as Superintendent Driver's; that the larger percentage of American children live in the open country ; that the shortage of qualified teachers is so great as to have forest the issuing of special certi- ficates to candidates unable to meet the requirements of the county super- intendent for thousands of these schools ; that other thousands have reduced the length of term to meet salaries or have closed entirely. Here is a condition threatening the very foundations of this republic for as the schools are, so the democracy; as the teachers, so the schools; Superintendence] SHORTAGE OF TEACHERS 481 as the attitude of the public toward teaching, so the teachers. A very large task of general enlightenment is yours. We face a condition not a theory. We cannot think of the teacher of the farm children without intelligent consideration of the farmer and the business of farming in its relation to the future of this country. The ques- tion of food supply and cost is fundamental to the question before us. The virgin fertility of the land has gone, farming has already become a skilled occupation; if we are to maintain maximum production without further loss of soil fertility there must be a new type of farmer developt from among these same country children, and the retention of 9ur best young people on the farms depends chiefly upon adequate educational opportunity, not twenty years hence, but immediately. Adequate salaries must be paid but assuming a sufficient number of teachers with acceptable qualifications being offered a very considerable increase in salary to enter the rural field next September, the majority would choose town positions with less salary. Increase in salary alone will not solve this problem. Some difficulties in the way which salary will not overcome can only be suggested in this brief talk. Chief of these are: lack of a suitable home; isolation; absolute lack of freedom to exercise common sense and common knowledge in the organization and conduct of the school thus limit- ing her services, inhibiting progress, and making the position intolerable. Here is a case in point: a young man admirably qualified by reason of his training and serious purpose to succeed as teacher, in company with his county superintendent consulted me about his daily program for a one- teacher school. Try as he would, he could not reduce the number of reci- tations below thirty-six. Every adaptation suggested, although based upon successful practice and acceptable to both teacher and official, was shown to be risky for the future influence of both in the locality because the regular examinations were based upon the course of study. Under such circumstances there was nothing to offer; but my feelings can better be imagined than described when on asking the total enrolment, the young man replied: ''Nine." Only nine pupils and thirty-six recitations to comply with the hard-and-fast course of study! A traditional course of study and curriculum, daily program, system of examinations as "tests" for promotions and ''eighth-grade graduation," all of which are vaguely imitative of procedure workt out by the cities, for the cities, and suited to city needs, but in no sense practicable or desirable in the rural situation, will drive away any self-respecting, capable teacher who wishes to develop children normally and make the schoolhouse a distributing center of efficiency in the community life. Such teacher will not engage in a work involving supreme hardships and deprivations when her work will not, cannot "function." The mental disturbance, physical depression, and resultant inefficiency of the teacher arising from the 4^2 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Cleveland attempt to apply literally all the advice of the various specialists encoun- tered in her student life in exact compliance with the school laws as interpreted for her in various educational gatherings by the various individuals related to her position officially is not generally understood. No one in the teaching profession is so officially dominated and yet so little supervised or so generally handicapt in carrying on her complex work as is this rural teacher out in the open country. The way out lies in whole-hearted cooperation of all educational leaders in every state — men and women of vision, courage and action. The rural people of America learned thru the various war emergency drives to respond; the habit of quick response is still with them; they hear and read as never before, and I have absolute faith in the very large good that would follow official notification by means of circular letters, press service, and extension service speakers of the country's deepening appre- ciation of rural folk, of its recognition of their unequal educational oppor- tunity, of its determination to remedy this, and of an official appeal for the cooperation of the farm folks themselves to make good working condi- tions for the teacher in the home and the school thru united personal effort in lieu of money and specific laws, pending legislation with public sentiment back of it, which will insure in due time a greatly improved system of public support and professional preparation. Let us take care of today — tomorrow will then take care of itself. TEACHER SHORTAGE FROM THE STANDPOINT OF A COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT H. v. HOLLOWAY, SUPERINTENDENT, KENT COUNTY SCHOOLS, DOVER, DEL. A study of the teacher shortage shows that the shortage of adequately trained teacHers is nearly universal, but that this is not felt in those com- munities which are willing to pay the price of good service, no matter how much that service may cost; that towns and even villages have not so much difficulty in procuring properly certificated teachers; but that rural districts, particularly those at a distance from the towns, go begging and are fortunate, or unfortunate, to get any kind of a teacher at all. In the last are numbered the greater part of the one hundred thousand schools in the country, either closed or in the hands of teachers with no professional preparation and little or no academic preparation. To diagnose the causes of rural-teacher shortage in this manner is to suggest the remedies for the same, which may be more fully stated as follows : I. Better salaries for rural than for town teachers. For positions in which the teacher is required to exercise the function of teacher, principal, supervisor, and sometimes of board member, better salaries should be paid than are paid grade teachers of equal preparation and qualification. Superintendencej TEACHER SHORTAGE AND THE SUPERINTENDENT 483 2. Better living conditions. At least one of the most comfortable homes in every school district must be open to the rural teacher, or, in the case of consolidated rural schools, a teacherage should be provided, a part of the permanent equipment of which, aside from the modern conveni- ences, should be a library, a piano, a phonograph, and a housekeeper. 3. There must be more helpful supervision, better books, more adequate materials of instruction, a better building with better sanitary appliances, a better heating* plant, and more satisfactory janitorial service. 4. Country teachers and those who would prepare for country teaching must be shown that there opens up for the rural teacher of skill and adequate preparation, positions of larger service as helping teachers or rural super- visors, state supervisors, county superintendents of schools, or even state superin tendencies of public instruction, and the county superintendent must realize that one of the most important prerogatives of his office is the selection and advancement of teachers that give promise of such leadership. 5. Good roads that make it possible to reach the best that the town has to offer with a minimum of effort. 6. The elimination of the one- teacher school, wherever possible, by consolidation with other schools. Let us see what makes the teaching profession a desirable means of livelihood and a desirable occupation for some hundreds of thousands of the best people that there are in the country- at the present time. This will suggest some of the advertising material that can be used, some of the rewards which the teaching profession has to offer: 1. It offers opportunities for advancement — it is not a dead-end job. 2. The immediate future promises a reasonable and a stable return for services rendered. The teacher is coming into her own as her place in a democratic form of government is being realized. 3. It offers power that goes with a position of leadership. 4. It offers leisure for recreation and self-improvement. 5. It offers the spiritual joy of service, and satisfaction in the realization of the fact that "He profits most who serves best." 6. It offers the opportunity of revealing the wealth of the ages to eyes that would otherwise be blind, and to ears that would otherwise be deaf, and to lives that would otherwise be empty. 7. It offers an opportunity for the exercise of that maternal instinct, which is not only the most important but the most lasting of our race inheritances — the fostering, the protecting, and the guiding of childhood. This is the message that I would have every high-school principal and every county superintendent in the United States take to the high-school students of the land, and I have faith to believe that it will be a form of advertising that will accomplish the desired results. 484 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland SUGGESTIONS FOR A PRACTICABLE AND EFFECTIVE PROGRAM OF AMERICANIZATION ALBERT SHIELS, DIRECTOR OF COMMITTEE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNITY COUNCILS, NEW YORK, N.Y. Americanization is a too convenient term. It can mean as many things as one's preconceptions may interpret it to mean. Before we work for the goal, we had best be sure that we know what it is. The history of every people is the development of certain traditions, certain principles that lie at the foundation of their national life. We Americans may be unconscious of them, we may disregard them, but they exist notwithstanding. Even tho we forget these principles, we recognize them at once when they are challenged by opposing principles. Of late years such opposing principles have been presented on the public platform, or hawked about in magazines. There are Americans who are trying to engraft them upon our social and political life. Real Americans recent a theory of government professing to operate for the benefit of a single class exclusively, or a theory which makes men dependents of a state, or a theory which permits untrammeled personal liberty when it infringes upon the liberty of another. If we can agree on the characteristic qualities that reflect American principles, then we shall have a definite purpose in any program of Americanization. But it is at once the glory and the penalty of democracy that it works well only when it becomes the intimate concern of those who compose it. The American knows that efficient democracy can be learned only thru experience and by a free choice of competent leaders. But industry has introduced into democracy a great many complex problems that thrust themselves upon his attention to the exclusion of his political responsibilities. Modern life offers so many more fascinating objects of interest than a response to the rather exacting duties which democracy demands of the citizen. In democracy, education by experience becomes more expensive as the people become less interested. Our great American fault is laxity. Americanization politically means that people must revert to a keener, more constant, more aggressive activity in public affairs. It is not that the country suffers from too much politics, but that too few people are sharing in them. If we could be pro- foundly convinst that this indifference to civic responsibility and civic duty is not only a real ethical defect but in the prudential sense a real loss as well, then our Americanization program will put in the forefront this one fundamental idea. Upon each of the people lies the responsibility for good government; that when things operate inefficiently, it is not suffi- cient to stand by and criticize the officials or the laws or the form of govern- ment, but to get together and improve them. In other words education for Americanization must establish this truth, that democracy is not an institution to save the people, but that the people must save democracy. Superintendence] A PROGRAM OF AMERICANIZATION 485 A program of Americanization must explain this peculiar quality of American individualism — individualism being one side of the shield, the other being team work, getting together. These people who are talking of eternal class struggles, may be able to speak English but they do not know what the American spirit is. People who are trying to import European philosophies and European theories, developt from conditions such as never existed here, to cure our lesser complaints, are about on a par with a physician who would propose to relieve a patient's headache by injecting a few cholera germs. Concerning children it may be said that the Americanization program depends less on the curriculum and the organization of the school than on the method of their interpretation. It might be possible to have two school systems apparently alike, in which one of them was regularly turning out an army of children profoundly dedicated to the service of the com- munity and to the state as their main concern in life. Certainly, it would be unfortunate if a school system which announst a program for the Ameri- canization of foreign-born adults did not clearly establish a program for the real Americanization of its children. The situation as to the aliens may be represented by a diagram. If the inner of two concentric circles represents the alien, then between the outer and inner circle are the agencies and influences that may affect him, so far as they may be assembled. This inner circle is not a blank, tho too many people seem to assume such is the mental state of every newly arrived immigrant. For the alien comes here with attitudes, prejudices, hopes, and in these they differ among themselves. However, amid the countless differences of individuals, there are certain qualities common to the majority. Relatively few immigrants come here now because of religious or political oppression. With the vast majority the cause is economic necessity and hope of economic betterment — a hope 1 in some cases extravagant enough to insure disappointment. Tho there cannot be an exact method for every adult, this hope of economic betterment must be utilized as one of the motives of instruction. Teachers must vision clearly the goal. This goal, or course, implies a knowledge of colloquial English and an elementary knowledge of facts of the organization of government as the alien has experienst them thru its representatives. However, it is not the facts of civics and of history that are important so much as their significance in apprehending their relation to the fundamental characteristics of the American ideal. Tech- nical instruction does not look so much to positive knowledge in the learner's mind as to the creation of a regard for. the country and its institutions. Only as the non-citizen resident has had considerable experience in this country, and as he is preparing for final naturalization should the more technical aspects of American political forms constitute the content of instruction per se. 486 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland Teachers must be adequately paid, that is, paid on the same scale as are regular grade teachers. This includes home teachers as well, whose duties might, if space afforded, have a separate chapter by themselves. The teacher of foreigners should be a full-time teacher. The classic two-hour short-season program in the night school is the most obvious but ppbably the least profitable method of organization, educationally speaking. Classes should be held wherever the learner is, whether in factories, in camps, in churches, or any other place, at eight in the morning or eight in the evening or in the hours between. There should be no school vacation seasons for adult learners, unless as they demand them. Provisions for schooling should be abundant for both sexes and should recognize the hours when the member of either might best attend. The curriculum of the classes may vary all the way from a class in the care of infants for mothers who may not know a word of English, to a special class or school for naturalization. Flexibility of administration is the condition of success. Aside from the conscious education of the foreigner in or out of the school there is the other program for the citizen group. Tho put into operation gradually it should be definitely planned in advance. The school super- intendent will have to work, that is, to put himself in touch with a few of the leaders, and "sell" them the Americanization idea, so that they will undertake the joy of carrying out the plan. That plan looks to the organization of committees which will undertake to look after seven things: 1. Industrial opportunities in the community 2. Instruction in factories for aliens and citizens 3. Legislation 4. School finance 5. Use of public facilities for the public good 6. Public community activities 7. Publicity On each of these committees there should be representatives of the foreign group who speak English, who enjoy public esteem and who have the confidence of their alien brethren. The labor which these committees must undertake to do is not work for aliens exclusively but for everyone in the community. For each com- mittee there must be a definite goal of accomplishment which it must set for itself. Americanization Day is a time when everyone shows what he has to give to America. The essential features of this Americanization day, or Neighbor day, or Get-together day, are that, in preparing for it, all sorts of celebrations and people are brought together for a common purpose many days or weeks ahead, and on a community basis. Tired male laborers are not especially interested in taking part in these affairs tho they enjoy Superintendence] AMERICANIZATION 487 witnessing them, but the women and children and some of the men may help. In the chorus, to an orchestra, to speeches, however, the men are usually ready to contribute. In the case of aliens especially the committee on public community activities must be careful to avoid mere direction. So far as that can be done, management should be shared by those who take part in the celebration. There is no plan of Americanization which can limit itself to a single agency or a single platform. Americanization is a process that goes on whether we wish it or not. All of us, aliens or citizeijs, are being Ameri- canized all the time, for good or ill. Whenever we are indifferent to public duty or public responsibility we go down, not we ourselves only but all those who are associated with us. Even if one man stand, the community may be saved for that man may be a host. The essential thing is a better community life, a closer getting together of the folks of a neighborhood where industrial antagonisms have no place and where social prejudice and intolerance ought not to have. Only in this neutral ground can people meet for the common good. In an ideal condition the center of this neighborhood, the little capitol, will be the schoolhouse, the meeting ground for, all the people. Teachers will help, public bodies will help, committees will help, yet altogether they exert not the slow, constant, irresistible force that goes on in the lives of men and women thru the day. If in any one community, however small, everyone should meet together and everyone should work together for the welfare of that community, then no matter what language some of them might use, there would be no real problem of Americanization. The people there would be reviving the old American spirit and the old American ideals. A M ERIC A NIZA TION EDWIN R. SNYDER, COMMISSIONER OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. During recent years Americans have been so busy developing the great material resources of this country, that they have failed to give a full measure of time, energy, and devotion to the proper development of its human resources. The great expansion of territory, the change in economic and industrial conditions, the increase and the shifting of population, and the influx of millions of foreign born have brought about profound changes in the con- ditions of life, in the functions and machinery of government, and in the means whereby the people express their will in its establishment and maintenance. In the meantime, due to the complexity of the social situation, govern- ment by representation has largely superseded government by participation 488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland and the people have, upon the whole, ceased to concern themselves with the problems of democracy and democratic government. Not only have they delegated their right of suffrage, but they have, in many instances, delegated all concern, all responsibility, and all thinking for and about government to their duly constituted representatives. All education that is desirable for citizenship purposes in this Republic is equally desirable for individual purposes, and all education that is really desirable for individual purposes is also equally desirable for citizenship purposes, because tjie interests of the individual in society are in the long run the same as the interests of the society to which he belongs. However, the above is true only when we consider education for citizen- ship in a comprehensive manner. A comprehensive program of education for citizenship must, then, be based upon the principle of educating the individual for all of his duties as a citizen. To be sure, this program carries with it the corollary of placing in the hands of the individual those tools of education that are necessary for his use in the acquirement of his educa- tion for citizenship, and such facilities for his spiritual, mental, and physical recreation as may be deemed necessary. The eradication of illiteracy and the promotion of recreational study are essentials in a comprehensive program for Americanization, but they are not real education for citizenship. Illiteracy is merely a detriment to the rapid acquiring of a knowledge of the duties of citizenship, and the avocational subjects contribute only indirectly to efficiency. Any comprehensive plan of education for citizenship must be founded upon an analysis of the duties of citizenship. It must, also, take into con- sideration the relative value to society of the performance of these various duties by the individual. An individual may be socially destructive, socially passive, or socially constructive. It is the first responsibility of the institution of public education to destroy the socially destructive instincts of the individual. It is its second, and not its first duty to educate for constructive citizenship. Education for the elimination of the socially destructive tendencies of the individual has been largely left to the family, to religious institutions, or to chance. It is a principle of public education that the school shall become responsible for rounding out the education of the individual in all matters not adequately provided for by the family, by other institutions, or by social and economic contacts. The principle duties of the citizen are: 1. To be obedient to social law and custom. 2. To develop and preserve a clean, strong body. 3. To contribute to the welfare of society by performing some useful work. 4. To stand ready at all times to defend his country from its foes, visible and invisible. Superintendence! .AMERICANIZATION 489 5. To be considerate of the privileges of others and tolerant of their harmless variations. 6. To be a real democrat in ideal, in thought, and in action. 7. To intelligently exercise the franchise, 8. To be willing to accept public office, if offered the same, and if competent to perform the service as well as, or better than some other person. While the performance of all pf the above duties, except the last, is essential to complete participation as a citizen, all persons are not called upon to perform all of them. For instance, military and franchise duties are limited to classes of citizens. * All must obey social law and custom; all must have clean, strong bodies in order that they may be able to become successful workers or competent defenders of society; all must be real democrats, if we are to preserve a democratic society and a democratic form of government; and all must be considerate of the privileges of others and tolerant of differences of opinion, if we are to have the cooperation necessary for the establishment and maintenance of, democratic institutions. All that are capable must be taught that democracy is an ideal; that while its main function is to protect the weak, no government conceived by man has ever been able to do this fully; that tho, in operation, it has never completely met the ideals of democracy, it has more fully approached these ideals than any other form of government. A powerful and determined movement is on foot to destroy all existing government. The enemies of democratic government direct the attention of the prospective convert to its failures to protect in all instances and at all times the interests of the weak. Unconscious of the real ideals of democratic government; unaware of the fact that the ideals of democracy are ever changing and that the prac- tice of democracy can never reach its ideals but can only gradually approach them thru the slow, painful process of experience; unfamiliar with the great problem involved in the protection of the freedom of more than one hundred million people, a large part of whom reside in cities that count population by hundreds of thousands or by millions, and the remainder of whom are distributed over the mountains and plains of nearly four million square miles of territory; unskilled in that logic that would enable him to expose the fallacies in the arguments of those who would destroy our government because it has, in the past, been unable always to protect the weak from exploitation, it is little wonder that the average citizen who perhaps has himself suffered or who has observed the sufferings of others from wrong and injustice and oppression inflicted by other individuals, or by circum- stances, is unable to locate the fallacies in the arguments of those who would destroy all existing government and thereby unleash upon society the hell-hounds of destruction. 490 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cleveland A sound and comprehensive program of instruction in Americanization should give to the Republic citizens who know, and completely and joy- fully perform all of the objective duties of citizenship; citizens who under- stand and appreciate the ideals of democracy ; citizens who are clear-headed enough to recognize the failures as well as the successes of democratic government; citizens who are skilled enough to meet and overcome the propaganda of those who would destroy all democratic government; citizens who have the insight, wisdom, and courage to fight special interests and other natural and artificial conditions that cause life to weigh too heavily upon the weak; citizens who will dedicate their lives to the problem of making the practice of democracy and democratic government square up with democratic ideals. THE MAKING OF A STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION C. p. GARY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS. It would not be difficult to make a few broad generalizations that would cover adequately the entire functions of the state departments of public instruction; it would, however, be very difficult to give in a detailed way a complete statement of the functions of such a department. The following is an attempt to state in some detail without reference to the order of importance the principal types of service to be rendered : 1. To gather, interpret, and publish statistical information. 2. To issue bulletins and circulars on important educational matters, including courses of study. 3. To advise legislatures on all educational matters needing the attention of the legislature. 4. To interpret school laws and give decisions in appeal cases. 5. To visit schools for purposes of inspection and supervision. 6. To hold meetings and conferences with groups, such as city superintendents, high school principals, county superintendents, supervising teachers, teachers of special branches, etc. 7. To hold school board conventions and to address various types of meetings of citizens. 8. To study pressing educational problems by the best modern, scientific methods, in order to guide educational practice. 9. To make more or less thoro educational surveys of cities and counties. 10. To distribute special state aid so as to improve educational conditions and promote special types of education. 11. To administer school laws. 12. To give real, professional service to communities in special need of such service. 13. To train while in service superintendents, principals, and teachers. 14. To give expert service in segregating the feeble-minded and otherwise defective in special classes, providing suitable courses of study and supervising such classes. Superintendence] A STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 491 15. To supervise the training of country teachers, and to a degree at least all teacher training. 16. To examine applications of applicants for state licenses to teach. 17. To supervise school libraries and to provide for systematic training in the use of books and libraries. » For this purpose a school library division of the state department of education is a fundamental necessity. 18. To stimulate public interest in education and to inform the public of the educa- tional needs of the state. 19. Finally, and in a word, to give the forward look, to furnish real, vital educational leadership in the state. It should be said in relation to this latter statement that such leadership must come from insight, statesmanship, and the best modern training and preparation on the part of the members rather than from authority of law or any owlish assumption of wisdom and leadership on the part of the department. A strong department would be necessary under any circumstances but the need is especially great in view of the fact that we have no national system of education, and probably never shall have. I do not mean that such a department should have a large amount of authority granted by law. The authority to withold state aid when it becomes necessary to bring a school district to a sense of its responsibility, authority to condemn buildings for school purposes in extreme cases, authority to approve or disapprove plans for school buildings, authority to annul teachers' licenses, are typical illustrations of authority that should be placed in the hands of the chief school officer of the state ; but all such power should be used with much discretion. The strength of a department should lie largely in its field work and the persuasive powers of the members of the department. This leads, naturally, to the question as to the best way in which to select a state superintendent of public instruction. Many university professors of educational administration say that the best way is by means of a state board of education appointed by the governor. Both this method and the method of having the governor appoint a state superintendent are certain to land a school system in politics sooner or later. The office of governor in every state in the Union is in politics as everybody knows. Governors with rare exception want friends and political helpers in every department. The educators to whom I have referred seem to think that such a board would be free from politics and that they would select a man on merit and then in no wise interfere with him but would afford him support and backing in every emergency. It is perfectly obvious that they have idealized such a board. Such conditions very rarely come about or if they do come about are not lasting. I do not know the best way to select a state superintendent of public instruction in order to have a strong department and at the same time have a department free from politics. At any rate I do not know of a way that is free from serious objections. ' Our law in Wisconsin provides for a spring election once in four years along with judges of the Supreme Court on a non-partisan ticket. It has been considered highly satisfactory except in one particular. Any person or all persons holding the highest grade of 492 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cleveland teacher's license issued by the state can by filing nomination papers con- taining i,ooo names have their names placed on the ballot at the spring election. Thus any number of men or women who may desire to attract attention to themselves, or who hope that by some chance they may be elected, may get into the race. There ought to be some way by which at least one thoroly competent person might be selected as candidate by those who know the educational situation and who are personally disinterested. This would be about as difficult as it would be to get the right sort of a state board of education. Educational cliques would thus have a golden opportunity. In a state the size of Wisconsin or Indiana a state department can reach a high degree of efficiency with a force of about forty persons including stenographers and clerks. Of the latter there will be .probably a dozen. In this estimate I am not including persons who supervise part time or vocational education, and I am not including museum directors, attend- ance officers, examiners for teachers' licenses and the like. It would include at least one man to look after the general correspondence, one to look after appeal cases and questions of law, a statistician with enough train- ing and experience to interpret educational statistics, and a first assist- ant. The remainder would be in the main field workers. This would leave approximately twenty-five persons who would spend a large share of their time (at least three-fourths during the period schools are in session) in field work. At least two of this number should have the best possible training in the field of educational tests and measurements; at least four should devote their entire time to rural schools, including the holding of school-board conventions and campaigning for consolidation and other forms of educational improvement; one person should supervise the training of rural teachers and related work; at least four should be super- visors of grade work in the cities ; three should be supervisors of high schools ; and in addition a supervisor of manual training and a supervisor of domestic science. There should be two thoroly trained psychologists who would spend their time visiting schools and giving examinations of backward and feeble-minded children with a view to segregating into special classes those who need special treatment. These persons should also supervise such classes. Furthermore they should devote some of their time and energy to the gifted children. There should be at the very least one man devoting his entire time to the problems of physical education and another devoting his time to the institutions and classes for education of the deaf and blind. We have in Wisconsin three men who are spending their entire time supervising schools of a class that lies between the one-teacher country district and the small cities having a high school. These village and graded rural schools present peculiar problems and especially need supervision. They are really rural schools. There should also be a supervisor of music, a supervisor of drawing, and a school architect. Superintendence] THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 493 There is no state department of public instruction at the present time that fully measures up to the standard I have set in respect to field work. Many are far below it. Many appear to have few field workers other than those made necessary by the Smith-Hughes law. How to build up a depart-' ment of such efficiency as has been briefly sketcht is a great problem. There is probably no state in the Union where such a program would not meet with the serious opposition of politicians, unless they could control the organization. There has been and still is a strong tendency to make such departments merely clerical and statistical. It is very noticeable in the reports that state superintendents were kind enough to send me in response to my questions, that the salaries for department members are extremely low. I believe that $2,500 ought, at the present time, to be a minimum for women and $3,000 a minimum for men. I would not undertake to place a maximum, but it should be suffi- ciently high to secure men of great enthusiasm and energy, with the best modern training and with splendid social qualities. They should certainly be equal in every essential respect to the men who serve as professors of education in our best universities. I would not minimize the importance of university positions, nevertheless the positions in a state department are, in my opinion, of much greater significance and usefulness. The making of a state department of public instruction that shall function strongly in the state can be built up only as the result of strenuous and persistent endeavor on the part of a state superintendent or commis- sioner of education, whose ideals are high and who remains in office long enough to secure results. After state departments of public instruction are once thoroly establisht thruout the country on a professional basis equal in quality to the best department of education in our universities we shall find them of inestimable value in determining the direction of educa- tional progress and in securing high professional standards among teachers and educators. Such a department will set the pace for all sorts of educa- tional interests and activities, including normal schools, colleges and uni- versities. Needless to say this places such a department on a very high plane but on such a plane it belongs and such a plane it must reach if it is to render the highest service of which it is capable. THE FUNCTIONS AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION CONSIDERED IN THE LIGHT OF PRESENT NEEDS AND PLANS L. N. HINES, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. The state department of education in every state in the Union needs more help financially and otherwise in order to do the work that needs to be done. The educational system of every state in the Union has never 494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland been so elaborate as at present. New subjects in the courses of study, schools of new types, new demands for the preparation of teachers, increases in teachers' salaries, and in general financial support^ — all these are making increast demands on state departments, demands that all too often cannot be met because the public, thru its legislators, does not give to state departments money and the expert help needed to do the necessary work well. This is the semi-centennial meeting of the Department of Superin- tendence. Fifty years ago our American system of education consisted of the common schools, mostly rural, topt by an inadequate and inefficient system of high schools and private academies. Occasionally there was a state institution of higher learning that helpt to educate more extensively the product of the public schools. In that other day, teachers were poorly prepared and standards generally were low as to methods and results. During these fifty years we have had compulsory education introduced into our system. In no state in the Union are satisfactory results being secured, as yet, along this line. Many states have come to give attention to the state adoption of textbooks, both for common and high schools. We have seen the beginnings of health work, which thru the years to come will be one of the most vital parts of our state system of public instruction. The kindergarten has also been introduced into public education. We have seen started a great campaign for the improvement of rural schools, to the end that rural children may have school advantages as good as city chil- dren. Vocational education has become a great factor in our modern educational system. Teachers' retirement laws are coming to be an important part of school legislation. There should be in every state a thoroly equipt department of public instruction to guide the state system of public schools in all the great work that it must do. There should be thoro inspection of all the activities of the public schools. , The state department in practically every state has not enough departments and not enough employes to do the work it ought to do. There should be fullest inspection by experts of the high schools, and there should be a separate act of experts for inspection and guidance of the grade schools. A teacher training department should attend to the work of those schools preparing teachers for positions in the public schools. There should be in every state department one or more experts giving all their time to investigations and publication of the results of various pro- cedures and school practices. Vocational education should be administered by a special corps of persons capable of doing this kind of work. In fact, we can go all along the line of all the various phases of school activity and efficiency and assign to the state department its part in guiding and helping the schools to do their work in the best way possible. The state department should be the ideal in efficiency and speed. In fact every state department should have a better chance to do the work that society is asking of it and the schools under its direction. Superintendence] THE PROBLEM OF TRAINED TEACHERS 495 THE PROBLEM OF AN ADEQUATE NUMBER OF ADEQUATELY TRAINED TEACHERS JOHN H. riNLEY, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION AND PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK, ALBANY, N.Y. The supreme question three years ago this coming spring was: ''How are we as a nation to find an adequate number of adequately trained men to defend our land and that for which it stands in the earth ? " The supreme question this coming spring is: ''How are we as a nation to find an adequate number of adequately trained men and women to preserve that which this first army of four millions helpt to defend and to make that thing the better worth their having fought for it?" Twenty million pupils are enrolled today in the public schools of this country. They, with their officers, that is, their teachers, are the army of the future defense of this nation. Most of them have been drafted, being of compulsory school age. They have been drafted for training to serve as citizens in a republic — an army five times the army that went to our training camps in 191 7 — and they are scattered thru a hundred thousand little and big school camps but with an inadequate number of officers,^ some of whom are inadequately trained. President Fisher, the Minister of Education for England, has made the best teachers not only the equals in usefulness of a senator, a member of the national convention or a great advocate but the most essential factors in ^ the making of the greatest nation: ''That nation which, after the war, employs the best teachers with the highest pay and as part of the best school system will be the best governed, and, therefore, the greatest nation. Of that I am absolutely certain." These words were uttered in the midst of the war. Indeed, in the very blackest hour of the war, this same voice was saying almost within sound of the great guns and under the menace of the night skies: "Education is the eternal debt which maturity owes to youth." My own state in 191 9 doubled its appropriation for teachers' salaries, and compelled the communities to pay a minimum salary (involving an ulti- mate increase of $12,000,000 for New York City alone). But with all this (according to a dependable estimate) we are still spending less in the great Empire State in teachers' salaries than for gasolene. There are two or three times as much money invested in automobiles as in schoolhouses (and children six years old will be still paying for some of these school- houses when their children are in school). There are three times as many professional chauffeurs in the state as teachers, and some of the teachers have only temporary licenses. And for the country as a whole (not to repeat the shaming and demean- ing concrete illustrations that one often hears), I have the regret to submit the preliminary findings of the most thoro study of teachers' salaries of 496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cleveland which I am aware — covering a period of one hundred years: the study will be publisht shortly but the preliminary findings indicate the following: 1. That the wages of country women teachers have not for the past eighty years been less than the wages of unskilled labor, with the exception of a few years just before the war. Up to the time of the war the wages of country teachers have been steadily gaining on the wages of unskilled labor. 2. The wages of women city teachers have always been less than the wages received by such artisans as blacksmiths, carpenters, machinists, printers, and painters. Teachers' wages have, however, been steadily approaching artisans' wages. 3. During the past five years the wages of artisans and laborers have advanst so rapidly and teachers' wages so slowly that country women teachers are now receiving less than 75 per cent as much as unskilled labor, and city women teachers are receiving practically as much as unskilled labor. In other words, all of the advantage which has been gained since the Civil War has been lost and teachers are now receiving less in com- parison with laborers and artisans than they did at any time since the Civil War. 4. It is also true that in relation to the cost of living, teachers ' wages are in a worse position than at any time since 1870. That is, teachers' wages can buy less of the neces- sities of life than at any time since that date. But specifically and practically what are we to do about it ? How are we to recruit an adequate number of adequately trained officers for the Great Army of Future Defense ? I have already suggested the two most obvious steps: Fir§.t, to lift salaries so that the higher motives than the mere earning of a livelihood can have an opportunity to operate. Until teachers' salaries . are made such that a decent living is possible, it cannot be expected that those animated by the highest purposes will enter this profession and involve in sacrifice and penury those dependent upon them. Second, to make college men and women and, earlier still, the high- school boys and girls of highest promise see that this is, as Professor Palmer has called it, a "profession glorious" and thru their volunteering bring their glory into it. Third, to make the highest, richest, broadest training possible for those who enter this profession. It is indisputable that the institutions most vital to the future of the Republic are those in which the teachers of America are trained. The teachers of teachers should be the most highly endowed and equipt of all who are employed by the state or nation to teach. Make our educational West Points the best institutions in the world. Fourth, to give (in order to meet the immediate pressing need) higher, intensive training to those who are already the most promising in the service, just as, to borrow another military illustration, at St. Cyr, the West Point of France, young men who had already served with most promise at the front were put thru the most rigorous training to fit them to be higher ofl&cers in the warfare not a hundred kilometers away. Fifth (and this is I think the only new suggestion) to establish, after the analogy of our hurried preparation to meet the military need, what I would call "teacher Plattsburghs" in which the most broadly and highly Superintendence] TEACHER RECRUITING 497 trained men and women, fresh from college or even in the midst of vocations from which they can have release, shall take intensive camp courses which will equip them for temporary service at least, along with the educational West Pointers. But as to the continuing provision: Is democracy willing to pay the price ? We are to find the answer not in what the great philanthropists are giving to colleges and universities (admirable as those gifts are) but in what our states are actually giving for the training of the teachers of their children and youth and what the people are giving out of their common treasuries for the maintenance of their common schools. I was askt a few years ago, long before the war, to say, at a dinner to the Archbishop of Canterbury, the best word I could for our democracy and it was the word which told of our common schools. It is still our best word but I believe we can say and will say and must say an even better word, a word that will tell of the train- ing and service of an adequate number of such teachers as H. G. Wells has described in the book to which I have referred, men and women with the ''undying fire" in their hearts, laboring generation by generation against defeat and sometimes against hope that the world may be better taught and that "whenever the flame of God can be lit, it has been lit." With an adequate number of such teachers we can imagine a new and a better world "without a miraculous change in human nature." Since this address was made, the state of New York has provided for the laying of a mill-and-a-hal direct tax which will yield upward of $20,000,000 for the increase of teachers' salaries, in addition to the $5,300,000 specially appropriated last year — making upward of $32,000,000 in all. TEACHER RECRUITING F. B. PEARSON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, COLUMBUS, OHIO A recent survey discloses the fact that only a comparatively few of our high-school seniors have any definite objective toward which they will direct life's activities. They think of salary, and that is quite natural and right, but give no hint as to how they propose to use the salary. They have desires but seem not to have been taught that human desire is not a safe basis for a plan of life. It is estimated that 30 per cent of the people of our coun- try now are animated by mere desire and not impelled forward by any clear thinking. These 30 per cent of our people become a menace when they can not achieve the object of their desires. So, it would seem necessary for us to inculcate in our Seniors something deeper as a plan of life than mere desire. They should win some concept of duty, and duty cannot be defined in terms of pleasure or pain. In fact, duty often accepts pain as a part of the contract as in the case of the young woman who lived in luxury on the boulevard but who, none the less, went to France and did menial tasks. She scrubbed and cooked 498 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland and washed garments that dript blood and bandaged ghastly, gaping wounds and sought to allay the sufferings of strange men from strange nations. Then she came home and said little or nothing of her experiences to the curious. She was actuated and animated by a sense of duty. She saw a bit of work that needed doing, so she dropt her playthings and went. She felt that she was working for a cause, and if we can but have our young people gain the concept of teaching as a cause the young women will go into our schools as gladly as this young woman went to the hospital in France. And this must be emphasized, that teaching is a cause to be served and not a task to be done, a fact that our high-school Seniors have not yet learned. This is largely due to the fact that we have not idealized the work of teaching as we might and should have done. We have idealized football and, therefore, every college chap is eager to become a member of the team. If we had idealizied teaching equally with football, we should not lack recruits at this time. A young American lieutenant whose life had been all ease and comfort wrote these words from the trenches: " It has rained and rained and rained. I am as much at home in a mud puddle as any frog in France and I have clean forgotten what a dry bed is like; but I am as fit as a fiddle and as hard as nails. I can eat scrap iron arid sleep standing. Aren't there things called umbrellas which you pampered civilians carry about in showers?" The explanation of this young soldier is not far to seek. He was serving the cause of humanity and so could laugh at hardships and danger, besides he had will-power. He was not governed by impulse but was capable of thinking his way thru to his objective. Then, again, our Seniors seem to lack a sense of real values as distin- guish t from fictitious values. They seem to put the emphasis upon wants rather than needs and to be thinking of their rights rather than their privileges. In a little book called ''The Kingdom of Light" the author, who is a lawyer, tells us that the little village of Concord has rendered a greater service to our country than New York and Chicago combined. This statement would bewilder these Seniors of ours and they would probably be reluctant to choose Concord, if they could, for New York and Chicago. They have never been askt to decide between Emerson and the multi- millionaire. They have not placed Lincoln's Gettysburg speech over against the greatest battleship and been askt to determine which has given the greater luster to the name of our country. Many of our Senior girls will sew early and late for Belgian and Armenian children but will decline to teach American children. When we can get these young people to think of teaching as a cause, when we can get them to thinking seriously of real values, when we have idealized the work of teaching and have shown it to be on a par with Red Cross work and other services for humanity, we shall not lack for volunteers. Superintendence! FINANCING A MODERN SCHOOL PROGRAM 499 FINANCING A MODERN SCHOOL PROGRAM M. P. SHAWKEY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHARLESTON, W.VA. If the American people want good schools, they must buy them and pay for them exactly the same as they would buy and pay for a good house or a good automobile. For a long time there has been a disposition to regard the teacher as a sort of simple-minded altruist who would give his life to the service of his country with but little thought of anything so sordid as salary. That sort of sentimentality has all but died out. It could not survive the brutally practical age of military wars and industrial contests. Thinking men no longer expect teachers to deny themselves the rights of other citizens. They agree that the compensation for teaching should be based upon the value of the service rendered and that the public should expect nothing less. The greatest stress is in the matter of teachers' salaries. The state superintendent of Kentucky in commenting on the salary problem makes the startling statement that about " 20 per cent of our teachers withdrew from the work this year on account of inadequacy of salary," and that " the outlook for next year is still more alarming." The state of Ohio has set aside a whole week, at the instance of her governor, for a study of the teacher problem. Teacher shortages are common and teacher strikes and teacher walkouts have made their appearance. Nearly all the larger cities and many of the smaller ones have made hitherto unheard of mid-year advances in salaries after the general increases thruout the country at the beginning of the school year, yet the chief school officers of the various states are a unit in declaring that the advances so far made are entirely inadequate. Their composite judgment in the inquiry above mentioned is to the effect that there ought to be an increase of 48 per cent in salaries for the year 1920-2 1 . This estimate is based on present cost levels. Should prices of commodities continue to advance, that would mean a corresponding advance in salaries. The estimates too are general but they are an inter- esting approximation since they put, in as definite form as possible, the opinions of a large number of officials who are in position to acquaint themselves with the situation and who may be expected to render an honest judgment upon it. Many expressions voice the growing consciousness of a need for a wider and far more vital service on the part of the schools. A markt social and industrial evolution has been going on. Specialization in industry calls for vocational training of a wide range and on an extensive. scale. Voca- tional training requires a deal of equipment not required for literary train- ing. In the social evolution the home which once assumed the chief responsibility for the character development of the children has been so transformed that it can no longer undertake the principal part in the social and moral education of the child. Our population has been rapidly Soo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland changing from a rural to an urban basis and in our present-day urban life the family is too much scattered and too much absent from the home for the household to be an effective agency in molding the life and character of its children. The present-day family is also a much smaller social unit and proportionately a less efficient one. The child who cannot find natural companionships at home will go to the school and the street for them. Because of this fact the present movement to make the school a social center and provide it with music, art, and supervised play, is one of the most worthy of all the new school developments. The present call for education in Americanism is evidence of another real demand upon our public schools. It means teaching every child in America to read and speak the English language, but it means vastly more than that. It means drilling the children in flag salutes, but it has a mean- ing a world beyond that. It comprises the making and repetition of American creeds, but it has a reach far beyond that. It means instruction in the duties and responsibilities of the ballot, but that alone will not satisfy the requirements. It is a large responsibility for it means the development of a nation of men and women physically strong, morally courageous, mentally alert, skilled in some of the various manual arts, ready for lives of industry, conscious of their civic obligations, proud of their country^ s flag, and enthused with Americans ideals of justice, magnanimity, and fraternity. The second question is how are we going to get the greatly increast sums of money necessary for the larger educational program. Admittedly it has been something of a struggle to raise the money for past school budgets. Nevertheless, I see no grounds for looking upon the present task as.an impossible job or even a distressing one. If the American people take the matter seriously, as they now seem disposed to do, and go at it in earnest, the problem will soon be solved. In answer to my circular of inquiry my colleagues in the office of state superintendent of schools offered various propositions for raising the additional funds necessary to meet present and future requirements. Mr. Shaw of South Dakota thinks ''additional revenues should be provided by local taxation and state appropriation. Federal money might be used for the removal of illiteracy. We do not need federal funds nor want them under the present arrangements which we have to make with the federal government in order to secure them as they rather hamper our development." Mr. Smith of Massachusetts holds that the increast funds -should be raised, *'by all, but increasingly by state and federal authorities." Mr. Brittain of Georgia thinks the United States, the state, the county, and the district should each and all assume a part of the financial obligation. Mr. Spaid of Delaware thinks well of the Smith-Towner bill now before Congress. Superintendence] FINANCING A MODERN SCHOOL PROGRAM 501 Mr. Bond of Arkansas favors an "income tax for schools" and a pro- duction tax. Mr. Reavis speaking for Maryland suggests the possibilities of the income tax source. Mr. Wagner of New Mexico thinks *' additional revenues should come from federal sources largely." Mr. Blair of Illinois favors an income-tax method. Miss Blanton of Texas stands for income and excess profit taxes in addition to the usual property tax. Mr. Kendall of New Jersey believes in a joint participation by local, state, and federal authorities. Mr. Gary of Wisconsin suggests that "all people should help to support education, but the amounts we shall need will doubtless require an appli- cation of income tax, surtax, tax on luxuries, higher tax on properties held as investments (such as vacant lots in cities), etc." Mrs. Bradford of Colorado says we should raise the money by federal aid contingent upon the dollar for dollar appropriation by the states and by an increast state tax. Classified a little further I find that sixteen states feel that the state ought to bear most of the burden of increast revenues, six favor a joint state and national action, while nine feel that the federal government should provide the greater part of the increast funds. In a number of the reports there is a fear, more or less definitely exprest, that federal support of schools means federal domination of schools which might result in either autocracy on the one hand, or unpleasant local relation, or serious impairment of local efficiency on the other. Let us admit that there is such a danger. The fact that such a possibility exists ought itself to lead to a proper safeguard against it. In any consideration of the matter we ought not to overlook the fact that citizenship is neither wholly a local, county, or state matter, but in many real aspects it is national in character. At the same time we ought not to overlook the fact that the government has many means of raising revenues not possest by the local unit, the county, or even the state. Why then should not that power provide the revenues or the larger share of them which can do it most easily? Personally I believe that Congress ought to pass the Smith-Towner bill, amended if necessary, and do it without further delay. I am also of the opinion that it is time for the educational interests of the country to get actively back of this bill and by that means help provide a large part of the additional revenues required for the public schools of our beloved country. We ought to look at the issue squarely. In the face of the present crisis our public school system is in danger of a collapse, ^y every means we must drive home to the people the sense of danger in the present situation. Nothing but quick, decisive, resolute action will save us. 502 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland SUPERVISED STUDY IN THE GRADES ALFRED L. HALL-QUEST, DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL AFFILIATION AND PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI, CINCINNATI, OHIO When other excuses are seemingly of no avail it is a common last resort to blame it all on the elementary schools. The grades are lookt upon as the seat of original sin. It is a fact, however, observed by foreign educators, as well as by many of our own, that the elementary schools far outstrip the high schools both in the adaptability of subject-matter and in the effec- tiveness of technic of teaching. Experimentation is more easily carried on in the grades than in the high school. The bulk of educational measure- ments deals with elementary-school subjects. It is altogether proper that the actual accent rest on this, the largest and fundamental division of American education. And for like reasons it is important that very early in their school life even greater attention be given to ways and means of teaching and training boys and girls to study, so that in time correct habits of work will have become fixt. There can be no question of the attitude of superintendents on this matter. Many of them have written me that they favor supervised study. Thruout the United States there has been a very rapid growth in the applica- tion of this type of class management and teaching technic. So far as the grades are concerned, however, the introduction of super- vised or direct study involves certain serious administrative problems, not the least of which is the program of studies and the daily schedule. Several reasons underlie the present arrangement of class periods in the elementary school: (a) conditions of fatigue require brief and varied periods of work; (b) the large list of subjects makes needful a small division of time to each one; (c) the assumption that all subjects must be studied or drilled upon every school day results in a fragmentary schedule ; (d) the prevailing practice of assigning elementary teachers to a grade rather than to subjects demands a large number of brief recitation periods; (e) lack of room and the resulting policy of assigning two or more grades to one room, and at the same hour, makes necessary a "frequent stop" schedule; (/) lack of teachers due to the high cost of physical equipment and the resulting neglect of expenditures on the improvement of the internal organization of the school results in a few teachers having many pupils, many duties, and consequently a large number of recitation periods each day. It is apparent that these reasons are even more pronounst in the one- or two-room rural school. Program or schedule making is everywhere one of the knottiest problems in school management. The educational policy of the school, one may even say the principal's philosophy of education, lies revealed (or hidden) in the program or schedule of hours. A daily Superintendence] SUPERVISED STUDY IN THE GRADES 503 program usually provides for a number of recitation periods and a number of study periods for each class. This twofold division of time is usually based on the following computation: (i) the number of subjects taught; (2) in a day of, say, 300 minutes; (3) less amount of time required for general exercises and recess; (4) the number of subjects divided into the net time available;* (5) the further distribution of the subjects, according to their relative importance in each grade: (a) to be omitted for certain grades; (b) require no preparation; (c) can be taught to combined groups or to the entire school (such as music); {d) can be alternated; (e) can be combined (such as composition and spelling). If, however, we study the time distribution in relation to a different set of principles it may be possible to introduce educational benefits not so easily permissible at present. These principles may be stated as follows: (a) the list of subjects to be taught; (b) the amount of time available per week; (c) The elements of subject-matter or of study common to the' subjects, such as reading, common to history and language; penmanship common to several subjects; (d) amount of time required for the building of habits connected with the subjects as organized under (c) and as deter- mined, in part, by such investigators as Courtis in arithmetic, Ayres in spelling, Thorndike in writing, Kelly in reading, et aL, and in part by the aggregate amount of time resulting from the organization of courses as under (c); (e) amount of time as further determined by the combination of subjects and the theory that all subjects need not be studied every day; (/) amount of time as still farther effected by the reduction of study periods, it being assumed that most of the study will take place in the respective classrooms under supervision. A schedule based on the principles of the learning process rather than on an arbitrarily apportioned amount of subject-matter and time schedule would permit considerable supervision of the young pupil's habits of study. There would then be time for teaching and training him to read in connec- tion with all subjects that involve reading; to use his time more systematically and probably more successfully; to analyze problems in geography, history, civics, mathematics, etc., under the expert supervision of the teacher of these subjects. There would be provision for studying under conditions more hygienic and stimulating than are found in all too many homes. It would be possible under a schedule evaluated as proposed to multiply socialized class work, under which the pupil's initiative in attacking problems can be more readily developt. The lengthened class periods would unify the work. There would be a lessening of the present fragmentary procedure of fifteen minutes devoted to this subject, ten to another, twenty to another, etc. The lengthened class period as arranged for on the weekly, rather than the daily basis, will also make ample provision for relaxation and variety. Physica;l exercises, socialized activities, within each class period would 504 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland avoid the danger of fatigue. The enthusiasm resulting from cooperative studying, with the accompanying reduction of the grinding daily quizz (which is a serious cause of fatigue and boredom) would also reduce the dangers of fatigue. Considerable direction in study can be provided by means of unassigned teachers-of-study coaches, as under the Newton, Massachusetts, plan. This means that some teachers are assigned no particular grade duties but have' charge at fixt hours of various kinds of retarded or accelerated pupils. For example, a small number of children may be backward on account of absence due to illness. They meet with the unassigned teacher at, say, 9 o'clock to study arithmetic; others have peculiar difficulty in geography and meet with this teacher at 9:30; one or two are accelerated and need only a little more supervision to advance them to another grade. WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN TEACHING PUPILS HOW TO STUDY 1. How to use the textbook 2. How to keep notebooks 3. How to read the material of each assignment so as to give proper emphasis to important words 4. How to analyze problems in arithmetic 5. How to organize material in geography and history 6. How to memorize economically 7. How to work in groups, i.e., training in leadership and effective cooperation 8. How to save time in getting started 9. How to encourage the attitude of work ID. How to study for examinations and how to write them 11. How to use reference books, such as dictionary, encyclopedia, other texts, etc. 12. Library training 13. How to proceed in gathering material for theme work. 14. The conditions of study, such as heat, light, posture, quiet, etc. If factors like the foregoing are drilled upon in the elementary school the pupil will be better prepared both for advanst schooling and for employ- ment. The spirit, the dominating purpose of the school, should be training not only in the subjects that are fundamental to intelligent cooperation in citizenship but training also in the use of the mind under very definite as well as diversified supervision. Mere home study all too often means encouragement of habits mentally and morally bad. The school is the place for training in study. Here the bulk of it should be done. Later, when the pupil understands more clearly how to work it will be safe to enlarge the scope of his unsupervised study. Superintendence] STRENGTHENING THE SU PERI N TENDENCY 505 STRENGTHENING THE SUP ERIN TENDENCY EDWIN C. BROOME, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, EAST ORANGE, NJ. The problem of social and industrial reconstruction in this country is fundamentally a problem of education. National disorder is most violent and persistent in countries like Russia and Mexico where general education is least prevalent. In our own land, therefore, exposed as it is to the many dangers of imported prejudice and ignorance, the greatest problem today is the extension and improvement of popular education. The success with which we solve that problem will be the test of our democracy. Education is a state function. It has been so provided in state constitu- tions; and numerous court decisions have confirmed this position. In no case, however, has any state directly assumed the responsibility for the complete discharge of this function. All states contribute to some extent to the support of public schools, and assume some of the functions of con- trol; but the chief support comes from local taxation, and the main control is lodged in local boards. Logically the state should, and eventually, perhaps, the state will, assume the complete support and control of its pi;blic schools, just as today the state supports and controls its courts of justice. When that time comes all persons engaged in the work of public education will be state officials, appointed and directed by state authority, and assigned to state or local fields of service. Until that time comes cities with a high degree of public spirit, and a minimum of political corruption will have good schools; and cities with a low degree of public spirit and a high degree of political cor- ruption will have poor schools. Likewise the wealthy suburban town will have good schools, and the country village with small resources will have poor schools. I believe that equal educational opportunities for all the children of a commonwealth will come only with complete state support and control of public schools, provided, of course, such control is honest, wise, and efficient, and the support is adequate. The first place to begin in any effort to improve the management of schools is naturally with the board of education. A capable superin- tendent cannot get good results under a poor board any more than a good board can get good results with an incompetent superintendent. There must be an equal balance of efficiency. Those who have made a most thoro study of school administration agree that a comparatively small board is more efficient than a large one. Some of the largest cities manage their schools very effectively with boards of from three to seven members; while there are numerous small cities that run their schools badly with ^ considerably larger boards. The size of the board is not so important a consideration as the quality of the membership, and the ideas or motives which determine selection. It would seem axiomatic that no person should 5o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland be selected for membership in a board of education because he is a Repub- lican, or a Democrat, or a suffragist, or an anti-suffragist; or because he is a Protestant, or a Catholic, or a Jew; or because he represents the negro element, or the German element, or the Polish element of a community; or because he is a strong influence in a politically doubtful ward; or because he has positive convictions as to how schools ought to be run. A person might possess any one or any combination of the foregoing qualifications and be excellent material for a board of education, provided — and this is the important consideration — provided he is a thorogoing American, honest and sincere in his dealings, a liberal-minded and broad-gauged citizen, capable of serving the needs of the entire city, instead of a ward or section or faction, and one who manages his own business successfully. A board member, man or woman, should be a conspicuously able and outstanding citizen of the community. There are many such in every community. When a majority of a board of education is not composed of such citizens it is not because they do not exist. It is because they are not sought. It has been my great privilege to serve for several years under a board whose membership has been composed of a succession of high-grade citizens ; and, in spite of frequent changes in the composition of the board, there has been steady and gratifying progress in the schools, and the uniform pursuit of high educational ideals. This condition is possible in every community; and any other condition ought to be made impossible by appropriate legislation which will define as carefully the qualifications for membership of the board as legislation in several states defines the qualifications of a superintendent. Let us consider some appropriate measures of strengthening the super- intendency directly. Briefly such measures should contemplate the personal and professional qualifications, the selection, and term of the superintendent, and the powers and duties of the office. In a more exten- sive treatise on this subject it would be interesting to trace the evolution of the superintendency from the status of a walking delegate of the school committee to that of a responsible, general manager of a great system of schools; from a job which was past around among retired ministers, briefless lawyers, and patientless doctors to a profession which requires as extensive general and technical training and as much ability as is necessary for the management of a great business or industrial enterprise. If all boards of education could fully understand the importance of the superintendency in a large system of schools, they would exercise more care in the selection of a superintendent, and would be inclined to respect more fully the prerogatives of the office. The qualifications required by statute for the superintendency should be sufficiently high to insure every community well-trained and experienst educational leadership. The higher these qualifications can be placed, consistent with supply and demand, the more is the likelihood that boards Superintendence] STRENGTHENING THE SUPERINTENDENCY 507 of education will seek better talent for the superintendency than has been commonly done in the past, and that they will give the superintendent freer scope for the exercise of his functions. The selection of a superintendent is perhaps the most important duty that a board of education has to perform. Most boards take this responsi- bility seriously, altho the methods employed are not always best adapted to securing the most suitable talent available. Boards of education could be greatly assisted in this particular by expert advice from state depart- ments of education; but it would be difficult to frame legislation which would aid boards in the performance of this important duty. The new school law of New Hampshire has attempted to meet the situation by pro- viding that the state board shall appoint the superintendent from persons nominated by the local boards. This plan has much in it to commend — novelty, if nothing more; and I believe it is a step in the right direction, that of making the superintendent a state officer, and of having his selection determined by expert judgment. The superintendent, however, should have sufficient length of service in a community guaranteed to him to have his plans carried out and the value of his leadership fairly assest. The length of time necessary for this will vary in different communities. It will vary also according to the con- ditions in which a superintendent finds the schools upon assuming office; and also according to the temperament of the superintendent. Some men give all they have to contribute during the first year or two in office; others get under way slowly, but develop surely; while others are always in a state of stable equilibrium. The final, and by far most important measure for strengthening the superintendency is the consideration of some means of establishing definite, working relations between school boards and superintendents. Where a board of education is well selected, harmonious, and free from extraneous influences; and the superintendent is a person of vigor and tact, and other conditions are favorable, there is likely to be a satisfactory under- standing between the board and the superintendent of their' respective functions. The principle underlying all such legislation should be this: That the superintendent should possess whatever initiative is necessary to administer with efficiency the affairs of the school system. He should have the initiative, at least in the following matters: 1. In the selection, assignment, transfer, suspension, and dismissal of all his subordinates 2. In the selection of appropriate educational books, supplies, and apparatus 3. In the planning and alteration of the course of study 4. In the determination of the standards of scholarship and instruction 5. In the classification, promotion, and transfer of pupils 5o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland 6. In the direction and supervision of all engaged in instruction and management of the schools 7. In the preparation of blanks and forms necessary for the proper conduct of school work 8. In the recommendation of policies for the advancement of the schools There are other items in which the superintendent should have the initiative; but these are the essential ones. Moreover the superintendent should be responsible to the board as a whole, and not to subcommittees or individual members. My contention is that the only thorogoing remedy which is reasonably within our control is to secure legislation in every state that will clearly and unmistakably prescribe adequate qualifications for the city superin- tendent, methods of appointment that will insure wise selections, reason- able provisions for continuance in office, and will make very definite the respective fields of action of the superintendent and the board of education . The surest way to strengthen the public schools of this country is to strengthen the superintendency by appropriate legislation in the several states. In closing, therefore, let me recommend that this section appoint a committee of seven or nine superintendents, well distributed geographi- cally, to make a thoro study of this question and report at the next annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence. CONTINUOUS SCHOOL CENSUS JOHN W. DAVIS, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF ATTENDANCE, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. The preoccupation of the mother with the welfare of her children early becomes one of the commonplaces of human experience. Whoever has been denied that continuous outpouring of care and affection is rightly felt to have been robbed of a portion of his birthright. The belief is not yet outgrown that the human plants will never fully flourish in a soil in which this element is lacking. But altho the time was that a child of average parentage having been surrounded by that care and guided by the intelligence and experience of both partners in responsibility was thought to be ready for the battle of life, it has become quite clear to the present generation that something more is needed. The problems of existence that formerly presented themselves in simpler guise are now revealed as far- reaching complexities. So that altho well-intentioned sympathy and affec- tion continue and will continue to be indispensable elements for the nurture and well-being of childhood, they may become as disastrous in their effects as indifference itself unless accompanied by knowledge and understanding of the surrounding conditions. This is said with due knowledge of the fact that the schools as an agency in child welfare are not always included among subjects of discus- Superintendence] CONTINUOUS SCHOOL CENSUS 509 sion at professional meetings. This may be due to the fact in the main that school systems are not concerned with the complete extension of their functions over every individual child. They are so nearly universal in their application that they have been satisfied with something less than completeness. Since in theory all are included, and in fact nearly all are included, the fraction that escapes attention has been deemed to be unimportant. The need for a continuing school census grows out of the ease with which a change of residence may be effected today; the tremendous growth of cities in which an individual will be known, except in the rarest instances, to only a few scores of those by whom he is surrounded; and the habit, as well as the ease of movement from one place to another. Instability in residence is paralleled and in part caused by instability in employment, the frequent dislocations of industry, and the huge labor turnover of industry and trade. Within most cities, and particularly in New York, there goes on a ceaseless movement of families from one section to another and from one block to another (at least before the days of rent profiteering). It is the movement of population which necessitates the continuing census as against the annual census. If it be true that registration in school and regular attendance upon instruction are factors in child welfare at least equal in importance to any other and in addition that only by securing such registration and instruction can other factors be brought with certainty into play the continuous follow-up is then the condition of an approach to complete success. In this respect, the schools themselves are no exception. All forms of specialized training are appraised, not by the results achieved in the outside l^orld by those subjected to its processes after a sufficient time has elapst to render judgments possible, but as a rule by the cost of its equipment, the number of its students, the number of its graduates, and the immediate , results obtained by a few upon graduation or shortly thereafter. The constructive criticism of curricula, methods, teachers, and policy that inevitably accompanies any comprehensive follow-up of all students of an institution five or more years after they have left it is thus missing, altho invaluable, if properly collected and collated. The relatively satisfactory follow-up of limited groups is maintained I at a relatively high per capita cost, due to the wide areas separating indi- viduals and the time spent in searching for them. The school census main- tained according to statutory requirements carries in its files three-fifths of the population of any area covered by it, and is really extended to include the remaining two-fifths without a proportionate expense in cost. The primary functions in all follow-ups — the location and identification of the individual — can be readily performed with respect to any individual concerning whom information is wanted. The specialist who can do other things should not at least be required to do this. The census enumerator, 510 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland trained to report obvious departures from normality, could no doubt equally well produce other information of a special character concerning children and adults alike kept under continuing observation, the special agent to be called in for more intensive work or in doubtful cases. This would give a greater significance to the task of the census enumerator that so easily becomes monotonous, and would reduce the per capita cost of investigation. The first and primary work of the continuing school census is to locate and identify the individual, and then not to lose sight of him. When identified and located the child most obviously needing specialized care stands revealed, and becomes subject to the ministrations of the agencies of society. The following statements taken from the report of the complete opera- tions of the first registration of children in 191 1 shows what may be expected whenever such a census is first made: Up to July I, 191 1, there had been reported to the compulsory education division 23, 241 cases of violations of the compulsory education and child labor laws. This did not include a considerable number discovered after June i, and held in abeyance until the reopening of school. Of this total, reports were received on 17,231 cases. The total number of such cases referred from the beginning of the initial canvass to its close was 26,836. SCHOOL SURVEYS AS PROFESSLONAL READING GEORGE M. WILEY, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N.Y. The resounding cry of the profession today is for adequate compensa- tion. On every side the plea is heard for a living wage. Slowly but surely the public is coming to a realization of the fact that the supply of workers in teaching as in any field is in large part an economic question. The laborer is worthy of his hire. Unless, therefore, the evaluation of the task by the community and the state is adequate — no, attractive — and general conditions of work more inviting, there can be no strong demand for the services of our best young men and women in the teaching profession. This plea for a more adequate exchequer, therefore, is not only right but essential. The array of facts relative to the ridiculously low compen- sation of the teaching staff over the country, which has been presented by the Bureau of Education at Washington, by the National Education Asso- ciation, and by various state departments, is gradually awakening the public to the crisis which must be met. There is another side to this however, which must be considered. We have capitalized, it is true, in a broad, general, and idealistic way the service which the schools render. Our public schools are inescapably linkt with the success of our democratic institutions. Many may accept this premise, but make no further effort to define in any specific and concrete manner the type of service which is being rendered by the schools of the community. Superintendence] SCHOOL SURVEYS AS PROFESSIONAL READING 511 Dr. Palmer says in one of his inimitable essays: The idea, sometimes advanst, that the professions might be ennobled by paying them powerfully is fantastic. Their great attraction is their removal from sordid aims. More money should certainly be spent on several of them. Their members should be better protected against want, anxiety, neglect, and bad conditions of labor. To do his best work one needs not merely to live, but to live well. Yet in that increase of salaries which is urgently needed, care should be used not to allow the attention of the professional man to be diverted from what is important, the outgo of his work, and become fixt on what is merely incidental, his income. Dr. Perry says: The teacher's status of a generation hence will be far in advance of that of today. The state, if it is wise, will do much on its own initiative to further this advance; the citizens of the state will demand better and better service as they come more accurately to evaluate the worth of service; but no governmental paternalism, no civic impulse, can factor so tremendously as the enlightened effort of the teachers themselves to make themselves professionally worthy. Our professional reading, is meager. What can we expect with the ranks manned by mere girls in their teens ? In our city and village systems, the average teacher reads some magazines and occasionally a book. But thousands of teachers in the small villages and rural communities do not even know the name of a professional magazine. A teacher should read several professional magazines regularly and also a few books each year. Three types of magazines should be available, first, the popular type giving items of interest as to school matters and school people. The teacher needs this to keep awake, to be a good mixer. Second, the magazine devoted to methods and devices. The class which the teacher has this year is quite a different class than the one last year. The teacher herself must be a different teacher^ — a better teacher. So a method magazine is essential. But over and above these, every teacher should read magazines and books, and this is third, in which large educational problems are dis- cust. By no other means can one gain a vision of the field' or an adequate conception of the relation of the individual task to the larger school prob- lems. For more careful reading and for special study there is the occasional book, which we borrow, or better, buy. In this class falls the constructive school survey or special report. Much of our educational philosophy and pedagogical psychology of the past generation was delightful in its theoretical perfection, but was so far removed from the actual everyday experiences of the teacher in the class- room that much of it was well-nigh worthless. Among the most helpful contributions to our educational literature during the past decade or more have been either reports or studies of local educational systems or discus- sions of specific problems based upon a generalization of facts drawn from different school organizations. Where a survey attempts to cover the whole realm of educational and civic experience and is encyclopedic in the mass of statistical details, it may not be of special value to the individual teacher. 512 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cleveland It functions as a matter of record and is of special interest to research students. A more popular type, written for the general reader, is judicial in tone and constructive in character and presents first the salient facts of the school system on which there can be no difference of thought. As to the conclusions drawn, opinions differ and the wise writer is very careful to assume no position of finality on matters open to discussion. There are volumes on public school administration and organization which are in a sense a survey of surveys and reports. The writers have drawn from the facts and summaries of school conditions and educational policies country-wide, and by this means have given us a consensus of thought as to our educational program. This is the scientific method to determine our procedure tomorrow on the facts as we find them today. The astounding shortcomings of the teaching staff present almost a national breakdown of democracy. The school is vital, the most vital factor in our civic life. It should be of first concern. Too often it is the last. The public will shortly demand service for which they will pay. When it comes, what position will we be in ? When the public moves in this matter our professional ranks may be embarrast. We must capitalize professional service as never before. To render this service we must broaden our professional training which must be done not only in teacher- training institutions but also by professional reading. Here and there our leaders with the cooperation of a loyal staff are experimenting. Great teachers in small as well as in large units are doing great service. Much of the best that has been accomplisht is a matter of record in surveys and special reports. The teacher or administrator must have a correct professional per- spective. To see what is going on in other sectors is essential. The personal visit or inquiry is at times impossible. The school survey or special report has enabled teachers and supervisors to get a partial vision at least of educational accomplishments in other localities. It has also helpt vastly to interpret the problems in one's own locality. The educational problem is dynamic. To say that the teaching profession is static is generous. What we need is to make of our profession a moving moral and civic force in the educational program. And only as we insist on high professional standards of service and call to our aid the scientific study of educational problems, whether it be the measurement of class attainment and progress or the evaluation of the school organization itself, will we be able to set up before the public the facts necessary to a clear understanding of school needs and to insure with that aid the training of the youth today for full and complete service as citizens tomorrow. Superintendence! ELIMINATION OF WASTE IN EDUCATION 513 ELIMINATION OF WASTE IN EDUCATION WILLIAM J. SHEARER, EDUCATIONAL EXPERT, ELIZABETH, N.J. The only object of the schools is the education of the children. Only in proportion as they meet this said test do they justify their existence and the lavish expenditure of the peoples' money. In this test, the schools are failing, for but a small proportion are being given an education and there is an appalling waste of money, education, time, motion, and energy. With taxes spiraling to the danger point, no problem is of more pressing impor- tance and vital interest than that of eliminating the great waste by increasing efficiency and giving all pupils more education and better train- ing for life. 1. By useless repetition of one kind alone Ayres shows an annual loss of twenty-seven millions. Others show less than ten dollars annually per pupil. Multiplied by the number of children, the amount lost would give every teacher a large deserved increase in salary and build many school buildings. Yet, this is but a small part of total waste. 2. From official records of more than one hundred cities, experts have shown that but three are 80 per cent efficient. Nearly all others were less than 50 per cent efficient. How long would any other business on earth last with a waste of one-half of the raw material. 3. In no class are pupils permitted to advance as able. All must go only as fast as the slowest. The rate of progress is so slow that average pupils take from nine to ten years to finish eight grades, which (it has been proved) many can finish in one-half the time, and most of the others in six years. 4. Three out of four never finish even the elementary grades, which merely requires the ability to read the daily paper and solve the simplest problems of everyday life. 5. Only one-half ever get past the primary grades, which demands but one-half as much as the above. 6. In seven hundred and fifty towns and cities, where results are better than the rest of the country, out of each one hundred who entered school, but fifty-five get past the primary; only twenty-six reacht the highest elementary grade, but eighteen got to the first year of the high school, where the mortality was so great that less than five out of the one hundred remained to finish. 7. In the United States, at the present time, only thirty-five of each one hundred are past the primary, and less than seven are in the eighth year, which many will not remain to finish. 8. The courses of study are not fitted to the needs of the children, but all are forst to fit the arbitrary course handed down from the colleges of past ages. Too few are thoro in the essential subjects which form the foundation of all future education and success. 514 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland 9. Every year, twenty millions start over some part of the course, bound to the mass, and by force, all are kept to the pace of the slowest. Time and again, when the bright get ahead they are dragged back and mentally benumbed repeating thoroly known work, while the slower are continually nagged. 10. Each year more than 25 per cent are branded as "dummies" by failure to be promoted, and compelled to repeat a whole term's work, tho in nine out of ten cases, they are but a short distance behind in one or two subjects. With regular promotions twice each year, this means an average of four "failures" per pupil in the eight years of elementary course. A wonderful record for developing failures. 11. No class contains only those who should be there; tho this is the only object of the grading of schools which aim to secure for education the benefits of the division of labor. The poor teachers continually exhaust themselves in trying to accomplish the impossible task of making pint measures hold a quart. 12. All fourteen-year-old pupils should be in the highest elementary grade. In many places four out of five are not there, but, disgusted and discouraged, are dragging from one to five years in the rear. Most of these leave school as soon as the law will permit. Pupils of other ages show similar conditions. 13. Tho pupils differ in many ways affecting their progress, but little provision is made for such differences, either in time, method, subject- matter, or rate of advancement. 14. Because of the slow rate of progress, all save the higher grades are congested and it is almost impossible to provide enough school buildings and teachers. Making due allowance for the elements of death and popu- lation, there should be in each of the higher grades, including high school, from one million to three millions more than are now there. It has been proved that the only remedy for the shocking conditions is a change from the ancient Prussian system of organization to a modern American plan. This can be easily done in any school, without expense or friction, for it requires but two changes: 1. Revise, simplify, and rationalize the course of study so that it meets the needs of the children and gives them a thoro knowledge of the essentials, in place of forcing all to fit the iron-clad grades. 2. Allow pupils to advance when ready in place of forever being shackled to those who cannot or will not advance. We forever tell pupils that the great American ideal, which has made this the greatest country on earth, is that each may advance as able and become as great as he has it in him to be, yet, do we respect it in any school ? Is it not time to do so ? Late books on school organization show how this can be done. These are all that is required to take the "in" out of the terrible inefficiency, establish real efficiency, and eliminate the shocking waste. Superintendence] DEMOCRACY IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 515 Is this asking too much for American children ? Is it not simple justice to which their birthright entitles them ? It is all that is needed to make it possible for the schools to meet the needs of twenty million pupils. As proved by years of use, the benefits of an American system are many. But a few are mentioned: To pupils. — ^All would advance regularly at rates best suited to each and get more education and better training. All would receive a thoro, elementary education in six years, in place of one out of four getting that much in eight to ten years. Having received the "working tools" of an education by the time they are twelve years old, all could have the many advantages of a junior high school course, whether special buildings are provided or not. None would be hurried, none held back. Nearly all would be saved the disgrace of one or more failures to be promoted regularly. As all would advance steadily at different rates as a class the ' 'laggards" would disappear. To parents. — They would have to support their children a lesser number of years to get a good education. When they left school, all would be better prepared for particular work' best suited to each. They would no longer have to suffer with their children the odium attached to the condemnation of those who are "dullards." To teachers. — No teacher would have any pupil not fitted for her class, or be expected to advance any faster than the work could be done thoroly. The fearful pressure of having to accomplish a certain amount with all in a given time would be removed. Each could then be a teacher in the true sense of the word and not a pupil driver. There would then be a use for efficient teachers; for they could do more than the weaker, which under the usual plan, they cannot. To taxpayers. — ^As nearly all would pass thru the schools at a much faster pace, they would make room for others, and the schools would be able to take care of one-third more pupils in a given time. Tax rates would go down. Ten dollars per pupil wasted every year would be saved. Present conditions mentioned are the result of the method of organiza- tion for which superintendents and boards are alone responsible. Details concerning an American system have been given fully and freely. There is no excuse for ignorance. DEMOCRACY IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION ANNIE WEBB BLANTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, AUSTIN, TEX. Perhaps it is due to the fact that among teachers the majority of the rank and file are women, and to the fact that nowhere is sex-privilege more firmly intrenched than in the teaching profession, that the idea of democracy in school administration is, in most places, regarded as almost radical. 5i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland It is to our credit as superintendents that most of the innovations along this line, most of the experiments in giving to the superintended a voice in the management of the schools, have been on our own initiative. The teacher in the ranks may be said to have past thru three stages. In the first, she was regarded tolerantly as a useful member of society, but she was usually ignored in public discussions. In the second stage, the teacher was interpreted by the superintendent, who was wont to wax eloquent in delineating the "model teacher." He instructed the public — and also the teacher— as to what the teacher desired and deserved, and he explained to the public the meaning of her activities — and inactivities. During these two stages of her existence, the teacher was in the position of the guest, whose host said to him, "Will you have a little of this cold veal, or" — and then looking over the table, and seeing nothing else, he added lamely — "or not." The teacher as an educated woman had no choice of occupation; she could teach or starve. In the third stage, the teacher has begun to interpret herself, and the public and the superintendent, after recovering from the first shock of surprise and alarm, are gradually coming to realize that those who are capable of training the great mass of the citizens of America, are, perhaps, equal to contributing valuable ideas as to the conduct of the schools. It has become apparent that some of the methods of the past have crushed independence and initiative and have developt toadyism and inefficiency; and many progressive superintendents are now discussing how best to institute a new order of things, and are making trials of a more democratic system than the one-man autocratic government of the past. Democracy in school administration means the cooperation in the management of the schools on the part of school board, superintendent, principal, supervisor, and teacher. When the powers that be have decided upon what they may regard as the risky experiment of according to the teachers a share in the government of the schools, two questions naturally arise: (i) how may this be done; and (2) in what respects are the views of the teachers to be permitted to have an influence ? As to the first, it is obvious that real participation by teachers must be either thru teachers' organizations or committees, or thru an unsigned ballot. The iron of school-discipline has so deeply entered the soul of the great mass of teachers, that, as a rule, free expression of their honest opinions is obtainable only when backed up by an organization, or when the teacher may conceal her identity, when giving vent to a view which may be at vari- ance with that of her superior officer. It has been said of many teachers, that, in regard to school affairs, they are as dumb as the bricks or stones of their own school buildings. But let no mere man suppose that they do not talk freely among themselves. Just here, one warning should be uttered. When we offer Superintendence] DEMOCRACY IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 517 to our teachers a partnership in school management, a representative form of school administration, let us not propose a mere pretense and assume that the teachers do not recognize the sham. Where the members of a com- mittee or the council, thru which the teachers are to have representation, are appointed by the superintendent, the teachers are as fully aware as are those set over them, that only those are selected who will act in accord- ance with the views of the administration, and they look with amusement and indignation upon the attempt at so-called democracy. Furthermore, if the cooperation of teachers in the management of the schools is not to be a farce, the teachers must be shown that sometimes the superintendent and board accept their opinions and experiment with their suggestions, even tho they may be contrary to their own ideas. Trials of democracy in the schools are too apt to be like the relations of a certain husband and wife of my acquaintance. One day the wife said to her husband, ''Charlie, you always have your way about everything; it seems to me that I ought to have my way sometimes." Her husband, in some surprise pondered over the suggestion for a few moments. Then he replied, "That's so, Mary, you ought to have your way once in a while. I'll tell you how we'll arrange it. When you and I agree, you can have your way; and when we disagree, I'll. have mine." And in most efforts at democracy in the schools, the teacher is in Mary's position. The supposition that the superintendent should advise the teacher because he is her superior in training and experience is generally true. And it is those who are really superior who do not fear experiments in democracy. Those who are afraid to risk their own supremacy are too often like a description which President Wilson once gave of the Germans. He said that they were not content with success by superior achievement; they wanted success by authority. As to the various matters on which the views of teachers may well be invited, I would suggest the following: (i) Fair standards as to judging teachers (2) Just systems of remuneration (3) Details of state school laws, applicable to all teachers (4) Special rules of their own school systems as to requirements made of teachers (5) Details of rules for the government of their pupils (6) Plans for the conduct of their own teachers' associations or insti- tutes (7) The content of courses of study prescribed for their improvement (8) Details of courses of study which they are to teach (9) Measures designed to safeguard the welfare of pupil and teacher (10) Plans and equipment of buildings in which they are to teach and pf playgrounds on which they are to act as supervisors 5i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland It may be interesting to note what has been done in democracy in school administration. I have collected some information as to various actual experiments, but time will permit me to recount the details of only a few of these efforts. The practice of managing faculty meetings and teachers' institutes thru representative committees is becoming quite common. Many superin- tendents, realizing that for years the experienst teacher has in these meet- ings been forced along the track appropriate for her less- tutored sister, have set aside a short business session, and, with this exception, permitted teachers to choose their own work at the monthly gathering. In another place, on the death of the superintendent, the school board requested the teachers to cast a ballot for his successor. In this case, the choice of the teachers happened. to coincide with that which the school board, uninfluenst, would have made. But the new superintendent was the gainer in the spirit of hearty cooperation which followed. Real democracy in the schools should extend not only to elementary and high schools, but also to our colleges and our teachers' associations. When we actually desire real democracy, our colleges will have faculty government and not one-man autocracy; college departments will not be held down by the present custom of giving to the department-head absolute power over the initiative and the advancement of all the other members. Matters will then be settled by a majority vote of each department. Also, when real democracy has come to stay, teachers' associations will throw off ring-rule; women will receive representation in proportion to their numbers and their ability; nominating committees appointed by presidents will become an institution of the past; and superintendents will admit the teacher to a partnership on resolution committees which prepare for the public, presumably, the opinions of the great body of teachers composing the association. REGULATIONS ON SCHOOLHOUSE CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES IN THE YEAR 1920 FRANK IRVING COOPER, ARCHITECT, CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION, BOSTON, MASS. In nearly all states of the Union, from the hour that a commission to design a school building is given an architect to the hour when that building is completed and furnished, the final controlHng influence over the structure is some form of state regulation. The architect, knowingly or otherwise, is constantly in the presence of the law. That such regulation exists is largely owing to the work of the late Dr. Lu^ther Gulick. Ten years ago Dr. Gulick, then director of child hygiene, of the Russell Sage Foundation, asked me to search the state Superintendence] SCHOOLHOUSE CONSTRUCTION 519 laws to ascertain how much compulsory regulation existed in the matter of schoolhouse construction. Chart I, "Showing Status of Compulsory Regulation of Schoolhouse Construction in the United States in 1910," was the result of this search. CHART I cwm jnowiNG jtatuj or cdmpuljoit/ beguiation Of JCnODinOUJL CDNJTCUCTION in the united JTATEJ in ISO. COMPILED CV rCANKIEVI NO COOP£R . BOJTON •-PLArJ • CDN^njUGTION L ^«^"' TION VraiHG • Statu • ^ < 0 -1 p < < ?i it m < -J < < S5 1 11. i % P 0 ?[ 3 ^ \ j li! 10 a IIS 0^ Al AP>AMA x'yy. ADI7nNA AD.KANSA?; r.AI IfOPNIA X ■ 1 ' % ^^ r.OI DP A DO r.ONVfr.Tir.i jt 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 nf 1 AWAPf- X 2^ fl.DDIDA GfOPniA IDAHO' 11 1 INDI.'S INDIANA X 1 1 B 1 1 1 IOWA ^1 ■1 III KAN.SA.S Aff NOTf.SA & 1 1 1 KfNTlir.KY T lODI.SIANA MAINf- X xlll ii^ :; ■ IH ■ ;; / MAPYI.AND .T T T~ MA.\^Ar.Hn.-ifTT.^ 1 f A 5fk NC H-j .-. ) 1 1 ■^ i MINNf.SOTA X X 1 1 1 1 nm MI.S.S1.S?MPPI Ml.S.'^nilDI MONTANA X Va ^^ >^<^ ;^ NFP>PASKA NfVADA NfW HAMP.'iHI&f X g^ HFW .TfP.SfY X 1 1 ' I'P 1 1 B 1 1 iT NfW YOPK 1 ^H 1 1^/^. II 1 /;J NODTH r.ADDI INA n^ ■ NODTH DAKOTA X "^1 ■ 1 OHIO SffNOITfl mm ^^^ ^:^^ Vy '4c- y/y 'Vy Vy c^ y/. ^ g i^ ^ ^ %^ OKI AHOMA T DPfGON Pf NN.^YI VANIA X ■ 1 ^ 1 ■ ■■ PHODF l.fT n tfxa.s 1 UTAH X ll 1 I Hi ■ ~iiii VfPMONT X 1 -\ ^g w^/ ^^^ VlPfilNIA xl nm II j_ WF.ST VIPniNIA yy wi.'ir.nNF.iN VYOMINO \ Nori A. TH£ PLANS FOE .SOiCEL WILD1NG6 IN THI6 oTATE WU6T If WPROVED £>Y 6TAT£ ABCHITIOt Norr I). Twa 5UL£5 Act PCTPACED X>»' iffPAKJMEMT Cr IHSPECTION Of WOJIX.5MOPS. TACTORSa AND PUELIC iHJILPIHeS None Tm£5E iAWvS ANP BI0ULATION5 APPLY JO 5TAT£ . tUILDlNG^ ONLY. Indicates law. ^ Indicates regulation. This chart shows that returns from boards of health and education in all the states indicated so Httle regulation to be in force touching the con- struction of school buildings that the search was broadened to include regulations on plans, on fire protection on sanitation, and on furnishings. 520 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland CHART II CHART SHOWING STATUS Of REGULATION OF SCHOOLHOUSE, IN THE UNITED STATES IN THE YEAR. 1915 COMPILED 5Y FRANK. IRVING COOPER.. AROIITECT. BOSTON CONSTRUCTION COvNTRDL BCt^gP OF HEALTH bOACD OF EDUCATICW STATE AgCHITECT 5TATE: WSPECTORS SITES PLANNING AISLES-CLASS RQDM A55EM6LT HALLS BASEMENT RGIMS CLASSROOMS COHR.IDORS U0tiT-AIR-nDOR5PACE LIGHTING- ARTIFICIAL SEATING -ASSEMBLY 5TA1RWAYS STORE ROOMS STORIES- HEIGHTS WARDROBES WINDOWS co;\STRycTia\ FIREPROOF AQN-FIREPROOF ELECTRIC WORK, LOCK5- BOLTS MACHINERY PARAPET WALLS QDOF CPyERING STAIRWAYS STAIRS- FIREPROOF STRUCTLTRAL DESIGN WALLS FIRE PROTECTION FIRE ALARMS FIRE DRILLS IRE ESCAPES ncE e;(Tinguisher5 FIRE STOPS MOTION PICTURES PRDTEQIVE 0OVERLNG5 5PRI/^(CLERS HEAimo e VENTILATLNG AIR ^PPLY REQUIREMENTS VENTILATION SMITATIOTJ PISINFECTIO/q DBAINAGt OF GROUNDS OmKinC FOUNTAINS PRIVIES 5ANITARIE5 VACUUM aEANERS WATER SUPPLY EQVIPME'AT BLACK 50ARPS DESfCS AND SEATS WI,N[XM SHADES A THIS CONTROL IS BT THE Yi\5CmS\n INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION COPYRIGHT 1915 TRANIC IRYI/sa COOPER/ ■ INDICATES REGULATION W EOCCE- Superintendence! SCHOOLHOUSEjCONSTRUCTlON $21 Only four states, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Ohio, were found to have laws governing the construction of school buildings. Still more astounding was the discovery, that, in the matter of protection against fire, only one state, Massachusetts, had any laws, worthy of the name, which bore on the construction of school buildings; in the matter of protection against the spread of fire, Connecticut and Ohio, however, had a law on fireproof building wnder certain conditions. The Collinwood School in Ohio had just burned and the people were stirred by that calamity. They besieged their law makers with bills of every description for better school buildings. In 19 1 5, Mr. Charles D. Hine, secretary of the state board of educa- tion of Connecticut, one of the four states having regulation in force in 1 9 10, requested that a new survey should be made of state regulations on school buildings as they then existed (19 15). This survey was made possible thru the interest of Mr. Howell Cheney, a member of the board, and the result is shown in Chart II. This survey found four hundred and fifteen regulations in force touching sites, planning, construction, fire protection, heating and ventilating, sanitation, and equipment. Up to the year 191 5 the law makers of only eleven states had found time or occasion to consider the construction of schoolhouses. That this meeting should have exact information on the present con- dition of the laws, correspondence was undertaken with all state boards of health and education and from these sources were gained the data for Chart III, "Status of Regulation of Schoolhouse Construction in the United States in the Year 1920." This chairt shows that every state in the Union, with the exception of Arkansas, Mississippi, and Missouri, has numerous regulations in the matter of planning, construction, and sanita- tion of schoolhouses. Altogether there are some one thousand one hundred and thirty-four regulations in force, where ten years ago less than two hundred existed. Possibly one of the most remarkable facts in this whole matter is that no treatise exists on the laws bearing on the erection of school buildings. Columbia University has awakened to the conflict between existing school building laws and is now engaged in compiling a draft, which is intended to serve as a model for all states and to aid in bringing about uniformity. Building operations are essentially of a complicated nature. They involve, under the direction of Committees, School Superintendents, and Architects, the expenditure of large sums of money for materials, and for labor, performed by artificers in all trades. To accompUsh the erection of a school building without waste, the law covering each point should be clear and definite. There should be no room for speculation by unscrupu- lous persons, as to what was intended. There is no reason why the law should demand in one town corridors and stairways of a width 20 per 522 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland CHART III CHART SHOWING STATUS OF REGULATION OF SCHOOLHOUSF CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES IN THE YEAR, 1920 COMPILED BY FRANK IRVWG COOPER . ARCHITECT . BOSTON CONTROL BOARD Cf HEALTH BOAPD or fPUCAflg 3TATE ARCHITECT )K3P[CT0B-riRt MARSHAL SITES LOCATION GROV/^DS PLANNING AJ5LE5aA55RCMv1 ASSEMBLY HALLS BASEMENT QODMS CLASSROOMS CORRIDORS LICHT-AIR- FLOOR SPACE LIGHTING- SEATING- ASSEMBLY 5TAIPWAY5 STORE ROOMS STORIES-HEIGHTS WARDROBES 'l/SDOWS C0ASTRVCTI07< riREPROor AHQN-FI RE PROOF ELECTRIC WORK- LOCKS -BOLTS MACHl/iER-V PAPJ^PET WALLS PARTITIQ/^S ROOF COYERIAie SCUTTLES STAIP.WAY5 FIRE ALARMS FIBE STOPS VI/1DOW SHADES A THIS CONTJIOL IS 5Y TJiL 3IU5CON5l/< INDU5TR)Ai_ COMMISSION J INDICATES REGULATION IH fOfla 1915 " 415 3 INDICATES RECULATIOH B15S[P 5)Na 1915- JJ9 Superintendence] COLDEN DEEDS t]^ CHARACTER EDUCATION 523 cent in excess of what is demanded in the next town, because the two towns happen to be situated in different states. The present school building laws are filled with inconsistencies of this kind and too much praise cannot be given to Professor F. W. Hart for the work he has undertaken in the compilation of a draft of a model set of regulations, carried out under the leadership of Dr. George D. Strayer. The value of this draft to members of legislatures, when considering the advisability of passing new regulations is manifest. If efficiency is to be increast, the information offered by this draft of a model law is indispensable. GOLDEN DEEDS IN CHARACTER EDUCATION M. A. CASSIDY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LEXINGTON, KY. I have realized that character should be the chief aim of education and that, without it, the time, labor, and money expended upon it were largely in vain. But it is lamentably true that my efforts at character education had been haphazard. Like the great majority of educators, I had trusted to the personality of the teacher, the moral atmosphere of the school itself, the didactic inculcation of good morals and gentle manners thru lectures and texts and largely thru inhibitions and punishments. There was neither method nor regularity in any of it, except, perhaps, in the inhibitions and punishments. These seemed to grow with the growth and strengthen with the strength of the children. But, in my appreciative re-reading of Hawthorne's story of the Great Stone Face I was convinst of two things: First, that character is a growth, and is never acquired in any miraculous way. That the seeds of all the cardinal virtues must be implanted early in the minds of childhood, and must be cultivated and trained with patient devotion if they are to produce the best ethical fruit. And second, that the well-known psychological law of suggestion is invaluable in character education, and that any percept or image that is focalized in the child's consciousness, tends to reproduce that act. That whatever is seen or heard that relates to action, either good or bad, is very likely to induce or suggest that action. Shortly after re-reading the Great Stone Face I found this significant passage in Plato's Republic: Only what is morally and esthetically pure and wholesome should be exhibited to the young; for we would not have our children grow up amid images of moral deformity, as in some noxious pasture, and there browse and feed upon many a baneful herb and flower day by day and little by little, until they gather a festering mass of corruption in their own souls. Our youth should dwell in a land of health, amid fair sights and sounds; good deeds should ever fill their minds to the exclusion of those that are ignoble; and so beauty and goodness, the effluence of fair deeds, will fill the eye and ear, like a healthful breeze from a purer region and, insensibly, draw the soul of childhood into harmony with beauty, goodness, and reason. 524 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland And so it occurred to me that the self-activity of the children themselves should be employed in searching for and treasuring up good deeds illustrative of the virtues that are esteemed in civilized society. The aim was to keep their minds on good things and, in the search for good and noble actions in others, develop a spirit of emulation that would cause the desirable qualities subtly to grow into character. I was convinst that to have the mind continually fixt on the right instead of the wrong is a long step toward having them love right actions and so acquire the habit of doing them. And thus was the plan of character education, known as Golden Deeds developt. The plan was suggested by Hawthorne, the name by Plato. And so about seventeen years ago, in some measure to meet the demands of the Lexington children for high ideals and thus helping them to model their lives and so become better men and women by the subtle inculcation of moral and civic righteousness, we adopted the Golden Deeds system, if it may be so called, or character development. It was then incorporated in the course of study and from ten to fifteen minutes daily devoted to it. In all their reading, in the study of history, in current literature, in their contact with life, the children are encouraged to treasure in their minds the good deeds and noble impulses which they may discover and recite them to their companions during the period devoted to this exercise. In a word, the children are continually on the lookout for deeds which illustrate cleanliness, neatness, politeness, gentleness, kindness, kindness to animals, love, truthfulness, duty and fidelity, obedience, nobiUty, gratitude, forgiveness, honesty, confession, self-control, honor, courage, modesty, self-respect, prudence, good name, manners, health, success, work, tem- perance, reverence, and patriotism. These words are, of course, placed pn the blackboard and simple definitions of their meanings sought before the pupils begin their search for deeds illustrating them. They not only search for these good deeds in their reading and among their associates, but they ask their parents to help them. Many thousand of these good deeds have been reported, discust, and recorded, and I have, with unfeigned pleasure, observed a markt improve- ment, year by year, in the tone and conduct of the youth of Lexington. A higher sense of honor influences their actions; they are more courteous in every relation of life; a kindlier spirit prevails; cruelty to animals and birds is a thing of the past; and many of the cardinal virtues have become their permanent possession because of the high ideals that are continually before them. To stimulate interest in the Golden Deed exercises, gold medals are annually awarded. The first and most valuable of these is given the school that has the most and best golden deeds to its credit. The second prize is awarded to the school that produces the best and most artistic book. The reporting of good deeds performed by their fellows is common. One such, I remember, was applauded in all of our schools. It was called Superintendence] GOLDEN DEEDS IN CHARACTER EDUCATION 525 heroism, and indeed, it was. It referred to Alfred Cooper, a newsboy who, tho he went to school regularly, kept up in all his studies, deported himself at all times like a gentleman, workt night and morning to support himself and his mother, and who, tho hard prest, refused all offers of charity. Since it is generally known in Lexington that hundreds of bright eyes and eager ears are in search of good deeds in the home, in the school, and on the street, I am sure that this plan of character education has had a salutary influence upon those who are searcht for the fine gold of goodness as well as upon the searchers. Many of our teachers have told me that hearing these good things daily and discussing them with their pupils has greatly benefited them. While morality, good manners, and all right doing should be inculcated thru all school activities, they should receive separate attention. Indeed, character education should have greater emphasis than any other subject. There should be no waiting for the opportune moment. It is ever present. And, in this important phase of child-training, the school and the home should go hand in hand. The school should take pains to know what the home is doing; and, if the foundation there laid is safe, build upon it; and, likewise the home should know what the school is doing in this direction and give it cordial cooperation. More than ever I am convinst that learning without character is a vain and noxious thing. The great, underlying cause of the world-conflagration which Germany started and the horrible deeds that her soldiers committed on the high seas and upon the unprotected old men and innocent women and children in the countries which they invaded and wantonly devastated, were the fruits of her very efficient educational system. But, tho efficient, it was grossly material. None of those fine spiritual qualities that are so prized by civilized people, were permitted to influence the lives of German children. No trace of any fine ethical training could be found in her system of education. The public school is the loom in which this nation's destiny must be woven. The woof and warp of that wondrous fabric must be character. Only then may a righteous public conscience be develop t and perpetuated. The worth and strength of a state depend far less on the form of its institu- tions than upon the character of its people. Civilization itself is only a matter of personal improvement. Not until character is the true and steady aim of the public-school teachers, will this nation become righteous. Here, one former is worth a thousand reformers. A little child is set down in the midst of us. Shall we lead him to the pure stream of righteousness, encourage him to lave in its limpid waters and see him come forth clean and sweet; or, unguided, shall we allow him to wander away and dabble in the turgid puddles of vice; and, at length, with hands upraised in Pharisaic horror, wonder how he became defiled ? Which shall it be ? 526 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland THE RELATION OF SILENT READING TO EFFICIENCY IN STUDY ERNEST HORN, PROFESSOR, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA CITY, IOWA Most of the discussions of silent reading have dealt with but two abilities, viz., speed and comprehension. Two additional abilities must be considered; First, the ability to organize what is read; and second, the ability to remember what is read. These four qualities are essential to efficient silent reading and therefore to efficient study where study involves work with books. It seems clear that if we can increase the speed with which a child can read, and without decreasing any other quality, we shall increase his efficiency in study. The same can be said of improving ability in comprehension, organization, and remembrance. We may, therefore, ask four questions in any attempt to appraise the ability of any student to work with books; first, how rapidly does this student read; second, how accurately and fully does he comprehend what he reads; third, how well can he find, select, and organize data for a given purpose; fourth, how much does he remember of essentials which he has read. We may expect very wide differences in each of these qualities on the part of the pupils of a given class. This difference constitutes a very serious problem in assigning lessons. For example, a certain selection on tuber- culosis was assigned to a number of pupils in Grades VI, VII, and VIII. ^ In Grade VI the speed of reading varied from 89 to 313 words a minute; in Grade VII from 91 to 318 words a minute; in Grade VIII from 116 to 313 words a minute. When the pupils were tested to see how much of the article had been retained, the following differences were shown: In Grade VI, from 3 to 78 per cent of the material was retained; in Grade VII, from 9 to 66 per cent; in Grade VIII, from 18 to 70 per cent. (The author is in- debted to C. E. Germane, a graduate student in the University of Iowa, for these data.) Similar differences have been shown for other kinds of subject-matter, and for organization and remembrance. Of the four qualities named above, comprehension is, of course, the most fundamental. A slow reader may offset his slowness by working overtime, but the reader who cannot understand what he is reading is helpless. Rapid reading without comprehension is of no value. With- out comprehension intelligent organization and proper remembrance are impossible. It is perhaps well to pause for a moment to point out the danger which has arisen from a craze for mere speed in reading. It is, of course, futile to gain speed at the cost of comprehension. For that reason the speaker would especially urge the following conditions for speed exercises: first, all speed exercises should be kept within the limits of comprehension; second, in speed exercises the pupil should not be urged to read rapidly. Rather he should be urged to find the answer to a given question or to locate Superintendence] SILENT READING AND EFFICIENCY IN STUDY 527 certain data as rapidly as possible; third, at the end of such an exercise in which pupils have been required to give an answer to a question or to find certain information, they should be tested in order to see how accurately their reading has been done. If these three rules are followed, there is no danger in speed exercises. In fact such exercises have often shown as much increase in the ability to comprehend as in the abihty to read rapidly. Little attention has been given to exercises which have for their purpose the improvement of ability to find, select, and organize data for a given purpose. Preliminary experiments seem to show that such exercises give a very large return in proportion to the amount of time spent on them. Exercises in organization are most effective when the selections read are rich in factual material. For this reason material taken from such sub- jects as geography is especially valuable. As a matter of fact in this, as in each of the other abilities, selections of a literary character are quite inferior as practice material. Probably the most effective training which can be given in developing power to organize is that given in the preparation of definitely assigned lessons which are quite closely checkt in the following recitation period. As has already been indicated, the question of proper materials is very important, and content subjects, rich in fact and logic, offer many advantages not to be found in literary selectives. This is important to remember at a time when we are being flooded with silent-reading books of every description. Some of these silent-reading editions have apparently been made by those who have attempted quite conscientiously to provide material which would be suitable for silent-reading exercises. In most cases it is very difiicult to distinguish so-called silent readers from the old time oral readers. As a matter of fact the speaker has seen but one series of books which is superior for -silent reading exercises to the old McGuffey readers. The teacher who needs material for silent reading will do far better to use some selection from a regular textbook, or better still, from such supplementary materials as are commonly assigned in connection with geography and history. Such a book as Keller and Bishop's Com- mercial and Industrial Geography is admirably adapted to this purpose. It is rich in fact, logical in character, and can be tested very rigorously. These qualities separate the content material from literary material. Literary material is objectional, not only because it is poor for silent reading exercises, but also because such exercises are very hard ou the literature. There will, of course, still be a place for the leisurely reading of literary materials for purposes of enjoyment and development of appreciation; but where an attempt is being made to improve speed, comprehension, organiza- tion, or remembrance, too much emphasis can scarcely be placed on the importance of great rigor. As a matter of fact, these silent reading exercises should constitute the most difficult and the most vigorous of all school exercises. 528 NATIONAL REEDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL ARTHUR F. BENSON, PRINCIPAL, BREMER JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. If I were required to give one word that would possibly typify the present state in the process of development, I would use the word " chaotic." This word is not used in any sense at all derogatory of the splendid work that is being done. It is simply used to indicate that the junior high school has not yet settled on anything like a standardized basis. The chaos I have in mind is not the chaos of hopeless confusion, but rather the chaos of progress and reconstruction. The last few years have shown, possibly as never before, the need for recasting much of the educational work of our present school system and the junior high school movement is a de- cided progressive movement having in mind the solution of some of our educational ills. In many instances the junior high has become an educational disease. It has caught the ear of the public and in order to be considered up to the minute many school men have done some grouping of the academic sub- jects, added a little manual training, and labeled it junior high. Often- times these so-called junior high schools are nothing more nor less than departmentalized grades, but in some cases I find you could hardly call them, in a strict sense of the term, departmentalized grades. The junior high idea is here to stay and it is up to the educational leaders to see to it that schools we wish to call junior highs are organized in such a way as to be worthy of the name from the standpoint of offering greater opportunities for individual development along more lines than strictly the academic. The idea of the junior high school as a means for serving the boys and girls of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades has so thoroly imprest itself upon the minds of educational leaders that any system which has been thoroly inoculated with its point of view and type of instruction can never throw it into the discard. The junior high school is more a method of instruction than it is an organization. Too often we consider it as an organization rather than as a method of instruction. A junior high school is synonymous with greater opportunities for individual initiative. This is true not only from the standpoint of the pupil but from that of the teacher as well. The foundation principles of junior high work rest securely and firmly upon sound psychological, physiological, and sociological facts. The child, either boy or girl, as h^ enters his early teens or his early adolescent period of development is a different person than he was before this change began. He is different mentally, physically, and socially. He is coming to appre- ciate himself as an individual related to other individuals. The physical changes that are taking place during the early adolescent period of development are markt and we might say severe. Superintendence] PRESENT STATUS OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 529 It is during the junior high period of a child's school life that he must be afforded an opportunity to study himself. This cannot be done thru the ordinary type of academic grade schools even tho manual training is taught in such a school. Education, I believe, consists in affording various avenues of expression thru which the life within may make its connection with the world without. I do not believe it advisable to throw down the bars and say "Here is strictly an a la carte menu, take anything you want." The courses should be so broad that there is a range for individual choice and yet a very careful guidance so that the boy will not flounder and lose himself. We must remember that the strict and inelastic assignment of work and methods of instruction of the first six grades give place to the greater freedom of the junior high. It is unwise to break away at once. One of the junior high problems is to develop this individual responsi- bility thru careful direction and yet not thru coercion. The disciphne, and occasionally there are cases that need strict discipline, must be such as to lead the boy to see more than one viewpoint of the situation in which he finds himself placed thru the breaking of social ideals. The junior high school is demanding a recasting or readjustment of the academic course of study now given to seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. I would like to go into the question of courses of study much more fully, broader than my time will allow. Suffice at the present time to say that under no circufaistances can the senior high school dictate what shall be given in any phase of junior high work. I realize the grave situation in which such a statement places us. I have no quarrel whatever with senior high people but I do state very emphatically that the type of teacher, up to the present time, of the average senior high school is not in any way adapted to the needs of the junior high. I do not know of any one subject that we have had in the elementary school that has been changed more thoroly thru the junior high organization than has the subject of drawing. In fact we leave the word "drawing" entirely out of the junior high vocabulary and call it " Art." Art is a broader term and has for its foundation conception a social value. The child who goes to the junior high school should see that Art is a part of life and not a subject that has its beginning and end within the four walls of a classroom. I want to call your attention to some of the distinctive features in the organization of junior high school without which its efficiency is reduced to a minimum if not to the minus quantity. The size of classes must be small. There should not be over twenty-five in a class. There must be all the way from half a dozen to a dozen different lines of industrial activities. I wish to emphasize the fact that industrial teach- ing is not for the purpose of making any one article. The thing to be made is purely incidental. It is the boy that is being taught in which we are interested. 530 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland During the time that a boy is having his experiences in the various shops he must at the same time gain in insight in the requirements of the shop activity in which he is engaged. The shop teacher is ever on the alert to give, not only incidentally but directly, information that will show the boy the possibihties which the particular activity in which he is engaged may open to him. The junior high school must have within its organization a person whose only business is to keep in close touch with the homes represented in th^ school. This requires a home visitor of unusual tact and abihty. It requires one who has had teaching experience and also special training in social work. A junior high school also must have a vocational-educational adviser. This person is often the same person as the home visitor, altho there should be a woman doing this work with the girls -and a man doing it with the boys. Too many round pegs have been placed in square holes. The junior high school thru its direction and device can assist very materially in getting round pegs into round holes and square pegs into square holes. 'f he junior high school has no intention of assigning any one individual to any definite line of life-work in such a way that he cannot change from one Une to another. The purpose is simply to help the child to study him- self showing him how to direct his activities and help him to get started in the right direction. It must show him the obstacles that he will have to overcome and the discouragement which he may have to^ meet. A junior high school must afford opportunity for the giving of industrial and commercial information regarding as many lines of activities carried out in the city as possible. The commercial work of the junior high school ought to be on the shop basis. By this I mean that the boys and girls as they go thru the junior high school should be allowed an opportunity of testing out the mechanics of machine operating. This eliminates many who at first think they might like to do office work of the machine operating type. On the junior high school corps there should be no one who is a tradition worshiper. The junior high school has no precedent to follow. Our plans, our courses of study are in the making, and tradition's toes are sure to be stept upon. Our courses and plans are to be workt out by people who are in the organization and not by senior high school or university people who look at things from the university standpoint. This is no reflection at all on many well-meaning people in the university department of education who are sending us many fine-spun theories that do not stand the acid test of hard headed common sense. Many of our inherited "schoolish" ways of doing things must drop by the wayside. We must have teachers who have been trained in the art of teaching in the elementary school. These teachers should have advanst study along the special line they are to teach and also study in the social sciences. They must be people who have the Superintendence] TEACHING CITIZENSHIP 53I vision of the work they are going to accomplish and who have the physical strength to stand the strain of longer hours, constantly changing conditions, and the greater freedom allowed in the junior high school. They are teachers of children and not teachers of subjects. In selecting these teachers we must secure people with experience and yet with not too much experience. The junior high school must not become a place of reward for years of service. We must select all teachers on individual merit and for no other reason whatsoever. The selecting of teachers must be to a very large extent, in the hands of the principal of the school, as he and he alone knows the conditions and types of people that are needed to do the work. In closing the discussion of the subject of the junior high school, allow me to briefly summarize: First, the junior high school is a conservator of human energy during the early teens and reduces the human loss. Second, it must be organized thru its clubs and activities to take care of the budding social aspirations of the early adolescent child. Third, it must open up to the pupil's mind the possibilities in definite lines of industrial professions, and commercial activities in his own city. Fourth, the saving of a pupil's time and energy by having him work in groups practically of his peer allows the utmost freedom for individual initiative and individual progress thru the three years of junior high school work. It guides the boy and the girl in the finding of himself in the line of activity best suited for him. This is done thru the freedom allowed a boy in the selecting of his school work. Fifth, it saves boys and girls from getting into "blind alley" jobs that lead nowhere and in which years later he will find himself a man on a boy's job. Sixth, it has a teaching force that is especially adapted to the adolescent child. The junior high school looks after the misfits we find in so many of the rooms of the elementary school. Seventh, there is unlimited opportunity, if we had time to go into it, in the field of part-time work for these boys and girls, caring for the over age boys in the elementary school who are remaining in school only until the law allows them to leave. TEACHING CITIZENSHIP W. D. LEWIS, DEPUTY S" HARRISBURG, PA. It is no longer necessary to argue that instruction in citizenship is important. We have come to accept it as the most fundamental task of the public school to develop in our boys and girls the right attitude toward civic problems. This is being recognized alike within and without the profession. For example, the Legislature of Pennsylvania at its last session 532 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland past the following law: "The State Superintendent of Public Instruction shall prescribe a course of instruction conducive to the spirit of loyalty and devotion to the state and national governments, which shall be taught in all the public schools of the state." A new law in New Jersey requires sixty hours' instruction in each of the first two years of the high school on community matters and a like time in the last two years of the high school on the problems of democracy. The city of New York at present is requir- ing every pupil that graduates from a high school to have during his last year one full unit in American history and another full unit in economics. Whatever is done in teaching citizenship will naturally fall under two heads — ^first, the instruction in subject-matter essential to inteUigent under- standing of the problems of citizenship; second, the development of habits appropriate to citizenship in a democracy thru the various cooperative activities open to our young people. It may be said that there is a general agreement that the new sense of social solidarity, new appreciation of the values of democracy and of the importance of our international relationships and of the dangers of class hatred and partisan bickerings make this the most favorable time the educational world has ever seen for beginning instruction in these lines. In the earlier grades it seems clear that there should be emphasis upon civic virtues: obedience, helpfulness, punctuality, truthfulness, fair play, thoroness, honesty, courage, self-control, perseverance, thrift, etc. ; taught thru stories, poems, songs, pictures, games, dramatization, and various pupil activities; object^ — habit-formation, that shall both cultivate the civic virtues and afford a basis of social experience for the interpretation of new social situations as they shall arise. Parallel with these details should go stories from history and mythology groupt around the celebration of holidays and festivals and describing pioneer life and the life of primitive peoples. This work may appropriately be given in the first four grades. The fourth and fifth grades may take a somewhat broader view, center- ing around the fundamental idea of community cooperation; those who furnish us food, clothing, shelter, medical aid, light, transportation, pro- tection, etc. ; taught thru pupil observation of the life around them, trips, reports, and class discussions; object — to learn the service rendered by the community, the interdependence of each member of the community on the others, and the cooperation that alone makes that interdependence possible. The historical parallel to this course has been well outlined by the Committee of Eight, covering as it does important historical incidents and biographical stories from the history of America. In the sixth grade the view broadens still further to include industrial cooperation. There is a particular reason for this phase of work in the sixth grade; namely, that a considerable number of pupils are permitted to leave school at the end of this grade by the laws of several states. The Superintendence] TEACHING CITIZENSHIP 533 study of industrial cooperation may therefore include a good deal of emphasis upon various vocational opportunities, study of community service thru occupations, the qualifications for each, and the mutual relations that should prevail between employer and employe. The history for this grade as outlined by the Committee of Eight has perhaps been one of the most satisfactory courses ever promulgated by a large national committee. A great deal of disappointment has been exprest at the prospect of any considerable change in this course by the committee that is now at work. This course, which gives the background of a brief history of civilization, is perhaps chiefly valuable as a means of acquainting the child with his race inheritances and teaching him the meaning of history. A practical advantage of this course, which is no small argument against a change at present, is found in the considerable number of excellent texts that have been prepared. So new a line of work as the social sciences under their changed interpretation must wait for its highest efficiency upon the preparation of textbooks and the training of teachers. For a long time the rank and file of teachers will necessarily depend upon the text and the possession of good texts may be counted at least as the proverbial ''nine points of the law." The Pennsylvania committee is planning the work of the first two years of the junior high school to be made on a basis of three periods per week for history and two periods for civics. The history will be the usual ele- mentary school American history with special emphasis upon the modern period including such modern problems as can be interpreted to children of this age. The civics will lay emphasis upon the community organiza- tion— local, state, and national; cooperation thru voluntary and govern- mental organization; leadership and the control of leadership. Effort will be made to encourage study of local conditions and problems. The ninth year will be devoted entirely to what may perhaps best be termed as vocational civics — the development of an appreciation of the social significance of all work; of the social value and interdependence of all occupations; of the opportunities and necessity for good citizenship in vocational life; of the necessity for social control, governmental and otherwise; of the economic activities of the community; of how govern- ment aids the citizen in his vocational life; and of how the young citizen may prepare himself for a definite occupation. There will be no history in this grade except such attention to current events as will be an integral part of the course in social science thruout. In the senior high school at least two years of history will be required. It is hoped that in some schools two years may be devoted to modern European history and one year to American history. In all cases the senior social science or problems of democracy will be required. The three years of history together with this course involve two units of social science in the fourth year of the high school. This will not be required, but it seems 534 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tcleveknd likely that it will be encouraged by the state department. The committee is agreed that it is desirable, altho several members think it is not practicable at present. Modern European history whether for one year, a year and a half, or two years will be based upon a comparatively brief survey of the roots of civilization in ancient and medieval history and will devote most of its attention to history since 1750. The longer course obviously will make it possible to give a better rounded insight into the origin of systems and the growth of modern institutions out of the older ones. The American history will emphasize the national period and will give much attention. to comparisons with institutions and tendencies in other countries. It seems likely that the course will call for a topical treatment which shall afford a very considerable departure from the old chronological method. The course in the Problems of Democracy for the twelfth year will begin with a study of our problems, political, social, and industrial, and will draw upon economics, political science, and sociology for guidance to right thinking toward a solution of these problems. It will be the aim of the course to develop the habits of thought, feeling, and action essential to citizenship and leadership in our democracy. It is the belief of the Pennsylvania committee that one of the largest values for training in citizenship will be found in the course in problems of democracy to be given in the twelfth grade in high school. The second part of instruction in citizenship is perhaps more difficult than the first. The American high school is almost ideally conceived for the process of learning to live democracy by living it. It represents all classes, sects, and occupations; yet it is more nearly homogeneous than the groups it represents because the group-traditions and prejudices have not become so firmly fixt. The aims of its citizens are harmonious and not mutually exclusive. Perhaps the most important of all, it offers an oppor- tunity for like-minded groups to work together. The shifting interest of the adolescent naturally will direct him during his course into several of these groups and thus broaden his sympathy. In all of these activities he can look to the school as the object of his loyalty and patriotism, and develop his sense of responsibiUty and his personal attainment thru sacrifice for a genuine institution for human betterment. In all this the relations to the larger democracy must be clearly under- stood. The principal is responsible to the school board which in turn is responsible to the community. He, and not the student organization, must answer for everything under the roof of the school. This impUes authority which he must not abrogate. He must always be ready to veto the action of the student organization or to supersede it in any particular case. If he has his school well in hand he will seldom if ever find such action necessary. It is, however, a part of any adequate teaching of democracy to have the Superintendence! MODERN BEALTH CRUSADE 535 student body recognize this authority and the reasons for it, and I believe it is supremely important that principal and teachers recognize student participation as a principle underlying proper training in democratic thought, feeling, and action, and not as a device for getting desirable results. MODERN HEALTH CRUSADE CHARLES M. DEFOREST, MODERN HEALTH CRUSADE EXECUTIVE, NATIONAL TUBERCULOSIS ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. A little less than three years ago, a circular "Record of 5ealth Chores" was first publisht. The chores were hygienic duties for the performance of which children would become Modern Health Crusaders. Since then as many as four milUon American children have qualified; have become the pages, squires, knights, and knights' banneret of health chivalry; and the Modern Health Crusade as a system of teaching health practices has been introduced into thousands of schools. Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston in an open letter expresses satisfaction at the adoption of the Crusade by schools in the state of Washington as pointing to better health among the citizens of the future. Good reasons for doing hygienic duties are set forth attractively in the modern type of textbook. No set of facts to be learned in school has greater value, but usually the pupil fails to translate this knowledge into his own conduct. Health is not so much a matter of extensive knowledge of facts as of will to comply with a few simple laws from day to day until compliance becomes habitual. The Crusade System supplies the will by interesting the child. Superintendent Moore of Superior, Wisconsin, says: "This is real physiology." "Bones and muscles are thrown out to make way for living healthier and happier lives." Bones and muscles- may be thrown out by the Crusade, but an Oklahoma principal claims that it "taught all my boys that they have wrists." The value of health, the direct motive, is not sufficient to arouse th^ child's will — a proposition scientifically demonstrated by Dr. Wood. An indirect motive, the "mediate interest" of Professor Charters, is indis- pensable. The Crusade furnishes this by introducing the play element into the practice of hygiene. It transfers the romance of the medieval crusade to a vital present-day quest. It dramatizes the pursuit of health. The Crusade allows the child to follow his imitative instinct. It makes him feel — and rightly — that he is of some importance, and that he is taking an active part in a great movement. The Crusade makes an instant appeal to the child thru its titles and badges, all won by his own achievement. It interests him in its competitions. It provides Dr. Burnham's "stimulus of success." The results of the crusade system are: physical and moral improvement and the prevention of disease. It is directed against all preventable diseases 536 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cleveland with no special emphasis on tuberculosis. Striking testimonials, even the escape from the "flu," have been sent in by numerous teachers. Miss Esther Watson, secretary of the department of physical education, sent me a photograph the other day of a little girl at Southhold, L.I., who claimed that she had had no sickness during the two years in which she had been practicing the chores, whereas she was sick much of the time before. For the unformed character of the child, the Crusade contributes a needed drill in truthfulness and regularity in duty. The method of record- ing performance of the chores, under which the child is put on his honor to choose between right and wrong statements, affords an ethical discipline comparable in, value to the physical discipline. The Crusade awakens responsibility for community welfare and makes the teachers' work lighter by keeping the children's minds alert and by promoting both attention and attendance. The Crusader's duties are to help keep school neat as well as themselves clean. Largely home work, the Crusade links the home and the school, and, reaching beyond the children, teaches the parents and wins their favor for the schools. A New York superintendent reports, "Parents call me on the phone to express their appreciation of the Crusade." The full program of the crusade system is set forth in a manual. The latest edition now on the press will be sent free to any superintendent on application. The program is elastic with something to contribute to the school that allows a modicum of time for practical hygiene, and with a variety of activities for the school that gives time liberally for health. Hygienic inspections, health clubs, and community sanitation work come under the crusade program, acquiring its peculiar interest. Thru the Order of Round Table in the new chivalry, the Crusade gives school children motive for system£ltic weighing, physical examinations, athletic training, and the study of hygiene and first aid. The Crusade will be found not to conflict with courses in hygiene, physiology, or physical training establisht in schools. On the contrary, it supplements them and adds vitahty. Each chore lends interest to the portions of a textbook devoted to its reasons. The system affords a progression for the school child. There are now publisht both primary, standard, and senior chore records, suitable for primary, grammar, and high-school grades. The Crusade is preferably appUed to all grades yearly with competition in the national tournament of health knighthood, but a year or two after introduction the Crusade course may be omitted for certain grades under a schedule giving each class the regime once in two or three years. Improvements doubtless will continue to be made both in forms and methods. The National Tuberculosis Association, founder of the move- ment, looks to the schools of the country to direct the evolution of the movement and invites them to take over the Crusade to assist them in their high mission. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1918-1919 PREPARED FOR THE COMMISSION ON THE EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION BY E. S. EVENDEN FOREWORD The Commission on the Emergency in Education of the National Education Association has, from the beginning of its work, recognized the necessity of informing the public with respect to teachers' salaries. In order to supplement the work which had already been done by the Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, the Com- mission sent out during February of 1919 a questionnaire to superin- tendents of schools thruout the country. The data thus collected were turned over to Dr. E. S. Evenden of Teachers College, Columbia University, who, under the direction of the Chairman of the Commission and of Pro- fessor N. L. Engelhardt, prepared the report which is submitted herewith. The National Education Association and the teachers of the country are indebted to superintendents who cooperated with the Commission in furnishing the data, to a group of graduate students in Teachers College, Columbia University, who contributed valuable assistance in the tabula- tion of replies, without cost to the association, but most of all to Dr. Even- den, who gave a large part of his time over a period of eight months in the preparation of this report. Superintendents of schools, teachers, and school board members will find in the study a most careful analysis of the salary problem, together with proposals for salary schedules. It is only as the recommendations made are carried out by local boards of education that we may hope to provide well- trained teachers for all American boys and girls. George D. Strayer, Chairman, Commission on the Emergency in Education 537 538 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION INTRODUCTION SOME FACTS SHOWING THAT THERE IS A ''NATIONAL EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION" 1. The average number of years (of 200 days) attendance at public schools for each individual, as indicated by the school statistics for 1916,' was only 5 .96, or less than the completion of the sixth grade for an average education for the citizens of the greatest democracy in the world. 2. The total high-school enrolment for 191 6 was only 8 J per cent of the enrolment of the elementary schools. Assuming that the schools should hold students at least thru the high school, and that the high-school course extends over four years and the elementary over eight, we might expect to find the high-school enrolment nearly 50 per cent of the enrolment in the elementary schools, making a slight allowance for death rate. Instead, we find 8j per cent, or only one out of every six of those who should be in attendance. The "holding power" of the school is a mythical quantity. Its "dropping power," however, is not only a reality but so effective that of one hundred children starting the first grade together, thirty are dropt before they finish the sixth grade, thirty of the remaining seventy are dropt before completing the eighth grade; of the forty graduating from the eighth grade, thirty more are dropt before graduation from high school. About eight more are dropt before college and about one of the two remain- ing educational pilgrims completes his college course. =^ 3. There are more than 5,000,000 persons in the United States over ten years of age (about one in every twenty) who can neither read nor write. 3 If we consider as illiterate all who are not able to read a newspaper and write a simple letter, the foregoing figures would be increast four times, or to one person in five.'* There are many thousands of children in the United States attending schools in which not a word of English is spoken during the entire day. 4. Of the 3,208,446 men examined by the Draft Boards of the United States, 949,419 were declared physically unfit for general military service. ^ Considering that these were men in the prime of Hfe, and assuming that even the same proportion would hold for younger and older men and for women, it would indicate that there are 30,000,000 persons in the United States who are to a greater or less degree physically inefficient. 5. About 4,000,000 children are taught by teachers less than 21 years of age, with little or no high-school training, with no professional prepara- « » Report of Commissioner of Education, II (1917). 24. » Strayer and Thofndike, Educational Administration, Sec. 2. Macmillan Co. i N,E A . Bulletin, April, igig, p. 13. * Based on findings of the Psychological Division of the Surgeon-General's Office on the examination of 1.552.256 men. « Report of Provost Marshal General, igiS, p. 153 TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 539 tion for their work, and who are, in a great majority of cases, products of the same schools in which they teach.^ 6. The normal schools and teacher- training institutions of the country found their attendance cut from 5 to 46 per cent, during the two years of the war, thus further decreasing the inadequate source of supply.^ 7. Thousands of children were urged to leave school and enter some shop or war work industry in order that they might more directly "serve their country," and attendance laws were more laxly enforced in order to make this possible. To meet the foregoing conditions educators were able to offer prospec- tive teaching recruits an opportunity to serve, to do work which is enervat- ing, with many outside demands and long irregular hours, at an average yearly salary of $630. 64^ — less than $55 a month. Early in 191 7, when the nation was giving its united effort to winning the war, the shortcomings as well as the unrealized possibilities of the schools were so vividly seen by men and women prominent in education that the situation was referred to as "The Emergency in Education." When the matter was brought before the National Education Association and the Department of Superintendence, the "Commission on the Emergency in Education and the Program for Readjustment During and After the War" was formed. This Commission realized the imminence of the danger and inaugurated a campaign, more inclusive than any ever under- taken in this country along educational lines, to study the situation, enlist the profession, and inform the people. It was evident from the discussions of the first meeting that the schools of the country had failed to meet entirely their educational responsibiUties in the past; that they had allowed, and, in some cases, caused serious inequalities to exist; and that they were not making the adjustments necessary to meet either the needs of war-time or the reconstruction period to follow. Five problems imprest the Com- mission as being national in their scope and in need of immediate action. These were (i) the removal of illiteracy, (2) the Americanization of foreign- ers, (3) the equalization of educational opportunities, (4) the promotion of physical and health education and recreation and (5) the preparation of teachers, particularly for the rural schools. Committees were appointed and investigations immediately started. Early in these investigations it was found that sooner or later nearly all of the problems involved the economic aspects of teaching. As a conse- quence one of the three big National Education Association problems for 19 1 9 was a campaign for better salaries thruout the United States. The first phase of this was the disclosure of the alarming shortage of teachers existing in all sections of the country. Even in the larger cities where » Based on estimates given in N.E.A. National Program for Education, Commission Series 3, p. 94. ' Brown, J. C, "State Normal Schools and the War," School and Society, VII, 695. i From Estimates of Commissioner of Education, N.E.A. Bulletin, April, 1919, p. 14. 540 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION salaries were higher than elsewhere and living conditions more congenial, the school boards could not begin to fill the vacancies caused by the inroads of various war activities. In New York City, as an example, the shortage was so great that in February, 1919, in 278 of the schools of the city, 19,901 registered pupils reporting at schools received absolutely no instruc- tion.^ Superintendents and principals put forth every effort to relieve the situation. Classes were doubled, kindergarten teachers were used in the upper grades, but thousands of children were daily turned from the schools to the streets. Every effort was made to increase the supply, particularly of substitute teachers, but there were few applicants for examination, and fewer students enrolled in the city training schools for teachers. Demobilization camps were canvast for teaching recruits, but because there were relatively few with the necessary preparation, and because there is a rapidly growing feeling that teaching is not a man's task, these canvassings brought almost no returns. The New York City situation was practically duplicated in every large industrial city where war industries caused an increase in urban concentra- tion of population. In the rural districts where the inducements to enter or stay in teaching work are vastly fewer than in the cities, the situation was proportionately worse. Whole sections of states were unable to open the rural schools in the poorly paid and less favorably situated districts. One county in Pennsylvania reported fifty-three of its rural schools without teachers. According to an estimate of the United States Commissioner of Education, the nation was more than 50,000 teachers short of the number required to provide schooling for its children — the schooling which should be guaranteed these children if we are to be a democracy in more than name only. This shortage, which was more than twice the total number of graduates of all the public and private normal schools in the entire country during the preceding year, existed after over 120,000 inexperienst, untrained, immature or "erstwhile" teachers had been introduced into the schools in a valiant, tho often misguided effort to open the schools. This effort was misguided in that many of the schools would have been better unopened than to have the teachers they were compelled to take. The real shortage, then, may fairly be estimated at nearly 170,000 teachers. This exodus from a time-honored and socially respected form of public service into the fields of stenography, bookkeeping, card-filing, indexing, time-keeping, salesmanship, clerking and farm work, to say nothing of the fields of work where the incentive of more direct war service was added, such as nursing, reconstruction work, decoding messages, motor driving, etc., really threatened the efficiency if not the existence of our system of public education. It was by no means entirely caused, as some have said, by an intense desire on the part of patriotic teachers to be of service in ' The Globe and Commercial Advertiser, February 19, 1919, article by T. W. Metcalfe, TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 541 helping to win the war, nor by a feeling that one was rendering a finer service by taking the place of a man in the local grocery store than by teaching forty young citizens at school. It was caused, rather by the ability of these teachers to earn from 25 per cent to 100 per cent more salary in these other occupations. The various governmental departments were among the heaviest bidders for these teachers. Thousands of teachers left their positions and their annual salaries of from $500 to $600, to work for the government for $1100 to $1500. The following advertisement from the March, 1919, number of a State educational journal shows that this is still a factor in competition: TEACHERS— GET U.S. GOVERNMENT JOBS All teachers, both men and women, should try the Government examinations soon to be held thruout the entire country. Reconstruction work necessitates thousands of appointments. The positions pay from $1100 to $1500; have short hours, annual vaca- tions, and are permanent. Those interested should write immediately to for large descriptive book, showing the positions open and giving many sample examina- tion questions, which will be sent free of charge. Unfortunately for our schools the teachers who left because of these inducements have not returned and will not return in any large numbers. They have discovered that there are many opportunities open to women in other fields — ^fields in which they can earn a much more comfortable living, have easier hours, less fatiguing work, and more freedom. These causes, then — strictly war-caused in their first appearance — are remaining in operation, and will do so until the public school service can be made more attractive financially than the other lines of work. This cannot be done until we have a universal realization of the vital part played by the schools in the social and political life of any country, and particularly in the country that the world looks to as exemplifying on the largest scale the ideals of true democracy. As a people, we have been slow to assign to the school a leading part in our drama of socialization. When, however, it became necessary to secure a national conviction on any topic, when it seemed advisable to start the whole country on a policy of thrift, or when some form of service was needed by Food Administration, Red Cross or other organization, there was an immediate appeal to the school as the means of reaching the greatest number in the most thoro way. Early in our participation in the war there were 250 listed agencies^ diuectly or indirectly using the schools to further their causes. If this seems wise and can be done in the stress of war, it could and should be done in a regulated way during times of peace. Our frantic appeal to the schools to help in this emergency was an admission that they, as a force for shaping public opinion, had been neglected ' N.E.A. Pamphlet, "Thru the Schools in War Time." 542 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in the past. Shall we now again neglect this force which proved so helpful in securing national cooperation and in shaping public ideals ? Are there not problems before us as a nation, which must be met largely by the aid of the schools ? There has been no armistice declared, and we hope there never will be a treaty signed between education and the forces which strive against mutual understanding, socialization and progress — in a word, against civili- zation. The problems of reconstruction, world-reconstruction, face the schools and their product of the next few years. Can we trust the execution of a work so important to our numerically depleted, poorly prepared, and financially underpaid teaching force, or to the recruits who may enter under conditions which now exist ? For reasons which will be shown, the point of immediate attack for the improvement of present educational conditions is the financial one. No adjustment of the salary situation can be either satisfactory or last- ing until it is based upon sound economic principles. Careful studies of the whole situation in its economic, sociological and educational aspects must be made, and salary schedules must be based upon the findings of such studies. Salary adjustments can no longer be based on pity, condescension, or public charity in the form of temporary bonuses, nor can they be made by *'flat increases" either in dollars or per cents. The National Education Association has conducted such a study this year, in the hope that its findings may be profitable, not only to the teachers concerned, but to the patrons of public schools in America who, because of their belief in universal education and their faith in democracy, control in a large measure the efficiency of our educational system by the enlightened way in which they financially support it. It is intended that this report shall assist in the solution of the salary problem for teachers in three ways; (i) by serving to stimulate the interest of the teachers and school patrons of the country in the problem of better pay for teachers; (2) by furnishing material and suggestions to be used by superintendents and teachers in their local campaigns for better salaries; and (3) by encouraging school officials or teachers' organizations everywhere to make careful investigations of their local conditions and problems, in order that teachers' salary schedules may be based upon business principles and prevailing economic conditions, rather than upon tradition and senti- ment. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 543 CHAPTER I THE SALARY SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES AS SHOWN BY REPORTS FROM THREE HUNDRED AND NINETY- TWO CITY AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS During February, 1919, the following letter was sent out from the National Education Association Headquarters in Washington to selected cities and counties of all sizes in all sections of the country. January 31, 19 19 To THE Superintendent of Schools: The National Education Association wants to help solve the problem of teachers' salaries. In order to get the information which will be most helpful to superintendents and teachers thruout the country, it is necessary to have your assistance. I am enclosing herewith two forms. On the first of these blanks you are askt to report the salaries of all teachers now in the employ of your school system according to a schedule which appears on the form, and to answer certain other questions which are of importance to all who have the problem of the increase of teachers' salaries before them for consideration. Will you not have this form filled out immediately and return it to me. The data included on this form we can put into shape very rapidly. The other form is an individual teacher's blank. In order to save the very great expense in postage I am asking that you mimeograph this blank exactly as it appears on the sheet enclosed, and that you have it filled out by your teachers and sent to me as soon as possible. If you find it impossible to take care of this matter for me, will you not turn it over to your local teachers' association. We must have prompt assistance of all school systems receiving this request in order to make the study useful for those who hope to use our data in the development of new salary schedules for next year. Kindly send reports to me at 1400 Massachusetts Avenue, Washington, D.C. I know that I can count on you and your teachers to cooperate with us in this work. The efficiency of American Schools and the future of our profession are involved in the movement to secure a living and a saving wage for teachers. Yours faithfully, George D. Strayer The questionnaire blank to be filled out by the superintendents is given on the following page. The blank to be mimeographt or printed and filled out by the individual [ teachers. THE SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES To THE Teachers of the United States: The information requested below is desired by the National Education Association ^in order to aid in securing adequate salaries for teachers thruout: the country. You are vitally interested in the results. All information will be used in an entirely impersonal way — be frank and as accurate as possible. Fill out the blank today. Very cordially yours, George D. Strayer, President of the N. E. A. 544 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1 . State City School Date 2. Name Age Sex Married ? Yes No 3. How many persons are entirely dependent upon you for support ? How many in part dependent upon you for support ? 4. Are your teaching in kindergarten ? elementary ? inter- mediate ? or high school ? What grade or subject ? Are you a principal ? What part of your time do you teach ? Are you a supervisor ? What do you supervise ? 5. Number of years experience in rural schools ? kindergarten ? graded schools ?\ intermediate schools (Junior or H. S.) ? high schools ? normal or college ? In present system ? Total number of years teaching experience ? Give accurate amounts or careful estimates for the items below. Each amount or estimate should include a period of twelve months. 6. Annual salary received from the school. . . . 191 7-18 1918-19 7. Number of months taught during 1917-18 1918-19 8. Bonus, if any, received from the school. . . . 1917-18 1918-19 9. Additional income, not included above, for tutoring, evening school, summer work, writing, lecturing, etc 1917-18 1918-19 10. Annual amount spent for personal living expenses: room rent, board, clothes, car " fare, medical attention, etc 1917-18 1918-19 11. Annual amount spent for your recreation, books, magazines, travel, professional ad- vancement, etc 1917-18 1918-19 12. How many years did you attend high school? Did you graduate? How many years did yt)u attend H. S. training class?. . . Did you graduate? How many years did you attend normal school ? Did you graduate ? How many years did you attend college or Univ. ? Did you graduate ? How many years did you attend special schools ? Did you graduate ? In the above figures, no year of training or study should be listed in more than one place. Please write distinctly. Make explanatory notes on back. The administrative problems of cities vary with the size and location of the city. Consequently, it seemed advisable to separate the cities into size groups and geographical groups in order to make the collected data on salaries more immediately comparable with the situation in any par- ticular place. The aim in determining the limits of the size groups was to secure sizes in which the administrative problems and the administrative machinery were more or less distinctly characteristic of cities of that size. The size groups as here explained will be used thruout the study. Size I. Cities having a population of 100,000 or more Size II. Cities having a population of 50,000, but less than 100,000 Size III. Cities having a population of 25,000, but less than 50,000 Size IV. Cities having^ population of 10,000, but less than 25,000 Size V. Cities having a population of 5000, but less than 10,000 Size VI. Cities having a population of 5000 or less TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 545 In determining the size group for any city the population was taken where possible, from "Estimates of Population for the United States for 1916," Bulletin 133 of the Bureau of Census. For cities not included in this list the population as given in the 13 th Census for 19 10 was used. The aim in determining which states to include in the geographical groups was to secure groups in which the economic, natural, industrial and educational conditions were more or less distinctly characteristic of the states within that group. The geographical groups as here explained will be used thruout the study. Group A. Eastern (Industrial), including Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island and Vermont. Group B. Southern States, including Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Colum- bia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia and West Virginia. Group C. Great Lakes (Manufacturing), including Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin. Group D. Great Plains (Agricultural), including Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma and South Dakota. Group E. Western, including Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. Other groupings are possible in which the states would be a little more homogeneous from the standpoint of educational problems, but not without increasing the number of groups which would complicate the tabulation of data beyond the advantage gained. Three hundred and ninety-two replies were received from city and county superintendents in time to be incorporated in all the tables. Thirty- one dame in too late to be used, save for special comparison in the distribu- tion of salaries, and in five or six cases the blank was not filled out com- pletely, and it was impossible to place it in its proper group. The list given in Appendixes I and II give the cities included in the study, by groups. Any city can be located in the list by determining its size and geographical group. For example, Holyoke, Massachusetts, belongs in geographical group A and size group II. Similarly, St. Louis, Missouri, would be DI. It is readily seen from an examination of this list of cities that, to a very markt degree, it is representative of American cities. Every city size of every geographical group is represented, and this representation is^ made by typical cities. The manufacturing center, the commercial center, the city with a large immigrant population, the mining center, the distribut- ing center for agricultural districts and the health resort can all be found in the different size groups. The representative nature of the cities makes the results of the study even more significant and reliable. Only ten county superintendents had the blanks filled out in any number, so that the results of the study are more representative of city conditions than 546 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION rural.' The effect of an introduction of more rural teachers into the study- would materially decrease the median salaries found. This generalization is substantiated by the returns which were tabulated. It is also true that salaries are better in the rural communities which have a stronger county organization as compared with those in which the single school is the principal unit. In the following tables the returns will be given according to size groups, and where desirable, by geographical groups also. In most of the ques- tions studied the difference caused by the size of the city is greater, more significant and more usable than the difference caused by location, conse- quently where only one grouping is used it will be that of size. New York City, Chicago, and Philadelphia, cities whose populations are over a million, are not included in these tables because it was felt that, in many ways, their educational situation is unique, and also that because of their size and the number of teachers employed, they would unduly influence the returns from other cities. The following terms will be used frequently and will need but a word ol explanation. A Distribution ("distribution table") is an arrangement of a group of measures in ascending (or descending) order, and indicates the number of times each measure is found in the cases under consideration. The First Quartile (Qi) or 25 percentile is that point on the scale below which fall exactly one-fourth of the distributed cases, and above which three-fourths of the distributed cases fall. The Median (mid-point) is that point on the scale which divides the distribution exactly in half, having one-half of the cases fall below and the other half fall above. The Third Quartile (Q3) or 75 percentile is that point on the scale below which fall exactly three-fourths of the distributed cases, and above which one-fourth of the distributed cases fall. The Quartile Deviation (Q) is one-half the distance on the scale between the first quartile and the third quartile, It is used as a convenient measure of variation, since from it, it is easy to determine the distance upon the scale which will include the middle fifty per cent of the cases, and thereby determine the closeness of the grouping of the individual cases about the median. For purposes of computing medians and quartiles in this study the plan 'was adopted of making the steps take their names from the beginning of the steps. Thus, salary group $500 extends from $500 to $549.99. The first steps of all distributions are supposed to begin at zero and extend to the beginning of the next step. By using this arrangement for the steps it will tend to make all the medians and quartiles a little higher than they « The returns will be referred to in the study as "392 cities" reporting even tho this number included the ten counties. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 547 are in reality, because of the prevailing custom among school men of grant- ing salaries, increases, etc., in round numbers. Thus, in the $500 salary group there will be more teachers receiving an even $500 than will be dis- tributed between $500 and $549. It was considered that this "padding of salaries" was less harmful than the lack of uniformity, or than the addi- tional work and chances of error involved in the other method. In all statements and computations involving salaries and other items the results have been computed to the nearest dollar or to the nearest unit. A few exceptions to this are necessary where several medians are so close that the fractions are necessary in order to make comparisons. PART I OF QUESTIONNAIRE TO SUPERINTENDENTS In Tables I-IV inclusive the salaries of teachers of 392^ cities are dis- tributed according to city sizes. Separate distributions are made for elementary teachers, for intermediate teachers, for high-school teachers, and for all teachers combined. Elementary teachers' salaries, as shown in Table I, range from $200 to $2200 for the entire group. The greatest range in any one group is in Size II, with a difference of $1900 between the lowest and the highest.^ The greatest difference between the median salaries of any two groups is $259 (I and V). It is noticeable that the median salary decreases with each lower size group, except between sizes V and VI, and that the quartile deviation is largest in the cities of Size I, indicating a wider range of salaries, and smallest in cities of Size VI, indicating a closer grouping around the median salary. In Group I 75 per cent of the teachers get more than $796, while in Group VI 75 per cent of the teachers receive less than $782. With the median salary in cities of Size VI, $243 less than in cities of Size I, and the quartile devia- tion also smaller, it is evident that the salary situation for elementary teachers is much worse in cities below 5000 inhabitants than in those over 100,000. The median salary for elementary teachers in all groups is only^ $856. This means that 16,249 teachers of the 32,499 reported received less than $856 during the year 19 18-19. This figure would have to be reduced materially to represent the median salaries of all elementary teachers because of the small representation of rural and village teachers. Since 86 per cent of the teachers represented in Table I are from cities above 10,000, a median of $856 is more directly comparable with the results of the study made by the National Education Association for 19 17-182 in which the median salary for elementary teachers in 320 cities over 10,000 population was found to be $816. When this comparison is made and allowance made for the effect of Groups V and VI, it appears that the median salary for » List of these cities given in Appendix I. * There is a slight chance that a few of the higher salaries may be those of principals or special sttper- visors, even tho the blank stated that these were not to be included. Except in a few cases , where the salaries were verified, they were used as they were sent in by the superintendent. » Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living, 1918, p. 58. 548 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION elementary teachers is from $40 to $50 more in 1918-19 than the previous year. This shows that there has been a rather general tho small increase during the year in teachers' salaries. TABLE I Elementary Teachers' Salaries for 1918-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Size of the Cities and Salaries Received)* Salary Number of Teachers in Each Size Group Groups I II III IV V VI Totals $ 200- 249 250- 299 300- 349 350- 399 400- 449 450- 499 500- 549 550- 599 600- 649 650- 699 700 749 750- 799 800- 849 850- 899 900- 949 950- 999 I 000- I 049 1050-1099 1100-1149 1150-1199 I 200-1 249 1250-1299 1300-1349 1350-1399 1400-1449 1450-1499 1500-1599 1600-1699 1700 1799 I 800-1 899 1900 1999 2000-2099 2 100-2 199 2200- 2299 2300-2399 2400-2499 2500-2999 3000-and over. . . 9 I 15 II 19 17 80 251 353 276 lOOI 1566 1369 720 1766 697 725 393 1153 781 560 909 96 480 5 20 40 10 9 3 33 53 49 100 187 227 229 297 320 358 362 432 428 187 127 36 93 5 6 I 5 21 32 ^? 106 129 157 263 347 407 461 631 618 567 446 363 229 154 211 317 10 42 13 28 15 17 9 76 181 336 511 579 489 438 500 339 355 240 308 128 28 71 12 50 2 9 I 9 5 5 I 112 19 42 125 177 221 278 270 260 173 146 103 125 84 49 20 5 7 8 6 6 I 2 10 25 28 70 127 252 343 342 386 215 149 87 85 43 49 30 25 II 7 I 2 2 I 2 176 104 190 447 743 1317 1935 2041 2772 3150 3115 2225 3260 1942 1922 987 1595 1074 1056 943 202 634 525 8 I 4 2 I I I 41 50 16 2 3 I 12 I 4 I I I 1 I Totals... 13,946 3554 5618 4846 2242 2293 32,499 tQi Median Q3 0 $ 796 936 1152 178 $ 751 889 1002 126 $ 736 866 997 131 $ 656 774 920 132 $ 569 677 801 III $ 609 693 782 87 $ 721 856 1025 152 ♦ For explanation of size groups see page 544. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 549 Table II shows the situation for intermediate teachers in the cities reporting intermediate schools. The range of salary for the entire group is $2000, the same as for elementary teachers, but the range between median TABLE II Intermediate Teachers' Salaries for 1918-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Size of the Cities and Salaries Received)* Salary Number of Teachers in Each Size Group Groups I II III IV V VI Totals $ 200-- 249 2«;o- 299 •?oo- ^49 I I ^"^o— '^99 400— 449 2 I I I I I 2 4 44 21 38 59 39 27 27 15 6 6 6 4 I 450- 499 2 7 4 12 28 27 24 43 ^? 38 30 32 40 30 23 22 I 9 3 2 500- 549 17 34 29 36 43 59 36 49 13 15 6 7 5 I I 28 550- 599 I 4 4 3 8 9 13 20 39 61 35 53 42 42 24 53 19 27 87 70 117 154 148 140 146 189 140 160 116 155 lOI 116 600- 649 d^o- 699 I 7 16 9 9 8 22 5 41 8 14 3 700- 749 750- 799 800- 849 850- 809 900- 949 950- 999 1000-1049 1050-1099 1100-1149 1150-1199 I 200-1 249 4 5 17 4 49 13 14 S6 22 37 25 55 33 20 24 IS 7 4 4 5 1250-1299 1300-1349 2 47 92 36 41 28 1350-1399 1400-1449 17 3 7 3 2 I 2 1450-1499 I I 500- I 599 22 I 600- I 699 4 2 I 3 2 I 15 8 1700— 1799 1800-1899 6 I 900- I 999 8 2000-2099 2 100-2 199 I I 2200-2299 2300-2399 I I 2400-2499 2500-2999 3000-and over. . . Totals... 421 169 487 420 380 309 2186 tQi Median .... Q3 $1072 1226 1362 145 $ 840 1007 1092 T26 $ 919 1047 1210 146 $ 801 943 1098 149 $ 669 775 905 118 $657 738 844 94 $ 777 951 I ±43 183 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. 5SO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION salaries of groups is $498 (I and VI) which is nearly double the difference found in elementary schools. The median salaries decrease with every decrease in city size, and are also in every case higher than for elementary teachers. The quartile deviation is more uniform and in most groups slightly less than for elementary teachers. The intermediate school as a separate division of the school system is a development of recent years, and, in a majority of cases, was started with the best teachers in the system, which would partially account for the higher salaries. Another reason for this is the departmental organization of intermediate schools and the addi- tional preparation demanded in many cases. In Groups I, II, III, and IV the median salary for intermediate teachers is higher than the third quartile of elementary teachers in those groups. Table III shows the distribution of salaries of high-school teachers for the 392 cities reporting. The range of high-school salaries is much more than for either elementary or intermediate, being at least $2700. The greatest difference between median salaries of any two groups is $595 (I and VI). This is nearly $100 more than the same difference for inter- mediate teachers, but is no more in proportion to the size of the median salaries. The effect of the size of the city upon the salary paid is very noticeable, as in the intermediate salaries. The biggest difference between any two consecutive groups is between I and II, where the inedian salaries differ by $225. The quartile deviation for high-school teachers is larger and more varied than for elementary or intermediate teachers. A quartile deviation of $322 for cities in Group I shows a large variation in the salaries paid high- school teachers in the larger cities, since the middle 50 per cent of the teach- ers spread over a range of $644. This is three times as large as the quartile deviation for cities in Group VI. The comparison of the median salaries received by high-school teachers with those of intermediate and elementary teachers brings very forcibly to light several conditions which school men have known to exist, and yet have done nothing to adjust. High-school salaries are as much higher than intermediate as the inter- mediate are higher than the elementary. Thus, from the standpoint of financial reward there is an advantage in changing from elementary to intermediate and from intermediate to high school There is more prepara- tion demanded in each of the two upper divisions also, but the decided increase in salary tends to take from the elementary field, particularly, the strongest and most ambitious teachers. The difference between the high-school and the elementary salaries is particularly noticeable. In every size group of cities, the first quartile of the high-school salaries is higher than the third quartile of the elementary salaries. In other words, three-quarters of the high-school teachers receive more salary than the TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES SST- best-paid quarter of all elementary teachers. Such a difference is so large that it becomes a social distinction and in several ways mitigates against the proper coordination of the different divisions of the schools. This ^ TABLE III High-School Teachers' Salaries for 1918-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Size of the Cities and Salaries Received)* Salary Number of Teachers in Each Size Group Groups I II III IV V VI Totals $ 20a- 249 250- 299 300- 349 350- 399 400- 449 450- 499 500- 549 550- 599 600- 649 650- 699 700- 749 750- 799 800- 849 850- 899 900- 949 050- 999 I 000- I 04 9 1050-1099 1100-1149 1150-1199 I 200-1 249 1250-1299 1300-1349 1350-1399 1400-1449 1450-1499 I 500-1 599 1600-1699 1 700-1 799 I 800 -I 899 I 900- I 999 2000-2099 2 100-2 199 2200-2299 230(^2399 240(^2499 25o<^2999 3000- and over 2 I I I 4 I 2 3 I 2 I 4 13 27 62 65 136 96 173 63 81 27 34 12 44 13 19 19 10 3 23 8 I 3 4 I I 4 6 2 5 II 16 21 45 45 73 112 99 104 109 32 158 11 la 74 109 191 34 55 21 II 4 9 4 7 2 2 8 18 33 64 92 63 148 106 172 68 72 59 94 43 88 40 91 21 105 58 32 27 6 20 4 7 2 2 . II 12 31 40 102 138 40 29 13 32 17 12 22 15 5 39 14 4 4 2 I I 16 10 4 5 7 27 17 32 63 21 423 45 79 103 201 67 121 92 140 54 306 237 215 355 250 90 61 23 14 35 41 3 12 IS 15 16 35 23 49 42 56 47 98 78 47 67 94 H 61 77 27 25 13 9 13 5 76 161 232 407 342 630 383 910 326 379 266 627 269 371 290 436 171 643 585 313 469 292 133 83 44 18 2 I I I 37 II- 10 2 2 Totals... 3094 944 1639 1547 823 943 8990 tQi., Median. . . . $1171 1513 1815 322 $1121 1288 1482 181 $1034 1242 1537 252 $ 935 1097 1383 224 $853 944 1 107 127 $ 822 918 1039 109 $ 991 1224 1559 284 * For explanation of size groups se^ page 544. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. 552 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION difference in salary also makes it possible to demand more preparation on the part of the high-school teachers, but does not add any incentive to further preparation for teaching in the elementary schools — a work as important as any other. TABLE IV Elementary, Intermediate, and High-School Teachers' Salaries for 1918-19 in THE 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Size of the Cities and Salaries Received)* Salary Groups Number of Teachers in Each Size Group I II III IV V VI Totals $ 200- 249 9 I 10 2'?0- 299 300- 349 17 3 22 15 113 II 181 350- 399 400^ 449 II 33 60 17 9 20 25 30 106 24 34 42 199 450- 499 17 55 III 78 125 74 460 500- 549 82 50 135 192 196 132 787 550- 599 252 100 163 342 257 300 1414 600- 649 361 188 271 531 318 377 2046 650- 699 281 237 366 625 318 407 2234 700 749 1008 257 432 549 334 507 3087 750- 799 1597 321 495 526 272 319 3530 800- 849 1391 344 696 635 284 312 3662 850- 899 769 382 702 432 218 210 2713 900- 949 1833 419 701 541 312 273 4079 950- 999 767 460 593 376 155 114 2465 1000-1049 1161 518 515 512 150 136 2992 1050-1099 452 237 375 236 66 63 1429 1100-1149 1288 197 305 233 41 65 2129 1150-1199 906 106 267 no 25 27 1441 I 200-1 249 798 194 528 187 41 SI 1799 I 250-1 299 lOOI 83 80 56 23 16 1259 1300-1349 272 S2> 153 147 19 22 665 1350-1399 740 68 63 45 23 21 960 1400-1449 640 99 131 102 19 II 1002 1450-1499 83 15 77 22 5 5 207 I 500-1 599 341 68 120 114 40 23 706 1600-1699 284 79 196 67 16 . 8 650 1700 1799 229 27 37 39 4 I 337 I 800- I 899 368 27 56 29 4 3 487 1900- 1999 255 16 21 9 2 I 304 2000-2099 90 10 II 22 I 2 136 2 100-2 199 2200-2299 230(^2399 2400-2499 2500-2999 3000-and 62 13 6 4 9 4 5 7 I 85 45 19 23 14 35 I I 37 II 10 I over 2 2 Totals... 17,461 4667 7744 6812 3446 3545 43,675 tQi $ 825 $ 788 $ 785 $ 692 $ 617 $ 642 $ 756 Median.... 1013 943 928 841 750 741 917 Q3 1254 1078 1122 1024 864 889 1132 Q 215 145 169 166 124 124 188 For explanation of size groups see page 544. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 553 Table IV, which gives the distribution of the salaries for elementary, intermediate and high-school teachers combined, shows the effect of the higher salaries paid the teachers in the two upper divisions in raising the CHART I CHART SHOWING MEDIAN SALARIES FOR CITIES IN THE DIFFERENT SIZE GROUPS FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHERS. INTERMEDIATE TEACHERS HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS. AND FOR THE TOTAL OF THE THRfif Elementary Intermediate High School Total for all teachers median salaries over those for elementary teachers. The median salary for all teachers in cities of Group I is only $1013. Half the teachers in these cities get less than $1013 a year, less than $85 a month for the twelve months. This shows the seriousness of the salary problem in the larger 554 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION cities. Some of these cities have already set the minimum salary at $1200 a year, nearly $200 more than the present median salary. In Tables V to VIII, inclusive, the salaries of teachers in 392 cities are distributed according to geographical grouping. Tables V, VI, and VII TABLE V Elementary Teachers' Salaries for 1918-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Geographical Grouping and Salaries Received) * Salary Groups $ 200- 249 250- 299 300- 349 350- 399 400- 449 . .^ 450- 499 500- 549 550- 599 600- 649 650- 699 700- 749 750- 799 800- 849 85a- 899 900- 949 950- 999 1000-1049 1050-1099 1100-1149 1150-1199 1200-1249 1250-1299 k 1300-1349 •• 1350-1399 1400-1449 1450-1499 1500- 1599 1600-1699. 1700-1799 1800-1899 1900-1999 2000-2099 2100-2199. 2200-2299 2300-2399 2400-2499 2500-2999 3000-and over. . . . Totals tQi Median . Q3 Q Number of Teachers in Each Geographical Group 68 9 45 91 250 568 754 815 925 829 1135 899 666 885 825 378 223 113 67 lOI 19 13 16 6 13 13 9 3 9738 690 823 964 137 106 68 114 247 246 328 448 267 943 1322 729 402 1282 120 91 28 62 59 5 7 5 7048 $ 669 773 888 no 13 15 68 151 256 417 526 473 471 453 335 380 264 194 213 93 160 138 6 32 5 14 4900 $ 679 807 972 147 14 10 34 89 161 239 260 351 516 381 547 369 408 142 738 91 428 610 58 72 15 I II 15 5771 ; 808 961 1 141 167 6 7 7 4 65 94 171 177 282 208 385 304 404 226 279 651 418 219 88 544 479 I 5 15 5042 $ 935 1132 1271 168 Totals 176 104 190 447 743 1317 1935 2041 2772 3150 3115 2225 3260 1942 1922 987 1595 1074 1056 943 220 634 525 8 41 50 16 12 4 I I I 32,499 $ 721 856 1025 152 * For explanation of geographical groups see page 545. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 555 give the distribution of elementary, intermediate and high-school teachers' salaries, and Table VIII a combination of these three. These tables show that the range of salary is almost as great within a geographical group as it is within size groups. They also show that there is nearly as much difference TABLE VI Intermediate Teachers' Salaries for 1918-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Geographical Grouping and Salaries Received)* Salary Number of Teachers in Each Geographical Group Groups A B c D E Totals $ 200- 249* 2t;o- 200 ^00- ^49 I ^■CO- •?99 400— 449 3 5 19 41 26 31 25 9 15 27 29 15 10 17 15 13 14 I 5 8 7 I I I I 5 6 450- 499 I 3 35 22 55 30 32 38 26 24 75 77 34 75 43 34 19 37 2 5 3 2 3 3 I 500- 549 I 8 15 19 51 71 38 49 54 19 24 24 23 27 18 II 9 2 ■ 8 5 3 6 8 29 15 26 25 47 13 15 6 19 10 8 ' 2 23 23 13 8 12 7 2 4 5 28 550- 599 87 70 117 154 148 140 146 189 140 160 600- 640 I 4 19 21 23 19 35 18 34 35 23 8 42 14 18 I 8 16 6 4 6t;o- 600 700- 749 750- 799 800- 849 850- 899 900- 949 ceo- QQQ. . .' IOOO-IO49 icco-iooo 116 IIOO-II49 155 lOI IliJO-IIOO I20O-I249 116 I2'CO-I2Q9 47 92 36 41 28 I'?00-I^49 1350- 1399 1400-144.0. . i4';o-i4oo. . I'^OO-I'IOQ I 3 I 3 2 22 I600-I699 '', I700-I799 I800-I899 6 I900-I999 * 8 2000-2099 2 2 100-2199 I I 2200-2299 2^00-2'?OQ I I 2400-2499 2 £500-2000 3000-and over Totals. . . 680 337 483 336 350 2186 tQi $ 786 999 1 138 176 $ 631 832 1039 204 $ 769 889 1078 155 $833 962 1330 249 $ 899 1000 1226 164 $ 777 951 1143 183 Median Q3 Q * For explanation of geographical groups see page 545. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. S5^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION between the median salaries of different geographical groups as there is between the median salaries of size groups. The median salaries for elementary, intermediate, and high-school teachers are higher in Group E than in any other group, and lower in Group B than in the others. The TABLE VII High-School Teachers' Salaries for 1918-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Geographical Grouping and Salaries Received)* Salary Groups Number of Teachers in Each Geographical Group A B C D E Totals $ 200- 240 21:0- 299 •200— ^49 ^ cro~ ^00 I I I I I 3 6 3 4 14 34 50 63 56 46 94 ■30 443 21 ^1 126 20 38 24 50 6 66 37 12 42 35 10 I 3 2 4 2 dOO— AAO 450- 499 «;oo- ';4Q 4 7 16 1 2 2 6 15 30 59 60 149 61 124 76 78 119 5f 58 44 no 19 69 86 77 215 32 44 4 17 9 32 ■CtJO- 'JOG 9 2 19 28 68 76 162 lOI 189 161 198 134 144 200 107 96 no 100 59 125 85 54 53 40 44 35 9 5 4 7 I 6 8 28 59 122 112 153 114 102 69 61 102 43 84 27 77 61 39 44 54 21 5 13 4 I 4 I 600- 640 10 650- 699 700— 740 . . 41 76 161 7^0- 799 800- 849 8-2399- 2400-2449 . 2450-2499 . 2500-2549. 2550-2599- 2600-2649 . 2650-2699. 67 5 I 57 I 17 125 I 23 49 63 I 19 33 51 I 91 I 14 31 9 12 52 32 I 31 I 547 2153 78 2830 748 533 755 567 82 666 701 621 383 596 14 3737 80 84 105 TOO 20 1488 453 52 55 I 47 3 2220 78 2835 749 590 756 584 82 791 702 644 383 645 14 3800 81 103 138 151 21 1579 454 66 86 10 59 55 32 I 34 I 551 Totals. 1336 16,960 18,296 •Qi..... Median . $1438 2083 2420 491 $ 936 125s 1527 296 ; 941 1279 1536 298 ♦ For explanation of terms used see page 546. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 561 TABLE X Distribution of Salaries of Men and Women Teachers in the Day High Schools of New York City for the School Year 1918-19 Salary Groups Men Women Totels $ 900- 949. 950- 999. I 000- I 049. 1050-1099. I 200-1 249. I 250-1 299. 1300-1349. 1350-1399. 1400-1449. 1450-1499. 1500-1549. iS5c>-i599- 1600-1649. 1650-1699. I 700-1 749. I 750-1 799. I 800- I 849. 1850-1899. 1900-1949 . 1950-1999. 2000-2049 , 2050-2099 . 2 TOO- 2 149. 2150-2199. 2200-2249. 2250-2299. 2300-2349. 2350-2399- 2400-2449 . 2450-2499. 2500-2549 . 2550-2599. 2600-2649 . 2650-2699. 2700-2749. 2750-2799. 2800-2849 . 2850-2899 . 29eo-2949 . 2950-2999. 3000-3049. 3050-3099. 3 100-3 149. 3 I 50-3 199. 3200-3249. 3250-3299. Totals.. 28 41 25 4 34 43 96 II 37 9 126 308 96 932 18 33 52 32 41 I 44 56 13s 44 21 37 I 485 27 1155 29 61' 93 54 66 99 231 3 69 32 74 10 236 793 123 I 2087 ♦Qi Median . Q3 Q $2059 2527 2679 310 $1944 2520 2673 364 $2052 2524 2675 311 * For explanation of terms used see page 546. 562 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and the quartile deviation is smaller by $45. The significant fact about the median high-school salary in New York City is that it is $1011 (67 per cent) higher than the median high-school salary for cities in Group I, and $1300 (106 per cent) higher than the median salary for all high-school teachers in 392 cities. In order to have some results of this study available to school men by the close of the school year it was found necessary to close the tables before the returns were received from Pittsburgh, Pennsyl- vania, and Newark, New Jersey. Since they are both large industrial cities in Group A, Size I, their distributions have been combined with those of New York in order that they may be compared not only with the returns from the 392 cities previously reported, but also with a summary of 29 other cities^ whose replies were received too late to be incorporated in the main study. Table XI for elementary teachers shows the median salary for Pittsburgh to be $1150, and for Newark $1300. A total for these three cities gives a median of $ 1 23 1 . This is $2 6 2 higher than the median salary for elementary teachers in the 29 cities mentioned above, and $375 higher than the median salary in the 392 cities. The distribution of the 59,808 elementary teachers, which is the total for all cities in the report, including New York City, gives a median salary of $948. The difference between this and $856 for the 392 cities studied is largely the effect of including the New York City teachers in the distribution, and gives a median salary much too high to represent actual conditions as they are. Table XII gives a similar distribution for high-school teachers, and shows the median salary for New York, Pittsburgh, and Newark to be $2376, which is $1044 more than the median salary for the 29 cities, and $1152 more than the median salary for the 392 cities. The median salary for the total distribution for all cities, including New York, is $1357, due again largely to the salaries of the 2000 New York high-school teachers for whom the median salary is more than $2500. The differences between salaries in different city groups and in different sections, as evidenst by the foregoing tables, are relatively very small in comparison with the differences existing between individual cities. Included in the distributions are the following cities paying their elementary teachers a median salary of $1300 or more: Newark, New Jersey, $1300; Anaconda, Montana, $1301; Berkeley, California, $1310; Oakland, California, $1359; Cleveland Heights, Ohio, $1413; Seattle, Washington, $1421. Included in the dis- tribution also are cities paying medium salaries of less than half of these figures — $540, $532, $519, and $333 are actual median salaries paid to ele- mentary teachers in cities and towns of over 5000 population. The differ- ence between cities in the matter of median salaries for high-school teachers is much more than between elementary teachers, varying between New York City, with its median of $2500, to some of the small high schools, ' T!ie 20 cities included in this distribution are starred * in the list in Appendix I. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 563 paying median salaries of about one-fourth of this. A study of the distribu- tions of salaries for elementary and high-school teachers for individual cities will convince anyone that the settlement of the salary problem up to TABLE XI Distribution of Salaries or Elementary Teachers in New York, Pittsburgh, AND Newark, Compared with Two Other Groups of Cities I 2 3 4 5* 6 7 Salary Groups New York City Pitts- burgh Newark Total for I, 2, and 3 Total 29 Cities Total Totals for 4, S, and 6 $ 200- 249 10 2';o- 299 300- 349 350- 399 400- 449 450- 499 500- 549 550- 599 600- 649 650- 699 700- 749 750- 799 800- 849 850- 899 900- 949 950- 999 1000- 1049 I 050- I 099 1100-1149 1150-1199 I 200-1 249 1 250-1 299 176 104 190 447 743 1317 1935 2041 2772 3150 3115 2225 3260 1942 1922 987 1595 1074 1056 943 202 634 525 8 41 50 16 12 4 I I I 176 104 224 453 845 1 441 2177 2263 3509 3580 5908 2724 6760 3250 ^ 3358 2349 3232 1342 2577 1717 1773 1023 1260 30 4110 399 304 2093 158 72 88 102 120 239 222 349 337 326 287 519 422 601 . 495 232 166 383 72 448 ' 6 18 8 I 7 2 4 4 3 3 J 294 71 76 66 41 58 180 %8 734 19 244 94 22 171 68 105 79 65 53 87 I 103 388 93 2467 212 2981 886 835 867 1405 102 1138 702 1123 383 717 14 4068 342 186 2081 154 71 87 35 I 551 I 2220 78 2835 749 590 756 584 82 791 702 644 383 645 14 3881 241 172 2033 152 69 87 35 551 I I 300- I 349 1350-1399 4 475 I 400- I 449 1450-1499 3 69 I 500-1 599 1600- 1699 1 700- 1 799 I 800- I 899 12 32 175 6g 14 48 2 2 1900- 1999 2000-2099 2 100-2 199 2200- 2299 36 2300-2399 2400-2499 551 2500-2999 3000- and over .... Totals. . . 18,296 1896 1705 21,897 5412 32,499 59,808 tQi Median Q3 $ 940 1283 1568 $ 872 1107 1139 $ 933 1300 1345 $ 939 1231 1552 $ 792 969 IIOO $ 721 856 1025 $ 802 948 1222 * For list of these 29 cities see those marked with a * in Appendix I. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. EMA- NATION AL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the present time has been purely a matter of local adjustment, the result of a progressive superintendent, of an active teachers' organization or the recognition of the importance of teaching by a group of progressive citizens within a community. There is no evidence within any city size or geo- TABLE XII Distribution of Salaries of High-School Teachers in New York, Pittsburgh, AND Newark, Compared with Two Other Groups of Cities I 2 3 4 s* 6 7 Salary Groups New York City Pitts- burgh Newark Total for I, 2, and 3 Total 29 Cities Total 392 Cities Totals for 4, 5, and 6 $ 200- 249 250- 299 300- 349 350- 399 400- 449 450- 499 500- 549 550- 599 600- 649 650- 699 700- 749 750- 799 800- 849 850- 899 900 949 950- 999 1000-1049 1050-1099 1100-1149 1150-1199 I 200-1 249 I 250-1 299 1300^1349 1350-1399 1400 1449 1450-1499 1500-1599 1600-1699 I 700-1 799 1800-1899 1900-1999 2000-2099 2 100-2 199 2200-2299 2300-2399 2400-2499 2500-2999 3000-and over 4 2 4 7 16 10 41 76 161 232 407 342 630 383 910 326 379 266 627 269 371 290 436 171 643 585 313 469 292 ^33 83 44 18 37 II 2 4 2 4 7 4 3 4 I I I I 4 3 5 I I I I 2 2 7 8 27 27 20 48 ^ 27 90 49 99 60 133 56 132 47 123 28 146 202 33 71 25 5 4 15 48 84 170 260 I 435 362 712 410 1070 375 497 326 771 326 615 338 587 253 828 29 2 3 34 61 8 I 70 18 I 19 5 II I 16 6 II I 112 I 28 54 39 118 120 56 142 267 45 116 To 1097 142 93 8 12 54 18 39 ^5 38 40 26 32 23 17 59 21 13 I 18 3 10 10 24 12 II 64 18 66 83 905 466 596 459 405 132 160 99 231 3 69 106 10 1033 124 2 155 117 1 108 T/I4 Totals.. 2061 391 251 2703 1473 8990 13,166 tQi Median. . . Q3 $2013 2512 2562 $1643 1904 2205 $1580 2215 2530 $1894 2376 2551 $1132 1332 1583 $ 991 1224 1559 $1035 1357 1790 ♦ For list of these 29 cities see those marked with a * in Appendix I. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. TEACBEKS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCBEDULES S6S graphical group of a united attempt to in any way standardize salaries paid, or to make a general adjustment of teachers' salaries to living conditions. ''What increases in salary were granted to each group this year?"' was the next question askt on the questionnaire to superintendents. A distribution of the teachers receiving increases, regardless of the amount TABLE XIII QuARTiLE Distributions of Salaries of Teachers Receiving Increases During 191 8-19 (Arranged According to Size and Geographical Groups* for Elementary, Intermediate and High-School Teachers) Size Groups Elementary No. of Teachers tQi... Median , 8-::::::::::::: Intermediate No. of Teachers tQi Median 8-:::::::::::: High School No. of Teachers *Qi.. Median r-::::::::;; III IV VI Totals 9637 $ 808 902 1 184 2983 $ 754 893 103 1 139 4792 $ 758 874 1000 124 4299 $ 622 781 920 129 1766 $ 563 672 791 114 1968 $ 634 693 782 74 25,445 $ 702 844 1013 156 953 $ 773 796 1074 151 176 $ 789 980 1058 135 * 374 $ 917 1030 1083 83 404 $ 802 950 1100 149 355 $ 670 773 853 92 286 651 734 829 89 2548 $ 804 876 1047 122 2481 $1120 1469 1 741. 3" 822 $1105 1304 1519 207 1344 $1046 1260 1525 240 1367 $ 932 1092 1352 210 709 $ 858 904 1 105 124 839 $ 81S 916 1037 no $ 982 1210 1520 269 Geographical Groups A B C D E • Totals Elementary No. of Teachers tQi 7723 $ 690 808 943 132 886 97 4246 $ 68s 811 971 143 3196 $ 779 917 1088 155 4505 $ 940 "54 1302 181 25,445 $ 702 Median 844 O3 1013 Q .:::::::::::::;::: 156 Intermediate No. of Teachers tQi 662 $ 799 IOCS 1142 172 910 $ 809 831 * 457 1049 145 till 936 1309 230 264 $ 845 970 1084 120 2548 $ 804 876 Q3 1047 122 Q... .: High School No. of Teachers tQi 2141 $ 942 1128 1369 214 •1319 $ 955 1025 1243 144 1410 $ 923 II24 1436 257 1141 $948 1156 1560 306 224 7562 $ 982 1210 Median . , .. Q3 Q. :.:.: 269 * For explanation of size and geographical groups see pages 544 and 545. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. of the increase, arranged according to the salaries of the teachers receiving these increases, results in the following quartile distributions. A comparison of the medians and the median deviations of the salaries of teachers receiving increases with the medians and median deviations of the actual salary distributions as given in Tables I-VIII, inclusive, and summarized in Table XIII, will show, first, that the median salaries of » For copy of questionnaire see page 544. 566 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION those receiving increases are in most cases slightly below the median salaries of the groups, and second, that the quartile deviation is very nearly the same as in the distribution of the salaries received. The first point would indicate that there is a tendency to give increases to the lower salaried teachers more than to the upper, but this tendency is so slight that it hardly deserves the name even of a tendency. The second fact seems to contradict this conclusion by showing that increases are given over the entire range of salaries. It was also observed in examining the superin- tendents' blanks as they were returned, that where any increases were given they were generally given to all teachers. When any teachers were not given increases they were usually "new teachers." A study of the increases given to teachers during 191 8-19 which bears more directly upon the salary question is the amount of the increases given. Tables XIV-XIX, inclusive, give the distribution of the increases to teachers' salaries granted for 191 8-19 in the 392 cities reporting. The distribution is made according to size and geographical groups for the cities and the amount of the increase received. These tables show that the increases received during the present year in these 392 cities vary from "no increase" to $400 for elementary and intermediate teachers, and to $500 for high-school teachers. The increases most frequently received, as shown by the number of teachers receiving them, are "no increase," $45, $50, $75, $90, $100, $125, and $150 for elementary and intermediate teachers, and the same, but with $200 and $300 added for the high schools. These amounts are explained by the practice of giving increases of $5 and $10 per month, which amounts to the $45, $50, $90, and $100 increases as the term is nine or ten months in length, and by the practice of giving "lump sum" increases of $50, $75, $100, $125, and $150, etc., per year. These tables also show tjiat the size of the city again has a direct ejffect, and that there is a markt tendency for the "increase" to be less in the smaller cities. It is also noticeable that the geographical groups which pay the highest salaries pay slightly higher increases, altho there are several irregularities. A study of the median increases will show that they hover around $100 — about as many teachers receive less than $100 as receive more. Exceptions to this are Groups B and D of the geographical groups; and Group I for intermediate teachers. Group IV for elementary, and Groups V and VI of the size groups for all teachers. In these groups the median increases are lower than $100. The quartile deviations would indicate that the middle 50 per cent are easily included between $50 and $150. The median increases for the groups — $91 for elementary, $74 for intermediate, and $102 for high-school teachers for the year 1918-19 are rather condemning evidence, that in a great majority of the cases, the increases were given without regard to the needs of the teachers. During 1918 the cost of living advanst 25 per cent' and remained ' Monthly Review, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January, 1919, p. 100. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 567 TABLE XIV Increases to Elementary Teachers' Salaries Granted for 1918-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed according to Size of City and Amount of Increase Receiv^ed)* Size of Number of Teachers in Each Size Group Increases I II III IV V VI Totals $ 0- 9.99 10- 19.99 20- 29.99 30- 39-99 40- 49.99 50- 59.99 60- 69.99 70- 79-99 80- 89.90 90- 99.99 100- 109.99 99 21 390 265 64 10 52 158 342 139 ^? 258 12 245 171 270 16 48 25 244 438 113 109 28 176 256 1109 26 195 8 270 469 91 489 217 394 804 ^77 80 388 494 489 386 20 139 868 572 271 1680 4860 1051 2529 432 1429 4498 178 3139 258 181 271 135 155- 69 637 1152 406 1762 110-119.99 120-129.99 130-139.99 140-149.99 150-159.99 160-169.99 170-179.99 180-189.99 190-199.99 200-209.99 39 216 76 118 350 87 159 58 35 215 223 48 134 44 202 51 302 50 64 224 20 48 20 5 6 9 27 47 38 68 5 14 12 44 37 9 lOI 8 8 II I 10 198 1433 268 685 264 422 1380 256 118 165 326 794 276 181 394 I 210-219.99 220-229.99 230-239.99 240-249.99 250-259.99 260-269.99 270-279.99 280-289.99 290-299.90 300-309.99 15 56 13 141 22 2 9 2 ^5 17 84 13 599 139 29 441 9 4 458 90 27 27 432 • II 16 27 310-319.99 320-329.99 330-339-99 340-349-99 350-359-99 360-369.99 79 79 53 53 5 5 370-379-99 380-389.99 ■^90-^99.00 266 266 r I II 1 1 400-409.99 8 8 480-489.99 500-509.99 Totals . . 9637 2983 4792 4299 1766 1968 25,445 tQi Median.. . $57 106 127 35 $71 106 152 41 $57 lOI 156 50 $51 74 108 29 $ 45 71 98 27 $ 45 59 100 28 '$ 56 91 123 59 ♦ For explanation of size groups see page 544. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. 568 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE XV Increases to Intermediate Teachers' Salaries Granted for 19 18-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed according to Size of City and Amount of Increase Received)* Size of Niunber of Teachers in Each Size Group Increases I II III IV V VI Totals $ 0- 9.99 10- 19.99 20- 29.99 30- 39.99 40- 49-99 50- 59-99 60- 69.99 70- 79.99 80- 89.99 90- 99.99 100-109.99 652 3 29 42 29 7 8 10 54 31 13 52 5 57 34 80 I 5 2 12 61 II 17 5 24 10 835 8 29 4 22 55 15 23 3 27 42 42 16 2 27 8 19 12 4 81 90 190 47 120 14 9 8 18 192 79 33 209 359 110-119.99 120-129.99 130-139.99 140-149.99 150-159.99 160-169.99 170-179.99 180-189.99 190-199.99 200-209.99 4 4 36 7 2 51 2 I 12 4 I 3 2 16 II 58 17 14 9 7 113 37 II 40 10 31 I 3 9 7 22 12 3 5 151 6 I 2 10 23 II 10 3 36 210-219.99 220-229.99 230-239.99 240-249.99 250-259.99 260-269.99 270-279.99 280-289.99 290-299.99 300-309.99 I 14 5 3 4 I 4 I 2 20 6 3 4 II 10 I 122 122 I I 310-319.99 320-329.99 330T339-99 340-349.99 350-359-99 360-369.99 370-379.99 380-389.99 390-399.99 400 409-99 I I I I ' 10 10 480-489.99 500-509.99 Totals.. 953 176 374 404 355 286 2548 tQi Median. . . Q3 Q. . . $ 0 0 98 $ 72 102 107 18 $101 106 152 26 $51 93 130 40 , $ 46 75 100 27 $ 0 98 49 $ 0 74 109 55 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 569 TABLE XVI Increases to High-School Teachers' Salaries Granted for 19 18-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed according to Size of City and Amount of Increase Received) * Size of Number of Teachers in Each Size Group Increases I II III IV V VI Totals $ 0- 9.99 10- 19.99 20- 29.99 3«>- 39-99 40- 49.99 50- 59-99 60- 69.99 70- 79-99 80- 89.99 90- 09.99 100-109.99 457 38 116 151 153 227 12 7 86 II 52 23 84 98 I142 12 4 I 64 108 4 166 25 102 306 I 2 141 121 83 57 16 69 375 7 9 87 64 II 29 II 97 125 19 17 625 109 461 122 78 185 92 61 100 57 47 16 168 7 707 375 1779 110-119.99 120-129.99 130-139.99 140-149.99 150-159.99 160-169.99 170-179.99 5 61 36 14 ^1 9 7 3 78 9 25 II 12 lOI II 10 10 6 41 10 7 27 I 38 3 15 . 30 29 5 I 19 4 25 27 677 104 42 298 17 42 467 102 15 10 12 180-189.99 190-199.99 200-209.99 36 42 325 27 78 2 II 92 210-219.99 220-229.99 230-239.99 240- 249.99 250-259.99 260-269.99 270-279.99 280-289.99 290-299.99 300-309.99 I 8 3 III 12 9 6 4 7 ■ 9 4 4 I I 6 2 7 8 I 28 4 8 I 4 2 9 23 16 3 I 116 I 21 II 65 ' 79 19 10 5 2 2 323 13 373 310-319.99 320-329.99 330-339-99 340-349.99 4 5 I 5 II 6 4 6 2 10 4 7 9 10 I • 2 350-359.99 360-369.99 •?70-^7Q.OQ S ■? 80-^80. 09 7 7 I 390-399.99 400-409.99 I 20 20 480-489.99 500-509.99 I 2 I 4 2 8 Totals.. 2481 822 1344 1367 709 839 7562 tQi Median.. . Q3 Q $55 106 127 36 $ 72 106 152 40 $ 72 103 148 38 $ 54 lOI 120 38 $47 78 105 29 $ 0 71 106 53 $53 102 127 37 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. 570 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE XVII Increases to Elementary Teachers' Salaries Granted for 1918-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Geographical Grouping and Amount of Increase Received)* Size of Increases Number of Teachers in Each Geographical Group ) O- 10- 20- 30- 40- 50- 60- 70- 80- 90- 100- 9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 109 110-119 120-129 130-139 140-149 150-159 160-169 170-179 180-189 190-199 200-209 273 10 113 99 263 1665 154 754 332 322 1 50s 326 114 54 45 491 1763 441 606 30 454 861 191 28 287 377 140 325 45 265 1073 178 14 166 13 183 794 180 71 6 302 599 142 349 143 no 672 6 8 40 I 330 12 21 3Z 66 431 I 37 10 2 I 27 73 46 66 260 ^° 30 15 3 422 9 22 29 22 5 42 43 94 320 41 218 2 48 86 456 261 146 773 19 86 460 868 17 12 157 210-219 220-229 230-239 240-249 250-259 260-269 270-279 280-289 290-299 300-309 2 60 90 432 134 48 27 4 IS 20 13 7 I 2 5 16 4 458' 310-319 320-329 330-339 340-349 350-359 360-369 370-379 380-389 390-399 400-409 79 53 266 II 480-489 500-509 Totals. tQi..,.. Median . Q3 Q 7723 5775 4246 3196 5 57 96 125 34 5 53 65 102 25 $ 65 103 151 43 : S2> 80 108 28 4505 $ 64 103 129 2>i * For explanation of geographical groups see page 545. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 571 TABLE XVIII Increases to Intermediate Teachers' Salaries Granted for 19 18-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Geographical Grouping and Amount of Increase Received) * Size ai Increases Number of Teachers in Each Geographical Group Totals ) O- 9 10- 19 20- 29 30- 39 40- 49 50- 59 60- 69 70- 79 80- 89 90- 99 100-109 80 7 16 4 9 64 IS 47 8 29 100 681 24 30 16 12 20 14 93 3 6 78 8 41 II 12 180 13 I 24 2 25 4 7 '36' 37 10 20 28 12 5 39 64 835 8 42 16 90 190 47 120 33 209 359 110-119 120-129 130-139 140-149 150-159 160-169 170-179 180-189 190-199 200-209 14 126 4 I 4 12 4 17 3 63 7 I I 4 3 9 7 II 113 37 II 151 6 10 23 II 36 210-219 220-229 230-239 240-249 250-259 260-269 270-279 280-289 290-299 300-309 I 20 6 3 4 II 122 310-319 320-329 330-339 340-349 350-359 360-369 370-379 380-389 390-399 400-409 1480-489.99. 500-509.99. Totals. 662 910 457 255 264 2549 tQi Median Q3 Q $ 58 105 158 50 $ 68 103 109 21 550. 90 \ 100 25 > 50 95 100 25 $ o 74 109 55 * For explanation of geographical groups see page S4S- t For explanation of terms used see page 546. 572 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE XIX Increases to High-School Teachers' Salaries Granted for 1918-19 in the 392 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Geographical Grouping and Amount of Increase Received)* Size of Increases ) 0-$ 9 10- 19 20- 29 30- 39 40- 49 50- 59 60- 69 70- 79 80- 89 90- 99 100-109 110-119 120-129 130-139 140-149 i5«>-i59 160-169 170-179 180-189 190-199 200-209 Number of Teachers in Each Geographical Group 235 8 I 49 273 24 152 57 93 638 128 17 10 151 4 13 9 I 107 519 2 2 174 44 23 13 9 37 379 8 5 12 4 6 3 4 10 3 7 72 I 4 105 62 4 44 18 95 415 5 20 18 6 109 5 18 10 6 115 D 93 12 4 I 190 182 26 62 9 98 49 242 43 21 9 4 2 2 29 5 123 4 9 II 64 32 190 29 52 298 6 282 14 I 23 I 5 5 3 91 Totals 1 142 12 19 17 529 625 109 461 122 375 1779 27 677 104 42 298 17 42 36 42 325 210-219 220-229 230-239 240-249 250-259 260-269 270-279 280-289 290-299 300-309 310-319 320-329 330-339 340-349 350-359 360-369 370-379 380-389 390-399 400-409 480-489 . 99 . 500-509.99, Totals. . . tQi.... Median . Q3 Q 32 2 5 66 4 2 10 I . 4 I 6 4 2 33 2 77 9 I 4 6 I 32 17 2141 1319 1410 1141 $ 58 104 129 36 $ o 48 104 52 $ 71 105 158 44 > 49 81 129 40 301 1551 $ 78 109 201 67 9 23 16 116 21 11 79 19 10 373 7 I 20 7562 $ 53 102 127 37 * For explanation of geographical groups see page 545. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. I TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 573 nearly stationary during the remainder of the school year. More demands were made upon teachers' time and resources, and yet more than half of them received less than $100 increase for the year. One of the effects of the war on teaching was the pronounst shortage of teachers. This was as responsible as any other one element for calling the attention of educators to the "Emergency in Education." To find if possible, the effect of low salaries on teachers leaving was the reason for asking the last two questions of Part I of the questionnaire to superintend- ents. Only 288 superintendents of the 392 replied to these questions, but the repHes are evenly distributed thru the groups so that the returns are quite truly representative of the cities involved in the study. Tables XX and XXII show that the salaries of teachers withdrawing during the year spread over nearly as wide a range as was found for the distribution of the salaries received. This indicates that teachers were drawn from all salary levels, which has two probable implications; one, that there was need for teachers of more ability, which would draw the better paid ones, and the second impHcation, that even the better paid salaries in teaching were still too low to hold people of markt ability under the keener competition which developt during the period of the war. Tables XXI and XXIII show the importance of the second cause men- tioned, since 41 per cent of the teachers who withdrew from any school system during the year did so to enter some other field of work. It will be noticed in all of these distributions of teachers withdrawing that the medians are lower than the corresponding medians for the same groups in Tables IV and VIII, which give the distribution of salaries for all teachers for the same year. The best direct measure of the effect of low salaries on teachers with- drawing which can be obtained from the data assembled would be to know how many of the teachers withdrawing were from the poorer paid half of the teachers, in other words, from the teachers receiving below the median salary in the different groups. Tables XXIV and XXV give these data for the size groups and the geographical groups. It will be notist in every group, whether for size or location, that 50 per cent or more of the teachers withdrawing received less than the median salary for the group, with an average of 66 per cent for all teachers studied. In other words, two out of each three teachers who left teaching during this year received less than the median salary of $917. When the percentages are computed for those who left teaching in order to enter some other Une of work they run in the majority of cases a little higher than the figures above, with a percentage for the total of 70 per cent. This is rather conclusive evidence that the lack of adequate financial reward was one of the principal reasons for teachers leaving the profession. This question will be further discust in connection with the cost of living and teachers' salaries. The fact that the salaries of teachers are not high enough to offer anything of a career to 574 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE XX Summary Table of the Number of Teachers Withdrawing from Each Salary Level during the Year 1918-19 in the 392 School Systems Reporting (School Systems Are Arranged According to the Size of the Cities)* Salary Groups I II III IV V VI Totals $200- 249. . . 250- 299... 300- 349... ^<:o- ^99.. . I I 20 I 23 4 T T I 3 4 4 AOO— AAQ. . 3 10 4 21 450- 499. . . 4 I 16 56 "^oo- ';49. . . 5 5 20 27 6 63 550- 599... 5 2 7 19 25 31 69 600- 649. . . 7 2 12 44 46 24 135 650- 699... 26 4 14 46 43 28 161 700- 749. . . 21 7 36 44 44 32 184 750- 799- •• 96 5 31 30 23 12 197 800- 849. . . 24 6 38 32 21 2,2> 154 850- 899. . . 20 7 21 34 14 34 130 900- 949. . . 3 5 37 39 29 25 138 950- 999. . . 14 9 19 14 7 3 66 1000-1049. . . 12 7 25 12 14 9 79 1050-1099. . . 17 I 32 II 2 6 69 1100-1149.. . 9 3 26 8 5 10 61 1150-1199... 13 2 13 9 I 3 41 I 200-1 249... 4 6 20 II 3 2 46 1250-1299... 14 2 4 3 I I 25 1300-1349... 2 2 9 13 3 6 35 1350-1399.-. 1400-1449. . . 1450-1499. .. II 4 5 I 3 5 2 2 3 I 23 17 II 2 4 3 3 2 1500-1599..., 8 I 3 6 3 6 27 1600-1699... 1700-1799... 1800-1899... 1900-1999... 2000—2099. 5 6 2 10 5 3 2 22 I I II 2 2 I 7 5 2 2 I 2100— 2199. 2200-2299.. . 2200—2^00 I I 2AOO— 2d.OO I I 2500-2999. . . 3000-Up Totals... Z2>2, 86 390 432 363 289 1892 tQi $ 760 $ 755 $ 765 $ 660 $ 573 $ 647 $ 679 Median 811 940 923 851 695 817 808 Q3 1096 lOII 1129 1123 846 908 lOIO * For explanation of size groups see page S44. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 575 TABLE XXI Summary Table of the Number of Teachers Withdrawing from Each Salary Level in Order to Enter Some Other Field of Work during the Year 1918-19 IN the 392 School Systems Reporting (School Systems Are Arranged According to the Size of the Cities) * Salary Groups I II III IV V VI Totals $200— 240. . 2<0— 200.. 300- 349- • 350- 399.. 400- 440. . I I 14 15 3 4 2 2 4 2 II 450- 499- • 2 I II I 30 coo— -i399.- 1400-1449.. 1450-1499- • I I 2 7 9 7 2 1 500-1 599.. 1600-1699. . 1700 1799.. 1800-1899.. 1900-1999.. I I 2 I 2 2 6 3 4 2 I I 8 II I 5 I I I 4 2000-2099. • I 2 100-2 199.. 2200-2299,. 2^00-2'?99.. 2400-2499. . 2 "^ 00-2999. . 3000-Up. . . Totals.. 164 40 128 182 128 137 779 IQ Median... Q3 $759 785 1017 $630 7SO 960 $ 781 927 1144 $664 812 989 $523 689 850 $626 ' 734 874 $ 671 788 1910 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. 576 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE XXII Summary Table of the Number of Teachers Withdrawing from Each Salary Level during the Year 19 18-19 in the 392 School Systems Reporting (School Systems Are Arranged According to Geographical Groupings)* Salary Groups 200- 249. 250- 299. 30a- 349, 350- 399 400- 449, 450- 499' 5 I 4 10 IS 500-549, 550- 599 600- 649 650- 699, 600- 749, 30 31 66 S3 63 18 27 48 22 14 25 31 26 42 I 8 7 20 18 4 14 39 750- 799. 800- 849. 850- 899. 900- 949- 9SO- 999- 38 48 30 4S 22 91 13 II 5 S 39 18 39 33 8 IS 44 30 26 II 14 31 20 29 20 I 000- I 049 . 1050-1099. 1100-1149. 1150-1199. I 200-1 249 . I 250-1 299. 1300-1349. 1350-1399 1400-1449 . 1450-1499. 37 13 24 8 14 10 18 9 6 II 13 3 5 2 4 1500-1599, 1600-1699, 1700-1799, I 800-1 899, 1 900- 1 999, 2000-2099 . 2 100-2 199. 2200-2299. 2300-2399 . 2400-2499 . 2500-2999. 3000-up . . . Total, 589 358 380 218 347 tQi Median Q3 $649 787 978 $583 714 970 $669 797 919 $740 841 932 $ 825 1009 1234 * For explanation of geographical groups see page 545. t For explanation of terms used see page 546. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 577 TABLE XXIII Summary Table of the Number of Teachers Withdrawing from Each Salary Level in Order to Enter Some Other Field of Work during the Year 1918-19 in the 392 School Systems Reporting (School Systems Are Arranged According to Geographical Grouping)* Salary Groups A B C D E Totals $ 200- 249 2';o- 2QQ. . / ■200— ^4.0 . ... 3 12 3 4 18 15 3 4 30 -zro— 2QQ 400— 440 41:0- 400 5 7 COO- '^40 13 16 22 IS 25 II 10 14 17 10 5 5 14 II 17 29 35 55 56 74 ■^"^o- t;oo 4 3 8 9 600- 649 2 5 13 61^0- 600 700- 749 7 CO— 700 . , . II 22 II 9 10 80 6 5 2 4 19 12 II II I 4 15 14 13 4 7 9 II 4 118 800— 849 . 62 8t;o- 8qo 50 46 19 QOO— 040 O^JO- 000 1000- 1049 11 6 3 2 4 4 3 2 5 3 2 9 5 I I 4 I 4 I 2 5 8 7 8 5 26 I050-I099 IIOO-II49 27 IICO-IIOO 17 15 1 200-1 249 I 2 <0— 1200 . . 4 I 3 5 I 2 2 3 4 2 4 3 3 2 4 13 II I3OO-I349 I^CQ- I'iOO 7 9 7 1400— 1440 2 I I I4CO— 1400 ie;oo-i2,2, 86 390 432 363 289 $ 811 $940 $923 $795 $695 $817 164 40 128 182 128 137 $ 785 $750 $ 27 $812 $689 $734 67 50 SI 57 63 44 75 72 51 54 61 56 Totals 43,675 $917 1892 $808 779 $788 66 70 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t These figures include only the returns from the 288 cities answering this question. professional requirements demanded of teachers for election in the different school s^^stems. The questions were askt in duplicate for each of the three divisions : Set A for elementary schools, Set B for intermediate schools, and Set C for high schools, in order to adjust the blank to superintendents who had to report on one or more of these divisions, as well as to provide for an easy method of making distinctions between any two divisions. The questions have been tabulated separately, except Questions i, 6, and 7, where the answers were practically uniform for the different divisions. Each question as it pertains to the different divisions will be discust in order thru the remainder of this chapter. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 579 Question i. — "How many months are these schools in session?" Table XXVI shows the number of months in the school year for the different cities. It is very gratifying to note that 40 per cent of the schools reporting remain in session for ten months, and that 52 per cent of the schools remain in session for longer than nine months. The percentage of schools reporting ten months of school decreases very rapidly as the size of the cities decreases, so that where we find 82 per cent for cities in Group I it is as low as 28 per cent in cities of Group V. On the other hand the percentage of cities having nine months of school increases as the size TABLE XXV "Teachers Leaving" and "Teachers Leaving for Other Fields of Work" during 19 1 8-1 9 Compared with the Median Salary of Each Geographical Group of Cities for All Teachers (Elementary, Intermediate, and High School)* Geographical Groups No. of teachers in each group .... Median salary for all teachers in each group No. of teachers leaving each group dnring 1918-19! Median salary of teachers leaving during 19 18-19 No. of teachers leaving each group during 1918-19 to enter other work Median salary of teachers entering other work during 1918-19. . . . Per cent of teachers leaving who received less than median salary of group Per cent of teachers entering other work who received less than median salary of group 12,947 $869 559 ' $787 204 $714 61 66 B 8825 $794 358 $714 223 $758 77 76 6959 $871 380 $797 ISO $792 60 63 7801 $1015 218 $ 841 85 $ 848 86 84 7143 $1187 347 $1009 117 $1035 66 69 Totals 43,675 $917 1892 $808 779 $788 66 70 * For explanation of geographical groups see page S4S. t These figures include only the returns from the 288 cities answering this question. of the cities decreases, so that 12 per cent of the cities in Class I increases to 53 per cent in Group V. The 3 per cent of all the 386 cities reporting less than nine months of school is a further source of gratification. It is evi- dent from this table that the length of school year is rapidly approaching ten months as a standard. State Superintendent W. F. Bond of Mississippi, states that "There is a tendency to put all such teachers on a twelve months' salary basis, giving them 30 days off during the year, and employing them for half time during the rest of the time the school is not in session to coach all those students that fail to pass the last session of work." On the other hand, some of the states are just passing laws making six months the minimum length of term, so that there is yet room for material improvement in this respect thruout the country. S«o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE XXVI Number of Months in the School Year of 1918-19 for Elementary Schools in 386 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Number of Months and Size of City)* Length of Year Number of Cities in Each Size Group in Months I II III IV V VI Totals ID 14 I 2 17 2 7 18 II** 13 35 14 38tt 23t 10 43§ 3 I I 49 9 68tt 3 3 156 47 171 6 9I g sh.y. :...::::::::: 8 I 5 T 71 Totals 17 26 42 88 81 132 386 Percentage having 10 months Percentage having 9^ months Percentage having 9 months Percentage having less than 9 months 82 6 12 0 65 8 27 0 43 26 31 0 40 16 43 I 28 12 53 6 37 7 52 5 40 12 44 3 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t One city reported 11 months. ** One city reported 9} months, ft One city reported gj months. § Three cities reported qI months. Note. — Number of months reported for intermediate schools and high schools were in almost all cases identical with the above. TABLE XXVII Number of Cities Having Establisht Salary Schedules for Elementary Teachers in the 365 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Size of Cities)* ' Number of Cities in Each Size Group I II III IV V VI Totals Have establisht salary schedule Have a "partial" salary schedule. . . . 19 I4t 35 69tt 43** 33§§ 57§ 67§§ ^37 , Have no establisht schedule 2 4 18 124 Totals 19 6 39 87 77 127 365 Per cent having an establisht schedule 100 88 90 79 56 45 65 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t One city reports its schedule as "obsolete." tt Two cities report their schedules as "obsolete." ** Two cities report their schedules as "obsolete," one as "subject to change" and one as "going into effect for 1919-20." § Four cities report their schedules as "obsolete," two as "the state minimum," one as the "state law+2S per cent," and one as "state law+io per cent." §§ One city reports "irregular increase— no schedule." TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES S8i Question 2. — "Do you have an establisht salary schedule for elementary schoolteachers?" Tables XXVII, XXVIII, and XXIX give the answers to this question from 365 of the superintendents who answered it. It will be observed that 65 per cent of the cities have schedules for elementary teachers, 61 per cent for intermediate, and 47 per cent for high school, which would seem TABLE XXVIII Number of Cities Having Establisht Salary Schedules for Intermediate Teachers in the 184 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Size of Cities) * Number of Cities in Each Size Group I II III IV V VI Totals Have an establisht salary schedule. . . Have a "partial" salary schedule . . 10 6 12 27 27 30 112 Have no establisht salary schedule . I 4 12 24 31 72 Totals 10 7 16 39 SI 61 184 Per cent having establisht schedule . . 100 86 75 78 53 49 61 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. TABLE XXIX Number of Cities Having Establisht Salary Schedules for High-School Teachers in the 337 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Size of Cities) * Number of Cities in Each Size Group I II III IV V VI Totals Have an establisht salary schedule. . . Have a "partial" salary schedule 18 II 31 38 28 31 157 Have no establisht salary schedule. . . 5 8 42 43 82 180 Totals 18 16 39 80 71 113 ■^^7 Per cent having establisht schedule . . 100 69 80 48 39 38 47 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. to indicate a tendency to establish schedules for elementary teachers, more than for teachers in the other two divisions. In these tables it is obvious that the size of the city is a large determining factor in whether or not they have establisht schedules. All the cities of Group I have schedules in all three divisions, and the percentage of cities having estabhsht schedules decreases rather uniformly as the size of the city decreases. This is most noticeable in the lack of schedules for high-school teachers in cities of / 582 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Groups V and VI. Cities in Group IV, which includes those having between 10,000 and 25,000 population, have almost as large a percentage with salary schedules as the groups of larger cities. The big drop in per- centage between Groups IV and V would seem to indicate that cities below 10,000 population have not yet found it as expedient to establish salary schedules as the larger cities. Competition for teachers, regardless of any set salary schedule, and particularly of a schedule of low salaries, is, in a TABLE XXX Minimal Salaries tor Elementary Teachers in 352 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Salary Received and Size of Cities) * Minimal Number of Cities in Each Size Group Salary I II III IV v VI Totals $2c;o- 200.. . itt 2tt 3 I 300- 349. . . ^fQ— ^00. it 2** I 2 3 3 4 8 ii I 3 3 2 3 2 IS 9 i3§ 2 3 2 2 16 10 19 21 10 13 s 4 III 8 400- 449. . . A<0— 4.00. itt 9§§ IS 14 13 7 4 2 2 7 I 8 3 3 I 2 3 I I I 46 "^oo- ^40. . . 40 SSO- 599- •• 600- 649. . . 650- 699. . . 700- 749... 750- 799. . . 800- 849. . . 850- 899. . . 900- 949- • • 2t 2 I 4 3 3 I I S4 59 32 41 16 16 II I I IS I lotjo— 1000. IIOO— IIAO. II tJO— IIOO I I Totals... 19 18 44 83 77 III 352 Median Per cent be- low 800 . . . Per cent be- low 500 . . . $731 74 II $600 89 28 $650 82 16 $610 86 12 $570 9S 29 $613 89 18 $614 88 19 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t For no experience. tt Colored. § With experience. § § And bonus. "* Two-year apprentice. 1 1 All paid same salary. great many cases, the determining factor in the election of teachers in the smaller cities. This will probably continue until a more adequate adjust- ment of salaries can be made between cities of different sizes, adjusting the salary to the difference in the cost of living and the opportunities for advancement afforded. A number of the superintendents in answering Question 2 made note of the fact that salary schedules represent changeable standards, and that they were conscious of the fact that schedules establisht several years ago TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 583 are at the present time "obsolete." A number also stated that revisions of schedules were under consideration at the present time, so that it is quite likely that the working schedules for 1919-20 will be materially higher than for the present year. Question j. — "What is the minimal salary for elementary teachers?" Tables XXX, XXXI, and XXXII give the distribution of the answers to this question for elementary, intermediate, and high-school teachers. In the estabUshment of the minimal salaries, it is noticeable that the size TABLE XXXI Minimal Salaries for- Intermediate Teachers in 169 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Salary Received and Size of Cities)* Minimal Number of Cities in Each Size Group Salary I II III IV V VI Totals $250- 299.. I I I 300- 349.. I 2 350- 399.. I I I 400- 449.. 4'CO- 400.. 2 3 2 2 2 4 I 6 4 'I I I 4 10 4 , 3 6 10 4 2 6 I 2 12 4 9 2 5 4 2 13 14 8 t;oo- i;4o. . KKO- f^OO.. 600- 649. . 2 I 2t 2 3 2 3 1-9 - 16 27 650- 699.. 700- 749.. 750- 799.. I I 2 2 2 I 800- 849.. 18 85a- 899.. 2 12 QOO— 040. . 3 I T T 950- 999.. 2 6 IOOO-I049. . I I I 3 2 iot;o-iooo.. IIOO-II49.. 2tt 3 II50-II99.. I Totals.. 9 6 20 35 49 50 169 Median Per cent be- low 800. . Per cent be- low 500 . . $788 55 II $800 •50 0 $800 50 15 $813 46 6 $663 88 12 $700 72 12 $718 67 II * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t Women. ttMen. of the city does not have the effect that it has had on most of the other facts considered. Especially is this true in the elementary and inter- mediate sections. The range of minimal salaries is, as would be expected, much less than the range of salaries for the respective groups. There is, however, a very wide variation in this respect, since some cities have minimal salaries of $250 for elementary teachers, while one of the cities reporting started its teachers at $1150. The range is as great for intermediate teach- ers, and is $150 more for high-school teachers. This item is very noticeable 5^4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION when it is possible for a beginning high-school teacher to enter one school system at $450 a year, while the same teacher would receive $1500, should she start work in another city. When we consider the percentage of TABLE XXXII Minimal Salaries for High-School Teachers in 333 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Salary Received and Size of Cities)* Minimal Number of Cities in Each Size Group Salary I II III IV V VI Totals $450- 499. . I I "^OO- '^AQ' ■ I I I 3 3 16 K^^O- KQQ.. I 2 600- 649.. 650- 699.. IC I 3<^ 5 3 8 8 la la 2 6 23 700^ 749- • 2d 2a I loa 12 19 46 750- 799.. la 2aa 6a II loa 10 40 80a- 849.. I I 5b 13 14a b 13 47 850- 899.. lb 4a I .8 14 28 900- 949.. I 3a 7 i4aaaa 7 9 41 o<;o- 000.. 4 ' 4b 2b 2 3 II 1000-1049. . 1050-1099. . 1100-1149.. Saabd Sbb lb 7bb 29 2 I 2 2b 2 3b I I II ii"; 0-1109.. I I 1 200-1 249.. $ab I 2& • 4 3b 3 18 1250-1299.. 1300-1349. • I^iJO-I^OO.. lb I 2 lb 3 2 . 6 I I I400-I449. . lA'^O-lAQQ.. I I 1 500-1 599.. lb lb I ■z Totals.. 26 20 44 77 71 95 333 Median Per cent be- $1038 $975 $921 $837 $802 $806 $837 low 1000. Per cent be- 27 50 73 76 93 90 78 low 800. . 19 25 27 38 49 48 40 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. a women; b, men; c, colored; d, girls' high school. Letters are repeated as many times as there are cities to which the condition refers. TEACttEkS' SALARIES AMD SALARY SCHEDULES 5S5 cities with minimal salaries below $5cx), we find 19 per cent for elementary- teachers and II per cent for intermediate teachers. About one in every five cities with salary schedules starts its teachers at less than $500 per year. This is equivalent to only $41 per month on the twelve-month basis, or $1.39 per living day. When these figures are compared with the wages paid workers in any other occupations, the oft-quoted expression "A starvation wage for beginners" takes on a real meaning. In the light of the campaign to estabHsh $1000 and even $1200 as the minimal salary for every American teacher, the 88 per cent of cities who have a minimal salary for elementary teachers below $800 shows the urgency of the salary situation in the cities of this country. Only one of the 352 cities reporting minimal salaries for elementary teachers pays a minimum of over $1,000 less than three-fourths of i per cent. The situation is very Httle better for intermediate teachers. The better salaries paid to high-school teachers is evidenst in the minimal salaries establisht, as well as in all other tabula- tions. The additional preparation amounting to more than two years in most cases received some recognition when we realize that 40 per cent of the cities report minimal salaries for high-school teachers, of less than $800, compared to the 88 per cent reporting minimal salaries for elementary teachers below that figure. Seventy-eight per cent of the minimal salaries for high-school teachers is below $1000, which is the lowest proposed mini- mimi for all teachers. Over three-fourths, then, of the high schools fall short of this standard. A study of these tables makes evident one of the reasons why capable young men and young women do not choose to enter the teaching profession, and furnishes an argument of weight for the estab- lishment of a minimal salary, high enough to offer inducements nearer than ten years in the future. Question 4. — "What is the maximum for elementary teachers?" Fewer superintendents, as will be shown by the totals in Tables XXXIII, XXXIV, and XXXV gave maximal salaries for teachers in the different divisions. This can be taken as a fairly safe indication that there is a more pronounst tendency to establish minimal salaries than maximal. The maximal salaries for elementary teachers show a condition almost as deplorable as that revealed in the tabulations for minimal salaries. The median maximal salaries for the 334 cities reporting such salaries is only $867. This means that in half of the cities in the country, as represented by these 334, a teacher in the elementary grade cannot look forward to a salary of more than $867 per year, no matter how good her work or how long her experience. Thirty-seven per cent of these cities report a maximum below $800, while 71 per cent report maximal salaries below $1000, the lower of the proposed minimal salaries for all teachers. Practically three- fourths of the cities have maximal salaries at the present time below this proposed minimum. The conditions are slightly better for the intermediate teachers as they were also found to be in the study of the minimal salaries. S86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION But, even with these more successful and better-prepared teachers, 27 per cent of the cities set maximal salaries below $800, and 54 per cent below $1000. The maximal salaries for high-school teachers are considerably higher than those for either the elementary or intermediate, and are spread over a much wider range. The median maximum for high-school teachers TABLE XXXIII Maximal Salaries for Elementary Teachers in 334 Cities Reporting' (Distributed According to Salary Received and Size of Cities)* Maximal Number of Cities in Each Size Group Salary I II III IV V VI Totals $400- 449.. it I I 3 5 5 9 10 12 4 9 3 3 I 2 • I 4=;o- 400. . I ^ 3 2 t;oo- '^40. . 4 KKO- '^QO.. I 4 8 10 4 9 7 12 7 6 2 5 I 2 2 I I I 4 600- 649. . 2 ■ 7 15 13 17 10 5 7 I 8 4 4 I I I ' 18 650- 699.. 700— 74.Q. . I 29 I "^^ 71:0- 799.. 31 800- 849.. 850- 899.1 9oc^ 949.- 950- 999.. 1 000- 1 049. . 1050- 1099.. 1100-1149.. 1150-1199.. 1 200-1 249.. 1250-1299.. 1300-1349- • 1350-1399- • lAOO—IAAQ it 2 3 I 3 I I 2 3 I 6 3 6 3 3 6 3 2 3 2 I 38 21 3 40 15 5 3 28 16 15 5 3 I I 12 6 5 I 3 I45O-I499. • I5OO-I599.. 160O-1699.. I700— I7QO I 2 I I I I Totals. . 21 17 42 85 70 99 334 Median .... Per cent be- low 1000. Per cent be- low 800 . . $1125 33 0 $1045 24 6 $1000 50 7 $896 73 32 $800 90 50 $781 78 57 $867 71 37 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t Colored. is $1358, while 15 per cent of the cities set the high-school maximum below $1000, 42 per cent below $1200, and 59 per cent below $1500. In all three divisions it is noticeable that the size of the city has a decided effect upon the maximal salary set, since the median salary diminishes regularly with the decrease in city size. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 587 When we consider the very low entering wage for high-school teachers in connection with the time spent in meeting the preparation requirements for high-school teachers and the present-day cost of such an education, there is Httle wonder that more competent teachers do not enter the high-school field when the median maximal salary for half of the cities is below $1358. TABLE XXXIV Maximal Salaries for Intermediate Teachers in 161 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Salary Received and Size of Cities) * Maximal Number of Cities in Each Size Group Salary I II III IV V VI Totals it I eOO— iCAQ. I I 600- 64.0. I 4 3 3 3 8 4 8 I 3 I 4 I 3 5 8 II I I 6 6t;o- 6qq., 4 4 I I I 3 I 3 4 2 I 2 10 700- 740.. I 13 7KO- 700.. 12 800- 849.. 20 8c;o- 800.. I I 7 900- 949.. 950- 999.. 1000-1049. . I I 13 4 3 2 3 9 1050-1099.. 1100-1149.. 1150-1199.. 1 200-1249.. 1250-1299.. 1300-1349.. 1350-1399.- 1 400- 1 440. . I I 2 I / I I it I 3 2 2 9 II I I I 2 4 I 10 4 I I I I 8 3 2 1450-1499- • 1500-1599.. 1600-1699.. I700— 1700 I I I I 3t itt itt 2 I I -z I 1800— 1899. I 2^00 I I Totals. . 9 7 21 34 47 43 161 Median Per cent be- low 1000. Per cent be- low 800. , $1338 II 0 ..... . ,.. $1225 14 0 $1263 19 10 $1033 44 26 $856 77 32 $820 70 40 $933 54 27 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t Women. tt Men. This lack of financial incentive to continuance in the teaching profession is felt in all three divisions. It is one of the lines of reform along which much progress must be made within the next few years in order to maintain even the present standard of efficiency in our schools, to say nothing of an increast efficiency which the enlarged demands upon the school of the present critical period of reconstruction have made. 588 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE XXXV Maximal Salaries for High-School Teachers in 326 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Salary Received and Size of Cities) * Maximal Number of Cities in Each Size Group Salary I II III IV V VI Totals $6'?o— 60Q. . 18 9 6 7 8 I 5 3^ 3 4 I I 700— 74.0. . I 7 CO— 7QQ, . I 800- 84.Q. I I 3 I 7 4 6 6 8<;o- 800. 5 30 IS 16 900- 949- • OCO- 000.. IC I 3<^ 2 30^ I 2a 2a 7 3 4a 2 5aa 2 Sb 96 '6cbbfg lb 2>hh IOOO-I049. . la 2a Saa 10 iioo— 1149. . 9 4 Sa 3« I 4 3 22 II50-II99.. 1 200-1 249.. 1 250-1 299.. I^OO-I'?40.. la id 8 I I I 2aa 2a 3 I Saa 2 26 22 II 12 1350-1399- • I40O-I449.. 2a I 16 14 2 1500-1599.. 160O-1699.. 1 700-1 799.. 180O-1899. . 1000— I OOQ 2 3& 2 6aae la 3 2& lb lb 2b la 6 i3aa& 26 sbb I 2 gb 2b 2 I I 76 4 40 33 17 2 19 4 2000-2099. . 2IOO-2199.. 2200-2299.. 2300 2399.. 2400 2499.. 2500-2599.. 2700-2799.. 3000-3099.. 3& lb I I I 10 I ■ I I 2 lb 2 I I 2b 3 I I Total... 26 20 48 81 65 86 326 Median Per cent be- low 1500. Per cent be- low 1000. $1800 23 4 . $1666 35 0 $1583 40 4 $1523 46 7 $1181 77 23 $1078 85 41 $1358 59 IS * For explanation of size groups see page 544. a Women; h, men; c, colored; d, girls' high school; e, boys' high school; /, college graduates; g, single men; A, married men. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 589 Question 5. — "What is the annual increase for elementary teachers?" The answers to this question for elementary, intermediate, and high schools are given in Tables XXXVI, XXXVII, and XXXVIII. The returns as they were given on the superintendents' blanks showed wide variation. An attempt was made to group them into as few groups as possible, but in each division there remained a relatively large group of increases in varying combinations, too numerous to tabulate. Some TABLE XXXVI Annual Increase Granted to Elementary Teachers in 333 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Increases Granted as Reported by City Superintendent and Size of the Cities)* Annual Increase Where Stated Number of Cities in Each Size Group as a Definite Amount I II III IV v VI Totals $ 18 I I I 5 4 I 12 I 21 I 20 22I I 5 2 6 2 2 2 I 10 2< 17 3 ^0 35 40 47i 50.., 60 62I I I I 6 I 2 I 5 3 I II 6 10 3 22 I I I I 12 2 12 5 38 8 77 9 I 75 8S 90 I I I I I 2 4 I I I 2 3 8 TOO 120 2 I I 150 I I 17s; No definite increase .... I 6 8 5 26 12 23 29 27 47 95 Varying and combina- tion increases (a) . . . . 5 Total 18 16 37 82 72 108 333 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. a In this group ten cities reported increases of $22.5o-$4s; seven cities reported $25-$so; five cities $4S-$9o; eight cities $5o-$ioo; four cities $10; and sixty-four other cities reported various increases such as $2S-$29, on $45 every 2 years, etc. typical instances are given in the footnotes on each table. Of the annual increases as distributed for the elementary teachers in Table XXXVI, we find 47 of the 333 cities with no definite increase, and of the 193 cities reporting fixt increases, we find 164 or 85 per cent giving an annual increase of $50 or less. This percentage becomes 70 per cent for the intermediate teachers and 54 per cent for high-school teachers. These figures, compared with the returns from the actual increases given, as shown in Tables XIV- XIX, inclusive, of Part I from the same questionnaire, will show that by S90 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION far the most common increase given to the teachers is $50, or less. Should these figures include the cities providing for no increase, the percentages would run very much higher. An increase such as $22 . 50, $25, $45 or $50 indicates clearly, as was shown also in the above tables of Part I, that these increases have been given according to custom, rather than in any attempt to adjust the teacher's salary to living conditions of the past year. Only a very few superintendents in their replies indicated the existence of any flexibility in the matter of the annual increase. The fact, however, TABLE XXXVII Annual Increase Granted to Intermediate Teachers in 154 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Increases Granted as Reported by City Superintendents and Size of the Cities)* Number of Cities in Each Size Group Annual Increase where Stated as a Definite Amount I II III IV v VI Totals $ 22* 3 7 10 3 ■I 2C 2 I I I II I 5 -it I AQ I AC . ... 4 22 ifi I 50 60 2 4 5 2 7 I I 33 3 I 62* 674 I I I I I 2 I I 72 I 'JC I 3 80 I GO I 3 3 2 I 6 100 2 2 9 180 I 181; I No definite increase. . . Varying and Combina- tion increases (a) . . . . 4 I 2 I 6 4 II .8 7 14 5 28 35 Total 8 7 16 35 44 44 154 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. a In this group seven cities reported increases of $5o-$ioo, while the remaining twenty-eight cities reported various increases such as $45-890, $38 first year, $64 the second, $25, $50, $75, etc. that four superintendents definitely stated that the annual increase was a matter of early adjustment offers a ray of hope. Question 6. — "On what conditions does the granting of this increase depend ? " Table XXXIX gives a summary of the 309 answers to this question. There were almost as many wordings to this answer as there were super- intendents answering the question. Certain groups of related conditions, however, were combined, making the set of nine given in the table. By far the largest percentage of answers give as the determining condition the TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 591 idea of success, or length of service, or a combination of these two. In reality, 74 per cent of the answers are included within the first three groups. This indicates that three out of four school systems have a more or less automatic method of granting increases to teachers, 'since the conditions set forth in Group I amount to little' more than length of service because of their indefinite nature, and the inaccuracy of any present methods for determining the degree of "success," "merit," "efficiency," and "satis- faction." It is significant that only 7 per cent of the replies included in any way the element of training, education, or self -improvement. The 6 per cent listed under Group V probably belong in one of the first three groups. A separate division was made in order to separate those answers where definite mention is made of a recommending autho;:ity. The irregularity of the answers to Question 6 is not as evident from the form in which the table is put. Of the 309 answers there were at least 150 different wordings for the conditions named. These were reduced to 40 on the first tabulation, and then combined into the present 9. This* table will help to show the need for a greater standardization in respect to the granting of increases, and clearly shows the existence of one of the most difficult problems in the making and the administering of an efficient salary schedule, a schedule which will not only protect the teachers who are in service, but which will offer constant incentive to progress. Question 7. — "What does good board and a comfortable room cost an elementary school teacher in your community?" (12 months). In determining some adequate measure of teachers' expenses, "board and room" was decided upon as the figure most easily obtained, and most reliably usable. As a single figure it represents the biggest item of a teacher's expense for the year, and also probably reflects the cost of living in a particular community as well as any other single measure. The ques- tion was put on the basis of 12 months, because teachers have to live thru that period each year, and teaching cannot be made a definite profession nor real progress made in the matter of salaries until teachers'^I^alaHes and expenses are computed on the basis of twelve months rather thani nine. Table XL gives the cost of "board and room" for 12 months for elementary teachers in 360 cities reporting, and by means of the footnotes covers the answers for intermediate and high-school teachers as well. There is con- siderable irregularity in the median costs of "board and room" in the different size groups. The effect of the size of the city is as pronounst as in any other items of the study, thru the comparison of the median $500 for "board and room" in cities of Group I, with the $402 in cities of Group VI, shows as great a difference as existed in the median salaries for those groups. The quartile deviation for the different groups is surprisingly uniform considering the prevalence of the belief that it costs very much more to live in the larger cities. A great many of the answers were made in terms of multiples of 52, since "board and room'/ in most places is figured at so 592 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION much per week. The grouping of these returns into intervals of $50 will but slightly distort the figures, since the groups will about as often vary one way as the other from the figure actually reported. The unusual number of footnotes to this table is a means of calling attention to a condition which has been allowed to exist, and which in many cases is taken for granted as necessary, namely, that high-school teachers, and in a number of cases intermediate teachers, pay more for "board and room" than elementary TABLE XXXVIII Annual Increase Granted to High-School Teachers in 301 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Increases Granted as Reported by City Superintendents and Size of the Cities)* Annual Increase Where Stated Number of Cities in Each Size Group as a Definite Amount I II III IV V VI Total $ 2< I I ■i-il I I I 2 c I ^6 I 6 2 II 12 12 I Ati , . I 2 8 29 2 47i:::::::::::;:;:;. CO 6 4 14 2 I I 43 7 60 : . I 62* 7c « 2 I 2 5 3 I 80:::::::::::::::::. QO I II 2 I 5 I 3 12 4 5 II 100 40 I 120 i8< I I 202 I I No definite increase .... I 10 3 13 16 18 17 17 36 20 73 84 Varying and combina- tion increases {a) 6 Total 19 15 37 75 63 92 301 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. o In this group twenty cities reported increases of $5o-$ioo; eleven cities $45 -$9©; nine cities $25, $50, $75, while the other forty-four cities reported various increases such as $50 under $900, $10 up, $50+ s%+$ioo bonus, etc. teachers. Twenty-nine superintendents in answering Question 7 for the intermediate and high-school teachers put a higher figure for the high- school teachers than for the elementary teachers. The footnotes show the different recognitions. A tabulation of the difference given here brings a median recognized difference of $68 in the year's cost for "board and room." Two of the differences are as high as $250. This is but an implied acceptance of a financial, educational, and social difference, which in many communities has been assumed to exist between teachers in the grades and the high school. The fostering of such a distinction cannot help but work against the professionalizing of teaching, and yet this social difference is financially forced on elementary teachers in a majority of cities by the TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 593 very much lower salaries paid to them, in comparison with teachers in the high school. A satisfactory adjustment to this condition cannot be had until elementary teachers are as well prepared for their work as high- school teachers and receive equal salaries. Additional light will be thrown upon the adequacy and inadequacy of the minimal and maximal salaries establisht in the salary schedules of these cities by comparing the estabHsht salaries with the cost of Uving as it is indicated by the cost of "board and room" within each particular city. In order that this may be done it is necessary to determine what percentage TABLE XXXIX Conditions Determining the Granting of Increases in Salaries in 309 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to the Conditions Given by City Superintendents and Size of the Cities)* Number of Cities in Each Size Group Condition I II III IV V VI Total Percent- age of Group 1. "Success," "Merit," "Ef- ficiency," "Satisfaction".. 2. Length of Service 3. "Succ^sorEfl&ciencyand Length of Service " 4. "Training," "Education," "Self-improvement" (a) . . I II 4 4 3 3 3 10 II 9 3 2 26 21 II 7 4 3 I I 2 28 17 4 10 3 I 2 25 19 22 8 8 6 S 2 4 94 82 S3 31 18 9 6 4 12 30 27 17 7 6 3 2 5. Recommendation of Supt., Board, Committee, or a combination of these 6. "None," "Irregular" . . . I 7. "Market Conditions," "Competition,""Scarcity" 8. "Cost of Living" I 9. Other Conditions (6) 4 4 Total 17 13 39 76 65 99 309 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. a In all cases except five this is in combination with either "tenure" or "success." b Including such answers as " Attitude," " Professional Zeal," " Funds Available," " Class of Certificate.' of a teacher's annual expenses are included in "board and room." This cannot be done without a careful analysis of teachers' budgets, and the consequent study of the necessary expenses for teachers as compared with the expenses of workers in other fields. In this study it is advocated that "board and room" should not require more than 50 per cent of a teacher's salary, basing this principle upon the results of the following studies or budgets. Robert Coit Chapin,^ in his Standard of Lining among Workingmen's Families in New York City, pubHsht in 1909, establisht certain percentages spent for housing and food by certain income groups, between $400 and » Standards of Living among Workingmen's Families in New York City, Russell Sage Foundation, p. 70. 594 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION $500 to 53 per cent for families with incomes between $1500 and $1600. These percentages were for famihes averaging five members and for New York City, where the percentage spent for rent, particularly, would be TABLE XL Cost of "Board and Room" for Twelve Months for Elementary Teachers in 360 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Amount Paid for Board and Room and Size of City) * Cost of Board and Room Number of Cities in Each Size Group for Twelve Months I II III IV V VI Total $<0- 00 I I 100-149 If^O— 100 I I IV 5g 2sitx 2iurw 10 loe I 3 I 2 4 i7gb 4ohzicC Soyc 2oud 7 4 4pA 2 200-249 3 7 26 2c;o-2Q0 I 7/ IOC 5 gde ll 2gk 2zhhi 20oqr 1 4 we i6mp I 5J ^00-^40 350-399 400-449 450-499 500-549 (j'^O-'^OO I 2 5& 5« I I 3 6 I I 97 84 57 53 7 15 I 600-649 61; 0-600 I I I I 700-749 750-799 I I 2 IS 4 7. I Total.... 16 13 37 86 78 130 360 Qi. . $460 500 540 $471 513 540 $395 433 515 $388 440 511 $383 414 483 $361 402 459 $376 426 494 Median Q3 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. Notes show single cases where superintendents school teachers than for elementary teachers. a Elem. $4i6-$S2o; Inter. $46o-$soo; H.S. $520. b H.S. $540. c H.S. $480. (i H.S. $572. c H.S. $520 up. /Inter, and H.S. $45o-$soo. g H.S. $364. A H.S. $416. i H.S. $400. j H.S. $800. k H.S. $300-$42o. /H.S. $312-1364. V m Inter, and H.S. $600. n H.S. $468-$624. 0 Elem. $300-$40o; H.S. $36o-$42S. quote higher board and room for intermediate or high- p H.S. $soo-$72o. q Int. $40o-$45o; H.S. $450. r H.S. $420-$soo. ^ H.S. $775. t Elem. $3i2-$364; H.S. $364 up. « H.S. $4i6-$52o. V Elem. $270; Inter. $3i2-$364; H.S. $3I2-$S20. ' w» Elem. $416; Inter. $4i6-$442;' H.S. $442. X H.S. $3So-$4oo. y H.S. $400-$6oo. z H.S. $364^468. A Elem. $48o-$6oo; H.S. $600 up. B Elem. $336; Inter. $360; H.S. $364. C Elem. $360; Inter. $36o-$42o; H.S. $420. higher than in most other cities. They were also for families where the expenses of professional upkeep and educational advancement were much lower than for the ordinary teacher. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 595 The Railroad Wage Commission/ in its report of April 30, 1918, found that for 265 families studied, the amounts spent for rent, fuel, light, furni- ture, and food varied from 80 per cent in famihes with incomes less than $600 to 67 per cent for families with incomes between $1000 and $2000. These were the figures for 191 7 and are consequently higher for these items than would be found in normal times, due to the unprecedented increase in the cost of these items during that year. In a study by the Bureau of Labor Statistics^ of the percentage of sala- ries spent for various items by workers in the ship-building district of the United States for 1918, it was found that the average amounts spent for TABLE XLI Average Percentage of Salary Spent for Various Items and Average Annual Salary of Workers in the Ship-building Districts of the United States 1918* Number of families studied , Clothing for men Clothing for women Total for clothing. _. ....... Furniture and furnishings . . Food Housing Fuel and light Miscellaneous Total Average annual salary .... New Eng- land and Eastern* Southernt Great Lakestt Pacific Coast§ 1232 838 I2IO 918 8.0 7-4 7.8 7-5 7-4 6.8 6.9 7.6 15-4 14.2 14-7 I5-I 4.0 41 4-4 4-1 43-8 44-4 41.6 38.6 12.0 II-3 14.2 13-8 5-2 4-4 50 4-1 19.6 21.6 20.1 24-3 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 $1407 $1334 $1460 $1422 Total 4198 7-7 7-1 14.8 4.2 42.2 12 .9 4-7 21.2 $1411 * From Monthly Review, Bureau of Labor Statistics for the months of March, June, August, September, and October, 191 8. The cities included in each group, with the number of families included in each, are as follows: t Bath, Me. (99), Portland, Me. (103), Boston, Mass. (210), Portsmouth, Mass. (104), Buffalo, N. Y. (204), Philadelphia, Pa. (512). tt Mobile, Ala. (100), Jacksonville, Fla. (57), Pensacola, Fla. (65), Tampa, Fla. (51), Slidell, La. (50), Baltimore, Md. (205), Beaumont, Tex. (50), Houston, Tex. (91), Newport News, Va. (72), Norfolk, Va. (97). Cities with' less than 50 families studied were not used in these figures, nor the earnings of colored workers were given separately. ** Chicago, 111. (21s), Detroit, Mich. (256), Cleveland, Ohio (203), Lorain, Ohio (109), Toledo, Ohio (207), Manitowoc, Wis. (in), Superior, Wis. (109). § Los Angeles, Cal. (157), San Francisco, Cal. (286), Portland, Ore. (164), Seattle, Wash. (208), Tacoma, Wash. (103). furniture and furnishings, food, housing, fuel, and light amounted to 64 per cent. Table XLI gives these percentages for four ship-building districts of the United States. The 64 per cent will again be influenst by the fact that the study included only workers with families, and also by the same conditions as were true in the Chapin and Railroad Wage studies, that the "miscellaneous" expenses are necessarily smaller under these conditions than would be true for a teacher. Bruere in Increasing Home Efficiency^ analyzes the budgets of some 14 teachers with incomes mostly above $1000, and finds that the average ' From the Report of the Railroad Wage Commission, April 30, 191 8, p. 93. » Ship-building from the Monthly Review of the Bureau of Labor Statistics for the months, of March, June, August, September, and October , 1918. i Bruere, Increasing Home Efficiency, p. 316. Macmillan. 596 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION percentage spent for food and shelter by these teachers is only 33.3 per cent. This is materially lower than any of the other percentages, due to the higher salaries of the teachers studied and the fewer people dependent upon the income. Gibbs in The Minimum Cost of Living,^ a study of famiUes of limited income in New York City, gives as the ideal division for incomes between $800 and $1000, rent 20 per cent and food 30 per cent. The Consumers' League* of New York City, in a study of the budgets of working girls in New York State, found that the necessary distribution of expenses for an income of $780 involved the expenditure of 49 per cent for "board and room." Miss Helen Louise Johnson, Editor of the General Federation Magazine, the official organ of the Federation of Women's Clubs of America, and national authority on household budgets, when askt what percentage of a teacher's expenses "board and room" should be, said: "It should not be more than 50 per cent, and it would insure better teachers and a more efficient citizenship if it were only 40 per cent instead of 50." At the request of Professor B. R. Andrews, assistant professor of house- hold arts of Teachers College, the following estimates of the "board and room" cost for teachers was made by Mrs. AHce P. Norton, Editor of the Journal of Home Economics: BOARD AND ROOM Income Percentage $1800 ' ' 42 1200 50 900 57 780 59 The State Teachers' Association of Michigan,^ in a study of teachers' salaries computed tables which were based upon the assumption that "board and room, laundry, and carfare" for twelve months would consti- tute not more than 55 per cent of a teacher's necessary expenses. An examination of the teachers' budgets of the women teachers of Columbus, Nebraska,^ corroborates this figure by giving the median annual expenditures for women teachers in the elementary schools for "board and room" at 54.6 per cent, and for high-school teachers 52.6 per cent. A similar study of the living expenses of 250 teachers in Tulsa, Okla- homa,s gives a median expenditure of 49 per cent for these two items. If with increast salaries there is going to be a proportional increase in the amount of preparation demanded, and in the amount spent for pro- fessional advancement during teaching, the percentage of the salary spent for "board and room" must constantly decrease rather than increase. Making an allowance for the fact that in the foregoing studies and esti- ' Winifred Stuart Gibbs, Minimum Cost oj Living, p. 13. Macmillan. » Pamphlet of The Consumers' League of New York City for January, 1919, entitled " Is This Living ?" 3 J^ichigan State Teachers' Association, Teachers^ Salaries in Michigan, p. 6. 4 Annual Report of the Superintendent of City Schools, Columbus, Nebraska, p. 25. » "Expenses of Teachers in Tulsa, Oklahoma," National Education Association Leaflet. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 597 mates many of them are for families, and under conditions not demanding as heavy expenditure for "advancement," it seems entirely fair to advocate that the average amount spent by a teacher for "board and room" should not exceed 50 per cent of her income. As the budgets of individual teachers will probably show with present salaries and expenses, more than 50 per cent of the salary will be spent for "board and room." Theoretically, it should be less than 50 per cent, since the expenses other than "board and room," such as clothing, books, magazines, medical service, travel, charity, professional advancement, etc., should require 50 per cent or more of a teacher's salary. Moreover, the foregoing items do not include provision for insurance, savings, or investments, which a teacher has a legitimate right to enjoy as well as the responsibility of providing for. The total necessary expenses for elementary teachers were computed from the cost of "board and room" as given by the superintendents in their answers to Question 7. These total expenses (found by doubling the price of the cost of "board and room") were then transferred into percentages of the minimal and maximal salaries offered in the same cities. Tables XLII and XLIII show the distribution of these percentages with the rginimal and maximal salaries. It is noticeable that when the total expenses found in this way are referred to the minimal salaries that the median percentages of those salaries spent is 137 . 5 per cent. In other words, the total expenses of teachers on this basis in half of the cities exceed 137.5 P^^ cent; of the minimal salary offered. It is noticeable that 6 per cent of the cities have total expenses on this basis exceeding 200 per cent of the minimal salary, and that 97 per cent of the cities expect teachers to start at a minimal salary which would demand the expenditure of more than 100 per cent of that salary for necessary expenses. The condition is better relative to the maximal salaries, but even here as shown in Table XLIII, the median amount of the maximal salary which would be spent is 99 . 3 per cent. The teachers in 48 per cent of these cities, according to this standard, are compelled to spend more than 100 per cent of the maximal salary offered. This means that the chances are about even in the 310 cities reporting maximal salaries for elementary teachers, that when, after years of service, this maximum is reacht, it will still be inadequate to meet the living expenses in that city. It will be notist in Tables XLII and XLIII that there is a distinct negative correlation^ between the minimal and maximal salary granted and the total expenses of the teachers as found by counting the cost of "board and room" as 50 per cent of those expenses (a correlation of practically minus .5 in both cases) .=* This means that the higher the minimal or maximal salary the smaller the percentage of salary is spent for necessary expenses and the lower the salaries set the larger the percentage spent for living expenses. These » For explanation of term see Appendix III. ' Found by method explained in Appendix III. 598 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION S ^ in W w o g H S p^ s a I o ft - W W ^ s o -g o II 1^ u I I « « Tt . M CO WJ too M H • l-l M M O >0 « CO M MVO vO Oi 0> M M W lO VOO ■. CO to « M tJ- H . to >0 rfvO M PI CO I WcowvOOOHMtotoi Tt M\0 H ^ . Tt OlO^O^O^OlOvO^O>O^OlOlOlOlO^C^OvOlO^O^OlOvOlO^O^O^O^OlOlOlO^O^O^OlOlO^O^ M CO to 't ■* >0 >/5vo vO t^ t^OO OOOiO\OOMMCOvO :^00 O O w I o> O^ O* O* 0*^0 ioO'oOioO>oOioOioO»oO>o6ioO>oO>oO>DO>oOOOQOQOOOOOQ M to to •^ •^ "O ^r^O vo t>. J^OO OOOiOvOOMHMtScotO'^r}- >/ivO t^OO OO w w cot)->00 TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 599 « W) W ^ 1 PO Oi>/ir^ O00C50 to N Tl- M lO rt d " - to M o to 1 3 g i 1 1 to 1 - IC O Wl 8 M ^ g. " " - vg - H N 2, CM to H l^ O H M M M • - to o fO M ■ H W M N c*5 - M « « M to 't • M w 'h o c< 0» rf cs CO ■* M 0» • M M M M M a § M M M lovO »0 co-O 'O tN. -to • « : >o g M M M M t: ,g W M • • ^ o mwMhmmnO •« M to IH M H IH ■* s - HC IH M C< IH M o s, - IH H IH M lO ^ H - ts '1 c i i i i ^ i ■ c i oc C • C h 0 H H ^ C H h C !; c I 1 ■" 1- '■I, ►- ^§ ^ G H , :§ I I 1/ J 5 1 6oo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION TABLE XLIV Number of Years of Teaching Experience Required as a Prerequisite to Election IN the Elementary Schools of 205 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Amount of Experience Required and Size of the Cities)* Experience Required in Years Number of Cities in Each Size Group I II III IV V VI Totals 0 » I I I 16 16 I 2 29 26 2 4 1 ' :.:.. I 2 7 4 I I II II 14 19 2 76 80 2 •? 6 4 I I to 2 2 2 7 I I to •? 2 to 5 I I Normal training and graduation 3 I I 2 I I 6 Normal training+i or 2 years' ex- perience 3 I Normal training or i or 2 years' ex- perience "Probation," "Apprentice," or "Ca- det" 2 3 6 " Some " experience required ... I I 4 6 "No definite ^ule" 7 2 Other requirements I Total II 12 24 46 40 72 205 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. TABLE XLV Number of Years of Teaching Experience Required as a Prerequisite to Election IN the Intermediate Schools of 120 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Amount of Experience Required and Size of the Cities)* Number of Cities in Each Size Group Experience Required, in Years I II III IV V VI Totals 0 ^ I 10 II 3 14 3 I I I 2 2 6 6 5 12 4 I 36 12 2i 5 3 4 I 5 I I 2 to ^ I I 2 to 6 . . I I 3 to 4 I 2 Normal training and graduation "Some" experience required I I I 3 "No definite rule" I I 3 4 8 "Experience preferred" I 2 Other requirements I I Total 7 7 13 26 31 36 120 * For explanation of size groups see page 544. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SAIARY SCHEDULES 60 1 TABLE XLVI Number of Years of Teaching Experience Required as a Prerequisite to Election IN THE High Schools of i 70 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Amount of Experience Required and Size of the Cities)* Number of Cities in Each Size Group Expenence Required in Years I II III IV V VI Totals 0 I 13 14 2 19 II 3 I 2 6 3 10 13 12 6 60 2 3 4. . 64 14 t; . . . , . 6 I I I to 2 I I 4 2 5 9 I 2 to 7 3 to 4 I 2 "No definite rule" 4 7 IS I " Apprentice for 2 years " Normal training and graduation I I "Judgment of superintendent". ..... I I Total • II II 25 40 37 46 170 For explanation of size graups see page 544. TABLE XLVII Number of Years in Academic and Professional Preparation Above the Eighth Grade which is Prerequisite to Election in -^he Elementary Schools of 338 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Amount of Preparation and Size of the Cities)* Years of Preparation beyond the 8th Grade Number of Cities in Each Size Group I II III IV V VI Total 0 I I 5 8 I 6 3 21 18 53 I I IS I I 2 2 2 3 I 19 3 33 13 4 54 » 34 191 2 3 4 I 4 4 26 9 9 52 I I e 6 16 II 7 8 I 3 9 t4 to 6 2 3 3 2 2 3 7 13 t6 to8 '... 2 I 3 flndefinite and varied require- ments (a). Total 19 14 39 80 69 117 338 Median number of years 6.53 0 94 0 6.50 0 85 8 6.31 6 72 0 6.32' 4 69 I 6.03 14 52 0 5-95 16 47 I 6.25 / 10 60 Per cent requiring less than 4 years . . . Per cent requiring 6 years Per cent requiring 8 or more years I * For explanation of size groups see page 544. t Not included in percentages. a In twenty of the cases listed under specific years the superintendents place limiting conditions such as " 6 years or 5 years and 3 years' experience," " 6 years — prefer two more," " 4 years — 6 weeks of professional work desired," etc. In practically all cases the changes indicate an increase in existing standards. 6o2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION figures show the utter inadequacy of salary schedules based upon traditional salaries, and the urgent necessity for estabhshing minimal and maximal salaries which will provide for an adequate living under conditions prevaihng in any particular locality. Not until this is done and some provision made, not only to meet all living expenses, but some slight saving, can we hope to have a permanent improvement in the quality of teachers nor in the amoUnt of professional advancement during service. TABLE XLVIII Number of Years in Academic and Professional Preparation above the Eighth Grade Which is Prerequisite to Election in the Intermediate Schools OF 167 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Amount of Preparation and Size of the Cities) * Years of Preparation beyond Number of Cities in Each Size Group the 8th Grade I II III IV v VI Totals 0 0 I I 4 I 4 2 30 I 2 • 4 I 5 2 23 8 ■z 2 4 , . 2 2 21 I 4 I TI 5 6 7 8 I 12 2 I 7 5 6 97 3 12 I I I 5 9 fj. to 6 . 2 I I 6 2 5 I t6 to8 I I I I 5 10 flndefinite and varied require-, mentstt • 13 Total 9 7 17 36 44 54 167 Median number of years Per cent requiring less than 4 years . . Per cent requiring 6 years Per cent requiring 8 or more years . . . 6.70 0 71 29 6.50 0 100 0 6.58 0 75 6 6.55 0 68 16 6.26 14 64 3 6.38 13 64 10 6.44 8 67 10 * For explanation of size groups see page S44. t Not included in percentages, tt Fifteen superintendents put limiting conditions upon the number of years specified "plus professional training," "plus special work," "with a first-grade certificate," but in all cases the added conditions show an increase in the existing standard. Question 8. — "Is teaching experience a prerequisite to election in your elementary schools ? " — "How much ? " Tables XLIV, XLV, and XL VI give the answers to this question for elementary, intermediate, and high schools. Fewer superintendents answered this question, as will be shown by the total in each table, and considerable variation existed in the replies. Where definite amounts of experience were required it will be seen that by far the largest number of cities demand one or two years' experience as a prerequisite to election. For elementary schools 37 per cent of the cities replying definitely state one year as a prerequisite, and 39 per cent definitely give two years as a requirement, making a total of 76 per cent demanding either one or two years TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 603 of experience. For intermediate schools 30 per cent demand one year, 42 per cent two years, a total of 72 per cent, while for high schools, 35 per cent of the cities demand one year, and 38 per cent two years, a total of 73 per cent. The demand is rather constant thru the three divisions with the exception that there is a slight increase in the number of cities demanding three years of experience for high-school teachers. Relatively few of the cities specify that normal training will serve as a substitute for experience. TABLE XLIX Number of Years in Academic and Professional Preparation above the Eighth Grade Which is Prerequisite to Election in the High Schools of 327 Cities Reporting (Distributed According to Amount of Preparation and Size of the Cities) * Number of Cities in Each Size Group the 8th Grade I II III IV V VI Totals 0 I I I I 3 I 3 12 ■82"' 3 I 2 ■i ■2 I A , I I 10 I I 3 53 I If? e I 6 I I 34 I 3 2 60 5 17 7 . . . 6 8 16 I 10 I 25s td to 6 12 f 6 to 8 2 2 S 9 flndefinite and varied require- ments tt Total 18 13 38 73 72 113 327 Median number of years 89 6 8.55 9 8.47 3 89 3 8.49 I 85 7 8.37 16 77 I 8.40 8 80 3 8.43 Per cent requiring less than 6 years . . Per cent requiring 8 years Per cent requiring 9 years 7 82 4 * For explanation of size groups see page 544- L t Not included in the percentages, tt Twenty-two superintendents put limiting conditions upon the number of years specified, such as " 6 years but two-thirds of the teachers must be college graduates," " or more." Six cities specify less prepara- tion required for "commercial and non-academic subjects." In all other cases the conditions are an increase over existing standards. These totals show the prevalence of the custom, too firmly fixt by school men, of demanding experience before election to city systems. This auto- matically makes the rural school and the poorer districts the "training schools" for city teachers. Question g. — "State the number of years in academic and professional preparation above the eighth grade which is a prerequisite to election in your school?" Tables XL VII, XL VIII, and XLIX give the answers to this question, and are particularly interesting because of the uniformity of these require- ments. The median number of years for elementary and intermediate 6o4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION f ■ ■ — — . , — schools is six years, representing as it does a completion of high school and at last a two years' normal training course. The standard for high schools is easily seen to be eight years or the completion of four or more years of college. In these tables, particularly for the elementary schools, the effect of the size of the city is again noticeable, since there is a regular decrease in the percentage of cities requiring six years or more of training as the size of the city decreases. These tables show that for cities at least, we have quite definite standards of preparation, with a tendency for elementary and intermediate schools to increase above six years beyond the eighth grade, and for high-school teachers to add a fifth year to college work. CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions and generalizations seem warranted from the data presented in this chapter. There will be notable exceptions in most cases, which, however, will not seriously affect their validity. Part I or Questionnaire to Superintendents 1. Salaries Paid — 19 18-19: a) Elementary salaries are too low, even in the cities, for efficient work and proper living conditions for an individual teacher, and entirely inadequate for the support of families. h) There is wide variation in the salaries paid between cities of different sizes — the larger the city the larger median salary. c) There is wide variation between salaries paid in different sections of the United States, the best salaries being paid in the far western states, and the lowest salaries in the southern section. d) There is a wider variation than that in either (&) or (c) between salaries paid within any group, and in the larger cities within the city itself. e) The median salaries show a slight improvement over conditions of last year as shown by the National Education Association study; but the improvement is not at all in proportion to the increast cost of living. /) Intermediate teachers are paid about $100 more per year than elementary teachers, and high-school teachers are paid nearly $300 more. g) Salaries paid in New York City, Newark, and several other of the larger cities are much higher than those for the country at large. 2. Increases Granted to Teachers — 1918-19: a) The median increase for elementary teachers, $74, is much too low to provide for the increast cost of living, or to provide for better preparation and more efficient service. h) Increases are generally given on the basis of $5 or $10 a month. c) The increases were not given to those most in need of them, since "new teachers" in a great many school systems were the only ones who did not receive increases. The tendency to give increases more often to teachers receiving below the median salary is so slight as to be negligible. d) Relatively few cities give increases graduated in proportion to the service rendered or additional preparation secured. e) The two popular methods for granting increases are first, "flat sum" of so much a month or so much a year, and second, a percentage of the present salary received. The first gives the teachers receiving the lower salaries a higher percentage of increase, while the second gives the teachers receiving the highest salaries the largest increase. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 605 3. Teachers Leaving — 1918-19: a) The number of teachers leaving the different school systems, in comparison with the number leaving to enter so«^e other field of work, indicates that the shortage of teachers brought about keener competition between cities for the better teachers. b) Since 66 per cent or more of the teachers leaving during the year were receiving less than the median salaries of the groups in which they were teaching, it is evi- dent that the lack of salary was an item causing these teachers either to change to some other system or to some other line of work. Part II of Questionnaire to Superintendents 1. Number of Months in School Year: a) Forty per cent of the schools reporting have 10 months or more of school, which would indicate a distinct tendency thruout the coimtry toward 10 months as a standard term. b. The larger the city the larger the minimal salary. 2. Cities Having Establisht Salary Schedules : a) There is more tendency to establish salary schedules for elementary teachers than for intermediate, and more for intermediate than for high school. b) The larger the city the more apt it is to have establisht schedules. 3. Minimal Salaries for Teachers — 1918-19: a) The larger the city the larger the minimal salary. b) Minimal salaries are too low in practically all cities, since 88 per cent of the cities reporting offer minimal salaries below $800. Enough cities have establisht minimal salaries of $1000 or more, however, to show that the National Education Associa- tion's proposal for this as a minimum for all teachers is entirely possible. c) Minimal salaries for intermediate schools and high schools are subject to the same limitations as for elementary schools. They are slightly higher in each case, but no more than the additional preparation required should demand. • 4. Maximal Salaries — 1918-19: a) Maximal salaries vary also in direct relation to the size of the city. b) They are entirely inadequate in most cities. Seventy-one per cent of the elemen- tary maximal salaries, 54 per cent of intermediate salaries and 15 per cent of the high-school salaries are Ijelow $1000. This, as an ultimate goal towards which to strive, is much too low to act as an incentive or to secure the kind of teachers that America needs. 5. Annual Increases Granted According to Salary Schedule: a) Annual increases as provided for in schedules are entirely insufficient. Eighty-five per cent of the regular increases provided for elementary teachers are $50 or below. b) Increases are not given in relation to cost of living conditions. c) Increases do not vary according to the size of the cities as much as other elements. 6. Conditions Determining Granting of Increases: a) Most of the increases are given as a result of continuation in service. Tenure and adjudged success are conditions governing the granting of increases in 75 per cent of the cities. b) Practically no recognition is given to educational preparation or continued training. 7. Expenses as Shown by Cost of "Board and Room": a) There is a slight decrease in a teacher's total expenses as size of the city decreases, but it is not in proportion to the decrease in salary. b) On the basis of "board and room" being 50 per cent of a teacher's total necessary expenses, these expenses are shown to be out of all proportion to the minimal and maximal salaries establisht in most of the cities. On this basis, practically half of the teachers would be compelled to spend more than the maximal salary obtainable under existing schedules. This indicates that teachers deny themselves books, 6o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION clothing, professional advancement and other expenses which would increase their teaching efficiency could they afford them, c) A number of places indicate the fact by giving* higher cost of "board and room," that intermediate and high-school teachers are expected to live on a higher financial standard than elementary teachers. 8. Number of Years of Teaching Experience Required as a Prerequisite: a) A larger proportion of the cities in Groups I, II, and III demand one or two years of teaching experience as a prerequisite to election than in the smaller groups. h) There is a decided tendency for cities to demand previous teaching experience. c) Very few cities allow professional training obtained in normal schools and other institutions to substitute for experience. As a consequence, the rural schools and smaller city systems are used for training purposes. 9. Number of Years in Academic and Professional Preparation above the Eighth Grade which Is a Prerequisite to Election: a) There is a markt tendency to require 6 or more years of training for teaching in the elementary schools. h) More intermediate schools require training beyond 6 years than elementary, making the median number of years slightly higher in all cases. c) Eight or more years beyond the elementary schools is, with very few exceptions, the standard demanded for high schools, the median in practically every group being 8^ years. CHAPTER II SALARY SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES AS SHOWN BY QUESTIONNAIRE TO INDIVIDUAL TEACHERS The salary situation thruout the country, in as far as it is shown by the salaries and Hving expenses of over 50,000 teachers, was obtained from the questionnaire to City and County Superintendents. These 50,000 teachers represent an adequate random sampling of all the teachers of the country, especially for city systems. However, in order to get data on the situation in greater detail, the blaAk shown on page 544 was prepared. This blank was to be mimeographt or printed by school officials or teachers' organizations in the different cities, so that, where possible, the returns from the teachers might supplement information given by the superintendents. Questions were askt on the blank which would reveal the salary situation and the conditions which directly or indirectly govern it, such as length of experience, amount of preparation, and similar condi- tions. Even more detailed information might have been askt for, but for the two reasons that the sheet had to be of a size which could be mimeo- grapht, and that too much detailed data relative to teachers' expenses would have discouraged enough teachers from answering the questions to destroy the added value of the detailed information. Every evidence would show that the questionnaires were filled out by the teachers with perfect freedom, and that care was taken that they should not be locally inspected. This fact adds to the significance of the returns. Thes§ questionnaires were classified according to the same size and geographical groups as were the repUes from the superintendents. The TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 607 work on this part of the problem was seriously delayed by the failure of enough cities in certain groups to have these blanks promptly prepared. The tabulations of the returns were held until the latest possible moment, by which time all but one of the thirty groups^ were represented. Where more individual blanks were returned than could profitably be used in any one section, a random sampHng was made in order to secure figures more representative of that particular group by including more cities. Two hundred blanks thus selected at random were set as the minimum for any group. In several groups where plenty of repHes were received early in the spring, more replies were used in order to give it the added validity of greater numbers. Teachers of intermediate schools and high schools were as professionally interested in filling out the blanks as were the teachers in the elementary schools, even tho they were in most cases better paid. As large, or a larger proportion of them returned the blanks, but there were so many groups, particularly for the intermediate teachers in which not enough returns were received to adequately represent that group, that it was deemed advisable to put all the intermediate teachers into one group, and similarly with the high-school teachers. This gives a study of the conditions for these two, upon which valid conclusions can be based, even tho the distinction between communities and city sizes may not: be shown in the same manner as for the elementary. There are possibilities for many interesting studies in the material given in the individual teacher's questionnaire. Only those of them were selected which were considered to bear most directly upon the immediate salary problem. The following studies were selected and distributions were made in the form of correlation tables similar to the one on p. 610. The distribution intervals varied for the different studies and will be indicated for each one. 1. To find the relation between "total teaching experience" and "total salary received."^ 2. The relation between "personal living expenses" and "total salary" for the two-year period involved in the questionnaire. The- data were askt for only two years, since that included the period of our participation in the war, and also since it was thought figures given in most cases for living expenses before that time would be much less accurate. The living ex- penses were distributed over $50 intervals. 3. The relation between the "percentage of salary spent for personal living expenses" and the "total salary received" for the two years. The percentages were distributed in 5 per cent intervals. 4. The relation between the "increase or decrease of the percentage,of salary spent for living expenses" in 1918-19 over 191 7-18 and the "total * Six size groups within each of five geographical groups making this total. For explanation of groups see page 544. » Salaries in all the studies were distributed on the $50 intervals used in chapter i. 6o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION salary received 191 8-19." The distribution began at minus 40 per cent and extended in intervals of 5 per cent to plus 80 per cent. 5. The relation between the "amount spent for recreation, professional advancement, etc.," and the "total salary received" for both years. This was distributed over $10 intervals. 6. The relation between "total expenses" and "total salary received" for the two years. Fifty dollar intervals were used again. The total expense was found by adding the total personal expenses and the amount spent for recreation. 7. The relation between the "per cent of salaries spent for total expenses" and the "total salary received." Five per cent intervals were used for the percentage of salaries spent. 8. The relation between the "increase or decrease of the * percentage of salaries spent for total expenses'" in 1918-19 over 191 7-18 and the "total salary received." Five per cent intervals were used for the increase or decrease. 9. The relation between "total number of years of schooHng" above the eighth grade and the "total salary received." 10. The relation between the "bonuses received" during the two years and the "salary received each year." These were distributed in $10 intervals. ' II. The relation between "additional income" and "total salary received" for the two years. The additional income at $10 intervals. 12. The relation between "age" of teachers and "total salary received." Three-year intervals used for the age. 13 and 14. The relation of "marital conditions and dependents sup- ported" to the "total salary received." Fifteen thousand teachers filled out this questionnaire and returned it by the first of June and fully half of these were utilized in the studies of this chapter. It was possible, because of earlier returns, to tabulate more of the questionnaires for the groups in "Size Group IV." This gives some added validity to the findings for this group which will be of as much service as any other single group, since many of the cities in Class IV are just establishing salary schedules. The number of cities answering, and used in the groups, is large enough to be representative of the cities of that size in that section. Groups BI, CI, and DI were represented almost entirely by single cities, but they are, at the same time, good types. The list given in Appendix II gives the cities from which repUes were received and the classification used for each city. . The problem which appeared immediately in using the large amount of material from the individual questionnaires was the form in which to put it, in order that existing conditions and tendencies might be shown in their relation to salaries. To make this possible, it was necessary to make distributions of the answers from each group for each topic studied. These TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 609 were done in the form of correlation tables similar to Table L. From these tables, 609 in number for the elementary teachers and 21 each for the intermediate and high-school teachers (because of combination previously explained), it is possible to get the median salaries of the teachers answering any item for each section, as well as the medians for the item under con- sideration. The material in these 651 correlation tables is very valuable to teachers, but some way of presenting it in a briefer space than 651 pages is necessary. Consequently, it will be presented in two ways. First, the medians existing for the several items in the several groups will be presented, and second, the correlation existing between the several items and the salary received in the several groups. I. SALARY SITUATION AS SHOWN BY MEDIANS OF ITEMS STUDIED All the medians of all the items studied have been assembled in Table LI, and arranged according to size and location. The number of answers used, as given in the table, is the total number of teachers whose replies were used. Teachers did not always answer all of the questions, so the number of teachers in each study varies slightly from the total number as given. This variation is in no case enough to affect the validity of the results. Because this variation is negligible, the median salary is given only once for each of the two years studied, and can be used for comparison with the items studied for the respective years. An examination of the median salaries, as reported by the teachers, shows the same effect of size of city upon salaries as was evidenst in chapter i. The decreases in median salaries are at about the same rate as in Table I. The median salaries are in all size groups somewhat less than the correspond- ing medians in Table 1. This is explained by the fact that probably a larger proportion of the more poorly paid teachers filled out the blanks and returned them. It is evident from the comparison of the median salaries for 19 1 8-19 with those of the previous year, that salaries were increast from $80 to $100 in all the groups. This corroborates the result from the answers of the superintendents, as shown in Table XIV where the median increases for the entire elementary group was $91. Except in Group V there is as much or more variation between geographical groups within any size groups as there is between the size groups themselves. In all groups, as shown in the previous chapter, the highest salaries are paid in Group E and the lowest in Group B. In Study No. i, of Table LI, the median total teaching experience was found to decrease with the size of the city. The larger cities have greater power to hold the teachers in service. The median amount of teaching experience ranges from practically 7 years to loi. This is a larger figure than might be expected from previous studies,^ but undoubtedly, the ' Coffman, "The Social Composition of Teaching Population," Teachers College Contributions to Educa- tion, No. 41. 6io NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 3 - w 11 HI ro i-i >0 O 1^00 "5 HI to M N CO - HI 1 o 1 s :" " ^ i :- - S • p» • N ■* > - C< M H HI CO »o _" • . H « 00 H H ' H H HI H >o ■* « " >CM - ■* « . HI M CO tow HI ^ M H W5 1 H.OMM CO W % - H Ct « c* « itw VO HI CO H HM W •* CO>«H - " s % « tn '• 00 >OH H •*vO rJ-M HI t/^tO M l^ M ^ w w O* -t «ovO «n 00 CI ^ M M « »>« t^ «<3\0 • o 00 M H « in M i a s o t «■ c C i 1 t V c 5 00 1 00 o o c •«* HI HI k HI 8 M i, HI c I 1 I/- c c i I i i M 1 H J i ^ s I i I I o 1 «» M H " " " H„MMM«„«««««««««^ , a a CO 1 "fl HI 4) (U rv. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 6ll teachers who have definitely decided on teaching for a life work were more concerned with the salary problem and more interested in returning the questionnaires. The variation between median number of years teaching experience is as great within any size group as between groups. It does not follow that Group E, where the cities pay the highest salaries, always holds its teachers the longest. It does in only one group of the six. Size is a larger determining factor in length of tenure than location. Intermediate teachers' have the longest median experience, probably due to the tendency to put the intermediate schools under successful teachers of considerable experience in order to insure the success of the new schools. High-school teachers have a shorter median length of experience than elementary or intermediate, which about balances the extra time spent by them in securing the additional preparation demanded for teaching in high schools. In Studies 2a and 26, Table LI, on the personal living expenses for the years 191 7-18 and 19 18-19, it is evident that the increase in the median cost of living is greater in the larger cities than in the smaller. It is also evident that a large part of the increase in salary received in the two years was used for increast personal living expenses. In Groups I and IV the increase in median living expenses was greater than the median increase in salary. There seems to be no general tendency for living expenses to have increast more in any one section of the country than another. The increase in cost of living would probably have been shown to be even higher had it not been for the fact that quite a few teachers recorded their Uving expenses up to the time of filling out the questionnaire and did not so indi- cate it. These were then used as the expenses for twelve months and compared with other statements for annual expenses. In Studies ^a and 36 of Table LI the median percentages of salaries spent for living expenses are given. Percentages are astonishingly even, with but a sUght increase in percentage spent as the median salaries decrease in the smaller locahties. This shows that the decreast cost of living in the smaller places nearly offsets the decreast salary, at least so far as the percentage spent is concerned. This is a dangerous conclusion from which to get any satisfaction. The cost of living is rapidly becoming standardized, and the cost of attendance at colleges and summer sessions is increasing in proportion to the other increases. Even tho 13 per cent of the median salary for 19 17-18 for Group V is left as compared with the 18 per cent for Group I, the discrepancy is doubled, in that the 13 per cent is on a smaller salary than the 18, and yet the cost of living and of education and professional advancement is very much the same in both instances. The intermediate group has a median percentage the same as the lowest of the elementary groups, which might be expected from the higher median salaries of the intermediate teachers. The same holds true for the higher median of high-school teachers. Since there is only one instance in the elementary groups where the median percentage spent is under 80 per cent, it is a 6i2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION safe conclusion that in practically all groups thruout the country the teach- ers have a median of less than 20 per cent of the salary to spend for ''recrea- tion, books, magazines, travel, professional advancement, savings, etc.'- This will at once be recognized as much too small. Practically no authori- ties on the making of budgets give less than 20 per cent for so-called ''higher life " and many of them advocate 25 and 30 per cent. It seems obvious that teaching, along with the other professions, should demand even a higher percentage for these items than the ordinary family whose budgets have been made the subject of investigation in most of the studies. Study 4, Table LI, shows the increase or decrease in the percentage of salary used for personal living expenses in 19 18-19 over 191 7-18 to be very small. The largest median increase for any size group is but . 8 per cent and the decrease i . 8 per cent. It indicates that for the majority of teachers thruout the sections, the percentage of expenditure in the second year was practically the same as in the first. This is but a corroboration of what would be inferred from comparing the percentages in column 3a and 2>b. The variation in the increase and decrease within any group is very little more than that between the groups. The largest instance of decrease was in Group BI, where there was a 5 per cent decrease. In the same group, however, the salary increast in the same time almost 20 per cent, showing that there was an attempt in the city from which these figures were taken to adjust salaries to the cost of living. Studies $a and 56, Table LI, give the median amounts spent for "recrea- tion, professional advancement, etc.," for the years 1917-18 and 1918-19. Here again there is surprising uniformity, and an astonishingly small amount for the median expenditures in the different groups. The size of the city does not materially affect the amount spent for these items, except in the two smallest groups, and here only slightly. The highest median amount ^pent by any group for these items is only $88 for the year. How inadequately must the items of recreation, outside reading, professional advancement, travel, philanthropy, insurance, savings, and these other necessary items have been provided for by the hah of the teachers in this group who spent less than $88 on all of these items combined. A study of the actual distributions of these items will show a range between zero and $500, with relatiyely few instances in excess of $100. These figures offer a very drastic criticism on existing salary conditions, since they show a teacher's utter inability to care for this important side of her work in an adequate manner. Studies 6^ and 66, Table LI, which give the median total expenses for the years 191 7-18 and 19 18-19, show a condition not very different from that developt in the study of living expenses in Studies 2a and 26. In fact, due to the very small expenditure for recreation and professional advancement, the total expenditures which are obtained by adding the TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 613 amount spent for living expenses and the amount spent for recreation and professional advancement are in most cases not so high as they should be. Here, as before, we find the expenses for 1918-19 in all cases increast over those of the previous year about as much as the salary was increast. A direct relation between size of the city and the amount of total expenses is repeaj:ed. A more interesting view of this situation is obtained from Studies ya and jb, Table LI, which give the median percentages of the total salary spent for total "necessary expenses." From these medians it is seen that the teachers who are receiving median salaries are spending perilously near to 100 per cent of their salary. If this is true about the median, the condition must be very bad for those whose expenses go above the median. There are 15 instances during the two years where the median expenditure for a group was 100 per cent of its income or more, indicating that in these 15 groups, half of the teachers were compelled to spend more than they made. These statements may be criticized from the standpoint that teachers ordinarily are not in debt. If, however, the expenses of the sum- mer have to be borne by the teacher rather than by her family, the chances are that she will, in a majority of cases, begin the year in debt. In one of the groups 67 per cent of the teachers were compelled to spend more than 100 per cent of their incomfes. This, in a way, is confirming evidence of the conclusions drawn from the study of the cost of "board and room" in chapter i. Study 8 of Table LI gives the median increase or decrease in percentage of total salary spent for total expenses, and shows a more consistent and larger decrease in percentage of salary spent than was shown for living expenses in Study 4. Other things being equal, this may be interpreted to mean that the percentage of the total salary spent for recreation, pro- fessional advancement, etc., was smaller in 1918-19 than in 1917-18. Two elements probably cause this difference: first, the curtailment of all expenses which were not necessary, both because of higher costs and in order to invest in the war loans, and, second, the necessity for estimating the expenses for the coming summer as to travel, self-improvement, etc. It is note- worthy that in Section B in all the groups, a decrease in percentage of salary spent is shown, and that the decrease compares very favorably with the returns from other wealthier sections. This indicates a widespread tend- ency in cities of all sizes in this section to improve salaries, even tho they yet remain relatively low when actual salaries are considered. Study 9, Table LI, on the median number of years' schooling above the eighth grade, shows the median amount for elementary teachers to be 6 years, 7.5 for intermediate teachers, and 8.3 for high-school teachers. These medians are a little lower, generally, than the standards set by the superintendents for election at the present time, except for intermediate 6i4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION teachers. This median is materially raised by the presence in the inter- mediate schools of a. large number of college graduates, even tho the minimal requirement is set lower by most superintendents. Studies loa and loJ, Table LI, are very unsatisfactory, and, as given, somewhat misleading. The medians as given represent the median bonus received by those teachers who received bonuses during the year, and does not show the very large majority who did not receive any bonus. The medians as given will have to be studied in comparison with Table LII. This shows that 85 per cent or more of the teachers answering this question did not receive a bonus. With this fact in mind the question of bonus received is almost a matter of no consideration, since even for the few teachers receiving a bonus the median sum is very small — ^not exceed- ing $74 in any group, except for the high-school teachers. There seems to be no distinct testimony for any city size or geographical group to grant more or larger bonuses than the other group. A very sHght tendency might be said to exist in Group E. The sporadic cases of granting bonuses TABLE LII Summary of Bonuses Received 191 7-18 and 1918-19 (Data received from answers given to the questionnaire to teachers) Total Number of Teachers Number Receiving No Bonus Percentage Receiving a Bonus Average Median Bonus igi7-i8 1918-19 1917-18 igiS-ig 191 7-18 1918-19 1917-18 1918-19 Elementary. . . Intermediate. . High School. . . 5556 454 788 5556 466 811 4759 403 692 4634 405 698 14.7 II.O 12. 1 15-5 I3-I 13-9 $24.90 36.00 98.40 $46.77 32.50 lOI.IO to adjust the salary problem may be considered as having made Almost no contribution when the whole teaching population is considered. A bonus as ordinarily given to teachers is a philanthropically inspired and begrudged donation to an underpaid and long-suffering group of public servants, in order to tide them over a period of financial stringency. It is given without appreciation of the work done or the deserved reward, and imphes the desire to keep teachers on the present schedule rather than to make a permanent advance in salary. Studies iia and iih of Table LI give the median "additional incomes" earned during 1917-18 and 1918-19. This additional income, as askt for in the questionnaire, is for " tutoring, evening school, summer work, writing, lecturing, etc.," and the medians given are only for those who earn an additional income. The medians, as in Studies 10a and 10^, must be interpreted in the light of Table LIII. According to these returns only one teacher in five has any additional income, and for this one-fifth the median amount is below $100 in most of the groups. From this it would seem that a majority of teachers give TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 6lS their entire time to teaching and use the summer to rest and regain energy and enthusiasm. An examination of the salaries of the teachers earning additional incomes will show a wide range in the distribution, but does not show the usual bunching of cases about the median point. There are in many of the groups two modes, one below the median with more cases in the $500 and $600 salary groups, and the other above the median, centering around $1200. The first group is probably driven to lucrative occupations during the vacations by force of necessity. The second is probably due to the spur of ambition and the more numerous oppor- tunities which come to the teachers receiving the higher salaries because of their greater ability or their better preparation. There seem ^to be no distinct sectional influences upon the matter of additional incomes. It is more truly an individual matter in most cases. Study 12 shows the median age of teachers. The size of the city affects the median age, which decreases as the size decreases, due undoubt- edly to the greater prevalence of tenure of office regulations in the larger TABLE LIII Summary of Additional Income Earned 191 7-18 and 1918-19 (Data Received from Answers Given to the Questionnaire to Teachers) Total Number of Teachers No. Earning No Ad- ditional Income Per Cent Earning an Additional Income Average Median Additional Income 1917-18 igiS-iQ 1917-18 1918-19 1917-18 1918-19 1917-18 1918 Elementary. . . Intermediate. . High school. . . 4684 420 879 4801 460 909 3891 337 559 4205 406 663 16.9 19.8 36.4 12.4 11.7 24.6 $91.38 133.75 122.30 $87.96 63.33 98.33 cities. There is no evidence of geographical influence upon the median age of teachers. If the median age in the size groups be considered in relation to the median experience, they show that the teachers, as indicated by the medians, began teaching about their twentieth year of age. This does not allow time for much maturity, nor for professional preparation. Since practically all of the teachers in the elementary and intermediate schools are women, it is possible to compare the results here with those obtained by Coffman^ in 191 1. At that time he found "the typical American female teacher is twenty-four years of age, having entered teaching at the early part of her nineteenth year, when she had received but four years' training beyond the elementary schools." If the typical teacher is determined in the same way from the medians found in this study, an advance is found in all three items. The median age is three or more years more than the length of experience and the amount of preparation are both over two years higher. Since Coffman's data was obtained principally from rural 'Coffman, "The Social Composition of the Teaching Population," Teachers College Contribution to Education, No. 41, 6i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION teachers, while the data of this study is more truly representative of city conditions, this difference cannot be construed as an advance, but rather as a contrast between urban and rural conditions. Studies 13 and 14 were made, but the results were not of a nature to yield to the same treatment as the other items studied. The question of how many teachers have others dependent upon them is a much discust one, but few studies of existing conditions have been made. In tabulating the answers it was necessary to evaluate the burden represented by having one person "partially dependent" as compared with "one person entirely dependent." The judgments of several school men were secured, and it was finally arbitrarily decided that, as ordinarily reported, one "partial dependent" would represent about one-fifth of the financial burden of an TABLE LI V Percentages of Teachers Supporting Others, Either Entirely or Partially (Arranged for the Size Groups and for School Divisions) X Per Cent Having No De- pendents Per Cent Having One Entirely Dependent Per Cent Having Two or More Entirely Dependent Per Cent Having One Partly Dependent Per Cent Having Two or More Partly Dependent Total Per Cent Having Dependents Either Entirely or Partially Elementary: Group I . . . . 35-1 52.1 55 I 56.6 62.2 63.2 570 58.2 12.3 17.2 16.9 IO-5 10.5 II. 7 9.0 12.7 9.8 16.8 12.0 7-1 3-6 4.6 3-7 3-4 7-4 3-9 57-2 18.0 13-6 17.8 14.8 12.4 14-5 14. 1 ■ 16.6 3-5 17.6 10.2 13.0 134 lO.O 9-7 8.8 II-5 10.2 64.9 47-9 44-9 43-4 37-8 36.8 43 0 41.8 87.7 Group II Group III Group IV Group V Group VI Intermediate : All Groups High School: Women (all groups) Men (all groups) ' "entire dependent." This was applied only when a teacher reported persons both entirely and partially dependent, e.g., a teacher reporting two persons entirely dependent, and four persons partially dependent, was listed as having three persons entirely dependent (fractions were used to the nearest unit). In this way no teacher was recorded more than once. The results of the answers are given in Table LIV, in the percentages of teachers having others dependent upon them. The returns are arranged by size groups, and the relation of dependents to salary received may be inferred from the median salaries of the groups. This table answers rather definitely the question whether teachers as a class have others dependent upon them. Forty-six per cent of elementary teachers, 43 per cent of intermediate, and 42 per cent of high-school teachers have others either entirely or partially dependent upon them. More than half of the dependents reported represent partial dependents, which does not make the financial burden as heavy to carry as the percentages might TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 617 indicate. It does, nevertheless, make it evident that teachers as a class are not free from the responsibilities of having others dependent upon them for support. There seems to be no other explanation for the regular decrease in the percentage of teachers having dependents, shown in the last column of Table LIV, than that the corresponding decrease in salaries as the size of the cities decrease makes the support of others financially impossible. Every other column in the table adds weight to the same conclusion. Not, enough men reported from the elementary and intermediate schools to make the comparisons possible, but in the 13 10 replies from high schools, 775 women answered the question on dependents, and 285 men. This made possible the separation of the men for a separate tabulation. The results show that only 12 per cent of the men who reported from high schools were not supporting dependents. The 57 per cent of men teachers in the high school who are supporting families of "two or more" dependents indicates that men teachers >vill undertake family responsibilities if the salary will in any way permit. Seventy-four per cent of the men have one or more people entirely dependent upon them. This is from three to six times as large as the percentage in any other group. The next highest percentages are in Group I, where the salaries are also higher. It is obvious from Table XL VII that the present salary schedules are directly or indirectly responsible for the rapidly declining number of men in the work of teaching. II. SALARY SITUATION AS SHOWN BY COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION BETWEEN THE ITEMS STUDIED AND THE SALARIES RECEIVED Another way of showing how the salaries of the teachers in the various groups were influenst by and related to the items studied in Part I of this chapter, is to express the closeness of the relation (or "going togetherness") of the two items under consideration by a single index known as the coeffi- cient of correlation (represented by "r"). Those used in this chapter were found from the 651 correlation tables similar to Table L by a modification of "Sheppard's Method of Unlike Signs."^ CoeflSicients of correlation found by this method are in a way only approximations, but they are reliable enough to show the presence or arbsence of a distinct tendency when any such exists. Where the distributions were irregular in any way or heavily buncht upon the median step the coefficients were checkt by using Pearson's "Coefficient of Mean Square Contingency."^ In this way it was shown that with the data used, the modification of Sheppard's Formula gave results which were reliable enough for detecting tendencies. They are, however, not reliable enough to make comparisons between two groups when the "r" values are for example . 10 and . 25 or even where greater differences exist. In Tables LV and LVI these coefficients are arranged according to groups, school divisions and items studied and give the results in a form » For description of method used see Appendix III. ' For description of this method and the results of its use see Appendix III. 6i3 N AVION AL\EDUCATI0N ASSOCIATION & ^ .2 u •^ CO O O in m V > t^ 60 9 « Ota H ''^ tl I I T}- Ooo V3 l^ I I J I N Ov t^vO o* O O M O M I I q JjMt-HMt-HM 4) J I I I i I I I '> Mill II I II II TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 619 1' II ^.^^ •h' 8" 1 II w to*o> 0 eOH ' r ■h' 1 1 II 0. w S •fl * * * r " -H VO 1 II 8 -S.^^^ 5 •h" -N* 2 r CO w II V. 0 V \ \ \ \ ■H r r ' r II •11 °. r n 0 M r to OhN M H M 0 to r r ■ r ^l* M r «0»i1 to to to 1' f r ' 1" 0 ■H 00 r to 1' II 8' 1 II II a 3 •H ■H II 0 data for this gro .6i .79 .43 ■h" 00 toio>ovo 0 -H % ^ K 1 Tt M M 0 •H* t 0 ■fl' ^0 II t 11 > > n > > 0 > c > > •< > > 0 > > c d > < u Ill •a o 5? « i ^.2 s § iH '-' a> «« g ■ -43 ^ O « O >>^ « ifi -J S S J o o o o t; ^ O C3 U CO tn 620 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION w « H a o rt Ph .(_ Q Q W Q 0 vO C/2 Ui aj t/j Hi ^ H s;5 m Q > ^ 0 fl 0 TABLE L EiE "Total g g a M H u so ;zi ^ H Q g ^ H 0 0 W ^ pq •< P< CJ * < g (< -J— H W3 w 1 0 C! U •s g u § § 5^ 0) y < n 1 Y g^ « 1 0 H w u fH M Q H g s :?; Ph 0 « (J c3 S.Sf 4> m rt t/1 bl £> rt ^ y h o u ^2. I I I I I I I II I I I I I I I I I I II I I I I I I II I I I I I ^^^ I II I I I II I I I I I I PO fO to M 10 Mill II I II P <;pquQW -tjpquQW >>>>> TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 621 II vO f^ fO »0 cot^ ■h' t II 0 -H II 5o t- fO fO 0 r II 0 0 ■* M t^vO IT) M M COO 0 ' ' \ \ \ II ■h' 0 r II M fO r 11 9 ■H 9 1' ' * 1' r II ■H 9 1 M II CO M II •* ^^ o fO Tf r^ II / ■h' f- 00 0 woo C0f^>00v0 00 rO>OiO\Cl ■H ■H II > < > PC > 0 > > to M P. > < > < > PQ > > > u> H > ■< IF 11^ o a •« W«H i> u. o ^«-^ il O * *J to T3 o /» 2. a ii . J2rt-co 2 a 2 6 S ^ S ©2 CO to go >.^ « V u u, ^ a 6 o o o S UCi^ (n fe cu 622 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to facilitate easy comparison with the data' in the companion Table LI of Part I. Only general and obvious conclusions will be made from the data pre- sented in Tables LV and LVI. Study I, Table LV. A high coefficient of correlation exists between "total teaching experience" and "total salary received" during 1918 and 19 19. The coefficient decreases with the size of the city and is rather uniform as far as geographical groups are concerned. This confirms the statement that the larger cities hold their teachers longer and pay them better. Studies 2a and 2b, Table LV, show a markt positive correlation between "amount spent for personal living expenses" and "total salary received." There is no consistent variation due to geographical location or to size of cities. The coefficients indicate that the larger the salary a teacher receives, the more she spends for personal living expenses, which in turn could be made to show that the majority of teachers are living on a level lower than is desirable for them, both from the standpoint of personal desire and efficient work. As a result, an increase in salary goes merely to provide more comfortable room or more desirable board, more prompt medical attention and more adequate supply of necessary clothing, rather than to savings, professional advancement, recreation, etc. Studies 30 and 3^, Table LV, give very small negative coefficients between per cent of "total salary spent for personal living expenses" and "total salary received." This indicates a slight tendency, which is consist- ent thruout the size groups, for teachers receiving the highest salaries to spend a smaller percentage of the salary for living expenses. The very small coefficients indicate that there is so little leeway between the salary received and the percentage of that salary spent for living expenses that even differences of $200 or $300 between groups do not influence the coeffi- cients. Study 4, Table LV, on the relation of the increase or decrease of the "per cent of salary spent for living expenses" in 19 18-19 over those of 191 7-18 and the "total salary received" developt absolutely no consistent relationship. In other words it was a matter of pure chance whether those receiving higher salaries increast or decreast the percentage of their salaries spent for living expenses. Studies 5fl and 56, Table LV, result in insignificant positive coefficients between the "amount spent for recreation, professional advancement, etc.," and "total salary received," which would indicate that those receiving higher salaries not only are able to spend more on self -improvement, but are slightly more apt to do so. « Items 10, II, and 14 are not included in tMs table as the returns were either too few to be used or not in a form to be readily correlated. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 623 Studies 6a, 6b, ja, jb, and 8, Table LVI, produce coefficients which substantiate the findings of Studies 2a, 2b, 3a, 36, and 4 except that if possible they show even more clearly that under present conditions, it is necessary for a teacher to spend practically all of her salary for her " total necessary expenses," regardless of how much that salary is or where it is received. Study 9, Table LVI, for the relation between " total numbers of years schooHng above the eighth grade" and "total salary" furnishes a decided upset for any preconceived notion that additional schooHng is always rewarded by additional salary. The presence of negative (— ) coefficients, some of them large enough to indicate strong correlation in many of the groups, shows that for those groups the teachers receiving salaries above the medians tend to have "years of schooling" below the median amount. This is truer in the larger cities, where the higher salaries are received by teachers of longer experience who entered when standards of preparation were lower, while the younger teachers who have prepared more thoroly are teaching at beginners' pay. There is no section where any consistent correlation is shown, and except for cities in Size Groups I and II, the average of the coefficients is so low that "mere chance" is the governing rule. This, however, shows a condition which is worth the serious considera- tion of teachers and school men, because additional schooling should repre- sent an investment with more certain returns than "pure chance." Study 12, Table LVI, gives the coefficients of correlation for teachers' "age" and "total salary received" (1918-19) and shows a distinct relation between age and salary. It pays to grow old in the work of teaching, and especially in the larger cities. The average of the coefficients for size groups decreases as the size of the cities decreases, but the "r" value is large enough to be significant even in the groups of smaller cities. The correlation is consistent thru the several geographical groups. CONCLUSIONS GENERAL 1. The returns from the teachers' questionnaires show the salaries to be about the same in almost all groups as that given in chapter i from Superintendents' Reports. 2. Decrease in the size of the city is accompanied by decrease in the amoimt of the salary. 3. Sectional differences are found to the same extent as in chapter i. 4. Salaries of teachers are entirely inadequate to meet the standards' demanded and the etonomic conditions existing during the two years studied. 5. As judged by the answers of teachers, they are meeting the requirements outlined in the reports of superintendents, they are making more adequate preparation for their work, and they are staying in the work longer. These are signs that teaching is tending toward professionalization. specific: study i. — total teaching experience a) The larger the cities the longer the teaching experience. b) Location has less influence on experience than size of city. c) There is a high correlation between salary received and length of experience. It decreases with the size of the cities. 624 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION STUDIES 2a AND 2h — PERSONAL LIVING EXPENSES a) Living expenses decrease as the size of the cities decrease, but not as rapidly as the salaries paid. h) Differences in amount of personal living expenses due to location are less than those due to city size. They are generally higher where the salaries are higher. c) Personal living expenses increast almost as much as salaries increast between 1917-18 and 1918-19. d) There is a distinct positive correlation between the amount spent for living expenses and salary received. It is not affected by size or location of cities. STUDIES 3a AND 3^* — PERCENTAGE OF SALARY SPENT FOR PERSONAL LIVING EXPENSES a) Teachers are spending five-sixths of their salaries for necessary personal living expenses. h) There is only a slight increase in per cent spent as the cities decrease and as the salaries become consequently smaller. c) There is a small negative correlation between the amount of the salary and the per cent spent for living expenses, indicating that the higher salaries spend slightly less for living expenses. The fact that the correlation is so slight, indicates that all salaries are so low that even the higher ones do not have a margin for saving, but are all needed for necessary expenses. I ^ - STUDY 4 — INCREASE OR DECREASE IN PER CENT OF SALARY SPENT FOR LIVING EXPENSES IN 1918-I9 OVER 1917-18 a) There was practically no increase or decrease in 1918-19 over 191 7-18. This indicates that the increases given to teachers were not more than enough to meet the increases in living expenses. This was true for all groups, size and geographical. h) There is no correlation between salary received and an increase or decrease in per cent spent by individual teachers on living expenses. STUDIES 5a AND $h — AMOUNT SPENT FOR RECREATION, PROFESSIONAL ADVANCEMENT, ETC. a) The median amount spent by teachers per year for recreation, professional advance- ment, etc., is less than $75. On the basis of 25 per cent for "higher life " this much should be spent from a salary of $300. h) This $75 per year might well be spent on periodicals and library additions alone, and is entirely too small for either recreation or professional advancement (other than reading). c) The amount spent for these items is uniformly small in all groups, both size and geographical. ^ d) Only an insignificant positive correlation exists between the salary received by teachers and the amount spent for these items. STUDIES 6a AND 6& — TOTAL EXPENSES a) Total expenses decrease as the size of the cities decrease. b) Between groups, total expenses vary directly in proportion to the salary paid. c) For individual teachers, the higher salary the more the total necessary expenses. This is true for all groups. STUDIES 7a AND 7& — PERCENTAGE OF SALARY SPENT FOR TOTAL EXPENSES a) In 85 per cent of the groups during the two years the median percentage of salary spent for total expenses was 90 per cent or over. (Efficiency and budget experts give 10 per cent as the least margin for net savings). b) A noticeable negative correlation exists between salary received and percentage spent for necessary expenses, indicating that the smaller the salary the larger the per- centage of it is used for these expenses. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 625 STUDY 8 — INCREASE OR DECREASE IN THE PERCENTAGE OF SALARY SPENT FOR TOTAL EXPENSES IN 1918-19 OVER I917-18 a) Increases given to teachers and Curtailment of expenses for recreation and pro- fessional advancement produced a small decrease in the percentage spent for necessary- expenses. h) There is no correlation between salary received and an increase or decrease in the percentage spent for necessary expenses in 19 18-19 over 19 17-18. STUDY 9 — YEARS OF SCHOOLING ABOVE THE EIGHTH GRADE a) The median number of years schooling above the eighth grade is over six, seven, and eight for the elementary, intermediate, and high school respectively. h) From the negative coefficients found between salary and schooling, especially in the two largest groups, it would seem that there is an association of higher salaries with fewer years of schooling. STUDIES lOfl AND loh — BONUS RECEIVED a) Over 85 per cent of the teachers reported receiving no bonus. h) The average bonus of the few teachers receiving them during the two years would not exceed $35 (elementary and intermediate). c) The granting of bonuses is a temporary adjustment and was resorted to only in a very few cases. STUDIES I Iff AND 1x6;— ADDITIONAL INCOME EARNED a) Only about 20 per cent of the teachers reporting earned any additional income. h) For the 20 per cent earning additional income the average amount earned would not exceed $100. STUDY 12 — AGE OF TEACHERS a) The median age for teachers increases as the size of the city increases. h) The median age of teachers is approximately 30. c) Teachers are more seriously preparing themselves for the work of teaching and are tending to stay in the work longer. d) There is a distinct correlation between age and salary received. The older teachers are more apt to receive the higher salaries. STUDIES 13 AND 14 — ^DEPENDENTS SUPPORTED BY TEACHERS a) A larger percentage of teachers support dependents as the size of the city increases with its accompanyingly larger salary. h) Individual teachers support more dependents in the larger cities than in the smaller places. c) About the same percentage of women teachers report dependents in each of the divisions, elementary, intermediate and high school. d) Among high-school teachers, a much larger percentage of men support dependents than do the women. e) Nearly 60 per cent of the men high-school teachers support families of two or more entire dependents. CHAPTER III THE SALARYlSITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES AS SHOWN BY LETTERS FROM STATE SUPERINTENDENTS As a result of the National Education Association's campaign and the sharp reaUzation on the part of teachers of the need for better salaries, there was almost nation-wide agitation on the question during 19 18-19. In order that teachers may have the benefit of knowing what has been 626 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION • considered and what has been accomplisht by the legislatures of the various states, a letter was sent by President George D. Strayer to State Com- missioners and Superintendents of Public Instruction, asking them to report any bills on the question of teachers' salaries which were past by their state legislatures. They were askt to report any legislation then pending as well as any noteworthy actions by local school boards in meeting the situation. Answers were received from 37 states, and will be arranged in the same geographical groups which have been used in the remainder of the study. Group A CONNECTICUT Connecticut proposed the granting of $3 per pupil in average at- tendance. This would bring a material increase to salaries, but has not yet been approved by the governor, because all of the increase would not go to teachers' salaries. Another bill was proposed which would give state aid to districts in proportion to their valuation, so that the state would carry 75 per cent of teachers' wages for some of the smaller places, and from that down to 20 per cent. Secretary Hines writes "teachers' salaries in this state are very generally increasing from 10 to 30 per cent. We anticipate a state increase of 15 to 20 per cent." DELAWARE A New School Code was estabhsht for Delaware, granting material increases in the salaries of teachers. State Commissioner Spaid reports that "the state makes an annual appropriation to cover the entire expenses, including railroad fare, of the teachers who wish to attend summer school for a period of six weeks within the state, and gives to certain other teachers a lump sum of $50 to help defray their expenses at any standard summer school without the state." MASSACHUSETTS Commissioner Payson Smith of Massachusetts is strongly supporting a bill now pending in the state legislation to provide state subsidies for teachers. For each person employed for full-time service for twelve months as superintendents of schools, the city or town shall be reimburst by $750 if the superintendent's salary is not less than $1800, and reimburst by $500 if the salary is not less than $1500. For teachers employed for full time the city or town shall be reimburst by $200 for each teacher having received a salary not less than $850; $150 for each teacher having received a salary not less than $750 (with limiting conditions upon professional training, etc.) and $100 for each person having received a salary of not less than $650. Subsidies for part-time superintendents and teachers will be paid according to the above plan, and in proportion to the time served. Provi- sion is also made in the bill to provide supplementary reimbursements TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 627 according to the per pupil valuation of the different cities or towns, ranging from $300 for per pupil valuation of less than $2000 to $50 if the per pupil valuation is less than $4500, but not less than $4000, with the intermediate steps in proportion. NEW HAMPSHIRE New Hampshire past a bill providing for the establishment of a State Board of Education and the standardization of teachers' salaries. Deputy Commissioner of Education, Harriet L. Huntree, says "there is no definite statement of a minimum salary. It is generally understood, however, that the rural school teachers will receive at least a minimum salary of $15 a week, but no legislation so states." NEW YORK One of the most significant pieces of salary legislation, because of the standards set and the number of teachers involved, was the state-wide teachers' bill past by New York. For New York City a minimum wage for teachers of kindergarten and the first six grades of $1005 is provided with a maximum of $2160. In Grades 7, 8, and 9, the minimum becomes $1350 and the maximum $2700. In high schools salaries of regular teachers range from $1350 to $3150. First assistants in high schools begin at $2650, and reach a maximum of $3650. For cities of the first class, with popula- tions less than one miUion, the minimal salary is set at $800 for elementary teachers, and $1200 for high-school teachers. For cities of the second class the elementary minimum is $800 and the high-school minimum is $1000. The bill also provides that every school district shall make a salary schedule providing, in districts of the first and second class, at least eight annual increments above the minimal salary set. PENNSYLVANIA The. "Woodruff Salary BiU" was past at the last session of the State Legislature. This bill provided for a general increase of teachers' salaries thruout the state, and, according to Acting Superintendent Koch, has the hearty support of teachers and of the people. RHODE ISLAND Commissioner Ranger reports that the " Rhode Island General Assembly enacted legislation that aims to raise the teachers' minimum salary from $400 to $500. The new act is not mandatory in establishing the $500 miaimum. It offers to towns that increase salaries previously lower than $500, one-half of any increase not exceeding one-half the difference between the salary previously paid and $500." "Most of our school committees have increast salaries during the current school year and several have increases for next year under consideration." 628 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Group B ALABAMA Superintendent Dowell writes that "there is a general sentiment favorable to the increase of salaries, but no bill has been presented to the legislature, and so far as I know none has been prepared. It may be stated that all boards of education are prepared to increase salaries to the limit of available funds." ARKANSAS Superintendent Bond reports that "Our Recent Legislature did not pass any special legislation affecting teachers' salaries. I may say in this connection that our annual school election was held recently. From reports coming into this office, it seems that practically all districts, both urban and rural, are voting the full tax limit." This is the result of a vigor- ous campaign in the interest of increast local taxes and higher salaries which was conducted by the State Department of Arkansas during the last year. FLORIDA No legislation was enacted in Florida at the last session on the subject of teachers' salaries. State Superintendent Sheats thinks " County Boards generally, thruout the state, are making strenuous efforts to raise salaries. Some have raised them lo per cent, some as much as 25 per cent, and others have raised them higher. I will say that nearly every County Board in the state is raising these salaries of teachers all their finances will possibly warrant." GEORGIA Several bills on teachers' salaries, as well as other educational subjects, were pending in the State Legislature at the time of Superintendent Brittain's letter. The Forty-seventh Annual Report of the Department of Education to the General Assembly of the state of Georgia gives many interesting facts relative to the salary problem in that state. It gives the following average monthly salaries paid during 191 7-18: GRAMMAR GRADES 1917 1918 Average monthly salary paid white male teachers $63 .00 $70. 00 Average monthly salary paid white female teachers 47 -12 5236 Average monthly salary paid colored male teachers ...... 31.61 34-72 Average monthly salary paid colored female teachers 22 . 73 26 . 12 HIGH-SCHOOL GRADES 1917 1918 Average monthly salary paid white male teachers $101. 00 $109. 75 Average monthly salary paid white female teachers 65 . 00 70 . 61 Average monthly salary paid colored male teachers 46.71 51-87 Average monthly salary paid colored female teachers 28 . 63 31 • 77 TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 629 From the same report we learn that "Thousands of the best and most energetic men and women left the schoolroom at the call of business and for much larger salaries." This shows the acuteness of the salary problem in Georgia brought about by the fact that the land is assest at about one-fifth of its value, and that the amount of per capita tax for school purposes is the fourth lowest in the United States. A bill is also pending to provide for prompt payment of teachers without having the salaries which average but a httle over $300 discounted. Schools and teachers lose $50,000 annually by having their warrants discounted. KENTUCKY Superintendent Gilbert states that the minimal salary of $50 a month was establisht for first-class rural-school teachers, and that several city boards of education within the state are very materially increasing their salaries. The Board of Education of Louisville, in order to insure a supply of teachers to begin the year, increast the salaries by from 8 to 33 per cent. These increases were graduated inversely according to the salaries received. LOUISIANA Superintendent Harris states that the Constitution was amended in the fall of 19 1 8 in a way to very materially increase the school funds. Much of this increase would go toward the bettering of salaries. A suggestive schedule of salaries for teachers was adopted, which will be used as the basis for the fixing of teachers' salaries for the session of 1919-20, Salaries outlined are minimum, and in perhaps a majority of the parishes the annual salaries paid will range considerably higher. The schedule for elemen- tary grade teachers is as follows: 1. Graduates of standard normal schools: the first year of teaching experience, $70 a month; second year, $75; third year, $80; fourth year, $85; fifth year, $90; eleventh year and thereafter, $100. 2. Teachers holding first grade certificates: $10 a month less. 3. Teachers holding second grade certificates: $50 a month without any annual increases. 4. Teachers holding third grade certificates: $40 a month without any annual increases. MISSISSIPPI No legislation has been recently past in Mississippi. Superintendent Bond is hopeful that the next legislature will more adequately provide for teachers' salaries. He states that Some of our Local Boards of Trustees have made $1200 a year the minimum for grade and high school teachers. There is a tendency to put all such teachers on a twelve months salary basis, giving them thirty days off during the year, and employing them for half time during the rest of the time the school is not in session, to coach all those students that failed to pass on the last session of work. 630 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION NORTH CAROLINA State Superintendent Brooks reports three educational advances for North Carolina, "The six months minimum school law," *'The County- Budget" and "The Minimum Salary Law." This law provides that a 10 per cent increase in the salaries of high-school teachers is given, with the provision that nothing in this section shall make it compulsory upon the County Board of Education to fix the monthly salaries of high-school teachers higher than $75 a month. It also provides that in complying with the requirements that budgets be prepared, that increases should be granted teachers ranging from 25 per cent to 10 per cent, depending upon the work done and certificate held. It was, however, provided that nothing in this section shall make it compulsory upon the County Board of Educa- tion to fix the monthly salaries of teachers for any school larger than t:he following: 1. For inexperienst teachers, a salary not larger than the average salary of 1918-19 of the teachers in the county holdmg the same grade certificates. 2. For teachers of successful experience of two or more years holding elementary certificates, $65 per month. SOUTH CAROLINA Superintendent Swearingen reports that high-school salaries were raised so that the lowest-paid high-school assistant received $75 per month instead of $55 — ^an increase of 30 per cent. The $75 was increast by $5 for each of the two succeeding years of experience. An act of 1919 pro- vides for salaries of elementary school teachers as follows: An assistant teacher holding a first-grade certificate shall be paid not more than $60 per month; an assistant teacher holding a second-grade certificate shall be paid not more than $50 per month, and an assistant teacher holding a third-grade certificate shall be paid not more than $40 per month. In any district the board of trustees may pay lower salaries in their discretion; but such lower salaries shall always constitute the basis for calculating any deficiency to be made up from the funds provided under this Act. If the salaries paid teachers in any district exceed the salaries herein authorized, the total amount of the excess must be applied by the board of school district trustees, either by private subscription, or by a higher rate of local taxation. Any district running its school longer than seven months must also pay the cost of the eighth month, or of the ninth month, by private subscription, or by a higher rate of local taxation. TEXAS , State Superintendent Annie Webb Blanton reports three measures affecting teachers' salaries recently past by the state of Texas: First — " For the purpose of promoting the public school interests of rural schools and those of small towns, and of aiding the people in providing adequate school facilities for the education of their children, $2,000,000, or such part thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropriated out of any money in the State Treasury not otherwise appropriated for the school year ending August 31, 1920, and $2,000,000, or such part thereof as may be necessary, for the year ending August 31, 192 1, to be used in accordance with the pro- visions of this Act in aiding rural schools and those of small towns." Secondly — The prompt payment of teachers without discount, and, Thirdly — Equal pay for men and women in the State schools of the State. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 631 VIRGINIA At the legislative session of 19 18, the amount appropriated by the state for teachers' salaries was increast about $800,000. Superintendent Hart hopes that the next session of the legislature'will provide local increases to teachers' salaries amounting to approximately 25 per cent. Group C illinois The state of Illinois has a bill pending which will make $700 per school year of 36 weeks the compensation rate at which all teachers in the public schools must be paid. This act does not apply to any school district levying the maximal amount of taxes authorized by law. , INDIANA Superintendent Hines reports that the multiples for determining the wages of teachers have been increast 25 to 30 per cent. The school board at Whiting, Indiana, has estabUsht $1000 as a minimal salary for all grade teachers, even beginners. MICHIGAN V No bills were past by the last legislature of this state, but a very active campaign has been carried on by the State Teachers' Association for the betterment of salaries in that state. A bulletin, "Teachers' Salaries in Michigan," publisht by the State Teachers' Association, has been largely instrumental in improving the salary situation thruout the state. Some of the larger cities, particularly Detroit, have establisht salary schedules very much in advance of past years, while some of the smaller places, such as Monroe, have establisht a minimal salary of $1000. Considering that the average salary of Monroe was $735, this represents a noteworthy advance. OHIO Assistant Superintendent Riegel states that "Boards of Education generally are increasing salaries of superintendents and teachers. In some cases the salaries are double what they were three or four years ago." A bill was under consideration in the state legislature which would provide a salary schedule for elementary teachers ranging from a minimum of $60 per month to $75 per month, according to the amount of experience, and also providing that all schools should be in session for eight months. Group D IOWA The state of Iowa recently past a minimum wage law which, according to Superintendent Deyoe, may be regarded as a decided step in advance for better teachers' salaries in Iowa. This law financially recognizes the 63 2 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION differences in amount of preparation. A teacher who has completed a four-year college course and received a degree from an approved college and who is the holder of a state certificate shall receive a minimum wage of $ioo per month, and aftef two years of experience the minimum wage shall be $120 per month. A teacher who has completed a two-year course in the state normal school shall receive a minimum of $80, which after two years' successful experience shall be $100. A teacher who has com- pleted a normal course in a normal training high school and has less than one year's successful teaching experience shall have a minimum wage of $65 per month, which after additional training will be increast to $75 and then $80 per month. A teacher who is the holder of a second-grade county certificate shall receive a minimal wage of $60, which after one year of suc- cessful teaching experience becomes $65, while a teacher holding a third- grade county certificate shall receive a minimal wage of $50. MINNESOTA ' Superintendent McConnell states that "No laws relating to teachers' salaries were enacted by the last legislature, but salaries have advanst at least 40 per cent over 19 14, and at least 10 per cent over last year. The advance has been general thruout the state, and I have not been informed of any action taken by any particular school board." MISSOURI The state of Missouri past a bill which provided a 50 per cent increase for county superintendents and gave serious consideration to another bill which provided material increases for teachers' salaries ranging from $65 to $100 per month. The latter bill, however, was defeated after much favorable discussion thruout the state. There is a general tendency to increase the grade teachers' salaries. St. Louis and Kansas City led in this movement, with increases of approximately 25 per cent to their teachers, whereas we are informed by Rural School Inspector Harrawood that Sedalia, JopUn, Poplar Bluff, and Jefferson City increast teachers' salaries from 10 to 20 per cent. NORTH DAKOTA According to Assistant Superintendent George A. McFarland, the salaries paid in the better graded schools were increast to $90 or $110 per month. The salaries of county superintendents were also increast from 50 per cent to 70 per cent, with an additional increase in mileage. OKLAHOMA Assistant Superintendent Collette reports that no bills were past at the recent session of the legislature affecting the salary of teachers. The state board of education, however, authorized a 10 per cent increase in the salaries of those teaching in the state normal schools. "Local boards of TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 633 education thruout the state are increasing the salary for the next school year; I think the general increase would average about 15 per cent." SOUTH DAKOTA Superintendent Shaw replies as follows: "I regret to say that no legis- lative action regarding teachers' salaries in this state was past at our legislature which adjourned on March 7 th of this year. Teachers' salaries in South Dakota have been increast about 20 per cent over the salaries paid last year, but no legislation concerning the matter was past." Group E ARIZONA No legislation affecting teachers' salaries was past at the last session of the state legislature. "A bill, however, was introduced, providing for a minimum wage of $1200, but failed of passage." Superintendent Case reports that some of the local school boards have made increases in salaries as high as 25 per cent. CALIFORNIA Backt by school organizations all over the state, a vigorous campaign for increast school taxation and better salaries for California was success- fully waged during 1919. It resulted in the passage of a bill increasing the state allowance per pupil from $15 to $17.50. Another bill increast the state apportionment of school funds from a basis of $250 to $350 per teacher, while a third bill provided that the county apportionment should be increast from $13 to $21 per pupil, and fixing $550 as the amount per teacher to be raised by local taxation. COLORADO Colorado salaries were increast by 20 per cent for teachers in third- class districts, and a minimal salary of $75 per month was establisht for teachers in the first- and second-class districts, according to the report of Mary C. C. Bradford, superintendent of that state. IDAHO No laws were past which distinctly establisht standards for teachers' salaries. There is, however, a general movement over the state to increase teachers' salaries, and make them more commensurate with the costs of living. Several of the smaller places, among them Blackfoot, Nampa, Pocatello, and others, have establisht schedules which will provide for minimal salaries of $1000 with liberal maximal salaries above that. A campaign for better salaries is being conducted by Miss Redfield, state superintendent. Many more cities are expected to meet this standard for the next year. 634 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MONTANA Miss May Trumper, Superintendent of Public Instruction, reports that no legislation was past in Montana which directly influenst salaries, with the exception of a bill providing for "equal pay for equal work for men and women." The teachers of Butte, Montana, however, were successful in securing a $300 increase in the salaries for next year, in addition to a $100 bonus for the salaries of the present year. This will give for Butte a minimal salary of $1000 for grade teachers, $1400 for junior high school teachers, and $1600 for senior high school teachers. NEW MEXICO "The salaries in New Mexico for the school year beginning September, 1919, will run from 30 to 40 per cent higher than last year," is the opinion of Superintendent Wagner. Special provision was also made in New Mexico for rural schools and a law was past providing a salary schedule for them as follows: The amount which may be expended by any rural school district, where no such graded' school is maintained, for all purposes except the construction, purchase, lease, repair or equipment of school houses, shall not during any school year exceed the sum of seventy dollars ($70 . 00) per month per school room in which a teacher holding a third- grade certificate is employed, nor more than ninety dollars ($90 . 00) per month per school room in which a teacher holding a second-grade certificate is employed, nor more than one hundred and ten dollars ($1 10 . 00) per month per school room in which a teacher holding a first-grade or higher certificate is employed. OREGON Superintendent Churchill reports the passage of a minimal salary bill for the state of Oregon, which makes $75 per school month the legal mini- mum for any public school teacher. He also reports various increases in the salaries of the teachers in the cities within the state. Noteworthy among these is the increase in the Portland schools, where by a special election on May 10 an increase of $531,000 was voted by the school district of Portland to be spent exclusively in increasing teachers' salaries. This will give each teacher in the service a flat increase of $40 per month or $400 per year over the present schedules, and will make the minimal salary for beginning teachers in Portland $1200. WASHINGTON Mrs. Preston writes that Seattle has made a minimum of $1200 for grade teachers and $1500 for high-school teachers, with maximal salaries of $1800 and $2100 for the two divisions. "Tacoma has increast its tax levy four mills in order to meet the increast demand for salaries for its teachers. In fact, all of our first-class districts are meeting the demands and just as many of our second- and third-class districts as can do so." TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 635 WYOMING Mrs. Morton, state superintendent, says that no bills past the recent legislature concerning salaries, but "in a number of the counties of our state there is a uniform arrangement whereby a minimum salary for rural teachers has been fixt. The minimum in three counties is $90 per month, and in Sheridan County the minimum is $100. There seems to be a move- ment that is spreading over the state to make a provision such as this." CONCLUSIONS 1. There is nation-wide realization that teachers' salaries are too low, and that adjustments must be made in larger units than the single district or city. Of the 37 states replying to President Strayer's letter, 20 of them have past (within the last two years) laws regulating teachers' salaries, and 7 of the remainder have had bills on this subject under legislative discussion. 2. There is a distinct awakening to the fact that elementary teachers, and more par- ticularly rural elementary teachers, are most in need of immediate financial relief. Not until the rural schools can compete financially with the larger districts is there much hope that they will ever be more than the dumping ground for inefi&cient teachers or the training schools for city systems. 3. A national consciousness of the part played by the schools during the war, accentu- ated by the appreciation of the part they are to play in the period of reconstruction, and the crowning realization of their potentiality for good or evil in the period of social and industrial unrest, has made lawmakers all over the country give school legislation a first place on the calendars of legislative assemblies. 4. An ever growing realization that the results of public education depend in a large measure upon the efficiency of the teachers, has provokt much legislation, resulting in increast standards of preparation for teachers. This has inevitably led to the providing of better salaries as the final means of "enforcing" the added requirements. 5. Recent legislation on teachers' salaries in a great majority of cases has been instigated at least with the cooperation of school men and teachers' organizations, and has been on a much more intelligent and liberal basis. Heretofore, salaiy laws were too frequently prompted by anything but altruistic motives. 6. Each section of the country is making about an equal effort to improve the condi- tions of its teachers., but they are far from securing equal results. An examination of the results accomplisht in some of the states in Group B, in comparison with standards set and paid for in states in the other sections, is one of the most conclusive arguments for federal aid to education in the United States. CHAPTER IV TEACHING AND THE ECONOMIC SITUATION I. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OE THE EDUCATIONAL EMERGENCY The present emergency in education is a direct outgrowth of the financial exploitation of teachers, and no permanent corrections can be made until teachers' salaries are very materially increast. Other causes for this emergency are given and, when analyzed, prove to be merely statements of the salary problem, in different words, or from a different angle. Other reasons are given, such as inadequate support, inequality of burden, short- age of teachers, and untrained teachers. Inadequate support is a question 636 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION of salaries since 57 per cent of the money expenses for school purposes iii the United States in 191 5-16 was for salaries, and it is a higher percentage now. Inequality of burden is almost entirely a question of salary since the big differences arise there rather than in cost of buildings, school sup- plies, and operating expenses. A serious shortage of teachers does exist and has been an important element in the present emergency, but practically all teachers who have left teaching for reasons other than marriage, ill- health, or old age, did so for positions paying better salaries. Teachers are untrained, but the graduates of all the public and private normal schools are not more than one-sixth of the new teachers needed each year, and yet very few of the normal schools are carrying their capacity number of students. The reward? of teaching do not encourage the expendi- ture of time and money in professional preparation. This will also account for the shortness of the teacher training courses, being in most cases only one or two years. The training of teachers is infiuenst not only by the prospective lack of salary for the students but also by inadequate support of these normal schools, particularly in the salaries of the normal school teachers. Few states have a salary schedule for the normal schools which will bear compar- ison with the salaries in the better high schools of the state. As a nation we spend as much per student per year to educate any high-school pupil or any boy in a reform school as we do for the training of a teacher in a normal school. We spend nearly twice as much for a pupil in a deaf school, more than twice as much for a college or university student, three times as much for a blind student, and nearly four times as much for the training of a feeble-minded child.^ Probably the two reasons why the question of teachers' salaries is educationally paramount at the present time are (i) salaries have not kept pace with the increast cost of living, and (2) teaching is so poorly paid in comparison with other lines of work that it has suffered tremendously by competition. The opposites of these two statements are frequently claimed to be true and used as arguments against measures for the better support of schools or the increase of teachers' salaries. It behooves all teachers to know how true they are, which the comparisons in this part of the chapter will show. a) Teachers^ salaries and the cost of living. — Have teachers' salaries advanst, and if so, how much ? Table LVII will show that during the last twelve years the average salary for all the teachers in the United States has increast from $381 .77 to $630.64, an increase of 65 per cent — "a tremend- ous increase! What an ungrateful lot of money-grabbing Croesuses the teachers of the United States must be to have such an increase in salary and still be waging campaigns for more" exclaims the self -pitying and near- » From Table VIII, Commissioner of Education Report, II (1917)1 25. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 637 sighted taxpayer. What does an increase of 65 per cent mean when based upon such a salary for 1906 as $381 . 77 ($31 . 80 a month) ? TABLE LVII Average Annual Salaries for Teachers (Men and Women) in "State School Systems " for the United States and for the Five Geographical Divisions for the Years 1906-07 to 1915-16* Year 1906-7. . 1907-8. . 1908-9. . 1909-10. 1910-II . 1911-12. 1912-13. 1913-14. 1914-15. 1915-16. i9i8t... United States $381.77 414.87 442.89 488 . 20 466 . 40 491 .62 511.86 524.60 543 31 563 08 630.64 North Atlantic $567-45 581.36 648.07 611 .06 604 . 04 651.24 668.52 696.25 727.28 728.56 North Central $373-86 436.56 457-07 468.08 480.29 499.18 523.22 537-45 557-78 569-65 South Atlantic $235-73 232.13 292.38 281.88 303-91 308.34 327.19 328.88 333 58 342.39 South Central $239 260 293 320 332 345 354 360 366 413 Western $535 550 558 576 607 668 709 699 734 797 * From Reports of the Commissioner of Education. t From Estimate of Commissioner of Education, N.E.A. Bulletin for April, 1919, page 14. Such a salary is a relic of days when teaching was a side issue to some other occupations, requiring little or no preparation,, continuing for inter- mittent periods of two or three months according to the season and the weather conditions and not expected, in any case, to be a total means of support. It was rather a means for the stay-at-home girl to make a little "ready money" and have in addition the "peace of mind" which is the reward of the missionary and the social worker. Another side of this story is that while the teachers' salary has increast 65 per cent in twelve years, it is not the only thing which has increast. The cost of her schooling, the cost of her clothes, her room and board, in other words, her entire expenses have by no means been left behind in the race toward higher prices, and increast costs. Not only have they not been left behind, but they have been able to so skillfully maneuver for positions that the teachers' salary has been hopelessly defeated h^ the other competitors in this race. How much additional preparation can a teacher afford, how much better can she live, how much more optimistic can she be in her teaching even if her salary has increast 65 per cent within the last ten years, when she realizes that within the same period the cost of living has more than doubled so that her 65 per cent increase is in reality almost a 20 per cent decrease. In this age of economic enlightenment almost every occupation except teaching has learned that there is such a thing as a "standard of living,'' that this standard of living has a direct effect upon the health, happiness, and efficiency of the worker and his family, that this standard varies by occupations and by localities, that there is a minimal level below which it 6sS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION is socially unsafe to force people to live, and lastly, that wages must be considered not from the point of view of actual amounts but in regard to what can be obtained for them. The keeper of a boarding house in a western normal school town was heard to remonstrate upon the state's extravagance in the payment of its normal school teachers. She complained that they were paying some of them almost twice as much as they did ten years before that. In that same ten years the price of board in her home had increast from $2 per week to $5. This tendency of juggling school expenditures by comparisons with the past, rather than the scientific forward look which is the basis of all modern budget making, has too long prevailed. School men are, them- selves, largely responsible for this attitude. They have practist it and allowed its use on them and their problems until now it has become a habit of the public mind in all school measures. Any means would be justifiable which would break up this habit, and the campaign of education cannot start too soon. Teachers should realize and they must see to it that the people realize that salaries ought to provide for the coming year, not the one just past. They must provide also for additional preparation at future intervals, for a standard of living necessary for teachers and for a small margin of saving. The only use of past conditions should be to guide in making this estimate of future needs. Of what value is an increase in a teacher's annual salary of $20, $22 . 50, $45, or even $75 or $100 (which range will include 95 per cent of the increases given) when all of this increase, and often more, will be needed for the additional cost of room and board alone? "During the five-year period between October, 1913, and October, 1918, food as a whole was 75 per cent higher in 19 18 than in 1913."^ The whole- sale price of every article increast 54 per cent or more, while five articles increast over 100 per cent (corn meal 119 per cent, lard 115 per cent, bacon 108 per cent, flour 103 per cent, and pork chops 102 per cent). The close of 1918 found the index numbers for all wholesale prices over 200, an increase of over 100 per cent since 19 13, with an average for the year of 196+. What percentage, or even fraction of a per cent, of the teachers of the United States were receiving in November, 1918, more than twice as much as they were in October, 19 13 ? Or we might be still more modest and ask what fraction of a per cent of the teachers of the country had had increases of salary in that time which had kept pace. with the lowest per- centage of increase for any article of food, namely 54 per cent. Chart III gives a graphic representation of the mal-adjustment between teachers' salaries and the wholesale prices of "All Commodities" from the years 1906 to 191 8. It shows how conservatively teachers' salaries ' Monthly Review, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January, 1919. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 639 have kept the even tenor of their way, with no regard for the tremendous increase in the cost of Hving. JIM jm Ml 190 ISO 170 JM JtiL m 120 -^ CHART III CHART SHOWING THE RELATIVE INCREASE IN TEACHER'S SALARIES AND THE COST OF LIVING AS SHOWN BY WHOLESALE PRICES FOR THE PERIOD BETWEEN 1906-1918. Solid line represents the increase over the preceding year in average annual salary for all teachers in the United States. Data taken from Table LVII. Dotted line at end covers period between 1905-16 and the figure for 1918. Broken line represents the increase over the preceding year of the index numbers for the wholesale price on all com- modities. Data taken from the monthly Reviews of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. ^pY bb d? vC J/ vb vb 'A ty vie '/I? vis Some near-sighted, penurious "watchdogs of the public funds'' are saying: "Prices are abnormal now and will drop at once. Let the teachers bear their part of the increast cost as a patriotic duty, until things readjust 640 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION themselves." Why didn't these same people object on the same grounds to the increases given to railroad employes, to the workers in their factories, to the farmers for their wheat ? If patriotism consists in being economically exploited, how could these same objectors bring themselves to accepting higher prices for their goods or services ? Are we making a wise investment when the teachers of the country are living on such a close margin that statements like the following are common: "I am buying a $50 Liberty Bond each year, so shall not be able to attend summer school until they are paid for." " I put the money for my magazines into War Savings Stamps" ? Martha and Robert Bruere,^ writing in 1913, say: "We are therefore ehminating from consideration in this book all famiHes whose incomes, either in money or its equivalent, are less than $1000, because we are convinst that no supplemental expenditure of brain and muscle can enable them to rise to the level of social efficiency." And again: $1200 "is more nearly correct than $1000 as the financial minimum for social efficiency." This standard set for 1913 would have to be nearly doubled to meet the need of 19 19. Assuming that not all the budget items need to be increast at the same rate as food, rent, etc., it would be a safe approximation to say that these figures, instead of being $1000 and $1200 in 1918-19, would be at least $1800 and $2000. This is setting a standard which many will call too high, but it involves the social efficiency of a family and not of a single teacher. For several reasons we must begin to think more in terms of a compensation for teachers which will permit the support of a family. The holding of any other position in the face of the growing tendency for "equal pay for equal work," much strengthened by the war, would mean the automatic elimination from the work of teaching of men, particularly men desirous of family responsibilities. Omitting the question of social efficiency — a term as yet indefinite and much debated as an aim of education and as a standard of living — a teacher can live, i.e., remain physically alive, on much less than $1800, or even $1000 — the tentative standard set by the National Education Association. Jn fact, this feat is being yearly done by approximately 20,000 teachers on less than $500 a year, while several thousand of these jugglers of human destiny do it on less than $300. Unless this last figure is supplemented by some other form of work, these teachers live on $5 . 75 a week. Imagine the budget of such a teacher. Start with $5.75 for the week, provide for board, room rent, laundry — the items which must be met every week — and plan to save enough for clothes, shoes, the trip or trips to the county institute, a newspaper, magazines, dentist and doctor bills, and set aside the remainder for a quiet rest during part of the summer, or a summer course at the State normal school, an occasional trip to some nearby spot of historic, scenic, or civic interest, a few small donations to » Bruere, Increasing Home Efficiency, p. 27. Macmillan. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 641 friends, church, or charity, and some margin of savings to be invested in a Liberty Bond or deposited in a savings bank. Long before the above, none too adequate, hst of expenses are met in this imaginative budget we are made to reaUze that these thousands of teachers in all probability are compelled to prepare their own meager and monotonous meals, they do all their own laundry, make many of their clothes, and wear what they do have until they are noticeably behind the mode and worn to shabbiness. They will have to have sound teeth and good health and forego all sources of professional advancement or recrea- tion. They must suffer the constant mortification which comes from inability to assist with the support of religious and social activities in the community and deny themselves the privilege of forming the "thrift habit of saving" which they are expected to teach. The National War Labor Board, in an exhaustive inquiry into the cost of living in Schenectady, set $15 as a minimal weekly amount upon which a girl can live. About 60 per cent^ of the teachers of the country are teaching this year for less than the $780 which this minimum calls for, to say nothing of the expenses which a teacher must meet which are not necessary for the worker in a factory. Only about 20 per cent of the teachers of the United States receive a salary of over $1200, the minimum for social efficiency set in 1913, and if this were raised to $1500 for 1918-19, there would be but about 6 per cent able to reach it, while if it were raised to $1800 it would reduce this per- centage to but 2I per cent. In no other work is the maximal efficiency of the workers more necessary than in teaching, and yet by national niggardliness we make it impossible for about four out of every five of our teachers to reach even the minimum of efficiency, with the maximum far out of reach even for most of these more fortunate few. The American people are expecting more of teachers now than ever before and many of these expectations are along Unes which cost teachers more to meet than at any previous time, and yet teachers' salaries are lower in purchasing power than they were twelve years ago. The answers received from teachers at work under present condicions^ indicate that the median percentage of salary used for necessary expenses is very nearly 100 per cent, of which only about 15 per cent was spent on expenses other than "personal living expenses." The condition is shown in another Hght when total expenses are computed from the cost of "room and board" as given by the superintendents in 310 cities, and compared with the maximal salaries offered in the same cities (Table XLIII). In 48 per cent (practically one-half) of the cities reporting, the teachers would be compelled to spend 100 per cent or more of their salaries in order to live. This means that no matter how long the teachers in such cities continue » An estimate based on the distribution of salaries for 1918-19, as given in Table IV, p. 552. " Studies "ja and ^b in chapter ii, p. 613. 642 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION in the work, no matter how much extra training they take, they cannot hope for a maximal salary which will defray expenses without cutting down the standard of living. The condition would be infinitely worse if we assumed that teachers should have the same margin for savings on their investments which we take for granted in all other investments. Salary schedules for teachers must be revised and in the light of present demands upon teachers and the present cost of living. b). Are teachers better paid than other workers? — There are several reasons for the popular idea that teachers are "well-paid holders of easy jobs, with easy hours, and long vacations." 1. Teachers' salaries are usually divided into eight or nine installments and consequently seem from 25 to 33J per cent higher than they really are. 2. Salaried people are always adjudged better off by wage earners, because $75 a month sounds better than $18 . 75 a week or than $3 . 12 a day. 3. Six hours a day seems to many people to be a small number of work- ing hours. This compares very favorably with the hours kept by business men, lawyers, bankers and others, and with the growing tendency of several of the labor unions to advocate six- and even five-hour days. But when from two to four hours is added for "home work" in preparation for the work of the next day (ever a new situation to the progressive teacher), the teacher's day becomes longer than that of most workers. 4. Teachers have long vacations, but living expenses go on during those vacations just the same and often increase if the teacher spends part of the time in self-improvement. If she has to turn to some other form of work it isn't a vacation, and if she doesn't she usually begins the school year in debt, and so reduces her income for the next year. 5. Teaching has never entirely recovered from the idea that it is a good occupation for the local boys and girls to follow who can board at home and consequently work for less salary. These and other points of view give an erroneous idea of the adequacy of teachers' pay. Assuming that teaching is a profession (the amount of training required does not as yet justify this assumption, but the tendency is decidedly in that direction), it is interesting to compare the salaries of teachers with other professions. The average salary for all teachers in the United States in 19 18, according to the Commissioner of Education's report, was $630.64. The median salary of 76,775 teachers in elementary, inter- mediate, and high schools in 320 cities over 10,000 population in 1918 was only $869.34.^ The ministry is seldom, if ever, cited as a highly paid profession, and yet the median salary for Episcopal clergymen in this country in 19 18 was $1218 . 50,^ between $400 and $500 more than the median salary for teachers without considering the additional value of a'free parsonage. » Teachers' Salaries and Costs of Living in 1918, p. 58. • Preliminary Report oj the Joint Commission on the Support of the Episcopal Clergy. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 643 The Massachusetts Institute of Technology took a census of the three classes of 1893, 1894, and 1896 ten years after graduation and found the median salaries to be $3410, $2430, and $2540.^ Almost no salary schedules, even for high-school teachers who have as much or more training, provide TABLE LVIII Income Statistics of Graduates in Engineering from a Western State University* Year Out of Number Highest Lowest Average Percentage above Percentage below College Reporting Income Income Income Average Average I 166 $ 4,000 $ 150 $ 884 40 60 2 152 7,000 400 1,115 28 72 3 136 4,000 300 1,225 34 66 4 119 4,500 600 1,379 31 69 5 94 5,000 420 1,498 32 68 6 80 4,000 600 1,596 48 52 7 73 3,400 720 1,697 48 52 8 63 5,000 650 1,786 47 53 9 53 7,000 840 1,996 38 62 10 50 8,300 1,020 2,296 30 70 II 43 10,300 800 2,530 28 72 12 34 13,200 800 2,819 26 74 13 35 20,000 900 3,127 21 79 14 30 40,000 900 3,927 13 87 15 31 33,000 1,000 3,884 13 87 16 28 21,800 800 4,252 II 89 17 25 27,500 t... 3,440 16 84 18 23 37,000 1,000 4,671 13 87 19 21 27,000 1,500 4,663 19 81 20 17 23,000 2,COO 5,946 24 76 21 17 33,000 2,100 7,734 29 71 22 16 42,500 2,100 8,006 19 81 23 16 46,000 2,000 7,687 25 75 24 13 33,500 2,100 8,172 23 77 25 10 14,800 2,100 4,630 30 70 26 7 13,500 2,100 4,671 14 86 -7 5 19,700 1,500 6,340 20 80 28 , 5 22,500 1,500 6,980 20 80 29 3 4,200 3,000 3,567 33 67 30 3 4,500 3,000 3,833 67 . 33 31 3 4,500 3,000 4,075 75 25 32 3 4,500 3,700 3,983 33 67 S3 2 5,000 3,700 4,350 SO 50 34 I 5,000 S,ooo 5,000 0 0 35 I 5,000 5,000 5,000 0 0 * From Engineering News (September 9, 1915), page 505. t Indefinite loss reported for this year. for a maximum salary at the end of ten years equal to the lowest of these median salaries. The class of 1908 of the same school took a canvass of its members in June, 1910 — two years after graduation — ^and from 126 replies found that the median salary was $1206. A year later, from 141 replies the same class had a median salary of $1409. » Technology Review for 1915. 644 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Table LVIII, showing the income statistics of graduates in engineering from a western state university, tells a story very unlike the one which a similar table for teachers would tell. In this table it is easy to see a high positive correlation between salary and experience, with an average annual increment of $200 for each of the first fifteen years. Table LIX gives the average annual earnings of medical graduates of Harvard University since 1901 by years after graduation, as well as the TABLE LIX Average Annual Earnings of Medical Graduates of Harvard University* Years of Practice 1 901 1902 1903 1904 1 90s 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 I $ 866 $ 787 $ 541 $ 362 $ 625 $ 502 $ 355 $ 533 $ 425 1237 2 827 io8q 790 995 773 826 588 1250 874 1083 3 1181 1539 1412 , 1295 995 1262 1353 1025 1370 1578 4 1505 1694 1720 1566 1559 1765 1963 1575 1632 1835 5^ 2027 1556 1966 1981 1818 2359 2347 1847 2150 6' 2341 1837 2333 2277 2347 2997 3202 2360 7 2527 2161 2654 2967 3043 3650 3545 8 300 J* 2491 3155 3042 3337 4332 9 3560 2900 3616 3604 4500 10 3524 2963 4135 4535 II 3«85 3691 4604 12 4422 4130 13 4680 Max. No. of Men 38 39 29 39 33 26 29 29 25 26 * From training rewards of the physician " Cabot." Figures compiled from Harvard University in 1914 on the average annual earnings of Lawyers and Doctors. Years out of College I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 No. of Replies (I)........ Law — ave. 694 609 497 411 317 249 162 112 62 40 earning. . . . Med. — ave. 664 mo 1645 2150 2668 3118 3909 4426 5321 5325 earning 623 909 1301 1681 2005 2410 2935 3227 3636 3789 (i) No. of replies only for lawyers. earnings of the graduates of its law courses according to the number of years out of college. The median salaries for teachers in Section A, which would correspond most nearly with the salaries of Harvard graduates, is $823 for elementary, $999 intermediate, and $1139 high school. Chart IV gives the average yearly compensation of 4650 members of the American Society of Civil Engineers by geographical location and in five- year periods of experience. It makes an interesting but not very cheerful comparison with the situation shown in Table VIII, showing the median salaries of different sections of the United States. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 645 The discouraging contrast presented by these figures from other pro- fessions would be softened, we are told, when we compare teachers with the workers outside of the professions. This is in a way as unfair to teachers as the other comparison, since in this comparison we shall have to CHART IV 911000 110 000 $11000 $10 000 '0 1-5 6-10 Tears of Experience disregard the thousands of teachers who are sufficiently trained to be called professional. Table LX shows the union scale of wages in a number of occupations in the larger industrial cities in each of the geographical regions. The 646 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION V cities were selected by taking the data for the first two cities reported in each section and may be considered typical, since the unions tend to standardize the wage and so offset industrial differences or differences in location. Comparing the average^ wages from Group C, since they are below the median and consequently conservatively safe, with the salary of elementary teachers, it is seen that it is worth, per year, $394 more to carry bricks than to train children, $363 more to mould dough for bread than to mould boys and girls into citizens, $890 more to hammer hot iron than to hammer ideals, and $1024 more to build frameworks for buildings than frameworks for characters. These are all occupations requiring relatively little training. Most of them are learned by a pay-producing apprentice system, which is much shorter in duration than the 6 to 8 years above the elementary school which are demanded of teachers in most of our cities and many of our states. The longer preparation demanded of teachers is also wholly a period of expense, since it is becoming so exacting of time that it is rela- tively impossible to follow any gainful occupation during the period of preparation. The Department of Labor made, during 19 18 and 19 19, a very thoro investigation of the living conditions of the workers in ship-building cities over the United States.^ These cities included four of the five geographical districts used in this salary study and so furnish an accurate basis for comparison. Except in the southern section, the average salaries do not show much variation, due, undoubtedly, to the effect of government regula- tion. These salaries, while they cover the expenses of families, represent the earnings of individuals and are higher in all cases by from $300 to $650 than the median salaries for elementary teachers, and higher by $^50 to $350 than the median salaries of high-school teachers in all sections except the far western. The average for all these workers is $1411, more than double the average salary for teachers of the United States. Comparing this average with the average salary for teachers in cities of over 100,000 and between 50,000 and 100,000 population, since a majority of the cities used in the ship-building study fall in these classes, we find that the shipyard worker received $475 (51 per cent) more per year than the elementary school teacher. The $1411 average salary for shipyard workers is only $104 less than the median salary for high-school teachers in cities of over 100,000 and $129 more than the median salary for high-school teachers in cities between 50,000 and 100,000. The teachers in these high schools have spent a minimum of eight years above the elementary grades, representing an investment in time and money of $10,000 or $15,000, while many of the shipyard workers did not finish the elementary school, with a vocational training period less, on an average, than one quarter as long as that of the high-school teacher. ' Average found for each item for the two cities representing the group. 'Table XLI, p, 595. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 647 ^ !fi -s 13 "e bi^' to S^ .8^ t^ .X-^ ^ ?l^ in fO '^ M M r- «» "^ W H H M H H *^ M I-l ^ . ^0 1" s 00 ;:2B 8^ o IS j20 CO 00 00 vO O ro ■* fO CO «^ ^vg >o 00 «o lo 00 CO W M Tj- 1-1 Tt 10 10 Ol 00 VO VO Ol O »».vO 10 M M to CO Ol M M t^ l>.00 00 VO «^ 000 OOvOOOv t^Ov lovo O »o 10 10 -^ irt N 10 10 O Tt VO Ol CO o Ol lOM 00 •* GO ■* r^ M r- O 5 CO .10 M CO VO VO CO CM 00 M 1^ O »o t>. covO CO 000 «^0 M °i-or ^ s 3 s ^3 OS J3 CO •— < u •Sa -ll S| S| 5 11 Jill. 56 i^w K^ ^3s 55 s:^ ;^ ;^a; c3 O 00* O i I 21 X •i 3 S^ o w-d :-^ I ^^^ p4 < p . I O 648 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The investigations of the Railroad Wage Commission are particularly significant for comparison with the economic situation of teachers. There were over two million workers included in the different branches of railroad CHART V CHART SHOWING COMPARISON OF TEACHERS' SALARIES IN SECTION "C" WITH THE UNION SCALE OF WAGES FOR CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS IN THE SAME SECTION AS INDICATED BY THE AVERAGE OF THE WAGES PAID IN CHICAGO AND CLEVELAND. SALARY IN HUNDREDS OF DOLLARS Machinists Lathers Bricklayers Inside wircmen Workers, structural iron Blacksmiths Machine tenders (printing) Compositors (English) Glaziers Plumbers Carpenlers Hodcarriers Bakers High School Teachers Intermediate Teachers , Elementary Teachers I. Section C includes Ohio, 111., Ind., Mich., and Wis. a. Taken from Table LX. service and their work was very essential to the successful carrying on of the war. Consequently when the problem of adequate pay for the railroad workers was presented for settlement it was necessary that the matter be thoroly investigated and a settlement based on justice and sound economics TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 649 be made. The report of the Railroad Wage Commission gives the results of a careful study of wages and the cost of living, and contains much which is of interest to teachers. The average annual salary for teachers in the United States in 19 18-19 is $630.64.^ The average annual salary actually earned by all employees of all Class I railroads in the United States during 191 7 was $1006 — $375, or 60 per cent more than teachers received a year later.2 In order to make them more comparable in point of time, the average annual salary of these railroad employees was calculated to be TABLE LXI Table Showing Advance in Salary from 191 5 to 1919 in the Sixteen Lowest Paid Branches of the Railroad Service* Occupation 1. Clerks below $900 p. a. (except teleg- rapher clerks) 2. Messengers and attendants 3. Mechanics' helpers and apprentices 4. Section men 5. Other unskilled laborers 6. Other men in const, gangs and work trains 7. Station service employeesf '. . . 8. Yard switch tenders 9. Other yard employees 10. Enginehouse men 11. Crossing flagmen and gatemen 12. Drawbridge operators 13. Floating equipment employees 14. Pohcemen and watchmen 15. Other transportation employees. . . : 16. All other employees Salary December iqis Per Month Per Year $54 36 50 37 46 $650.04 434-04 604.68 452.16 557-28 514-56 602 . 64 719.88 617.40 678.96 475 08 663 . 96 65532 709 . 80 624.00 606 . 36 Salary December 1918 Per Month Per YeaF $77 56 72 57 67 62 72 84 73 80 59 78 77 84 73 72 $930 . 60 674.04 871.20 692. 16 806.52 754-56 871.20 1015.20 884.40 964.44 715.08 947-52 930 . 60 1015.20 884.40 871.20 * From Report of the Railroad Wage Commission, April 30, 1918. Data for 1915, P- 98; for 1918; p. 20 t The foUowing are excluded from this classification: clerks, $900 p. a. and upwards; clerks below. $900 p.a.; telegrapher clerks; agent telegraphers; station agents (non-telegraphers); station masters and assistants; policemen and watchmen. $1137 for 1918,3 provided the same number of men were employed for the year and at the rate they were receiving December, 19 17. This is $500, or 79 per cent more than the average for teachers. The true comparison has not yet been given, for there is the further consideration that the last figure does not include the increase in wages given during 19 18, which in many cases would cause the 79 per cent to become more than 100 per cent in excess of the average salary of teachers for the country. If the workers in the sixteen lowest paid branches of the railroad service in i9i8,'» shown in Table LXI, are compared with teachers in 19 18, we » "Report of the Bureau of Education," N.E.A. Bulletin, April, 1919, p. 14. » Report of the Railroad Wage Commission, April 30, 1918, p. 100. i Ibid., p. 102. * Railroad Wage Commission, April 30, 1918, p. 98. 650 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION find, when their 19 15 wages are increast according to the scale of increase^ adopted by the Railroad Wage Commission, only two groups receiving less than $700 a year, viz., "messengers and attendants" and "section men." These groups are $43 .40 and $61.52 higher than the average salary for all teachers. Where will you find people who beheve that teachers who should represent a maximum of professional training in order to do their work well, should be compared with these two groups which represent TABLE LXII Number of Income Returns Filed for 1916 by Certain Occupations Compared WITH the Total Number of Persons Engaged in Such Occupations, as Listed in the Census of 1910* Occupations Architects Authors, editors, reporters, etc Clergymen Engineers, civil, mining, etc Lawyers and judges Medical profession — physicians, surgeons, ocu- lists, dentists, nurses, and others Public service, civil Public service, military Theatrical profession — actors, singers, musi- cians Teachers — Kindergarten to university, and school and college officials Agriculturists — farmers, stockraisers, orchard- ists, etc Real-estate brokers, agents, and salesmen .... Stock and bond brokers Brokers, all others Commercial travelers Insurance agents and solicitors Limibermen Manufacturers Merchants and dealers, storekeepers, jobbers, commission merchants, etc Mine owners and operators Saloonkeepers Theatrical business — owners, managers, etc. . . All other business No. of Returns Filed in 1916 No. of Persons as per Census of 1910 Percentage Filing Returns 1,419 16,613 8-54 2,529 38,750 6.53 1,671 118,018 1.42 6,628 58,963 11.24 21,273 112,149 18.97 20,348 291,942 6.97 2,992 382,138 .78 5,459 77,153 7.08 914 167,607 .55 2,919 614,905 .47 14,407 6,047,615 .24 6,146 125,862 4.88 2,839 13,729 20.68 7,479 36,016 20.77 12,274 268,522 4.57 7,243 88,463 8.19 . 1,319 12,263 10.76 23,631 235,107 10.05 59,363 1,246,077 436 2,554 14,287 17.88 1,311 68,215 1.92 811 31,418 2.58 18,605 101,868 18.26 * Treasury Dept., U.S. Internal Revenue, Statistics of Income, 1916, p. 7. work calling for about the minimum of necessary preparation, or even intelligence to any great degree? Moreover, they have a membership recruited largely from boys, cripples, and old men for the one, and from illiterates and immigrant or cheap imported labor in the other. Thousands of these workers have not completed the elementary school, thousands are unable to read or write, and- tens of thousands cannot speak the English language and have to be supervised by one of their own nationality, and yet they are better cared for financially than the teachers of the nation. » Railroad Wage Commission, April 30, 191 8, p. 20. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 651 The Pullman porter who during 191 7 received $40 a month and the bonus and extra salary from the company, had a salary of $568. This was increast by "tips"^ and reduction on meals until in many instances these men were receiving compensations amounting to upwards of $1000 — better wages by two or three hundred dollars than 400,000 teachers received during the same year; Table LXII, showing the number of income returns filed for 19 16 by certain occupations, compared with the total number of persons engaged in such occupations as listed in the census of 19 10, shows from another angle whether teachers are overpaid in comparison with other occupations. The number filing returns indicates the number who had for 191 6 an income of $3000 or over. Only one class has a smaller percentage filing income returns than teachers, and that is the "agriculturists — farmers, stockraisers, orchardists, etc." This is explained by the fact that so much of the farmer's incorne is in growth of stock, aging of trees, improvement of the land, and so little of it in money transactions; that they receive in "economic value" — ^food consumed, articles exchanged for — ^incomes in excess of estiniates which are based entirely on money deposited and spent. According to these returns the chances that you — a teacher — might earn an income of $3000 or over are about ij times greater if you should become an actor, ij times greater by entering pubHc civil service, 3 times greater in the clergy, 4 times greater for saloonkeeping, 5 times greater in the theatrical business, 9 times greater in storekeeping, commercial traveling or real estate agency, 14 to 20 greater in publishing, medicine, military service, and insurance agents, and from 20 to 44 times greater in " any other occupation" of those making income returns. What a "pull away from teaching" facts such as these must have upon the ambitious man and woman, and how httle "pull toward teaching" the people of this country are willing to give in the shape of adequate salaries! The following wage scale when put into a yearly wage makes the median salary for elementary teachers in New York City $1279 seem at least as small as it really is. NEW WAGE SCALE* (Prepared by Building Trades Employers' Association) The latest scale of wages issued by the Building Trades Employers' Association follows: Asbestos Workers, Insulators $6 . 40 Bricklayers 7 . 00 Carpenters, all Boroughs 6 . 00 Cement Masons 5 . 60 Composition Roofers, Waterproof ers 4.75 Elevator Constructors 6 . 80 Electrical Workers 6 . 00 Hoisting Engineers . 6 . 50 * From the New York Times, May i8, 1919. ( 6S2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION NEW WAGE SCALE — Continued House Shorers 5 . oo Housesmiths, Structural 7 . 00 Housesmiths, Finishers • 6.40 Marble Cutters and Setters 6 . 00 Marble Carvers 6 . 50 Metallic Lathers ■ 6 . 00 Mosaic Workers ' 5 . 50 Painters 6 . 00 Plasterers, Brooklyn and Queens 7 . 00 Plasterers, other Boroughs 6.50 . Plumbers 6 . 00 Sheet Metal Workers 6 . 00 Slate and Tile Roofers , 6 . 50 Steamfitters 6 . 00 Stone Cutters 6.75 Stone Setters 7 . 00 Tile Layers 6.50 The lowest of these wages provides a salary which is $207 .75, or 16 per cent, more than the median salary for elementary teachers, while the wage for bricklayers, housesmiths, plasterers, and stone setters is $812 (63 per cent) more than the teachers. LABORERS AND THEIR HIRE SOME ODIOUS COMPARISONS WITH THE EARNINGS OF EDUCATED FOLK In our most expensive New England city, a decade ago, drivers of wagons or carts which transported coal from its storage yards to the sidewalks of the dwellings where it was to be burned workt ten hours a day, with Saturday half-holidays from April to October. They received from $12 weekly for a driver of one horse to $14 weekly for the driver of a three-horse truck. If the schedule of hours and wages which the drivers now propose — and propose to enforce — for the eleven months beginning May i, 1919, goes into effect, drivers will receive from $24 to $30 for a week of substantially forty-four hours. That is, they will work eight hours a day except on Saturdays, when the day will end at noon. Ten holidays a year will be recognized, on which the men will rest at full pay, or will work at double pay, the same being true of Sundays. Overtime work in general will be paid at the rate of time and a half. A coal driver of the highest class in Boston, then, will receive a salary of $1560 a year for working about as many hours a day as the average office worker, for less time than most teachers are required to give. Overtime might easily add to this the $140 necessary to bring it up to $1700 a year. If we speak in terms of remuneration, we shall no longer speak of the man who drives the coal wagon with anything but respect. As for "coal heavers," their wages have experienst a similar advance, and they get $24 a week instead of the $9 they received twenty years ago. Comparisons, with their damnable iteration, are still necessary. The man who, after eight to ten years of continuous study above the so-called common school grades, graduates from the university, may fortunately secure a position as instructor in his college at $1250 a year, this being on a new and "modern" schedule. If he is not satisfied with that remuneration he may take a six weeks' course in chauffering, and get a position at the wheel of a coal truck, which will pay him $1500 and possibly $1700 a year. Or, if he is an idealist, he may study three years longer and receive as a minister of the Gospel a salary of $1000 or $1100 a year. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 653 This reprint from the Hartford Times appeared in the New York Times of May 18, 1919. During the present year many articles and editorials calling attention to the financial needs of teachers have appeared in the leading newspapers of the country. The Pictorial Review, the Literary Digest, the Independent, the Nation^ and others featured articles on this subject and widely advertised them. The fact that these important moulders of public opinion are interested in the schools and because of that interest, concerned about the pay of teachers, gives evidence that the financial exploitation of teachers by an unthinking, because uninformed, public is about at an end. The purpose in making comparisons with wage earners in other fields of work is to show that teaching is not so financially attractive as many lines of work requiring almost no preparation. Some people have been trained to think that there are other rewards to teaching which compensate for the enforced poverty which it imposes. This does not take into account the elements of ambition and social pride — ^legitimate incentives to progress. It is not always a matter of whether a teacher can live upon the salary paid, but whether this same individual can live as well and support his family as well on that salary as he would be able to do in some other work. It is the answering of this question in the negative, so many times, which takes out of teaching the ambitious and progressive man or woman — the ones who should above all others be kept in the work if possible. When the salaries of teachers are raised to a place where the men and women who prepare for the work can be happy in it, proud of it, freed from constant financial worry and able to pay their share of the social and civic activities of the city in which they work, then, and only then, will teaching attract the kind of men and women who should and can instruct the citizens of tomorrow. From an ^xtensive study of statistics obtained from a typical New York City Draft Board,^ it was found that elementary teachers in New York City are paid practically the same wage as butchers, chauffeurs, clerks, machinists, tailors, and waiters, almost none of which require any special preparation, and in fact, the returns would indicate that a majority of the followers of these other lines of work have not completed the elementary schools. It is further shown that the financial rewards of becoming an actor, an engineer, a lawyer, a manager, a manufacturer, merchant or salesman are very much greater than those of teaching; in fact, the median salaries for actors, lawyers, managers, and manufacturers are in excess of the median salaries even for high-school teachers — the best paid high-school teachers in the United States. These figures would be even more disparaging to teachers » Local Draft Board 135, New York City. Dr. N. L. Engelhardt, Chairman. Permission was obtained from Provost Marshal General Crowder to use the data providing that, it should be taken in such a way that no individual could be identified. Over 2000 questionnaires, selected at random from both registrations, were used in the study. 654 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION if the earnings for the men of the first and second draft had not been taken one and two years respectively before the salaries of teachers. These data also showed a rather consistent advance in salary with increase in age except for certain occupations where age affects the limit of maximal efficiency, such as laborers, chauffeurs, clerks, etc. There is a stronger tendency for salary to increase with increase in the number of years of schooling. There is also a very noticeable break with the groups receiving salaries over $2000, in regard to the amount of school- ing. In such groups, the median amounts of schooling are consistently over ten years, showing that even two years of high-school training is a good financial investment. If individual cases are considered, rather than the medians of groups, it is readily seen that the range of salary for the different occupations is much greater than for teachers. A stable sweeper earns $1600 a year, a news- paper route man $1750, a riding teacher $1800, a bootblack $2000, a waiter $2300 plus tips, a junk dealer $2500 and a bartender $3000 plus tips. None of these men have more than an elementary education, and three of them had only four years of schooling. These are not typical of the groups, but show possibilities of financial reward which are not available to the large majority of elementary teachers. From these results it is evident that in New York City the teachers are not paid as well as the followers of other occu- pations with less training. Even tho New York City has done so well in the salaries paid its teachers, in comparison with salaries paid elsewhere, it, nevertheless, pays them relatively little when compared to the schedule of pay which exists for other work in the city. This part of the study makes evident the principle that salary schedules should be adjusted to the cost of living in the particular locality. This is a principle which has not been consciously used in establishing schedules of pay for teachers and yet is one which cannot be ignored by any city without putting a serious handicap upon that city in its competition for better trained teachers. CONCLUSIONS 1. The present educational emergency is traceable in practically all of its aspects to the insufficient salaries paid to teachers thruout the country. 2. The cost of living has more than doubled in the last three years, while the increase in teachers' salaries for the United States in the same time has been about 12 per cent. As a consequence, nearly half the teachers of the country are compelled to spend more than their salaries. 3. Teachers, as well as other salaried workers, have not had their salaries increast in anything like the same degree that other workers have. Consequently, teachers are constantly being forst to a lower standard of living and a resulting lower standard of efficiency, because they cannot meet the higher demands for rent, food, clothing, books, etc. 4. From various studies of budgets for many occupations in relation to the cost of living, it is estimated that a minimal salary of $1200 should be establisht for the entire country, and paid on the basis of twelve months. Too many teachers are living below TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 655 the margin of efficiency, when hundreds of them returned their questionnaires annotated with remarks such as: "I work in a drug store during summer," "I do house work for my room and board," "I take in sewing to meet expenses," "My summer expenses are paid by my family," "I can't save enough money to go to summer school." 5. Teachers are paid much less than the members of other professions — ministry, law, medicine, engineering, etc. The median salaries are not only larger, but the range of salaries is very much greater, thus offering more promise to the capable, the hard- working and the ambitious individual in the professions. This is lacking in teaching. 6. Teachers are paid much less than a great many of the unskilled laborers whose preparation is very much shorter, and whose expenses for "professional upkeep" are very much less. Existing salaries paid to teachers can be said to almost place a penalty upon adequate preparation, since there is no opportunity for an adequate return upon the investment of time and money necessary to the securing of that preparation. 7. A teacher's work is most effectively done when she is in good health, free from worry, able to participate in the community activities, and when she has the social respect of the community. These things make her a leader, a molder of citizens, a creator of ideals, and yet practically all these elements of success are denied a majority of teachers by the insufficient salaries paid. 8. New York City, which pays relatively high salaries when compared with other cities, in reality pays its teachers no better than the workers in many of the unskilled occupations. 9. The study of the salaries of the 2015 draft registrants shows that there is in other lines of work an increase in salary in direct relation to an increase in age, and also in relation to the increase in the amount of schooling received. 10. The additional salary received per year of increast age is much less than the additional salary received per added year of schooling; 11. Occupations which demand additional preparation, with the exception of teach- ing, received higher median salaries than those where education beyond the elementary schools is not essential. CHAPTER V SALARY SCHEDULES The principle of fixing a schedule of salaries for teachers is not a new one in education, either in European countries or in the United States. Any extensive use, however, of salary schedules is a development of the last thirty years. Thomas W. Bicknell, president of the National Educa- tion Association, advocated in his presidential address at the meeting of the Association at Madison, Wis., in 1884, the estabhshment of salary schedules in public school systems, and set forth the four following prin- ciples: 1. The best talent and largest experience will be found in our primary grades of school. 2. Oiir best primary teachers and our best high school teachers will receive equal salaries, and these the maximum. 3. A sliding scale of salaries will be adopted, based upon qualifications and experience, ranging from a minimum for beginners to the maximum for the well-establisht and success- ful instructor. 4. These salaries will never be subject to a decrease during the term of office of any incumbent.^ » Addresses and Proceedings of N.E.A,, 1884, p. 49. 656 NATIONAL; EDUCATION ASSOCIATION A few of the larger cities in the United States have had estabhsht salary schedules since before the time of the Civil War, but these are few in num- ber, and the schedules were more nearly lists of the salaries which had been paid, rather than schedules of proposed salaries to be paid. In the National Education Association Report of Salaries of Public School Teachers, the schedules of 547 cities are reported for 1905. The minimal salaries, the increases, the maximal salaries and the actual average salaries are recorded. A further study of salary schedules was made in 1913^ by the National Education Association. In 1914 the United States Bureau of Education published as Bulletin 16, "The Tangible Rewards of Teaching," in which all the data, available at that time, on the question of teachers' salaries was presented. These two reports give the salary schedules of many of the typical cities of the country, and indicate a decided increase not only in the number of cities having schedules but also in the adequacy of the schedules themselves. In 19 18 Commissioner Claxton of the United States Bureau of Education collected data on the salary schedules in 108 cities. In the present study 237 cities of the 365 replying answered the question "Do you have an establisht salary schedule " in the affirmative.^ Since this is a representative sampUng of the cities thruout the country, it indicates the extremely rapid recent growth of the salary schedule principle in the United States. Its development has been so rapid that in a great many cases it has been the result of temporary expediency, rather than of a conscious desire to further the progress of education. In a great many instances where salary schedules have been advocated or secured thru the efforts of teachers' organizations, they have been primarily for the purpose of establishing higher salaries and securing them more uniformly thruout the teaching group, and also to guard against favoritism or "local pull" in the granting of higher salaries. In many cases, where the salary schedules have been advocated and adopted by school boards, it has been for the purpose of establishing minimal and maximal salaries at the lowest figures possible, and for the purpose of safe- guarding themselves against having to pay more than these figures to any individual teachers. This at the same time safeguarded them from any accusations of favoritism. The large number of superintendents and school officials who report that their salary schedules are "no longer ade- quate" or "are being revised" or admit their insufficiency by the granting of special bonuses, would indicate that the above described conditions are true. Such returns, as those obtained from the state superintendents, reported in chapter iii, would indicate the strong tendency to adjust teach- ers' salaries to the cost of living, and, in addition, make them commensurate with the kind of work done. In order that this may be done, certain principles governing the making of salary schedules must be evolved, and » N^.A. Report on Teachers' Salaries, Part III. » See Table XXVII. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 657 quite generally accepted. As a means of throwing some light upon this problem, some of the more recent advances in other countries will be given. The important part which the French schools have played in the devel- opment of national morale is now well recognized. During the early part of the war, the efficiency of the schools was seriously threatened by the heavy enlistment of the teachers in the armies of defense. In addition to government regulations relative to keeping schools in session, salary sched- ules were provided which materially increast the financial reward. A national attempt was made to keep the schools at as high a degree of efficiency as they had been at the outbreak of the war. During the early part of the war England met its educational emer- gency, evidenst in one way among others by an extreme shortage of compe- tent teachers, by the granting of bonuses, which in no cases exceeded 10 per cent, whereas living expenses had increast several times that. This plan not proving adequate, further provisions were taken in the form of restric- tions against increast rents. As this proved no more effective than the bonus, and was in reality but a small bonus in another form, a departmental committee was appointed to inquire into the principles which should deter- mine the construction of scales of salaries for teachers in the elementary schools. This committee advocated the estabhshment of a minimal salary of $500 for men, and $450 for women. Several schedules were proposed which went from these minimal to maximal salaries of $1050 to $1500, by varying increments over varying periods of time at varying rates. The British colony of Cape of Good Hope has accompHsht much more along the line of adequate salary schedules than has England. In its Educational Ordinance of September, 19 17, all teachers are divided into three classes (A, B, C), according to the amount of education and the certificate held. Salary schedules vary for these classes of teachers. They are made low for Class C, the lowest class, in order to put a premium upon more training and the securing of better certificates. Provision is also made for leaves of absence for advanst study, and for additions to salaries where any teacher holds a higher certificate than the nature of the work calls for. Other elements of flexibility and rewards are offered to the ambitious teacher, in the form of pensions, expenses home for vacations, if the railroad fare exceeds $10,^ etc. The salaries for principal teachers in schools with more than 150 pupils vary according to the size of the schools from $2000 to $3500 for men and $1300 to $2050 for women in high schools; from $1600 to $2500 for men and $1150 to $1600 for women in intermediate schools; and from $1325 to $2250 for men and $900 to $1550 for women in primary schools. The regular teachers vary according to their classification as follows: • Salaries are all stated in terms of dollars instead of pounds in order that they may be more easily com- pared. 658 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MEN TEACHERS Grade A. — Standards C, D, E: $1100 rising by three annual increments of $100 and twelve of $62 . 50 to $2150. Grade B. — Standards A, B, VI and VII: $800 rising by three annual increments of $100 and twelve of $42.50 to $1610. Grade C. — All lower classes, including fifth: $600 rising by three annual increments of $75 and twelve of $42.50 to $1335. WOMEN TEACHERS Grade A. — Standards C, D, E: $800 rising by three annual increments of $50 and twelve of $31 , 25 to $1325. Grade B. — Standards A, B, VI and VII: $600 rising by three annual increments of $50 and twelve of $25 to $1050. Grade C. — All lower classes, including fifth: $500 rising by three annual increments of $50 and twelve of $25 to $950. The standard which has been set by the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope is particularly noteworthy when it is realized that these salaries are better in proportion to the cost of Uving in that Colony than the same figures would indicate in this country. An estimate of this may be had by knowing that "board and room" for a teacher in the various govern- ment boarding schools of the Colony is estimated at about $200 per year. In Canada teachers' salaries is a subject of much discussion at the present time. From a study made by George J. Trueman of Stanstead,^ Quebec, we learn that for the year 191 5-16 the average salary of 631 Catholic women teachers was $198 per year; the average salary for 1564 Protestant women teachers was $563; the average salary of 400 CathoUc men teachers was $793 and of 136 Protestant men teachers, $1477. In the Province of Quebec from the same study, we find that the average monthly salary for twelve months for 191 5-16 was as follows: Rural elementary teachers $24 . 27 Elementary schools in towns 34-73 Rural model schools 40 . 70 Rural academies — grades 8 to 11. 61 . 03 Suburban academies — grades i to 7 47 • 22 In some of the western provinces the shortage of teachers has become so acute that they are advertising in eastern Canadian papers for teachers, with a provincial government guarantee of $840 as a minimal salary in rural schools. This is tending to elevate the standard thruout the whole dominion, and will, undoubtedly, result not only in the better payment of teachers, but also in the securing of more adequate preparation. In the United States, in addition to the change mentioned above regarding the making of salary schedules more numerous in the cities of all sizes thruout the country, there has been a rapidly developing tendency to adjust the salary schedules to various divisions of school work. This » George J. Trueman, *' School Funds— Province of Quebec," Teachers College Contributions to Education No. 106. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 659 has resulted in the formation of many very elaborate and cumbersome salary schedules. Certain communities have, however, reacted against this tendency and have gone to the other extreme of establishing minimal and maximal salaries for elementary, intermediate, and high-school teachers, with practically no differentiation of salary within these groups for any other item than length of teaching experience. In order to illustrate the salary schedule situation as it is at the present time, several actual schedules will be printed as they were forwarded to the National Education Associa- tion during the early part of 1919. These schedules are not submitted as models, either of what schedules should or should not be. They were selected from the schedules sent in from cities within each size group. Thy are not in all cases even typical of the salary schedules within the cities of that size, but they are all worthy of study for one or more of the principles of schedule making which they illustrate. The standards set in some of these schedules, particularly those of Newark, Highland Park, and Cleve- land Heights promise well for the solution of the salary problem, since they show what was actually being done at the close of the year 1918-19. No elaborate criticism of any of these schedules will be attempted, since the standards and the rules set forth are determined by local conditions. When all teachers and school patrons are intelligently interested in the permanence and efl&ciency of the educational system, it will be much easier to esta,blish salary schedules which more closely approximate ideal conditions. It is one purpose of this study to so present the problem of teachers' salaries and the arrangement of salary schedules that this neces- sary interest may be at least started, and lead to many further investigatio;is. When enough of these result in reliable data, it will be possible to take steps toward the standardization of salary schedules and the conditions under which teachers work, which are not thought possible at the present time. SALARY SCHEDULES GENERAL REGULATIONS Increases in salary shall be made September i of each year, on a basis of merit to be determined by Committee on Teachers and Instruction. PRINCIPALS AND SPECIAL TEACHERS The Principals, Librarian, teachers of Music, Drawing, Household and Manual Arts, Physical Education, or any other so-called "special subjects" are not on a regular schedule, but shall receive such compensation as the Board of Education, after considering the recommendations of the Committee on Teachers and Instruction, shall determine. REGULAR TEACHERS 1. Regular teachers shall receive such compensation for their initial year as their training, length, and quality of experience, and the nature of their duties shall warrant. 2. An annual increase from $0 to $100 shall be granted to each regular teacher in the system, who is not a teacher of so-called "special subjects." There shall be an additional ncrease of $40 upon the completion, with credit, of two full courses, previously approved 66o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION by the Supervising Principal, in a summer school. There shall also be a further increase of $40 for a second summer's course upon the same conditions. Increases will be granted in accordance with above, until final maximums have been reacht as follows: High School $1300 Junior High 1 200 Elementary School iioo Principals — High School 1500 Principals — Elementary School 1300 Adopted February 14, igig FOR MILLVALE, PA., PUBLIC SCHOOLS GRADES ONE AND SEVEN " Without experience - $65 per month One year's experience 70 per month Two years' experience . . . ■ 75 per month Three years' experience 80 per month GRADES TWO, THREE, FOUR, AND KINDERGARTEN Without experience. . . . N $55 per month One year's experience 60 per month Two years' experience » 65 per month Three years' experience 70 per month GRADES FIVE AND SIX Without experience $60 per month One year's experience 65 per month Two years' experience 70 per month Three years' experience 75 per month GRADE EIGHT Without experience $70 per month One year's experience . 75 per month Two years' experience 80 per month Three years' experience 85 per month Adopted by Board of Directors June i, igi8 Note. — When salaries have been once fixt at the opening of a school term, they will remain constant thruout that term. If a teacher should be transferred to a new grade during the school term, she will receive the salary of the grade to which she has been transferred, according to experience. OKLAHOMA CITY SALARY SCHEDULES 1919-1920 Years of Service I 2 3 4 s Grades and Kindergarten Asst. Kindergarten . . . . ^ Domestic Science $80 70 90 100 1400 1400 1200 $90 80 95 no 1500 1500 1300 $100 90 100 115 1600 1600 1400 $110 $115 Non-normal grad. 120 Normal grad. no 120 1700 1700 1500 115 125 1800 1800 1600 Manual Training Supervisors H. S. Dept. Heads H. S. Asst. Academics Prin. and Asst. Prin. of High School fixt by Board. Substitutes (Grades) $4 . 50 per day Substitutes (H. S.) 5 . 00 per day TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 66i PRINCIPAL'S SALARIES No. of Teachers, including Principal I to 6 fixt by Board 7 to lo II to 13 14 to 16 17 to 24 $1300 1400 1500 1700 Years of Service $1350 1500 1600 1800 $1400 1600 1700 1900 $1500 1700 1800 SALARY SCHEDULE FOR THE ELEMENTARY TEACHERS OF LACONIA, N.H. Effective January i, 19 18 First year $500 minimum Second year 550 " Third year 600 " Fourth year 650 " Fifth year 700 maximum A principal of a building of three or more rooms will receive $25 per year in addition to her regular salary. An additional $25 will be given to a teacher after three years' experience for taking a summer school course approved by the superintendent of schools. CLEVELAND HEIGHTS SCHEDULE (Old and New Salary Schedule) Year Old Class "A" New Class "A" High School New Class "A" Elementary Old Class "B" New Class "B" Old Class "C" New Classic" I . . $700 775 850 950 1000 IIOO 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 2000 $1000 IIOO 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 $1000 IIOO 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 $600 675 725 800 850 925 1000 1075 1150 1200 1250 1300 1400 $750 825 900 975 1050 IIOO 1175 1250 1300 1375 1450 1500 1600 $500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 IIOO 1200 $600 675 725 800 850 925 1000 1075 1 1 50 1200 2 3 4 c 6 7 8 0 ... 10 II 1250 1300 1400 12 i^ 14 Department Heads: $2400, $2500, $2600, $2700, $2800, $2900, $3000. Class "A" — Teachers having diplomas from college, or college and normal school. Class " B" — Teachers having diplomas from normal school. Class "C" — ^Teachers having diplomas from neither college nor normal school. Note. — The system is not taking any more teachers of the "C" group. 662 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SALARY SCHEDULE FOR HIGHLAND PARK SCHOOLS IN EFFECT 1917-18 Year High School Principal Principal, 26 rooms or more . . Principal, 15-25 rooms Principal, 9-14 rooms Principal, 8 rooms High School Head , High School Teacher Grade Teacher , Kindergarten Teacher , Study Room Teacher , Nurses Stenographers, Clerks, Book keepers Phone Operator Business OflScer , Supervisor of Buildings , Attendance Ofl&cer Summer School Teachers, etc. , $2400 $2640 $2880 $3120 $3360 $3600* $3840 $4000 2040 2220 2400 2580 2760 2940 3120* 3300 i860 2040 2220 2400 2580 2760 2940* 3120 1500 1680 i860 2040 2220 2400 2580* 2760 1080 1200 1320 1440 1560 1680* 1800 1500 1680 i860 2040 2220 2400 2580* 2760 1200 1320 1440 1560 1680 1800* 1080 1200 1320* 1440 1560 3Sool 3300 29401 2940 4 • 6. . . - . 3- Same as No. 8. If teaching only one session 25 per cent less. 200 pupils, if qualifications are same, same as No. 6; less than 200, same as No. 7. 960 1080 1200 1320 1440 1560* 720 840 960 600 720 840 Same as No. 4. Same as No. 4. 1080 1260 1440 1620 1800 1980 2160 Salary $720-1840 =$3.50 per day. $i20o-$i40o=$4.'so per day. $96o-$io8o=$4.oo per day. $1560 =$5.00 per day. (Based on salary already received) Janitors and Engineers 18. Assistants — Men, ab't 55 hrs. 19. Women, about 45 hrs. per wk. . 20. Stevens 21. Angell and Thomson 22. Ferris, Ford, and Willard . . . . 23. High 24. Engineers 25. Firemen, about 56 hrs. per wk . * One must be of exceptional value to be advanst beyond this point. A. Teachers considered satisfactory are to be advanst each year. Those not successful will not be re-elected. In a few cases, in w6ich the degree of success cannot be determined, teachers may be re-elected without increase. B. Absence — When a teacher is absent, all or part of the salary of said teacher for the time absent may be deducted, at the discretion of the Superintendent, with the approval of the Board of Education. C. Substitute Teachers — Substitute teachers shall be appointed by the Superintendent and reported to the Board of Education for approval. The pay of each substitute shall be fixt by the Superintendent and reported to the Board of Education for approval. Requirements — ^AU teachers must have a State Life Certificate and be citizens of the United States. Special requirements below. 1. College or university degree, ten years' experience as a teacher, five of whifch shall be as a high school principal. 2. Two years' normal course and college or university degree. Ten years' experience as a teacher, five of which shall be as a principal of a graded school. 3. Two years' normal course. Experience elsewhere to be credited about one-half. 4. College or university degree. Four years' experience as a high school teacher. 5. Twelve months' service with two weeks' vacation. 6. College degree and experience. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 663 o o CO N 0000 00 000 «000>0 00 OOiO N W HI H lo «o oio >0 Tj-00 VO vO 5 «^ >^ 8 ^ «^ >^ o o rC o o \o . 1 H H •S < \n «© 3 J2 aag 888 j: o 0^0«0^ ii^^ *—> t c^ M H IH "^ \^ ^ (■►i ll8 888 X) 000000 lO . t^ to o o HI IH l-l u «* <• H < b >< 88a 888 tm 13 o Ed «» W H hJ g as>8 888 VOVOVO MOOOO w IH W u C/2 ; bo H § I 1 IH. ^•5 : :6 o ^?>§p : JS!S-^§ggS g^Si|g;^^^" H <.^ < o o o o o o o o o o 00 O fC-* to o o o o VOVO 88^ to ■ — - 2 0 u 1 1 8 8 1 I § 8 5 8 M «5 1 1 1 M 8 mill II > CO 88888888 88 llllllll 11 ililllll II 88888888 88 ^NNWMMMM MM j H £ -o c 1 Q 1 > 0 < 3 C •0 C 1 s "o u 0 6 C Q "0 1 > 3 1- < "o 1 > I 3 .y "o 1 > 1 3 C/2 "0 1 > 1 3 _c 'S "B H 13 3 c s "0 u M n M C/2 iiii $2000 1800 1800 1800 $1800 1600 1600 1600 M M M M 3 .2 8888 >o ^ ^ ■* ^ M M M < 8888 MM MM 8888 ^ W M M $1200 IIOO IIOO IIOO c I 1 pL, c '% 2 Q < i art 1^ Ww 666 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION NEWARK SALARY SCHEDULE (Continued) NOTES 1. Head assistants and first assistants, teaching classes of the eighth grade, shall receive $ioo additional while teaching such grade. 2. First assistants and head assistants teaching the eighth grade, promoted to a grammar vice principalship, shall be paid $ioo in addition to the amount of salary they received at the time of their transfer, including the amount paid for teaching the eighth grade. 3. Kindergarten directresses in charge of kindergartens having more than four kinder- garten assistants shall receive $100 additional to the salary schedule for directresses. 4. Assistants in charge of classes for crippled children and of open air classes for anaemic children shall be paid in accordance with the schedule for assistants in elementary schools. 5. In all cases of promotion of teachers to higher positions, they shall be advanst to the next higher salary grade provided, such increase shall not change the date of the annual increase fixt prior to such promotion. 6. All teachers must serve three years as temporary teachers, upon the completion of which, if satisfactory, they shall enter upon the first year of the permanent grade. 7. All increases of salary under this schedule shall be based upon merit and efl5ciency to be ascertained as far as practicable from the ofl&cial record of the Board of Education. Such increases shall be recommended by the Superintendent and approved by the appro- priate committee. 8. Teachers absent from duty on account of furlough or other excused absence for a period in the aggregate not longer than two months in any one year shall not suffer thereby any loss of time in reaching the next higher salary grade. 9. Principals and teachers of alternating schools which have been in operation for at least one year shall receive an additional increase of 5 per cent of their salaries for such services. This does not include kindergarten directresses and assistants and teachers not having alternating classes and teachers on special schedule. 10. No salary now paid shall be reduced by reason of this schedule. ELEMENTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN MAKING SALARY SCHEDULES For convenience in discussing these elements they have been groupt under the two inclusive headings Economic Elements and Educational Elements. Many of these elements will involve principles which are rather definitely settled, others will have the prestige of common practice, while others have been applied successfully, but not as yet to teachers. A. ECONOMIC ELEMENTS I. Relation of salary schedule to wealth of community. — As long as the question of the payment of teachers remains one for local settlement it might seem that it would be somewhat influenst by the per capita wealth of the community. A casual examination of the schedules obtained from cities over the entire country might give weight to the general statement that the more wealthy and more rapidly growing communities pay larger initial salaries, and extend them to higher maximal salaries. In order to determine the degree to which the above generalization is true, the following study was made: One hundred cities were selected from the ** Financial Statistics of Cities for 1916" (Table XXXII) by taking each alternate city. Since TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 667 the cities are arranged alphabetically according to size, this gave a random sampling of the cities in the country with a population in excess of 30,000. The per capita wealth was secured on the basis of estimated true valuation over a period of years extending from 1910 to 1916. The average amount of salary per elementary teacher was also computed for the same period. The cities were then rankt according to the percentage of increase or decrease in per capita for 1916 over 1910, and also rankt according to per- centage of increase or decrease in average salary of elementary teachers during the same period. The efl&cient of correlation was then estabhsht for the 23 cities of the 100 which had complete data for both items. Spear- man's formula was used in obtaining this coefl&cient, and the result r= .038, was obtained. This coefficient indicates that for these 73 typical cities in the United States, there was during this interval of six years no associa- tion between the percentage of increase in per capita wealth and the per- centage of increase in average salary paid to elementary teachers. In other words, it was purely a matter of chance whether the city which increast most in per capita wealth paid its elementary teachers an increast salary. In fact, the actual figures show that the city which decreast most in per capita wealth and therefore rankt first or lowest in increase in per capita wealth rankt fifty-eighth in the percentage of increase in salaries to elementary teachers, while the city which rankt forty-sixth in the increase in per capita wealth, rankt first or lowest in the amount of increase given to elementary teachers. The foregoing study would con- clusively indicate that this question of increases to teachers' salaries is largely a matter of local progress, and depends more upon the development of a favorable community attitude or upon the aggressive work of a super- intendent or teachers' organization, than upon any economic development of the community. Such a study is evidence of the oft quoted statement that a community will find the means of supporting schools when convinst that it is a desirable thing to do. The second consideration under the relation of community wealth to teachers' salaries is the question of relative financial burden carried. This is more prominent in some sections of the country, particularly in the south- ern section, where many districts have a very low per capita wealth. In these districts the tax burden of supporting schools upon the same level as the more favored communities becomes so high as to be prohibitive. At least two determining conditions enter this situation. First, the lack of natural resources for certain sections of the states, and second the prin- ciple of placing such a low valuation upon the property that the tax rate seems entirely out of proportion to the property value. Readjustment of salary schedule within these communities will necessitate a change in the tax system and assistance from a larger taxation unit. In some instances, aid can be obtained from the state as a unit of taxation, but there would remain whole states where the burdens would be entirely out of proportion 668 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION to those born in other sections of the country.' The only permanent solution of the economic side of the salary problem for these sections is in some form of federal subsidy. TABLE LXIII Percentage of Total Operating Expenses Expended for Teachers' Salaries (Number of Cities Devoting Each Per Cent Indicated) Per Cent 1910-11 . 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-IS 1915-16 A B T A B T A B T A B T A B T A B T I •^i I I 40 I 2 I 1 I 43 46.:::::::'.'.'. I 3 I I I 3 4 5 2 S 7 7 5 6 II IS 10 6 8 S 7 8 5 5 9 2 .... 6 13 16 12 ■7 IS 9 10 10 8 II 10 I S 2 48 2 2 I 3 2 6 I 9 5 9. 8 10 i 8 6 2 6 4 5 2 3 7 3 2 7 9 5 10 8 II 6 7 12 9 5 9 5 7 7 3 ■ I 2 I 2 I 7 4 3 2 i I 3 6 2 I I I I 3 8 7 14 6 9 7 II 7 IS 10 lO 6 S I I I 4 5 4 4 9 7 IS 9 13 I? 18 14 10 8 t;o . . . I I I 2 I I 4 4 5 3 8 I 2 3 3 8 II 13 14 IS 2 2 3 I 2 I 2 2 4 7 I 4 s 9 12 9 14 8 18 19 13 10 12 4 4 7 4 5 2 3 2 2 I ^ I 2 i 2 3 I 3 2 2 I 10 8 3 II 10 10 3 13 9 II 12 8 S 4 8 2 3 I 2 3 2 ea 3 2 I 2 5 4 5 5 3 2 2 I 2 3 3 7 9 4 II "1 II 9 II 8 S 3 4 5 3 3 4 3 S II 7 II S 14 17 9 13 14 IS 13 10 6 6 7 4 5 I 3 S I 2 2 I 8 4 4 3 4 6 I cc 10 56.::.:::.:.. 8 e7 II s8. ::..:.::.. II 59 II 60 . . . . 3 3 3 I 2 4 I I 10 61 3 62 17 63 14 64 65. 16 66 67 . . 9 68 69 6 II 70 10 71 5 72 I 4 I 3 7? 2 1 3 2 76 :::::::::: I I I I 77 I I I I 78 I I 80... •. .... 82 8^ .. I ' I 1 I 84 I 85:"::::::: §6 I I 87 88 Medians 65 60 62 66 60 62 ^6 62 63 67 63 64 6S 61 62 67 62 63 A = Cities over 100,000. B= Cities 25,000-100,000. T = Both together. 2. Relation of salary schedules to expenditures for other purposes. — The question of determining schedules for teachers' salaries is one of the impor- tant financial problems of any city. In Table LXIII the percentage of the total operating expenses expended for teachers' salaries in all of the cities of the United States having a population of 25,000 or over, is given for the years 1909-10, 1910-11, 1911-12, 1912-13, 1913-14, and 1914-15. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 669 TABLE LXIV Changes in Per Cent of Total Operating Expenses Devoted to Teachers' Salaries* (All cities over 25,000 — 1910-11 to 1915-16) igio-ii to 1911-12 1911-12 to 1912-13 1912-13 to 1913-14 1913-14 to 1914-15 1914-15 to^ 1915-16 igio-ii to 1915-16 +31 I + 25 I I +20 +19 I I +18 I I +17 3 + 16.. . I It' 2 +15 I + 14 2 I 3 I 2 I 3 5 7 9 7 12 19 24 20 16 14 5 7 3 8 2tt I +13 + 12 I I I 2tt 4tt + 11 2 5 I 3 9 9 8 9 10 15 9 14 15 8 5 3 4 5 I 2 2 2 I I 2 2 I • \ 7 6 II 8 20 22 19 16 14 10 I 6 2 I I I I I I I. 2 I 2 I 8 10 6 10 26 18 23 26 15 14 4 3 3 I 3 I + 10 + 9 3 5tt 3 15** 9§' i4§ i4tt I4§§ io§§ i5§§ I2§§ 811 + 8 ^. + 7 + 6 + 5 3 + 4 + 3 + 2 + I 8 6 13 21 29 16 18 10 9 5 5 8 7 4 4 2 3 0 — I — 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 6tt 4§§ 7tt 6 5 4 1§§ 3 - 9 — 10 I — II I — 12 I 3 I -13 — 14 I I I I — IK — 16 I J — 17 -18 I — IQ I — 20 I Medians 0 Plus I Plus I Minus I 0 Plus 2 * Compiled by L. M. Wilson. t From 1911-12 to 1915-16. tt One of the cases as above. ** Six cases as above. § Four cases as above. §§ Two cases as above. |! Three cases as above. 1910-11 figures not available. 670 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION One thing that is obvious from a glance at the table is the very great range in percentage of total expenses expended for teachers' salaries. During TABLE LXV Distribution of Annual Amount Spent for Elementary Teachers' Salaries for Each Pupil in Average Daily Attendance by Cities of Over 25,000 Inhabitants for the Years 1910-1916. 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-1S 1915-16 S 0 • 00- 0 . 00 I 10.00-10.99 I II .00-11.99 I 2 2 4 4 6 2 5 9 7 8 5 3 2 6 3 2 I 3 5 I [ I I t5 i 4 6 12 9 10 ' 4 II 10 4 4 6 5 3 2 3 2 I 2 2 I 4 4 3 ? 9 7 8 II 8 12 7 5 6 4 5 I 2 I 2 12.00-12.99 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 4 4 3 2 .3 4 I 2 I I 3 4 3 j-7 00— I ^ OQ .... 4 4 5 9 7 8 II 14 6 12 7 9 9 10 A 4 14.00-14.99 IC.OO-I'J.OO 16.00-16.99 4 17.00-17.00 18.00-18.99 4 II IQ.OO— 10 00 20 00—20 99 10 2 1 00—2 1 . 99 10 22.00-22.99 2 a 00—2^ 00 . . > 7 13 12 24,00-24.99 2 ■? . 00-2 < . 00 6 26.00-26.99 II 2 7 . 00-2 7.00 9 8 28.00-28.99 20 00-20.00 3 3 I ^0 OO-'^O.OO •3 1 00—^1.00 ^2 00—^2 00 I I •?^.oo-'?^.oo 3 2 ^4 . 00-^4 .00 I I I 9r 00—^^ 00 ■s6 00—^6 00 I 3 27 00—^7 00 I 2 7.8 00—^8 00 I 90 00—^0 00 4.0 00-4.0 .00 ■ 4.1 00-41 .00 A.2 00—4.2 QQ I 4.7 00-4.7 00 . . . 4.8 00—4.8 00 . . I 44 ' 78 114 120 144 148 Median 20.25 1,16.50 23-99 20.56 17.06 24.04 21.75 18.46 25.64 22.77 19,22 25 -99 23.08 18.50 25.99 2331 25 per cent 19.40 7^ per cent 26.88 1910 this ranged from one city which spent only 27 per cent on teachers' salaries to another which spent 86 per cent. The medians for the two groups of cities into which the table is divided, show a surprising consistency TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 671 thruout the period of six years. In Table LXIV which gives the changes in percentage of total operating expenses devoted to teachers' salaries in these cities, we find a correspondingly large range with the heaviest part of the distributions centering around the "o" change. The medians in all cases, except where the change was computed between 1910-11 and 1915-16, is either "o" or +1 per cent or — i per cent. Even in the last column, where the change in percentage is figured over a period of five years, the median change was located at +2 per cent. These tables show the very great variation in the percentage of total operating expenses spent for teachers' salaries, and also in the change of that percentage which would further substantiate the statement that salary adjustments are, at the present time, matters of local initiative. Further evidence to prove the foregoing point is given by Tables LXV, which gives the distribution of the annual amount spent for elementary teachers' salaries for each pupil in average daily attendance by cities of 25,000 inhabitants or over, for the years 1910-11 to 1915-16. The distributions show the same tendency to scatter over a wide range with a heavy grouping of the cases around a median of $20. The medians for the six years show a sHght increase for each consecutive year, which indicates this same slight tendency to increase salaries of elementary teachers for consecutive years. Particular cases can be found among cities where the percentage spent for teachers' salaries is materially influenst by the presence or lack of other city projects. A new water supply or a city municipal building very frequently brings about a curtailment of the educational budget. There seems no reason why the amount spent for schools, a large percentage of which would go to teachers' salaries, should not be a fairly definite percentage of the total city expendi- tures. The medians shown in Tables XLIII would indicate that current practice would put this percentage at about 65. Assuming that there has been certain financial exploitation of the teachers during the years for which these figures are computed, it would be safe to say that this percentage should be higher than 65 per cent. 3. Relation of salary schedules to the cost of living. — ^As before stated, very few schedules, except as they have been revised within the last decade, have been made with any serious consideration of the cost of living for teachers. Where living conditions are at all unusual, either in regard to the price of standard commodities or in regard to exorbitant rents due to rapidly growing population, an adjustment should be made for that city in the teachers' salary schedule. One difficulty in such an adjustment is the principle which has become more or less commonly accepted — that a teachers' salary, when once raised, should not be decreast. This is not really a difficulty and should not be seriously considered, since it is very improbable that any such adjustment would relatively overpay the teach- ers. The same reluctance to having wages reduced exists in all other occupations as well. 672 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 4. Relation of salary schedules to legislative restrictions. — In many cities and a number of states, cautious law makers have guarded against extrava- gance in the expenditure of funds by making laws of various descriptions limiting the amount to be spent for this or that purpose, or placing a limit upon the increase which can be spent for any item in one year over the pre- ceding year. While these laws seem financially safe when past, they inevi- tably impose a serious obstacle to progress when it becomes necessary to undertake some very needed improvements and undertake them at short notice. An instance of this was found in the' situation at Louisville, Ky., when the city was confronted by a serious shortage of teachers, and the salary schedule was obviously too low. With a legal limit placed upon the amount of money which could be expended for school purposes, the board of education voted, as a means of increasing teachers' salaries and insuring enough teachers to open schools, to pay teachers their ten months' salary on the basis of eight and one-half months, and trusted that a special election at the end of the fiscal year would provide the needed funds to continue payments at the increast rates. The schools are so close to the general public and the interests of the tax payers are so vitally concerned with the work of the schools, that it would seem safe to allow the schools to progress as rapidly as the communities are willing to appropriate funds for them, and not have them hampered by legislative restrictions. B. EDUCATIONAL ELEMENTS I. Salary schedules as a guaranty to a career. — One of the elements which has interfered with teaching as much as perhaps any other, has been the fact that teachers are so transient in their work. The average professional life of a teacher has been variously computed at from five years up. The findings of the present study would indicate that at least in the cities this figure is too low, and that the median amount of experience is between seven and ten. At any rate, it is a well-known fact that a great many people use teaching as a convenient stepping-stone to some other line of work which promises a more rapid and more permanent income. When salary schedules are so arranged that a teacher can begin with enough money to induce the better prepared and most ambitious men and women to choose teaching as a life work, and seriously prepare for it, there will be ' a possibility of making teaching a genuine profession, as well as a possibility for carrying on consecutive work thruout the different systems. Teaching suffers more than any other occupation from its inability to make capital from the experience of the workers in it, since so many of them leave the work at a time when experience is becoming richest. Salary schedules should, therefore, start at a high enough figure, and reach a high enough maximum to induce the type of men and women who should be teachers to seriously prepare for it, knowing that in the work of teaching itself, a career is offered. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 673 2. Salary schedules as an incentive to adequate preparation. — In con- nection with the foregoing point, salary schedules must insure adequate preparation. It seems unwise to try to secure better preparation without giving a just compensation for that preparation when secured. Lack of such a policy prevents capable prospective teachers from going to the expense of thoro professional training when they know that after graduation from some teacher training institution, they cannot secure a minimal wage comparable with the other fields of work open to students with the same amount of preparation. An adequate minimal salary alone is not enough to secure this preparation. As advocated in the foregoing point, increases TABLE LXVI Medians for Minimal and Maximal Salaries as Given in the Salary Schedules FOR Certain Cities Listed in U.S. Bulletin No. 16 — 1914* I II III IV v Total Minimum : Elementary No. of cities 26 1125 28 617 13 1013 16 475 IS 863 487 20 813 30 14 810 27 575 88 Principles . . '. 913 126 No. of cities Teachers 538 No. of cities .... Maximum i 22 2400 26 1038 6 2350 15 84s 12 1425 23 788 14 1567 30 800 • 14 92s 27 713 68 Principals ; 1650 121 No. of cities Teachers 834 Minimum: High School No. of cities 19 over 3000 26 977 8 2500 16 950 8 2350 22 833 13 1750 875 12 1325 24 750 60 Principals 2400 No. of cities III Teachers . . 846 No. of cities Maximum: 25 1838 16 1550 20 1325 22 1275 28 942 105 1425 Teachers * " The Tangible Rewards of Teaching." given and the maximal salary attainable are also elements in determining the amount of preparation a prospective teacher is wiUing to invest in. K the promist rewards are so small that they represent no returns on the investment of time and money in securing preparation, only teachers with no business sense, or those inspired purely by a missionary desire to serve would enter teaching. There has been within recent years a decided improvement in salary schedules in this respect. In the United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, "The Tangible Rewards of Teaching," No. 16, 1914,^ salary schedules for certain city school systems are given. The minimal salary, the amount of annual increase, the number of years for which increases are given and the maximal salary are recorded. A tabulation of these data. Table LXVI, shows the following median results for the cities in the first five size groups. It will be obvious from these < Size groups are similar to those defined on page 544. 674 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION figures that in 1912-13, the year for which these data were collected, that the findings in chapters i and ii are substantially corroborated, since the minimal and maximal salaries vary directly as the size of the cities varies. In this connection, the median number of years of increase, both in the high school and in the elementary grades, varies between six and ten, with a rather consistent median for the groups in the neighborhood of eight yearly increases. A slight tendency is shown for the larger cities to grant a greater number of increases. The tabulation of the median increases for elementary teachers given in these different cities, varies from $35 to $60 as the cities increase from Size 5 to Size i. The median increase runs from $55 to $85 for high-school teachers as the size of the city increases. In connection with the value of salary schedules as a promise of a career and as an incentive to adequate preparation, the advance made within the last few years will be of interest. In the National Education Association study on "Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living" for July, 1918, Appendix 7 gives the minimal and maximal teachers' salaries in 108 cities collected by the Commissioner of Education, May, 19 18. As an indication of progress during the five years between the collection of these data and those recorded in Table LVI the median maximal salaries for cities in Size Groups I, II, and III are computed to be as follows: MEDIAN MAXIMAL SALARIES FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHERS Size Group I $1250 Size Group II 950 Size Group III 829 MEDIAN MAXIMAL SALARIES FOR HIGH- SCHOOL TEACHERS Size Group I $2240 Size Group II ^ 1988 Size Group III 1540 A comparison of these with the median maximal salaries for 191 2-13 given above, will show that within the five years a decided increase in maximal salary offered, occurred in all of these groups, which indicates a recognition on the part of school boards, especially in the larger cities, of the necessity of a liberal maximal salary in order to secure the desired number of the right kind of teachers. In order to show that the preparation of teachers can be controlled thru the salaries offered, ten cities were selected from the cities included in study in chapter i which paid relatively low salaries, and the amount of preparation of the teachers was compared with the preparation of the teachers in ten selected cities from the same list paying relatively high salaries.' The ten cities paying relatively low salaries had median salaries « The 10 cities represented in the group paying the lower salaries are: Augusta, Ga., East St. Louis, 111., Paducah, Ky., Millville, N.J., Indiana, Pa., Herrin, 111., Carthage, Mo., Sandford, Fla., Horton, Kans. The 10 cities represented in the group paying the higher salaries are: Columbus, Ohio, Des Moines, Iowa, Oakland, Calif., East Chicago, Ind., Pasadena, Cahf., Cleveland Heights, Ohio, Great Falls, Nev., Prescott, Ariz., Lake Forest, lU., Tonopah, Nev. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 675 for the 457 teachers who returned the questionnaire of $652, with a median amount of preparation above the eighth grade of 5.76 years. The ten cities paying relatively high salaries had a median salary of $1049 for the 548 teachers answering from those cities, with a median amount of prepara- tion beyond the eighth grade of 6 . 44 years. This shows that even under present conditions the cities paying the better salaries are securing teachers with more adequate preparation. Table LVII and LVIII give these dis- tributions, which by inspection reveal the situation. In addition to the above-mentioned necessity for ha'v^ng the minimum and maximum high enough to warrant preparation, another very important item is the amount of the annual increase and the number of years neces- sary to attain the maximum. A maximum of $1800 offers practically no incentive if it takes sixteen years to reach it from the $1000 minimum. Salary increases should be large enough to make an immediate appeal to ambition and thus promise a fairly adequate salary after four or five years. This is the period when the average individual desires to increase his responsibiUties, purchase a permanent home, or make other investments of more than temporary nature. The gratification of these desires should be made possible. But a salary schedule should not carry teachers up to this point, and then not offer incentive enough to hold them. This is the objection to some of the salary schedules proposed by the English Com- mittee' who recommend a granting of larger increases for a period, then of smaller increases and then, of larger increases again. Such plans as this have no justification, except that they save to the tax payers the small differ- ence in the increase during the years when the increase is reduced. It is just such evidence of pettiness in the financial control of the schools which disgust capable men and women to the point of leaving teaching. The most acceptable plan for granting increases seems to be to grant the same increase for each year of successful experience until the maximum is attained for that particular kind of work. It would seem that for an adequately prepared teacher, that is, one who has had six or more years preparation above the elementary school, no annual increase should be less than $100 or given for less than six or eight years. 3. Salary schedules as incentive to progress while teaching. — ^The objection most frequently made to the introduction of salary schedules is that they so often and so quickly become automatic and taken for granted that they produce mental lethargy and destroy the incentive to self -improvement. Of course, this is not an objection to the schedules nor the principles involved, but rather a criticism of the way in which so many salary schedules have been administered. It is unfortunately true that many individuals, some of whom are teachers, will not do any more work than they think is abso- lutely necessary in order to secure their pay. For such, an automatic increase is not a reward of meritorious service nor a spur to make each » Summary of the report by Dr. I. L. Kandel in Appendix XIII of Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living, 1918. 676 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION S M < a « o ;z; 1 00 >/5VO Ot*'*t>.«00»«OH«^0>WNOV>H »o to >«»0 cc«e»e»SMH«e<5iH H H CI H 't M M C4 2 M H , 0 «« H - M H M 00 1 00 M H W H M H COM M l-l M ? 10 M H **eo ioo»ovo«owvot<. 00 M H H IH M H H H H * <*3 ^ t '♦00 « t^»0 *^'tW5«OW>w « H M H «o H «0»0«OH H M « COM M « H M M (O ei M H M H H 10 M H W M M « ." ' M o> 0 - H C «l ■ C i .c •u ■>VC i ^ • c oc \ c s C ■c ,i ^1 N C > c '1 1- \ s C X *■ < 1- OP 4 f 3 \ c ^ c ■JVC t- J ^ c ^ t- 1 c 'I ^ i I I \ c ■ c i 3 *« ^ J C 4) CO "" t: -n ** SI • - 2 O 5:: o Q3-" «■ TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 677 H W > 0 m ^ M )— 1 1— 1 § « 1 > M rn a g P4 i W ^2; H-1 0 H ffi <: ^ 0 H 0 ^ H >5 < <1 i-l P4 s w e* CO • • « M < VO VO H Tt lOVO «0 • H « CO I M M ■'>0>MO>'t\o »0 l^ t^oo 00 ~ ~ ~ O^O^O^O^OlO^O^O^OlOlO^O^OlOlO^O^O^OlOlO^O^O^O>0 Tl■0^■^0^^0^'tOlTtO>'tO^O^OlOO>OlO^O^O^O^Ol 0>_L to <0 ■* •* «0 >o^O O t- t-»00 00O>O»0OMHMe>«cocO^Tf lovO t^OO 0>Ohc»cotJ-ioO g5 51 op CI C« M Ci C4 M CO ' # 678 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION year's work better than the preceding one. While it seems obvious that increases should not be received as a matter of course and regardless of the effort of the teachers, guarding against such a situation is one of the difficult elements in administering a salary schedule. In every other field of endeavor the reward is more nearly determined by the effort put forth. The principal reasons why it is so difficult to apply this rule to teachers is the intangible nature of much of a teacher's work and the inability by present measures to determine the results obtained. In the face of these difficulties only a few cities have so far tried to put the granting of increases upon a basis of measurable or "rated" merit. In many cities where the superintendent reported that the granting of an increase depended upon successful work, it meant that the superintendent had to act as the judge of whether the work was successful or not, and this, in most cases, meant that the increase was granted if the work was not of a nature to secure the dismissal of the teacher. When better and more accurate supervisor's tests are developt so that it will be possible to rate a teacher justly into one of three or four classes, not alone ih relation to other teachers, but more particularly in regard to her own previous work, the administration of increases to insure and reward progress will be relatively simple. A suggestive classification which is being used in several places is: Class I — ^Teachers whose work is entirely satisfactory, who have gained in ability to teach and in their mastery of the subject-matter taught; Class II — ^Teachers whose work has been satisfactory, but who have made no effort to improve during the year; Class III — ^Teachers whose work is not entirely satisfactory, but have made a conscious effort to profit by experience and supervisory help, and who give promise of enough growth to warrant retention; Class IV — ^Teachers whose work and attitude have not been satisfactory enough to retain them in the system. With teachers classified into one or another of the foregoing groups by a method which would be considered just by all con- cerned, it would be possible to say, for instance, that teachers in Class I shall receive the full regular increase, teachers in Class II half of the regular increase, and teachers in Class III be retained without increase. As was stated above, the most urgent need, before the increases given under any schedule may produce the maximal incentive to progress, is the develop- ment of quantitative tests of teaching efficiency which can be fairly used by supervisory staffs, or by committees of teachers. Two other elements should enter all salary schedules in order to make them serve as incentives to progress while teaching. These are (i) pro- vision for summer study, and (2) provision for leaves of absence for study, research or educative travel. In providing for the first of these, many school systems follow the plan of making a flat allowance of $50 to the teacher who attends an acceptable summer school for the year when she attends. This is merely helping the teacher, to the extent of the amount TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 679 given, to pay the extra expenses caused by attending the summer school, and makes no allowance for the fact that the teacher is a stronger teacher. In many cities the number of such increases are limited to two. Better results would doubtless be obtained from the teachers and better returns on the investments for the district if this sum, for example $50, not only should be given for the year the teacher attends the summer school, but should be a permanent increase to the salary that she is otherwise entitled to. Further- more, four such increases seem to be the minimum which should be fixt. Four is selected since the curricula of most schools are now arranged so that a year's work may be done in four summer sessions. This will enable the teachers to advance their education by the unit of a year, and those holding an A.B. degree or its equivalent, to secure the master's degree in four summers. Providing for the second of these additional elements, namely, periodic leaves of absence for study, research, travel, etc. is as good an investment for a city as it is for a college and it is a commonly accepted practice among the better colleges. Such a leave on at least half pay should be granted to teachers requesting it, not oftener than once in every seven years, providing the time is to be spent in a way that will result in professional growth. 4. The element of flexibility in salary schedules. — In order more surely to escape the deadening effect of having salary increases, even adequate increases, become purely perfunctory and automatic, every salary schedule should have enough flexibiUty to adjust the wage to the needs in individual cases. Practically all the adjustments of this kind will be for teachers of special merit or ability who are worth more to the system than some others doing the same class of work, but who will be secured by other places at an advanst salary unless some local adjustment is made. This is not usually a problem unless the teacher is already receiving the maximal salary. Some salary schedules have attempted to meet this condition by providing so-called "super-maximal salaries" which may be secured by teachers who secure an advanst degree or some other prescribed qualification. This con- dition is not entirely satisfactory, siiice it can, in a way, be met by fulfilling requirements. Other cities have tried to solve the situation by establish- ing no maximal salaries and making each teacher an individual case as she progresses in tenure. This plan makes salary progress depend upon the vote of the school board and is subject to the objections which have given rise to salary schedules in order that this may be prevented. It woidd be almost impossible to administer the salary schedules, especially in larger cities, without having maximal salaries fixt. No single device will produce the needed amount of flexibility. Different methods should be used to meet situations as they arise. For example, where it is desirable to increase a teacher's salary over what the regular schedule calls for, she may: (i) be changed to another position with a higher schedule; (2) be 68o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION made demonstration teacher for her subject or grade; (3) be placed in charge of a special experiment; (4) be made responsible for some assistant supervision with younger teachers; (5) be made assistant principal of the building in which she works; (6) be made responsible for a certain form of community service; or (7) be put in general charge of some extra school activity of the children. Many such adjustments may be made and in most cases, they will mean merely an addition to the teacher's "title," since if she is the kind of teacher who deserves the extra compensation, she will undoubtedly be doing several kinds of extra work for which she might be singled out and rewarded. The use, not to excess, of this principle of flexibility enables a salary schedule to remove unnecessary worry from the teachers, and yet retain promise enough of reward to appeal to the most ambitious. Each teacher may then strive to acquire special skill in her work, and may know that hard, conscientious work at all times will undoubtedly not go entirely unrewarded. 5. Salary schedules should not make a distinction between the dif event school divisions. — ^At the present time all salary schedules make a markt distinction between the salaries for elementary, intermediate, and high- school teachers. Tables XXX-XXXV in chapter i show for the cities reporting minimal and maximal salaries the decided tendency to establish lower minimal and maximal salaries for elementary teachers than for intermediate teachers, and lower for the intermediate teachers than for high-school teachers. The medians for the minimal salaries are: ele- mentary $609, intermediate $718, high school $837, and for the maximal salaries, elementary $867, intermediate $933 and high school $1358. In addition to the lower salaries scheduled, it is also obvious from these tables that the range between the minimum and maximum is much smaller for the elementary teachers. An examination of the rephes from the superintend*- ents makes this more pronounst than the medians indicate. Of 151 cities below 10,000 inhabitants which gave both the minimum and maximum for elementary teachers, 6 per cent report a difference between the minimal and maximal salary of $50 or less, 24 per cent a difference of $100 or less, *64 per cent a difference of $200 or less and 85 per cent a difference of $300 or less. This means that in more than three-fifths of the cities in Size Groups V and VI the elementary teacher cannot look forward to earning more than $200 per year more than when she begins. This is certainly one of the chief reasons why teachers stay so short a time in the smaller places. Many teachers would assuredly stay in the village school where they have achieved success if to do so it did not mean both a present sacrifice of money and a lack of future prospects. The reason for this difference is the lack of preparation of so many of the elementary teachers in comparison with the high-school teachers. This was particularly true twenty or twenty-five years ago, but the difference in preparation has decreast materially during the past decade. Where the TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 68l standards are as definitely set at six and eight years of work above the eighth grade for the elementary and the high schools (as shown by Tables XL VII, XL VIII, and XLIX), it does not show a present difference which would warrant the amount of distinction made in all salary schedules. Table XL, which showed that a number of superintendents expect ele- mentary teachers to pay less for "board and room" than high-school teachers, was another evidence of the difference existing between these school divisions. When this distinction is made in salary and in social status, there is no doubt that the distinction carries over to the educational relations as well. This is an unfortunate situation, and one which would be removed by putting elementary, intermediate, and high-school teachers upon the same salary schedule as soon as they meet the same standards of preparation. Who can say that any one of these divisions is more neces- sary or important than another, and consequently, why should the dis- tinction be made either in amount of preparation considered necessary or in the salary paid? There is a strong movement in the country at the present time toward this standard. Several of the normal schools have become, or are planning to become, teacher-training colleges with fuU four years of professional work, while others are introducing a third year's work as a step toward this standard. The equal preparation of the teachers in all three of the school divisions and equal rewards for service, equally important to the weffare of the nation, is a condition highly to be desired. 6. Salary schedules should be standardized. — The need for this is espe- cially felt in regard to schedules as they are influenst by such elements as the size of the city, the location of the city, the preparation of the teachers, and the previous experience of the teachers. Under existing conditions the smaller communities cannot hope to compete for teachers with the larger cities. The smaller community is compelled to accept the inexperienst or the less competent, for as soon as the necessary experience is obtained or as soon as a teacher demonstrates markt abiHty she is drawn to a larger place by the larger salaries paid. Exactly the same situation exists among differ- ent sections of the country, where the differences in the salaries offered are as great as the differences among cities of different sizes. Tables I-VIII in chapter i show these discrepancies. The effect of location is not as markt as that of the size of the city, however, due to the added expense of travel, yet to the extent that it does exert an influence it sends the better teachers to the sections paying better salaries. The majority of salary schedules at the present time either discount or discredit entirely the experience a teacher has gained in other systems, at least as far as it gives her an advanst place on the salary schedule. This practice, while it offers no inducement for remaining with the same school system, at least puts a penalty upon moving. As a consequence many teachers will not move when it would be to their advantage, unless the difference in salary offered is enough to make the lower ranking due to 682 NA TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION discredited experience. With the standardization which has ahready been made in matters of preparation, if school officials could reach some agree- ment on this matter so that teaching experience could be accepted year for year where it is comparable, it would do much to unite teachers into a profession and also to destroy the restricting local influences which so predominate in many systems. In determining what experiences are comparable there seems to be no reason why, when preparation or training are equivalent, that any experience in public schools in the same divisions (elementary, intermediate, or high school) should not be taken at full value. If a teacher is good enough to be elected to the teaching corps of a given city, it would indicate that her past teaching experience, even if in a rural or village school, was probably good enough to be counted in placing her upon the salary schedule. SUGGESTED STANDARDS FOR SALARY SCHEDULES In the Hght of the above described elements and existing conditions the following standards are suggested. These are higher than common practice but are not higher than has already been accomplisht in some of our more progressive cities. The division of the cities into two size groups is justified by the results shown in Tables I-IV, inclusive. There is a noticeable break in salary paid between cities in Size III and in Size IV, while if the average of the medians for cities in Size Groups I, II, and III is compared with the average for the cities in Size Groups IV, V, and VI, there is a difference of approximately the $200 which has been made in the following table. Of course there cannot be a clear cut Hne drawn between a city say of 28,000 inhabitants falUng in Size Group III and one of 23,000 in Group IV, and many cities in the lower group will pay salaries as high as those in the upper group which will be more to their credit than to have a larger city remain on the lower level. SUGGESTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE ABOVE SCHEDULE 1. A teacher when elected should be placed on the salary level to which her training and experience would entitle her. 2. When a teacher changes her classification by being promoted in responsibility or by earning an advanst degree she should be placed upon the new schedule at the place where her present salary would place her and be entitled to as many more increases as are open to her between that point and the new maximum. For example, in a Size II city a teacher with six years* training receives four increases and then secures an A.B. degree. Her salary on the first schedule would be $1600, which would be the same as if she had received two increases on the new schedule and she would be entitled to eight more — a total of twelve increases in all. 3. Where it is desirable to pay some teachers more than the schedule would call for or more than the maximum provided, some of the devices previously discust under "Elements of Flexibihty in Salary Schedules" should be used. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 683 SUGGESTED STANDARDS FOR SALARY SCHEDULES Amount of For City Sizes* If, II, and III For City Sizes* IV. V, and VI Professional Preparation Minimal Salary Annual Increases Maximal Salary Minimal Salary Annual Increases Maximal Salary Teachers Normal Diploma ft A.B. Degree $1200 1400 1600 2000 6x$lOO lOX 100 lOX 100 lox 100 $1800 2400 2600 3000 $1000 1200 1400 1800 6x$ioo lox 100 lOX IOC lox 100 $1600 2200 A.M. Degree 2400 Ph.D. Degree 2800 Heads of Departments** IN iNTERMKniATE OR HiGH School Normal Diploma A.B. Degree $1600 1800 2000 2400 8x$ioo lox 100 lox 100 lox 100 $2400 2800 3000 3400 $1400 1600 1800 2200 8x$ioo I ox 100 lox 100 lox 100 $2200 2600 A.M. Degree 2800 Ph.D. Degree 3200 Special Supervisors Normal Diploma A.B. Degree $1300 1500 1700 2 IOC 8x$i5o lox 150 lox 150 lox 150 $2500 3000 3200 3600 $1100 1300 1500 1900 8x$i5o lox 150 lox 150 TOX 150 $2300 2800 A.M. Degree 3000 3400 Ph.D. Degree Prinopals Elementary (15 rooms or less) $1800 2000 2200 2600 4X$200 5x 200 6x 200 7x 200 $2600 3000 3400 4000 $1600 1800 2000 2400 4X$200 5x 200 6x 200 7x 200 Normal Diploma A.B. Degree $2400 2800 A.M. Degree 3200 3800 Ph.D. Degree Elementary (16 rooms or more), Intermediate or High School (with an enrollment of less than 500) Normal Diploma A.B. Degree $2200 2600 2800 3200 4X$200 5x 200 6x 200 7x 200 $3000 3600 4000 4600 $2000 2400 2600 3000 4X$200 5x 200 6x 200 7x 200 $2800 3400 3800 4400 A.M. Degree Ph.D. Degree Intermediate (500 or more), High School (between 500 and 1200) Normal Diploma A.B. Degree $2800 3200 3400 3800 4X$200 Sx 200 6x 200 7x 200 $3600 4200 4600 5200 $2600 3000 3200 3600 4X$200 5x 200 6x 200 7x 200 $3200 4000 4400 5000 A.M. Degree Ph.D. Degree High School (between 1200 and 2500) A.B. Degree $3600 3800 4200 5X$200 6x 200 7x 200 $4600 5000 5600 $3400 3600 4000 5X$200 6x 200 7x 200 $4400 4800 5400 A.M. Degree Ph.D. Degree High School (2500 or more) A.B. Degree $4000 4200 4600 5X$200 6x 200 7x 200 $5000 5400 6000 $3800 4000 4400 5X$200 6x 200 7x 200 $4800 5200 5800 A.M. Degree Ph.D. Degree * For explanation of the size groups see page 544. t Large cities, e.g. over 1,000,000, could add $100 or more to the above schedules to cover the additional cost of living. tt Normal diploma as used here is meant to represent graduation from a standard normal school with two years work beyond the completion of four years high school, six years beyond the eighth grade. ** Heads of departments are assumed to have at least three years of teaching experience before receiving the minimum. 684 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION 4. Provision has not been made in the above schedule for different salaries for men and women because of the growing tendency not to make such distinctions. Where, however, it is desired to make such a difference the salaries for men should be set in excess of the standards above mentioned rather than to make them the standards for men and lower them for the women teachers. The above salaries are not more than enough to provide a living saving wage for teachers and at the same time induce the stronger men and women to enter and remain in the profession. 5. The introduction of the above schedule should not be allowed in any case to decrease any salaries, but if a teacher is receiving a salary in excess of the maximum which she is entitled to because of her preparation she should not receive further increases without additional preparation or special work. 6. The suggested schedule does not make elaborate distinctions between different kinds of work, e.g., ungraded rooms, tubercular, etc. If in any city this seems advisable it will be possible to make a schedule between any of the above standards. This, however, only makes more "classes" of teachers and could be better handled by paying an extra amount for different kinds of work requirmg extra preparation or which is in any way more difficult to perform. 7. Care should be taken to safeguard the granting of increases so that they will not become automatic with increasing tenure. Any year when an increase is not earned, or when a partial increase is earned, should not decrease the possible maximum attainable by that teacher. teachers' salaries and public interest Most of the elements which keep teaching from being a profession in the truest -sense can be remedied only thru better salaries for teaching. Better salaries for teachers will not come until salary schedules are generally used and based upon more generally accepted standards than at the present time. This needed reform will not be accomplisht until teachers become intelligently interested and active in the matter. Among a great many people the handed-down feeling that teaching as a means of earning a living is more respectable, e.g., than the more remunerative work in some factory, has made many women, particularly, stay in teaching in spite of its poor rewards. They often excuse their poorer clothes and financial restrictions by thinking of the rewards which come to a teacher in her old age in the contemplation of hundreds of grateful pupils grown to manhood and womanhood under the benign influence of ideals imparted in her classes, a pretty romance which should end "and they all Uved happily ever after" but which is more liable to end in a pauperized old age. Teachers' salaries have always been so relatively low that salary cam- paigns have been made on the basis of financial justice in order that teachers might even exist. The increases which have been given have never been TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES ' 685 large enough to enable the teachers to give much more service or the people to demand more in return for the additional salary. The need of more money for necessary expenses is still an important factor in this country, but salaries are also reaching the level in some states and a number of cities, and the increases are large enough to allow a margin of saving. When this stage is reacht it is not only possible, but entirely proper, for the public to demand more from the teachers in return-^more extensive prepara- tion, more careful performance of duties, and more growth during service. Much of the agitation which has been created in favor of better salaries has been near-sighted in that it was aimed primarily at the betterment of the salaries of those already teaching and not for the purpose of encouraging more people to enter, or those who do, to prepare themselves better. In other words, salary campaigns have often been selfish rather than pro- fessional. In most cases, however, teachers have been too reticent about their work — too ready to toil on and wait for society to reward them adequately. They have allowed others to tell what the teachers should do and receive and have made no protest — at least no protest loud enough to be heard away from the boarding-house table — ^and have resorted neither to the power of numbers nor to the force of an awakened public opinion. There are far too many citizens in this country uninformed as to the work of the schools and the present cost of that work. These men and women are too ready to give expression to opinions based upon their lack of information, and these opinions find a much too ready acceptance. The following letter appearing on the editorial page of one of the leading western newspapers is but typical of hundreds of others which are given similar publicity and which meet with too much public approval. TOO MUCH IS SPENT ON SCHOOLS WRITER OPPOSES RAISE OF TEACHERS' PAY AND SUGGESTS FEWER HIGH SCHOOLS Oregonian, April 22, 19 19 (To the Editor). — I see by paper that teachers want more pay and a special election to be called. Said salary raise was voted down last November at an election costing $15,000, and now they have the nerve to call another election. I am in favor of an election if these teachers will pay for it, but otherwise not. They 'are the best paid women in the city, have shortest hours, easy work and are not satisfied. As a taxpayer I think I voice the sentiment of many. If they are not satisfied, let them do other work or else let the taxpayer close the schools, particularly high schools, as it is a waste of time and money and does not prepare one for the world, only for college, of which we have too many now. These schools are our biggest item of expense, costing the awful sum of $3,000,000 every ten months, which shows a great waste somewhere. I am now more convinst than ever, to be taxpayer and property owner (of which these teachers are neither, not pa3dng income or any other taxes or helping to build up a city) is to be workt to a finish. It is high time the taxpayers' eyes are opened to the demands and expectations. He gives too much for nothing and people are never satisfied. Why does this man not know more about the schools ? Why are there thousands of voters in that city who agree with him ? 686 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Our twentieth-century life has become so complex, so specialized, that we can no longer hope to have ** everybody" interested in "everything," To be sure, the schools represent an institution of more immediate interest to a greater number of people than any other, save the home, but even with this as an incentive, people will not inform themselves about the schools unless it is made interesting and easy for them to do so, or unless they are made in some way to reahze that is their social duty to do so. The responsibility for bringing one or both of these things to pass must rest upon teachers themselves. It has rested there and is now resting there — ^resting quietly in a sleep like that of Rip Van Winkle, deep, dense, and lasting. It is time for the effects of the draughts from the flagons of lassitude and indifference to have worn off. The profession must awake to the reahzation that many changes have occurred in the past twenty-five years — in the past five years. Methods of teaching have changed, standards of preparation have advanst, the cost of living has advanst out of proportion to the advance in salary, and the community interest in the schools has changed — changed from the personal-individual interest to a more impersonal interest in the social efficiency of the school system. Teachers in many places have allowed themselves to become estranged from the public and from school patrons. Then when they are forced to realize that they can no longer meet their educational, social, and hygienic responsibilities upon the salaries received, they realize that this estrange- ment from the pubUc is an obstacle to the recognition of their claims. They now face the task of justifying their claims by justifying their work and its results, as well as re-estabUshing the cordial relationships which make for mutual understanding and cooperation. In order to do this it is necessary for teachers to know their own work, know its importance to social weKare, and consciously strive to interest the people of the community in their school and its problems, and interest them in such a way that they will insist upon having the best for their children and be wiUing to support the schools in such a -vyay that this best may be secured. Teachers must insist upon adequate pay in order that the work of education may meet its present-day obHgations, but it is no longer necessary to wage campaigns for increast salaries solely upon the basis of sentiment or justice to an opprest class. The case can be presented on its merits, and where campaigns have been vigorously made on the principle of educating the community on matters concerning the school to the point that they are able to recognize needs, they have almost always been successful. In such campaigns it is intended that this study of salaries and salary schedules not only will be suggestive of the kind of material to secure but will con- tain many facts and tables which will furnish material for comparisons with local conditions. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 687 The need for higher salaries has been proved from so many different angles that there are facts available for arguments in practically every situation. In any city waging an educative campaign for higher salaries it is possible for those in charge of the pubUcity to compare the salaries paid in that city with the median salaries paid in other cities of the same size. Comparisons can be made with the wages paid in other occupations. The expenses may be easily shown to demand all or nearly all of the salaries. The amount of preparation demanded may be compared with the prepara- tion in other positions in the same community paying as much or more salary. The inability of teachers to attend summer schools and other forms of professional advancement, to say nothing of any margin for saving, can be convincingly shown by a typical teacher's budget on the basis of twelve months. When facts Hke these are clearly shown and given the necessary amount of "local color" to attract attention and appeal to "local pride," there is little doubt but that the public will see the situation in its true light and demand an adjustment which is not only just but which will insure the best possible training for all children. Today we face an emergency — educational and social — ^which is not only going to put the democracy we fought to win, save, and perpetuate, on trial, but which in many ways is going to test the power to endure of even civilization itself. It will not be solved by statesmen, politicians, financiers, labor leaders, nor agitators. It will not be solved by the present generation of citizens, who will be able only to make temporary settlements which will serve as experiments. The real solution will not, and cannot, come until some of these experiments are made and evaluated by a people trained to think in the light of new ideals of service and social values. The responsibility, then, for the solution. of the many problems of reconstruction rests with the teachers of the next decade. Never was such a responsibiUly placed upon any class in any society, and how unprepared they are to undertake it has been repeatedly shown during the last four years. If this emergency is to be met and civilization enabled not only to endure but to progress, it cannot be done by immature, unprepared, and underpaid teachers. These conditions will be removed when a united teaching profession can bring an interested informed public to demand the highest degree of educational efficiency, and as the essential to that efficiency, to provide for every teacher a living and a saving wage. 688 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION APPENDIX I LIST OF CITIES RETURNING THE SUPERINTENDENTS' QUESTIONNAIRE^ A dagger (t) indicates An asterisk (*) indicates cities whose returns came too late for general study, counties. AI State BI CI DI EI AH BII CII DII EII AIII City State City Conn. Bridgeport Conn. New Haven Mass. Fall River Mass. Lynn Mass. Worcester N.J, Jersey City *N.J. Newark N.J. Trenton *N.Y. New York *Pa. Pittsburgh Pa. Scranton D.C. Washington La. New Orleans Md. Baltimore Tenn. Nashville Va. Richmond *Ind. Indianapolis *Mich. Grand Rapids Ohio Dayton *Iowa Des Moines . Minn. Minneapolis Mo. St. Louis CaKf. Oakland *Ore. Portland Utah •Salt Lake City Wash. Seattle Wash. Spokane Conn. New Britain ♦Conn. Waterbury Mass, Holyoke Mass. Brockton N.Y. Schenectady N.J. Passaic Pa. Allentown N.Y. Yonkers Pa. Harrisburg Pa. Erie Ark. Little Rock tGa. Chatham County Ga. Augusta Ga. Savannah tMd. Alleghany County S.C. Charleston * lU. East St. Louis *IU. Springfield *Mich. FUnt Ohio Springfield Kans. Kansas City ♦Minn. Duluth Mo. St. Joseph Okla. Oklahoma City *CaUf. Berkeley CaUf. San Diego Colo. Pueblo Conn. Stamford Conn. Norwich Mass. Pittsfield Mame Lewiston N.J. Montclair ♦Mass. Waltham N.Y. Jamestown N.J. Orange N.Y. Newburgh N.Y. ^ Kingston Pa. Newcastle Pa. * Chester W.Va. WheeUng Pa. WiUiamsport o£ questionnaire see page 544. ■ TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 689 Bill cm Dili EIII AIV BIV State Ark. tMd. Tex. lU. Mich. Mich. Ohio Wis. Wis. Iowa Nebr. CaHf. Calif. Idaho Wash. Wash. Conn. Conn. Maine Maine Mass. Mass. Mass. N.H. N.J. N.J. N.J. N.Y. N.Y. Pa. Pa. Pa. Ala. Ga. Md. Tex. W.Va. W.Va. City State CIV ♦HI. HI. 111. HI. 111. Ind. Mich. Fort Smith Ky. Dorchester Co. tMd. Waco N.C. \ Moline Ind. Battle Creek Mich. Jackson Mich. Zanesville Wis. Oshkosh Wis. Superior Council Bluffs Iowa Lincoln Okla. Fresno CaKf. San Jose Calif. Boise Utah Bellingham Wash. Walla WallR, Ansonia Conn. Willimantic Conn. Augusta Maine Sanford Mass. Easthampton Mass. Greenfield Mass. Wmchester N.H. Laconia N.J. Hackensack N.J. North Bergen N.J. Plamfield N.Y. Gloversville N.Y. Plattsburg N.Y. Lewiston Pa. Phoenixville Pa. Wilkinsburg Pa. Bessemer Fla. Albany- Ga. Talbot County S.C. Tyler W.Va. Fairmont W.Va. Parkersburg Alton HL Freeport in. Galesburg lU. Highland Park 111. Kankakee lU. Mishawaka Mich. Marquette Mich. City Paducah Carroll County Durham East Chicago Highland Park Lansing La Crosse Sheboygan Dubuque Tulsa Pasadena Stockton Ogden City Everett Bristol Torrington Biddeford Beverly Framingham Methuen Berlin Asbury Park MillviUe Phillipsburgh Fulton Little Falls Watervliet Bristol Meadville Taylor Volusia County Rome Spartanburg Bluefield Moundsville East Aurora Granite City Jacksonville La Salle Streator Holland Pontiac 690 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION state City State City CIV Mich. Traverse City Ohio Cambridge ♦Ohio Chillicothe Ohio Cleveland Heights Ohio Coshocton Ohio Elyria Ohio Marion Ohio Mt. Vernon Ohio Norwood Ohio Warren Wis. Eau Claire. Wis. Marinette Wis. Wausau DIV Iowa Ottumwa Kans. Hutchinson Okla. Ardmore Kans. Salina Kans. Pittsburg Minn. Red Wing Nebr. Grand Island N.Dak. Grand Forks S.Dak. Aberdeen * S.Dak. Sioux Falls EIV Ariz. Phoenix Calif Eureka Calif. Riverside Calif. Santa Ana Calif. Long Beach Calif. Vallejo *Calif. Santa Barbara Idaho PocateUo Mont. Anaconda Mont. Missoula Mont. . Great Falls Ore. Salem N.Mex. Choves County- AV Conn. Derby Conn. Putnam Maine Fort Kent, St. John Maine St. Francis Allagast Maine Gardiner Maine Norway Maine Rockland Maine Westbrook Mass. Amherst Mass. Concord Mass. Orange Mass. Rockland Mass. Saugus Mass Stoughton Mass. WeUesley Mass. Westborough Mass. Whitman N.H. Derry N.J. Burlington N.J. Essex N.J. Ridgewood N.Y. Albion Pa. Corry Pa. Ambridge Pa. East Pittsburgh Pa. Donora Pa. Indiana Pa. Huntingdon Pa. Juniata Pa. Jersey Shore Pa. Munhall Pa. Millvale Vt. Rockingham Vt. Chittenden County BV Fla. Seminole Ark. Texarkana Ga. Dublin Miss. Yazoo City Tenn. Park City Tex. Orange *W.Va. Elkins CV 111. Beardstown lU. Belvidere Ill, Duquoin lU. Herrin HI. La Grange m. Madison m. Paris Ind. Princeton Mich. Boyne City Mich. Dowagiac Mich. Cheboygan Mich. Ypsilanti TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY ^ SCHEDULES 691 State City State City cv ♦Ohio Athens Ohio Bucyrus Ohio Bellefontaine Ohio Nelsonville ♦Ohio Delaware Ohio Troy Ohio Salem Wis. Chippewa Falls Wis. Antigo Wis. Neenah Wis. Menasha Wis. Watertown Wis. Stevens Point Wis. West AUis DV ' Kans. Galena Kans. Junction City Kans. Rosedale Kans. Wellington Minn. Eveleth Mo. Carthage Nebr. Fremont Nebr. Kearney Nebr. Nebraska City N.Dak. Minot Okla. Bartlesville Okla. Durant EV Ariz. Prescott Calif. Alhambra *CaUf. Hanford Calif. San Luis Obispo Colo. Grand Junction ♦Mont. Bozeman N.Mex. Santa Fe Ore. Baker Utah Logan City Wash. Centralia AVI Conn. Essex Conn. Litchfield ' Conn. New Canaan Conn. Seymour Conn. Southington * ♦Conn. Westport Maine Cumberland Co. Mass. Dalton Mass. Manchester Mass. Sutton Mass. Swansea ♦Mass. Warren Mass. Westport N.H. Exeter *N.J. Bordentown NJ. Edgewater *N.J. Haldeon N.J. Hunterdon N.J. Prospect Park N.J. Wharton N.J. Woodbury N.J. Newton N.Y.- Baldwinsville N.Y. Carthage N.Y. Clyde N.Y. Cornwall N.Y. Dobbs Ferry N.Y. Frankfort *N.Y. Lowville N.Y. Lyons N.Y. Mount Morris N.Y. Patchoque N.Y. Perry N.Y. Saranac Lake N.Y. Scotia N.Y. Sidney N.Y. Silver Creek ♦N.Y. Sufifern - N.Y. WeUsviUe Pa. Birdsboro Pa. Bamesboro Pa. Ford City Pa. Delaware Pa. Jefferson Pa. Grove City Pa. Mauch Chimk Pa. Leechburg Pa. Northumberland Pa. Nazareth Pa. Renovo Pa. Parsons Pa. Slatington Pa. Verona Pa. South Fork *Pa. ' Williamstown Vt. Franklin Vt. Springfield 692 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State City State City BVI Ala. Girard Ala. Ofseliban Ala. Sheffield *Ala. ^ Troy Ark. Fordyce Fla. Orlando Ky. Ludlow S.C. AbbeviUe Tenn. Lenoir Tex. Bay City Tex. Jacksonville Tex. Plain view Tex. Stamford Va. Lexington CVI m. ■ Bushnell HI. CooksviUe Dl. Farmer City HI. Harrisburg BL Lake Forest m. Lockport m. Morris ni. Naperville HI. Robinson lU. Venice Ind. Auburn Ind. Angola Ind. Decatur Ind. Franklin Ind. KendaUville Ind. North Vernon Ind. Rochester Ind. Warsaw Mich. Greenville Mich. Gladstone Mich. St. Johns Mich. Onaway Ohio Crooks ville Mich. Crystal Falls Ohio Kent Ohio East Palestine Ohio Shelby Ohio Medina Wis. Two Rivers Wis. Kaukaima DVI Iowa Chariton Iowa Cherokee Iowa Eagle Grove Iowa Indianola Kans. Beloit Kans, Cherryvale Kans. Horton Kans. Lamed Neodesha Kans. Osawatomie Minn. St. Peter Minn. Staples Minn. Wabasha Minn. Waseca Mo. Excelsior Springs Mo. Kirkwood Mo. Monette *Mo. Slater N.Dak. Dickinson N.Dak. Jamestown Okla. Frederick OUa. Woodward S.Dak. Redfield. EVI CaHf Emeryville CaUf. Tulare CaUf. Monrovia Calif. Nevada City Calif. Oroville CaUf. Red Bluff Colo. Alamosa ♦Colo. Montrose Colo. Salida Idaho Nampa Idaho Weiser Mont. Havre Mont. Miles Nev. Tonopah N.Mex. Raton Ore. Albany Wash. EUensburg Wash. Kittitas Wash. Pullman Wash. Renton Wyo. Evanston TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 693 APPENDIX II LIST OF CITIES AND COUNTIES FROM WHICH REPLIES TO TEACHERS' QUESTIONNAIRE^ WERE RECEIVED (Arranged alphabetically by states and cities with the size group and number of replies indicated for each city.) State and City Size No. of State and City Size No. of Group RepUes Group RepUes Alabama (B) Stamford m 156 Troy VI 25 Thomasville VI 3 Arizona (E) Torrington Unionville IV VI 90 3 Phoenix Prescott rv V 30 98 Westport VI 30 Arkansas Fort Smith (B) m 33 Florida Altamonte Springs Apopka (B) VI VI I S California (E) Chuluota VI Alhambra V 70 Forest City VI Bakersfield IV 55 . Geneva VI Berkeley II 150 Koloku VI Eureka IV 48 Lake Monroe VI Fresno t Long Beach III 200 Lockbart VI III 150 Longwood VI Monrovia VI 21 Maitland VI Oakland I 550 Ocokee VI Pasadena m 80 Orlando VI Red Blufif VI 13 Oviedo VI II Riverside rv 241 Paola VI San Jose m 4 Pine Castle VI Santa Ana rv 71 Sanford VI 28 Santa Monica V SO Tangerine VI Tulare VI 20 Wintergarden VI Zellwood VI Colorado (E)' Colorado Springs III I Georgia (B) Denver I 53 Augusta n "3 Montrose VI 50. Idaho (E) Pueblo II 104 Boise m 87 Salida VI . 33 Nampa VI 30 Connecticut (A) Illinois (C) Ansonia IV 12 Aurora m 30 Collinsville VI z Belvidere V 55 Enfield IV 2 Canton IV 30 Essex VI 2 CarterviUe VI 13 Farmington VI 8 Decatur m 150 Litchfield VI 9 East St. Louis n 71 New Britain n 55 Farmer City VI 12 Norwich III 83 Freeport IV 66 Old Saybrook VI I Galesburg IV 75 Seymour VI 2 Granite City rv 50 Southington VI 12 Herrin V 43 For copy of questionnaire see page 544 . 694 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State and City Size No. of State and City Size No. of Group Replies Group Replies Illinois (C) Gorham V 4 Hillsboro VI 30 Lewiston III 20 Lake Forest VI 20 Norway VI 13 La SaUe IV 18 Oxford VI 3 Lockport VI 75 Portland II 4 Madison V 18 Rockland V 12 Naperville VI 20 Sanford IV 27 Ottawa V 25 South Paris VI 2 Rock Island III 122 Springvale VI 2 Streator IV ' 16 ^aterford VI 4 Venice VI II Maryland '(B) Indiana (C) Baltimore Coimty I I Anderson IV 7 Carroll Coimty IV 88 Crawfordsville IV 50 Easton and vicinity VI 32 Decatur VI 26 Western Maryland VI 60 East Chicago Franklin III VI 59 ' 6 Massachusetts (A) Gary Goshen Indianapolis Kendallsville IV V I VI 3 49 2 20 ' Amherst Andover Arlington Barre V V IV VI 33 10 6 14 Madison Mishawaka . Vincennes V ■ IV IV 30 75 71 Beverly East Hampton Fall River GilbertviUe IV IV I V 75 17 40 I Iowa (D) Greenfield IV 4 Cedar Rapids III 4 Saugus V 25 Clinton III 28 Manchester VI 5 Des Moines I 225 Methuen IV 50 Eaglegrove VI I Northampton IV I Indianola VI 1 Petersham VI 7 Oelwein V 45 Somerset VI S Ottumwa IV 120 SpringfielH I • 2CX) Swansea VI 4 Kansas (D) Waltham ni 50 Abilene VI 25 WeUesley V 14 Beloit VI I Whitman V 21 Galena V id Worcester I 10 Horton VI l2% Hutchinson rv 75 Michigan (C) Junction City Leavenworth V IV 40 20 Allegan Battle Creek VI m 33 100 Osawatomie VI 25 Cheboygan V 31 Topeka -111 II Crystal Falls VI SO Wellington V 167 Dowagiac Grand Ledge V VI 35 24 Kentucky (C) Greenville VI 16 Paducah III 83 Highland Park III 125 HoUand IV 25 Maine (A) Ironwood IV 89 Augusta IV 100 Lansing III 30 Gardiner V 6 Marquette IV S3 TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY^SCHEDULES 695 State and City Size No. of State and City Size No. of Group Replies Group Replies Michigan (C) Hackensack IV 70 Onaway VI 17 Haledon VI 18 Pontiac IV lOS Irvington IV 78 River Rouge VI 27 MillviUe IV 77 Saginaw II 130 Montclair III 168 St. Johns VI 13 Newton VI 30 Traverse City IV 67 North Bergen IV 100 Ypsilanti V 35 Passaic II 63 Phillipsburg IV 12 Minnesota (D) Plamfield IV 139 Albert Lea V 25 Brainerd V 24 New Mexico (E) Duluth • II 320 Las Cruces -VI 29 Little Falls V 37 Raton VI 13 Montevideo VI 20 Roswell V 196 Red Wing IV SO Santa Fe V 40 Stillwater V 25 St. Paul I 10 New York (A) St. Peter VI 20 . Albion V 29 Wabasha VI 15 Carthage VI 8 Waseca VI 9 Dobbs Ferry VI 14 Winona IV 75 Fulton IV 66 Jamestown III 88 Mississippi (B) Le Roy VI 14 Yazoo City V 10 Mt. Morris VI 13 Missouri (D) ' II Newburgh III 50 St. Joseph 175 Patchogue Plattsburg VI IV 30 29 Montana (E) Saranac Lake VI 40 Great FaUs IV 96 Silver Creek VI II Lewistown VI 7 Suffem VI 25 Miles City VI 34 Syracuse I 18 Missoula IV 43 Walton VI 30 Watervliet IV 32 Nebraska (D) Wellsville VI 24 Alliance ^ VI 27 Falls City VI 25 North Carolina (B) Kearney V 34 Durham m 42 Lincoln HI . 250 Greensboro IV 100 Nevada (E) North Dakota ^D) Tonopah VI 9 Dickinson VI 25 New Hampshire (A) Ohio (C) Portsmouth IV 30 Athens V . 15 Bellefontaine V 30 New Jersey (A) Cambridge IV 50 Asbury Park IV 84 Chillicothe IV 25 Bordentown VI II Cleveland Heights IV 64 Burlington V. 6 Columbus I 375 Edgewater VI 10 Crooksville VI 20 Garfield IV 6 Delaware V 35 Granton VI I East Palestine VI I 696 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION State and City Ohio Elyria Gallipolis Lima Kent Mansfield Mt. Vemon Nelsonville Norwood Shelby Zanesville Oklahoma Bartlesville Durant Guthrie Tulsa Oregon Albany Baker Dalles Salem Pennsylvania Ambridge Birdsboro Carry Conshohocken Duryea Erie Ford City Freedom Jersey Shore Johnstown Juniata Kittanning Mauch Chunk Mill vale Nazareth Oakmont Punxstawney Renovo Scranton Sidman- South Fork Verona Williamsport South Carolina Charleston Spartanburg Size Group (C) IV V III VI IV IV V IV VI III (D) V V IV III (E) VI V VI' IV No. of Replies SO 20 50 41 100 37 31 50 18 21 SO I 60 238 2S 34 20 33 (A) V 48 VI 20 V 20 V 31 V 2S II s VI 9 VI 20 V 27 II 229 V 2S VI I VI 4 V 16 VI IS VI 4 VI 36 VI IS I 300 VI I VI IS VI 7 III 7S (B) II IV 91 39 State and City South Dakota Aberdeen Sioux Falls Texas Austin Bay City Tyler Utah Logan Ogden Salt Lake City Vermont Bellows Falls Rutland Virginia Hewlett Lexington Richmond Washington Aberdeen Bellingham Centralia Everett Pullman Renton Roslyn Seattle Spokane Walla Walla Wisconsin Eau Claire Kaukauna La Crosse Menasha Merrill Neenah Plymouth Sheboygan Superior Two Rivers West AUis Wyoming Evanston Sheridan Size No. of Group Replies (D) IV 67 IV SO (B) III 60 VI I IV SO (E) V 34 III 69 I . I (A) VI 6 IV 100 (B) VI I vl T I 300 (E) IV I III 120 V 47 III SO VI 17 VI 26 VI 22 I 500 I 2S III 6S (C) IV 7S VI 28 m 71 V 25 V 3S V 41 VI I III 100 in 14 VI 26 V 60 (E) VI S IV 40 TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 697 APPENDIX III A coefficient of correlation is an index of the closeness of relation between two items. It is represented by values of "r" which range from + 1 . 00 (perfee^t relation) where a given rank or position in one item always goes with the same rank or position in the other item; thru the intermediate values to .0 (chance relation) where it is purely chance whether a given rank or position in one item will go with the same rank or position in the other item; thru the intermediate values to — i.oo where a given rank or position of one item always goes with the opposite of that rank or position in the other item. Thus, a coefficient of correlation between "salary received" and "experience" of r= + i, would indicate that the greater the experience the more the salary received; r= .0 would indicate no relation between the two, while r= — i.o would mean that the less the experience the higher the salary, or the lower the salary, the more the experience. To find coefficients of correlations by Sheppard's method of unlike signs involves the division of the correlation table (Table L) into quadrants by the medians of the two distributions. Individual cases falling above or in excess of the medians in either distribution are said to be positive (+) for that distribution and those falling below the median in either distribu- tion are said to be negative (— ). Sheppard's formula involves the finding of the percentage which the measures of unUke signs are of the total number of measures. This gives a value " U" which is transferred to a value of "r" from a table.^ In the distribution tables used in these studies, it was not possible to locate the median within any step and divide the cases falling upon that step in the proper quadrant. Thus, in Table L the Median for the "salary" is $910, and the median for "age" is 31.6 years. Thorndike^ gives an adaptation of Sheppard's formula to provide for the "zero cases" — those falling within the median steps. (In Table L the "$900 step" for salary and "30 years" step for age). Because of the nature of the material and the number of cases involved a simplification of Thorndike's formula was used. In determining the Hmits of the quadrants, if the median fell within the first fourth of the step, the line was drawn at the beginning of the step, if it fell within the middle half of the step, the lines were drawn at the beginning and close of the step, and if th^e median fell within the last fourth of the step the line was drawn at the close of the step. (Heavy lines indicate where quadrant division occur in Table L.) This method insures that the mis- placement of measures in counting the number in the quadrants can never be more than one-fourth of the cases falling within the median step. The value of "Z7" was then determined by the formula £/"= — -^ where "w" n is the sum of the cases with unhke signs, "w" the total number of cases » Thorndike Mental and Social Measurements, p. 171. Teachers' College, Columbia University 6o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and "(/" the "zero pairs" falling within the median step. The process for the distribution table shown in Table L will serve as an illustration. = =b 74 24 + + + 22 73 u- (24+22)+^ (19) 212 = ^55 5=.26 From table, r= .6848 This shows a distinct relation between "age" and "salary received" for the teachers in this group. It is observable from the table that there is a markt tendency for the teachers who are above the median age to be above the median salary also, and for those below the median age to be below the median salary. Where the cases were irregular or buncht heavily upon the median step, the value of "r " was checkt by finding the "coefficient of mean square contingency"^ which "is built up by reference to the theory of probability, and measures relationship in terms of the difference between the numbers of measures actually found in the various compartments of the correlation table (or 'contingency' table more generally), and the numbers that might be expected there by pure chance." The coefficient of mean square contingency gives a value "C" which may be interpreted in the same way as a value of "r" even tho they are by no means synonymous. The method of securing "C" is by the formula C- 103X96-7-212 = 47 I03XI9-^2I2= 9 103X97-^212 = 47 109X96-5-212 = 49 109X19-5-212 = 10 109X97-5-212 = 50 74 (47) ^ (9) 24 (47) 103 22 (49) 14 (10) '' (50) 109 96 19 97 212 X^^ (74-47)' , (9- 5)' ■ (47- 24)\ (49- 22) V (14- loK (73-50) 47 47 232 49 10 50 47 9 47 49 10 50 X = 55•7C^^j 55-7 212+55.7 = .46 » Pearson's Tables for Statisticians and Biometricians, 0/ Statistics, p. 64. C. Griffin Co. Rugs Statistical Methot p. 35. Cambridge University Press. Yule Theory Applied to Education. Houghton ,Mifflin Co. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 699 This gives a lower coefficient than r=.68 obtained by Sheppard's formula, but it indicates very clearly the presence of a relation between the two items — salary and age, for that group of teachers. Allowance must also be made in interpreting coefficients of mean square contingency, for the fact that in tables of four compartments the greatest possible value of "C" i.e., for perfect correlation, would not be greater than C= . 71. For six compartments the highest possible value must be between C= .71 and C=.82 which is the highest possible value for nine compartments. Not more than nine compartments were used in this study. This will greatly decrease the seemingly great difference between the r=.68 TABLE LXIX Table Showing Comparisons for Certain Selected Items between Coefficients of Correlations (Computed by Modification of Sheppard's Method of Unlike Signs)* and Coefficients of Mean Square Con- tingency f Computed for the Same Items Group and Study A B C D E IV. Experience and Salary (i) r= .55 c= .37 r= .67 C= .48 r = C = .31 .23 r = C = .34 .31 r= .39 C= .27 Difference between C and r .18 .19 .08 • 03 .12 IV. Living Expenses and Salary (2a) r= .71 c= .47 r= .61 C= .48 c= .68 .47 r = C = .70 .47 r= .68 C= .49 Difference between C and r .24 .13 - .23 19 IV. Percentage of Salary Spent for r = --34 C = -.24 6^-.ll c=- :?i c=- .04 .04 r = -.o3 C = -.09 (3a) Expenses and Salary Difference between C and r .10 .01 •05 .00 .06 IV. Increase or Decrease in % of Salary Spent and Salary (4) r=-.o6 C = -.o7 r=-.3i C=-.24 r = C = .03 .06 r = C = .16 .18 r=-.o6 C = -.3S Difference between C and r .01 .07 .03 .02 .29 IV. Recreation, Professional (sa) Advancement and Salary . . . r= .34 C= .23 r= .00 C= .08 r = C = :S r = C = .19 .12 r= .25 C= .17 Difference between C and r .11 .08 .03 .07 .08 IV. Total Expenses and Salary (6a) r= .78 c= .55 r= .66 c= .53 r = C = .60 .44 r = C = .76 .49 r= .72 C= .53 Difference between C and r .23 .13 .16 .27 .19 IV. Total Schooling and Salary (0) r= '.06 C= .13 r=-.s6 C^ .35 r = C = .13 .13 C = - .22 .24 r=*-.i7 C = -.i3 Difference between C and r .07 .21 .CX5 .02 .04 * For explanation of modification see page 697. t For method of securing coeflScient of mean square contingency see page 698. and the €=.46 found for Table L. Seventy-eight of the correlations were checkt by having coefficients of mean square contingency computed, 35 of them are arranged in Table LXIX for seven typical studies for Group IV for all geographical groups. In only one case of the 78 con- tingency coefficients was there difference enough between the findings to materially change the correlation which might be said to exist. The 700 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION case in point was Group IVE where an r of — .06 becomes a C of — .35. The relationships shown by the coefficients in Tables LV and LVI may, therefore, be taken as indicative of the presence or absence of relationships in varying degrees on a coarse scale. In getting an index for the different size groups the averages of the coefficients of correlation are made and the probable error^ of this ayerage computed. The probable error seems large in many cases due to the small number of coefficients averaged. . \ BIBLIOGRAPHY Note. — Further bibliographies are contained in the references markt with a *. American Society of Civil Engineers. Report of Special Committee to Investigate Conditions of Employment and Compensation of Engineers, December, 1914. ♦Boykin, J. C, and King, Roberta. " The Tangible Rewards of Teaching." U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 16, 1914. Brown, J. C. "State Normal Schools and the War." School and Society, VII, 695. Bruere, Robert and Martha. Increasing Home Efficiency. Macmillan. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly reviews for years 1914-19. Chapin, Robert Coit. Standards of Living among Workingmen's Families in New York City. Russell Sage Foimdation. Chicago, Teachers' Salary Conference. Comparison of Increase in Cost of Living and Elementary Teachers' Salaries, 1909. *Chilson, W. S. Comparative Study of Salaries of Elementary and High School Teachers in a Selected Group of Cities in U.S. M.A. Dissertation at Teachers College. Clark, M. G. "Study of High School Salaries." School Review, XXXVI, 389. Clark, W. E. The Cost of Living. McClurg, 1915. 168 pages. Coffman, L. D. "The Social Composition of the Teaching Population." Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 41. Columbus, Nebraska. Annual Report of Superintendent of City Schools. 1918-19. Commissioner of Education Reports. Statistics on Salaries. Bureau of Education. " Comparative Expenses, Teachers' Salaries and Other Items." Journal of Education, May II, 1916. "Comparative Expenses." Journal of Education, May 25, 1916. Comparative Study of Salaries of Teachers and School Officers. U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1915. No. 31. 126 pages. Consumers League of New York City. "Is This Living?" pamphlet, January, 1919. American Academy of Political and Social Sciences. "The Cost of Living" Annals V (1913), 48. *Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Houghton, Mifflin Co. Dunkerley, G. D., and Blades, A. "Pay and Supply of Teachers in England." Nature, May 3, 1917. *Dyke, C. B. "Economic Aspect of Teachers' Salaries." Columbia's Contribution to Philosophy, Psychology, and Education. "Educational Ordinance of 19 17 for Province of Cape Good Hope." Official Gazette No. 524, September 7, 191 7. England. Report of the Departmental Committee for Inquiring into the Principles Which Should Determine the Construction of Scales of Salary for Teachers in Elementary Schools. Vol. I, Cd. 8938. Vol. II, Cd. 8999. London, 1918. » P.E. computed by formula P.E. = + .674S— =^ in which « = s except in Group V where it is 4. TEACHERS' SALARIES AND SALARY SCHEDULES 701 England. Report of the Departmental Committee for Inquiring into the Principles Which Should Determine the Fixing of Salaries for Teachers in Secondary and Technical Schools, etc. Vol. I and II, London. Publisht by His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1918. Cd. 9140, 9168. England. "English Department Report on Salaries in Elementary Schools." School and Society, March 30, 191 8. Ferguson, J. Teachers^ Salaries, Tenure^ and Pensions. National Education Association. 1915- Gibbs, W. S. Minimum Cost of Living. Macmillan, 191 7. 93 pages. "Harvard Salaries and Cost of Living." School and Society, March 3, 191 7. "Income Statistics of Graduates in Engineering from a Western University." Engineer- ing News, September 9, 19 15. "Increase of Teachers' Salaries at Cincinnati." School and Society, June 15, 1918. Indiana State Teachers Association. Report of Committee on Taxes and Teachers' Salaries, 1904. "Is Teaching a Sweated Trade?" Survey, March 9, 1918. Lenhart, P. "Cross-Section of Teachers' Finances." Educational Review, April, 1918. Lincoln, E. B. Art of Securing Better Teaching Positions. A Handbook for Teachers. Progress Club, 50 Bromfield St., Boston, Mass. 19 10. McConnel, J. M. "Study of Salaries of High School Teachers." School Review, June, 1917. Monahan and Dye. "A Comparison of the Salaries of Rural and Urban Superintendents of Schools." U.S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. jj, 1917. National Education Association. Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Public School Teachers in U.S. 1905. National Education Association. Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living, 1913- National Education Association. Expenses of Teachers in Tulsa, 19 19. National Industrial Conference Board. Wartime Changes in Cost of Living, 1918. Nelson, C. A. "Bibliography of Teachers* Salaries and Pensions." Educator Review, 1907. Pearson. Tables for Statisticians and Biometricians. Cambridge University Press. Pritchett, Henry S. Financial Status of the Professor in America and in Germany. Car- negie Foundation for Advancement of Teaching. Bull. 1908, No. 2. Provost Marshal General. Report, 1918. Rankin, Jeannette. "Salaries of Teachers in the District of Columbia." School and Society, January 26, 1918. Railroad Wage Commission. Report, April 30, 1918. Rugg, H. O. Statistical Methods Applied to Education. Houghton, Mifflin Co. "Salary Schedules at Evanston, 111." School and Society, March 16, 1918. "Salaries and Secondary Education in England." School and Society, March 16, 1918. "Salaries in Scotland." Schools and Society, January 5, 1918. "Salaries of Teachers and Cost of Living." School and Society, May 25, 1918, June 15, 1918. "Salaries of New York City Teachers." School and Society, July 20, 1918. Salaries of Teachers in the U.S. Compiled by the Buffalo Bureau of Research. 1916. Statistics of Income. Treasury Department. . Internal Revenue. 1916. Strayer and Thorndike. Educational Administration. Macmillan Co. Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living. Report of the National Education Association Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions. July, 19 18. Teachers' Salaries and Living Expenses. Minnesota Education Association. Winona Normal Bull. Ser. 3, No. 3, 1906. 702 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION *Teachers* Salaries in Michigan. Michigan State Teachers' Association. February, 1919. "Teachers' Salaries in Pennsylvania." School and Society, June 22, 1918. Thomdike, E. L. Mental and Social Measurements. Teachers College. Columbia University. "Threatened Strike of London Teachers." School and Society, February 24, 1917. Trueman, George J. "School Funds — Province of Quebec." Teachers' College Contribu- tions to Education No, 106. "Wages and Cost of Living, Now and Before the War." Literary Digest, January 5, 1918. "Wages and Living Costs." Nation, March 7, 1918. "War and Teachers' Salaries, England and Wales." School and Society, June 29, 1918. "Wartime Rise in Cost of Living." Literary Digest, September 14, 1918. Yawberg, A. G. Appointment, Salary, and Tenure of Teachers. National Education Association. 1915. Yule, G. U. Theory of Statistics. C. Griffin & Co. SECRETARY'S REPORT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH, JULY 4-10, 1920 To he Executive Committee and Board of Directors: In compliance with the by-laws which require the Secretary to make an annual report to the Association, I take pleasure in presenting the following statement for your information and consideration: It is unnecessary to present the complete financial report of the Secretary, since this report is almost identical with that of the Treasurer and since the auditor's statement in the Treasurer's report, certifies that both reports are correct and agree with each other. I am presenting, therefore, only the summary of this report which is also the summary of the Treasurer's report. SUMMARY OF SECRETARY'S REPORT (audited) Receipts Balance, May 31, 1919 % 3,991 . 57 Receipts for year to May 31, 1920 105,855.79 $109,857.36 Disbursements Total expense for 1919-20 $112,551 .48 Increase in revolving fund 4,000.00 116,551,48 Indebtedness, May 31, 1920: At First National Bank, Chicago $ 6,394.12 Our note Continental Trust Co 300.00 6,694.12 Less cash on hand revolving fund $ 5,081 .00 Actual indebtedness, May 31, 1920 , $ 1,613.12 Summary as of June 25, iq2o (not audited) Receipts, May 31, to June 25 $ 9,387 . 57 Indebtedness, May 31, 1920 1,613 • i3 Balance as of June 25, 1920 (June bills are unpaid) $ 7,774.45 UNUSUAL EXPENDITURES Installing a new system of accoimts added an expense for the year of $2,558.63. Changing the publication of the volvraie of proceedings from the last to the first of the year caused the payment of all the expense of the volume for 1919 and a large part of that for the year 1918, during the present year, which increast the amoimt paid for publishing volumes and yearbooks by $8,811 .91. , The total receipts for this year are $109,857.36 As against receipts for last year 70,830. 19 Increase in the receipts of the office $ 39,027 . 17 The fimds of the Association now on hand will cover outstanding bills but not the expenses of the annual meeting to be held during the present week. This makes it neces- sary to borrow money to meet the expenses of the Salt Lake Gity meeting and to cover 703 704 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION the expenses of the office until schools open in September. Last year and also the year before it was necessary to borrow $5,000 to cover the expenses of the office during the summer months. It may be necessary this year to borrow a larger amount. The report of the Board of Trustees shows the purchase of property in Washington, 1 201 Sixteenth Street, for $98,000. This purchase was made in October of last year. In February, the Association was offered $120,000 for the property and the Secretary was led to believe that the party making the offer would actually give $125,000 if that amount would be accepted for the building. The National Research Council had a lease on the property at $6,500 a year when it was purchast by the Association. This lease expired July i, and the National Research CouncU is now moving into other quarters. The officers of the Association will be moved into the new headquarters during the last two weeks of July. The Association will need only about half of the available space in this building for its own use at the present time. The National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations has applied for space on the third floor to be used as national headquarters of that Association. It will cost the Association about $5,000 for repairs, furniture, and equipment on going into the new building. It has cost the National Research Council about $4,000 a year to operate the building. This cost of operation for the Association can be met by the income from space rented to other associations. The work of the Secretary's office is divided into the following partially developt ^departments: Field Secretary, Treasurer, Recorder, Editorial, Business, and Commercial Exhibits. The growth of the departments has been hampered by crowded conditions at headquarters and the lack of funds. It is believed that the rapid increase in membership and support, and the fine commodious office and workrooms in the new headquarters' building will enable the Executive Committee to increase the scope of work and efficiency of each of these departments. As a result of the new program of service, and the constructive work of the Association, the active membership is about four times at large as it was on June i, 1919. There are now in round numbers 50,000 active members, 13,500 men, and 36,500 women. Of the 50,000 active members, about 12,500 were active members at the end of the school year of 1919, and about 12,500 were associate members last year. The remaining 25,000 are new members of the Association. There is a strong desire on the part of the teachers of the coimtry for a plan of closer affiliation between state and local associations and the National Education Association. The Association should prepare at this time, for adoption as soon as possible, a plan of reorganization to meet these demands and to enable the Association to render a more direct and positive service to the Association. If some good plan of affiliation between the Association and state and local units is adopted at this meeting, I estimate that the income for the coming year will be as follows;: From membership dues old members $ 60,000.00 From new members 120,000.00 From interest and other sources ao.ooo.oo $300,000.00 RECOMMENDATIONS Owing to the increase in the costs of paper and printing, and owing to the necessity of increasing salaries of the office force, the amount which can be used for conmiittee work, legislation, and other promotion work will not be much above that of last year. I recommend that the Executive Committee allow substantial increases in salary for the heads of departments and for others in the employ of the Association. While the Association is leading in the nation-wide campaign for increast salaries for teachers, it must not forget to give its own clerks and officials the same saving and living wage SECRETARTS REPORT 705 which is advocated for teachers. I recommend that the Executive Committee allow a slight increase beginning in September and an additional increase to begin in January. The work of the Field Secretary and assistants has been most effective in the cam- paign for increast salaries for teachers, in the promotion of the Educational Bill now before Congress, and in advancing the interests of education thruout the country. With the approval of the Executive Committee, the Secretary will request the Field Secretary to prepare a report of the work of his department for the past school year and will have, this report publisht in the annual volume of Proceedings. Owing to the importance of this work, a careful history of its progress should be made in the permanent records of the Association. The publications of the Commission on the Emergency in Education have provided teachers with valuable statistics and other information. The work of the Conmiission, in outlining constructive policies, has been of great value in the readjustment of education following the war. I recommend that in addition to the reports presented at the general sessions at the Salt Lake City meeting, the Chairman of the Commission prepare a brief history of the work of the Commission to be preserved as a part of the permanent records of the Association. I recommend that a competent person be employed for 1920-21 to serve as editor of the publications of the Association. The annual Volimie of Proceedings, the reports of committees, and the N.E.A . Bulletin, all deserve more attention and better editing than is possible without an expert editor. The publications of this Association are recognized as being the most important of the educational publications in the world. Hence the editorial work should be in the hands of the most competent editor that can be found. The Association should continue with increast vigor its campaign for increast salaries for teachers, its work for a national department of education and for federal recognition of the importance of education. It should lay greater stress on the necessity of improving teaching standards and it should attach greater importance to tenure and to pensions for teachers than ever before. Some other important work may well be postponed for a time in the interest of these most vital and fundamental of problems. It is to be regretted that the shortage of teachers may be more acute in 1920-21 than it is at the present time. It has been estimated after careful investigation that less than 10 per cent of the teachers who have been engaged in war work will return to the work of teaching. The number of trained teachers who were graduated from the teacher-training institutions last year is much below the normal output. Teachers continue to leave the profession for other lines of work. Teachers' agencies report an unusual migration from the places where salaries are low to places where salaries are higher. It looks as if there may be almost a complete exodus of teachers from some sections of the country. These facts seem to make it certain that there will be a greater number of schools without teachers and a greater nimiber with teachers below standard than during the past year. Yet the higher salaries paid in many sections of the country and the tendency for further increases in pay in these same schools and the tendency also to hasten the matter of increasing salaries in other places, can hardly fail to have the effect of making teaching more attractive and of again making it appeal to the best type of manhood and womanhood of the country. All the forces and machinery of the Association have been used in a campaign to meet this crisis which threatens the public schools. The response of the teachers and of the people has been spontaneous and hearty. It is believed that the peak of the crisis may soon be past and that the continued efforts of the Association, together with an awakened public sentiment will during the coming year show markt progress in starting policies an(^ influences for the improvement of the schools and school conditions. TREASURER'S REPORT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION June i, 1919, to May 31, 1920 A. J. Matthews, in Account with the National Education Association Balance brought forward from Treasurer's Report for year ending May 31, igi9 $ 3.991 57 llECEIPTS From Annual Meeting: Advance enrolment — From Philip Lucas $ 3,912.00 From C. G. Pearse 490.00 From Anna Doerfler 1,518.00 Convention Registration 5,076.00 io,9q6 . 00 From membership, Cleveland Meeting of Department of Superinten- dence 5,604.00 From Secretary's oflSce during the year: Income $2.00 memberships (1918-19) $ 1,723.00 Income $2 .00 memberships (1919-20) 39.30S .00 Income $2 .00 memberships (1920-21) 18,323 .00 Income $5.00 memberships (1919-20) 11,884.95 Income $5.00 memberships (1920-21) 567.00 Sale of back volumes 1,888.92 Sale of special reports 953-41 Sale of bulletins 9. 25 Special contributions 859.00 Miscellaneous income (exchange, etc.) 42 . 34 From interest on Permanent Fund From Commercial Exhibits, Milwaukee and Cleveland meetings From interest and discounts earned $75,554. .87 12,608.82 988 .53 113 .57 89,265. m $^09,857. 36 Board of Trustees: DISBURSEMENTS 357.65 Executive Committee expenses: President $ 1^51.62 182.87 431.51 208.16 60.08 First Vice-President Treasurer Chairman Board of Trustees Member by election . . .... Carried forward. . . . 2,234 • 24 ♦3,591.89 707 • 7o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Brought forward $2,591.89 General Secretary's oflSce: Salary of Secretary $ 5,750 . 06 Postage 4,793.18 Telephones and telegrams 1 784. 26 Express and freight 259. 1 2 Clerical services : . ' 15,471 .31 Rent, light, power, and fuel 1,975.69 Stationery and office supplies 1,344.07 Traveling 502 . 21 Miscellaneous 485.90 Field Secretary's office: Salary of Field Secretary $ 7,200.00 Salaries of Assistant Field Secretaries 2,940. 00 Traveling, etc 9,368.83 19,508.83 Insurance ^^ 324.00 Legal services '. . . 150.00 Surety bonds 5000 Interest 111,71 Express and freight: Distribution of volumes and reports $ 2,615 • 84 Miscellaneous 5-37 Printing: Yearbook (1917) $ 710.52 Yearbook (1918) 2,822 . 41 Proceedings {1918) 4,040.44 Journals (1918) 1,238.54 Proceedings (1919) 4,264. 25 $ 13.076.16 Reprints from volume 214.34 Special reports 1,666 . 70 N.E.A. Bulletins iS,o44 • 25 Miscellaneous fletterheads, blanks, etc.) S,2SS 03 Si.Sio.34 2,621.21 35,256.48 Special appropriations: Balance on appropriations for 1918-19 Commission on National Emergency in Education Commission on Illiteracy Committee on Reorganization of Elementary Education. Committees of Department of School Patrons Committee on Health Problems Committee on Reorganization of Secondary Education. . Membership campaign (1918^19) Carried forward $99,968.79 $ 1,481.94 3,798.02 432.41 218.89 333.03 473.73 232.02 6,970.04 1,018.83 TREASURER'S REPORT 709 Brought forward $99,968 . 79 Unclassified disbursements: Auditing accounts of the association $ 525 . 13 Installing new accounting system and records of the association . i.iii .08 Press clippings 90.00 Membership fees — National Council of Education 200.00 Appraising of real estate 125 .00 Christmas bonus to employes 75 .oo Repairing furnace at 1400 Mass. Ave 42.21 Subscription to educational journals 16. 20 Repairs on i6th Street property 13. 60' Electrotypes 17.88 Purchase of back volumes' 26.33 Printing of 100 per cent certificates 75 .00 Lettering certificates 59- 20 Expenses — National Emergency in Education, balance year 1918-19 173-25 Rental of Graphotype 53 . So Miscellaneous expenses 44.52 2 ,647 . 90 Purchase of furniture and fixtures 1,151.85 Annual convention: Department expenses $ 271.27 State directors • 347.89 Clerical services — Registration $ 468.38 Stenographers and T3T)ewriting 326. 58 794.96 Publicity 1,752 .02 Printing: Program $ 614.50 Miscellaneous 223 . 00 837.50 Stationery 89.60 Telephones and Telegrams 17 . 11 Miscellaneous: Honorarium to speaker on program $ 500.00 Expenses of speakers 164.00 Expenses of Secretary Crabtree i43 • 55 Expenses of assistants (Messrs. Erlandson, Hanson, EUeson) 103 .30 Hotel expense (New Plandinton) 288.98 Expenses of Assistant Secretary (Mr. Snodgrass) 173-72 Expense of postoffice 125 . 65 Building counters 103 .80 Making chart 3 .00 Meals for boy scouts 36.00 1,641.00 5,751-35 Department of Superintendence: Expenses of President $ 462 . 82 Clerical services: Registration $ 250.06 PostoflGice, etc 145-60 395.66 Publicity 794-72 Printing: Programs $ 946-50 Miscellaneous 67 .04 1,013-54 Miscellaneous; Speaker on program $ 60.00 Music 273 .80 Miscellaneous 31-05 ■ 364-85 3.031.59 $112,551.48 Amount set aside as increase to Revolving Fund ; 4,000.00 $116,551.48 7IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SUMMARY, MAY 31, 1920 Receipts Balance brought forward from Treasurer's report for year ending May 31, 1919. . . $ 3,991 . 57 Receipts for year June i, 1919, to May 31, 1920 105,865.79 $109,857.36 Disbursements Total expyenses for the year $112,551 .48 Increase to Revolving Fund 4,000.00 116,551.48 Indebtedness at close of year $ 6,694. la Indebtedness Overdraft, First National Bank, Chicago $ 6,394. 12 Balance due on $5,000.00 note, Continental Trust Co 300.00 6,694.1a Signed by the auditors, Marwick, Mitchell & Co. SUMMARY, JUNE 25, 1920 Overdraft, First National Bank, Chicago $ 6,394. la Due on note, Continental Trust Co 300.00 6,694 . 1 a Less cash on hand in Revolving Fund 5.081 . 00 Actual deficit May 30 $ 1,613 . la Receipts May 31 to Jun« 25, 1920 • 9.387 • 57 Balance June 25, 1920 7.774-45 UNUSUAL EXPENDITURES Installing a new system of accounts added an unusual expense for the year of $2,558.63. Changing the publication of the Volume of Proceedings from the last to the first of the year caused the payment of all the expense of the volume for 1919 and a large part of that for the year 1918, during the present year, which increased the amount paid for publishing volumes and yearbooks by the following amount, $8,811.91. To the President of The National Education Association: We have audited the accounts of the Treasurer of The National Education Association, and of the Secre- tary, for the year ended May 31, 1920, and certify that the foregoing statement of Income and Expenses is correct and is in accordance with the books of the Association. The Secretary's working fund of $5,000.00 has also been certified by us. Marwick, Mitchell & Co. New York, June iq, 1920 Certified Public Accountants THIRTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES ON THE PERMANENT FUND FROM JUNE 1, 1919, TO MAY 31, 1920 C. G. Pearse, Chairman; Josephine Corliss Preston, President N.E.A.; W. R. Siders, Agnes E. Doherty, J. Y. Joyner. We have audited the receipts and disbursements of the Permanent Fund and have inspected the securities held in custody by the trust officer, but have not ascertained the market values thereof. Details of these securi- ties are given in Schedule "I." We have also verified the income received for the period. The receipts and disbursements of the Perma- nent Fund are shown in the following statement: RECEIPTS Proceeds of sale of United States Liberty Bonds: $41,500.00 Second 4J per cent at 93. 18 $38,669.70 9,000.00 Third 4^ percent at 95.20 8,568.00 10,500,00 Fourth 4i per cent at 93 . 28 9-794 • 4° Proceeds of sale of Los Angeles School District Bonds $7,000.00 4 J per cent bonds at 99.00 6,930.00 $63,962.10 DISBURSEMENTS J. W. Crabtree, Secretary N.E.A., Washington, D.C $ 50000 National Savings & Trust Co., Washington, D.C 64,500.00 J. W. Crabtree, Secretary N.E.A., for attorney fees in connection with purchase of Washington, D.C, property 250.00 , $65,250.00 Excess of disbursements over receipts $ 1,287.90 Balance as at May 31, 1919 1,708.41 Balance as at May 31, 1920 $ 420. 51 The cash balance has been certified to us by the depository. A statement of the receipts and disbursements frpm income for the period may be summarized as follows: RECEIPTS Income from investments as shown on Schedule "I" $ 5.887.50 Interest on bank balances 54-77 Interest on Liberty Bonds 1,272 . 29 Rent of building, 1201 i6th Street, Washington, D.C 3.791 • 7o Miscellaneous receipts account of adjustments in purchase of building 1201 i6th Street, Wash- ington, D.C 1,412 . 74 $12,412.00 DISBURSEMENTS J. W. Crabtree, Secretary N.E.A., Washington, D.C $ 5,666.41 Continental Trust Co., Washington, D.C 4,700.00 J. W. Crabtree, Secretary, for interest on outstanding notes on Washington property 825.00 J. W. Crabtree, Secretary, for interest on trust deed of $3,000.00 on Washington property, due April I, 1920 82 . 50 Adjustment of insurance on Washington property, premium of $232.00, from November 3, 1919, to September 9, 1920 197 . 20 Taxes on Washington property, due June i, 1920. 688.39 Fee for care of principal of Permanent Fund 252 . 50 $12,412.00 711 712 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION SCHEDULE "I" SECURITIES ON HAND AS AT JUNE 8, 1920 MUNICIPAL AND SCHOOL BONDS Par Value Book Value Income City of New York 4 J per cent gold bonds, due 1957 Nos. 5S4 to 561 City of New York 4^ per cent gold bonds, due 1957, Nos. 26816 to 26824 Kansas City, Mo., School District 3^ per cent bonds, due 1925, Nos. 3127-29, 3133-36, 3190-92, 3200 Clearwater, Kans., Waterworks bonds, due 1930, No. 18. . Clearwater, Kans., Waterworks bonds, due 1931, Nos. 19-20 Clearwater, Kans., Waterworks bonds, due 1932, Nos .21-23 Salt Lake City, Utah, Water bonds, 4^ per cent due 1934, Nos. 310 to 319 Seattle, Wash., School bonds, 4i per cent, due 1931, Nos. 586 to 595 Los Angeles, Calif., School District bonds, 4J per cent, due 1921, No. 408 Los^Angeles, Calif., School District bonds, 4J per cent, due 1922, Nos. 571-72 Additional interest to date of sale of $7,000.00 of above- named bonds $ 8,000.00 9,000.00 10,000.00 1,000.00 2,000.00 3,000.00 10,000.00 . 10,000.00 1,000.00 2,000.00 $ 8,510.00! 9,810. 00 J 9.500.00 1,000.00, 2,000.00 3,000.00, 10,060.00 10,266.30 1,069.29 2,187.20 $765.00 350.00 300.00 450.00 450.00 135.00' 262.50 RAILROAD BONDS St. Louis & San Francisco R.R. Co. temporary prior lien mortgage bonds, 4 per cent, due 1950, Nos. M56051- ^ 56055, Y1527 St. Louis & San Francisco R.R. Co. temporary adjustment bonds, 6 per cent^ due 1955, Nos. M14S22, D845, Y1033 Terminal R.R. Association of St. Louis gen. ref. sink, fund gold bonds, 4 per cent, due 1953, Nos. 16311 to 16325. Pittsburg, Lake Erie & West Virginia System ref. gold bonds, 4 per cent, due 1941, Nos. 13496 to 13500, 21236 to 21250 Oregon Short Line R.R. Co. ref. gold bonds, 4 per cent, due 1929, Nos. 4013 to 4017, 4025 to 4027, 4976, 13816 . . . Chicago, Indiana & Southern R.R. Co., 4 per cent, due 1956, Nos. 11386 to 11394, 13786 Manhattan R.R. Co. cons, mortgage gold bonds, 4 per cent, due 1990, Nos. 2843, 6522, 16083, 16087 Atlantic Coast Line R.R. Co. first cons, bonds, 4 per cent, due 1952, Nos. S130, 6494, 11638, 11639, 14335, 14339, 24601, I7S79, 37545, 50251 $ 5,250.00 1,750.00 15,000.00 20,000.00 10,000.00 10,000.00 ' 4,000.00 10,000.00 $ 4,331.25 1,433-75 15,050.00 19,942.50 8,895.00 9,500.00 3,900.00 9,600.00 $210.00 105.00 ^00.00 800.00 400.00 400.00 i6o.oo 400.00 CORPORATE BONDS Main Real Estate Title Co. first mortgage gold bonds, 5 per cent, due 1932, Nos. 151-152 $134,000.00 $132,005.29 $ 100.00 $5,887.50 NOTE OF EXPLANATION Property at 1201 Sixteenth Street, cost $ 98,000.00 Cash paid on transaction $65,000.00 ^ Balance due on mortgage 33,000.00 Owing to increase in value of property, present value 1 20,000 . 00 Face value Permanent Fund 197,000.00 Book value owing to increase in real estate is about 219,000.00 To the Trustees of the National Education Association: Gentlemen: The above and foregoing is a correct statement of the account of the funds of the National Education Association of the United States as the same appears on the books of this bank. First Trust and Savings Bank By Louis Boisot, Vice-President Chicago, III To the President of the National Education Association: We have examined the books and records of the Board of Trustees of the National Education Asso- ciation and certify, that in our opinion, the foregoing statement correctly shows the condition of the Per- manent Fund as of May 31, 1918. We have exan^ined the securities listed in the foregoing statement, deposited in the custody of the First Trust and Savings Bank of Chicago, Illinois. Marwick, Mitchell & Company Chicago, III. Certified Public Accountants June 19, zgao IRecroIOQ? 1919—1920 Reports of the death of the following members have been received since May 1,1919; the date of decease follows each name. Aber, William M. (March 30, 1920) .... Missoula, Mont. Alden, Amelia D. (May 27, 1919) West New Brighton, N.Y. Allen, Elizabeth A. (May 3, 1919) Hoboken, N.J. AxLiNE, G. A. (October 14, 1919) Albion, Idaho Ayres, Brown (January 28, 1919) Knoxville, Tenn. Brydges, William H. (November, 1919) . . . Elgin, 111. BuRDETT, Frank W. (November, 1919) .... Boston, Mass. Callahan, Dennis J. (June, 1919) Lewiston, Maine Chase, George C. (May, 19 19) Lewiston, Maine Clarke, Ford S. (August 23, 1919) . . . ... Alfred, N.Y. Clum, John E. (April 18, 1919) Columbus, Ohio Colburn, Kate S. (August 22, 1920) New York, N.Y. Cole, Carlos M. (Jime, 1920) Denver, Colo. Cook, George B. (February 15, 1920) .... Little Rock, Ark. . DiLLE, Alvin (June 13, 1920) Bishop, Tex. Eiche, Julia L. (August 25, 1919) New York, N.Y. Flounders, George W. (February 15, 1920) . . Philadelphia, Pa. Funk, Emma L. (March i, 1919) Independence, Iowa Gibson, Alice J. (February 21, 1 9 19) . . . . Cincinnati, Ohio Grant, James Richard (July 10, 1920) .... Fayetteville, Ark. Greenman, Charles H. (September 15, 19 19) . . Oakland, Calif. Heston, J. W. (February i, 1920) Madison, S. Dak. Hill, Fred Burnett Qanuary, 1919) .... Northfield, Minn, Holmes, H. H. (February, 1920) Kaifeas City, Mo. King, Fred DeL. (August 4, 1919) Lawrence, N.Y. MacClean, E. a. (August 28, 1920) New York, N.Y. Maxwell, William H., Life Director (May 3, 1920) New York, N.Y. Merrill, Arthur G. (November, 1919) . . . Chicago, 111. Metzger, D. M. (no date) Le Mars, Iowa Number, J. F. Qime, 1919) Mishawaka, Ind. Owen, Thomas McA. (March, 1920) .... Montgomery, Al^. Parker, W. D. (March 21, 1920) Pasadena, Calif. Perrine, Lura L. (October 7, 19 19) Valley City, N. Dak. Raub, Albert H. (October 28, 19 19) .... Philadelphia, Pa. Richardson, Rachael T. (May, 1920) . . . . Eagle Rock, Calif. Sammis, Edward A. (November 28, 1919) . . . Stamford, Conn. ^ Sanders, Frederic W. (January 28, 1920) . . . Los Angeles, Calif . Seath, John (March, 19 19) Toronto, Canada Shroy, John L. Qanuary 13^ 1920) Philadelphia, Pa. Snyder, J. L., Life Member (October 22, 1919) . East Lansing, Mich. Spencer, Enos Qanuary 17, 1920) . . . . . Louisville, Ky. Steltz, Francis C. Qanuary 24, 1920) .... Braddock, Pa. 713 714 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Stoneberg, Philip J. (December 19, 1919) . . . Bishop Hill, 111. Stout, George H. (September 16, 1919) .... Philadelphia, Pa. Taft, Leonora E. (July 2 2, '19 19) Springfield, Mass. Tenny, Fred C. (June, 1919) North Brookfield, Mass. TiCKNER, Susan B. (September 12, 1919) . . . Kalamazoo, Mich. Thomas, Agnes B. (January 14, 1920) .... California, Pa. Jhompson, J. W. (January, 1919) Potsdam, N.Y. Welsh, James C. (June 10, 1919) Chicago, 111. Westcott, Oliver S. (July 31, 1919). . . . , Oak Park, 111. Westervelt, Z. F. (1920) Rochester, N.Y. Whitelaw, Jennie M. (November i, 1919) . . Brooklyn, N.Y. Williams, Delia Lathrop, Life Member (March 15, 1919) Delaware, Ohio Wilmarth, Mary H. (August 28, 1919) .... Chicago, 111. Winchester, Myra M. (December 18, 1919) . . Washington, D.C. Wollman, C. (October 29, 19 19) White Plains, N.Y. Wormwood, D. Lyman (1920) Bangor, Me. GENERAL INDEX [Names of authors are set in small capitals.] Accident Prevention as a Factor in Unify- ing the Curriculum, The Value of Instruction in (George E. Payne), 204 Act of Incorporation, i Adair, Cornelia S. — The Teacher in Administration, 99 Adams, H. R. — Discussion: Establishing a Course in Thrift, 127 Address of Welcome (G. N. Child), 30 Adequate Number of Adequately Trained Teachers, The Problem of an (John H. Finley), 495 Administration, Present, Report of the President with Recommendations as to Policies and Plans for the Guidance of the (Homer H. Seerley), 163 Administration of School Affairs, The Place of Classroom in the (Jessie Skinner), 95 Administration of the School System, The Part the Teacher Should Play in the (Stella Herron), 96; (Agnes Winn), 97 Administration, Some Problems of. Con- fronting the Public Junior College (Jesse B. Davis), 478 Administration of a State Teachers' Col- lege, Effective Democracy in the Faculty and the (William H. Zeigel), 244 Administration, The Teacher in (Cornelia S. Adair), 99 Adoption of Program of Constructive Measures as a Forward Step in School Administration (J. S. Freece), 325 Ager, G. W. — Some Immediate Demands for Community Service, 272 Aley, Robert J. — Forty Years of the National Council of Education, 144 Allan, H. A. — Some Needs of Rural Edu- cation Which May Be Met through This Department of the National Education Association, 280 America, Greater, The High School's Part in the Making of a (J. O. Engleman), 209 American Education, Constructive Factors in (John P. Garber), 466 Americanization (Jessie L. BtiRRALL), 58 Americanization (Edwin R. Snyder), 487 Americanization, School Libraries and (Joy Elmer Morgan), 386 Americanization, Suggestions for a Practi- cable and Effective Program (Albert Shiels), 484 Americanization under the New Hamp- shire Law (Maro S. Brooks), 441 America's Gift to France (L. Wardlaw Miles), 420 America's Pledge to the World (E, O. Sisson), 348 Anderson, Fred J. — A Child's Study Period, 373 Arnold, Sarah Louise — Education: The Defense of the American Home, 103 Bagley, William C. — A Federal Depart- ment of Education, 449 Baylor, Adelaide Steele — The Next Step in the Study of Consolidation, 138 Benezet, L. p. — How Are We Teaching Citizenship in Our Schools ? 64 Bennion, Milton — Discussion: Student (Government, 250 Benson, Arthur F. — The Present Status of the Junior High School, 528 Benton, Guy Potter — What the War Has Contributed Toward Teaching Citizen- ship, 68 Beveridge, J. H. — Influence of the World- War on Secondary Education, 227 Black, Ethel — Practice-Teaching for Prospective Rural Teachers, 295 Blake, Katherine Devereaux — Discus- sion: Thrift in Childhood, 123 Blanton, Annie Webb — Democracy in School Administration, 515 Board of Trustees, Thirty-Fourth Annual Report of, 711 Brace, George M. — ^The Influence of the War on Vocational Education, 337 Bradford, Mary C. C. — The National Education Association as the Interpreter of American Civilization, 39 Bradford, Mary D. — ^What Should Be Done to Keep High-Class Superintend- ents in the Schools ? 90 Brooks, Maro S. — Americanization under the New Hampshire Law, 441 Broome, Edwin C. — Strengthening the Superintendent, 505 Brown, J. Stanley— Should Salaries in Teachers' Colleges and Normal Schools Parallel Salaries in the Universities? If So, Why ? If Not, Why Not ? 260 Brown, Maude — Discussion: The Health Crusade, 319 Building 'Program, Planning a Compre- hensive (P. C. Packer), 437 Burgess, W. Randolph — Eighty- Year Fluctuations in the Cost of American School Buildings, 329 BuRRALL, Jessie L. — Americanization, 58; Picture Material for Geography Classes, 382 715 7i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BuRRis, W. p. — A Federal Department of Education, 444 Business Education, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes, 263 BuTTERFiELD, Kenyon L. — ^Thc Coimtry Life Movement at Home and Abroad, 284 By-Laws, 5 Calendar of Meetings, 14 Call to Arms in 1920, The (Josephine Corliss Preston), 143 Cary, C. p.— The Making of a State Department of Public Instruction, 490 Cassidy, M. a. — Golden Deeds in Char- acter Education, 523 Census, Continuous School (John W. Davis), 508 Certificate, 13 Challenge of the Present World Situation, The Educational (Henry C. King), 469 Chamberlain, Arthur H, — The Salary Situation with Remedies, 154; Thrift and Conservation, 169; Thrift Readjust- ment and Progress, 117 Character Education, Compulsory (Ernest A. Smith), 471 Character Education, Golden Deeds in (M. a. Cassidy), 523 Child, G. N. — Address of Welcome, 30 Child Hygiene, Physical Education and. Departments of, Secretary's Minutes, 311 Child's Study Period, A (Fred J. Ander- son), 373 Citizenship, How, Is Taught in the Schools of Los Angeles (Susan M. Dorsey), 66 Citizenship in Our Schools ? How Are We Teaching (L. P. Benezet), 64 Citizenship in Our Schools, How We Are Training for (F. B. Cooper), 63 Citizenship, Teaching (W. D. Lewis), 531 Citizenship, What the War Has Con- tributed Toward Teaching (Guy Potter Benton), 68 City Systems (H. B. Wilson), 113 Civilization, The National Education Association as the Interpreter of Ameri- can (Mary C. C. Bradford), 39 Clark, M. G.— The Part the Teacher Should Play in the School Administra- tion, 93 Clark, Walter E. — The Stranger within Our Gates, 60 Classes for Non-English-Speaking Women, A Brief View of One Year's Experience in New York State with (Elizabeth A. Woodward), 345 Classroom Teachers, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes, 343 Claxton, p. p. — Adequate Pay for Teachers, 55 CoFFMAN, Lotus D.— ^Teachers' Associa- tions, 458 Cole, Carlos M. — The Denver Oppor- tunity School, 477 College Women, The Problem of the Social life of (Josephine Simrall), 363 Commercial Education, Retail Selling as a Factor in (Nellie Grant Morris), 264 Committee on Health Problems in Educa- tion, Report for (Thomas D. Wood), 184 Committee on Resolutions, Report of, 23 Commimity Service, Some Immediate Demands for (G. W. Acer), 272 Comparison of Theories, and Suggested Study for Their Evaluation, Partici- pation of Teachers in Management (Harlan Updegraff), 180 Compulsory Character Education (Ernest A. Smith); 471 Consohdation, The Next Step in the Study of (Adelaide Steele Baylor), 138 Constructive Factors in American Educa- tion (John P. Garber), 466 Constructive Work, Program of, 167 Continuous School Census Qohn W. Davis), 508 Cooper, F. B. — How We Are Training for Citizenship in Our Public Schools, 63 Cooper, Frank Irving — Determining the Number of Rooms for a Departmental School Building, 330; Regulations on Schoolhouse Constructipn in the United States in 1920, 518 Cost of American School Buildings, Eighty- Year Fluctuations in the (W. Randolph Burgess), 329 Country Life Movement at Home and Abroad, The (Kenyon L. Butterfield), 284 Crawford, R. P. — Rural Schools that Serve Effectively, 274 Cunningham, Bess — Necessity for Activity and Experiment for the Education of Little Children, 192 Curran, Margarej Craig — Holding Students up to Standard through Follow- up Work and Extension Activities, 297 Current Tendencies and Problems in Education (R. W. Himelick), 424 Curriculum, Report of the Sub-Committee on, of the Committee on Superintendent's Problems (A. Duncan Yocum), 174 Davis, Iesse B. — Some Problems of Administration Confronting the Public Junior College, 478 Davis, John W. — Continuous School Census, 508 Deans, The Need of Standardizing the Qualifications of, for High Schools (Anna Willson), 215 Deans of Women, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes, 357 De Forest, Charles M. — Modem Health Crusade, 515 Democracy, Effective, in the Faculty and the Administration of a State Teachers' College (William H. Zeigel), 244 Democracy in the Management of the Schools (Charles B. Stillman), 178 Democracy in School Administration (Annie Webb Blanton), 515 INDEX 717 Democratization of Supervision, The (James Fleming Hosic), 414 Denver Opportunity School, The (Carlos M. Cole), 477 Department: of Business Education, 263; of Classroom Teachers, 343 ; of Deans of Women, 357; of Educational Publica- tions, 395; of Elementary Education, 203; of Higher Education, 231; of Kindergarten Education, 191; of Music Education, 309; of Normal Schools, 237; of Physical Education and Child Hygiene, 311; of Rural Education, 271; of School Administration, 323; of School Patrons, 365; of Science Instruction, 305; of Secondary Education, 209; of Superintendence, 408; of Vocational Education, 269; of the Wider Use of Schoolhouses, 403. Departmental Building, Determining the Number of Rooms for a (Frank Irving Cooper), 330. Determining the Number of Rooms for a Departmental School Building (Frank Irving Cooper), 330. Dickson, Virgil E. — Mental Testing for All Kindergarten Children, 196. Discussion: Establishing a Course in Thrift (H. R. Adams), 127 Discussion: The Health Crusade (Maude Brown), 319; (Grace Gallett), 321 Discussion: The Importance of a Bank Account (J. M. Gwinn), 129 Discussion: A Program in Thrift Educa- tion (D. C. Jensen), 121 Discussion: Significance of the High School Years (A. E. Winship), 125 Discussion: Student Government (Milton Bennion), 250 Discussion: What Supervision Accom- plishes (L. J. Muir), 124 Discussion: Thrift in Childhood (Kath- ERINE DeVEREAUX BlAKE), 123 ^ Discussion: Thrift through Participation (Orson Ryan), 132 DoDSON, John M. — Health Service, 185 Dollar Education (William Mather Lewis), 418 Dorsey, Susan M. — Discussion: Seeking the Motive in Thrift Teaching, 130; How Citizenship Is Taught in the Schools of Los Angeles, 66 Downey, Mary F. — Relation of the Public Schools to Various Library Agencies, 378 Downfall of Autocracy (A. E. Winship), 350 Driggs, Howard R. — Making Language a Real Part of the Curriculum, 205; Is There Need for a New Type of Text in High-School English ? 395 Dukes, Ella M. — Is the Teaching of English in the High School Functioning Effectively? 213 Economic Fitness, The Fimdamentals Underlying (F. L. Kleeberger), 315 Economy in Schoolhouse Planning and Construction (W. R. McCornack), 333 Education: The Defense of the American Home (Sarah Louise Arnold), 103 Education, Definite Objectives in (Edward O. Sisson), 100 Education, Elimination of Waste in (William J. Shearer), 513 Education, Just a Word about (P. G. Holden), 306 Education of Little Children, Necessity for Activity and Experiment for the (Bess Cunningham), 192 Educational Challenge of the Present World Situation, The (Henry C. King), Educational Publications, Department of, Secretary's Minutes, 395 Educational System, The School Board's - Place in the (G. A. Iverson), 88; Mrs. V. H. Miller), 89 Eighty- Year Fluctuations in the Cost of School Buildings (W. Randolph Bur- gess), 329 Elementary Education, Department of, Secretary's Minutes, 203 Elementary Science — ^What, Why and How? Qohn C. Johnson), 305 Elimination of Waste in Education (William J. Shearer), 513 Emergency in Education, A Final Report of the Commission in Education (George D. Strayer), 41 Emergency in Higher Education, The (George F. Zook), 231 Engleman, J. O. — The High Schools in the Making of a Greater America, 209 Ettinger, William L. — Methods of Financing Large City School Systems, 434 Evans, C. E. — Student Self-Government in Teacher-Training Institutions, 248 Evenden, E. S. — Teachers' Salaries and Salary Schedules in the United States, 1918-19, 537 Extension Activities, Holding Students up to Standard through. Follow-up Work and (Margaret Craig Curran), 297 Ezekiels, Jeannette — The Kindergarten Makes Adequate Provision for the Children's Physical Development, 193 Fahey, Sara H. — The Teacher's Salary as a Factor in Establishing Caste, 351 Farm Woman's Problems, The (Florence E. Ward), 75 Favrot, Leo M. — Securing an Adequate Supply of Prepared Teachers for Negro Rural Schools, 392 Federal Department of Education, A (W. P. BuRRis), 444; (William C. Bagley), 449 Felmley, David — Teachers' College Prob- lems, 164 Ferguson, JAmes — The Tenure of Teachers, 158 Financing Large City School Systems, Methods of (William L. Ettinger), 434 Financing a Modem School Program (M. P. Shawkey), 49 7i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION FiNLEY, John H. — The Problem of an Adequate Number of Adequately Trained Teachers, 495 Five Decades of Educational Progress ) (A. E. WiNSHip), 422 Follow-up Work and Extension Activities, Holding Students up to Standard thru (Margaret Craig Curran), 297 Forty Years of the National Council of Education (Robert J. Aley), 144 Fowler, H. E. — Thrift in Reading, 391 Freece, J. S. — Adoption of Program of Constructive Measures as a Forward Step in School Administration, 325 Freshman Class in 1940, The (Rodney M. West), 235 Functions and Organization of the State Department of Education Considered in the Light of Present Needs and Plans, The (L. N. HiNEs), 493 Fundamentals Underlying Economic Fit- ness, The (F. L. Kleeberger), 315 Gallett, Grace — Discussion: The Health Crusade, 321 Garber, John P. — Constructive Factors in American Education, 466 Geiger, William F. — What Should Be Done to Keep High-Class Superin- tendents in the Schools? 91 General Sessions of the Association, 29 GiLDEMEiSTER, Theda — The Teaching of Patriotism, 438 Golden Deeds in Character Education (M. A. Cassidy), 523 * GowANS, E. G. — Health Education in Utah, 84; Utah's Health Legislation, 367 Grades, Supervised Study in the (Alfred L. Hall-Quest), 502 Greatest Need in Public Education Today, The — Wise and Responsible Leadership (E. C. Hartwell), 468 Greer, John N. — Are We Getting Proper Returns from Industrial Education in Our Public Schools ? 73 GuGLE, Marie — Some Problems of the Junior High School, 217 Gwinn, J. M. — Discussion: The Impor- tance of a Bank Account, 1 29 Hale, Florence M. — State Requirements and Standards, 286 Hall-Quest, Alfred L. — Supervised Study in the Grades, 502 Hartwell, E. C. — The Greatest Need in Public Education Today — Wise and Responsible Leadership, 468 Harvey, Mabel Turner — Shortage of Teachers, 480 Harvey, Nathan A. — Intelligence Tests, 252 Health Crusade, Modem (Charles M. De Forest), 515 Health Crusade Work in Wyoming (A. A. Slade), 85 Health Education (Sally Lucas Jean), 81; 318 Health Education (Margaret S. McN aught), 87 Health Education in Utah (E. G. Go wans), 84 Health Legislation,Utah's (E. G. Gowans), 367 Health Organization Work in Public Schools (Sally Lucas Jean), 369 Health Problems in Education, Report for Committee on (Thomas D. Wood), 184 Health of School Children a Commimity Problem, The (Thomas D. Wood), 365 Health of the School Children, The Nation's Duty to the (Thomas D. Wood), 79 Health Service (John M. Dodson), 185 Hedger, Caroline — Success of Nutrition in Classes in Boston and Chicago, 313 Heilman, J. D. — The Personal Qualifica- tions of Instructors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exemplifying Hygiene and Physical Education Tests in Teacher- Training Institutions, with a View to the Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests in the Public Schools, 256 Heistand, W. R. — Rural School Activities, 288 Herron, Stella — The Part the Teacher Should Play in the Administration of the School System, 96 High School English ? Is There Need for a New Type of (Howard R. Driggs), 395 High Schools in the Making of a Greater America, The (J. O. Engleman), 209 Higher Education, Department of. Secre- tary's Minutes, 231 Higher Education, The Emergency in (George F. Zook), 231 Hill, Clyde M. — Securing Recognition of the Rural Problem in Teaching-Training Institutions, 299 Himelick, R. W. — Current Tendencies and Problems in Education, 424 Hines, L. N. — The Functions and Organi- zation of the State Department of Education Considered in the Light of Present Needs and Plans, 493 Holden, p. G. — Just a Word about Education, 306 Holding Students up to Standard thru Follow-up Work and Extension Activities (Margaret Craig Curran), 297 Hollow AY, H. V. — Teacher Shortage from the Standpoint of a County Superin- tendent, 482 Home Reading, Some Plans in Operation for Stimulating, by School Children (J. D. Wolcott), 383 Horn, Ernest — The Relation of Silent Reading to Efficiency in Study, 526 Hosic, James Fleming — The Democratiza- tion of Supervision, 414 How We Are Training for Citizenship in Our Public Schools (F. B. Cooper), 63 INDEX 719 Hygiene and Physical Education Tests in Teacher-Producing Institutions with View to Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests in the Schools, The Personal Qualifications of Instructors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exemplifying (Reed, A. G.)* 254 Hygiene and Physical Education Tests in Teacher-Training Institutions, with a View to the Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests in the Public Schools, The Personal Qualifica- tions of Instructors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exemplifying (J. D. Heilman), 256 Individual Differences in Kindergarten Children (Elizabeth Woods), 198 Industrial Education In Our Public Schools? Are We Getting Proper Returns from (John N. Greer), 73 Influence of the War on Vocational Education, The (George M. Brace), 337 Intelhgence Tests (Nathan A. Harvey), 252 Introductory Remarks (Ernest A. Smith), 29 Introductory Remarks, Summary of (E. S. Rice), 377 Is the Teaching of English in the High School Functioning ? (Ella M. Dukes 213 Is There Need for a New Type of Text in High-School English? (Howard R. Driggs), 395 IvERSON, G. A. — The School Board's Place in the Educational System, 88 Jean, Sally Lucas — Health Education, 81; 318; Health Organization Work in Public Schools, 369 Jensen, D. C. — Discussion: A Program in Thrift Education, 121 Johnson, John C. — Elementary Science — What, Why, and How ? 305 Johnston, Eva — Problems of the Curri- culum, 361 Jones, Olive N. — The Recognition of the Relation of Education to Our National Life, 48 Journal of Proceedings, 2 1 Junior High School, The Present of the (Arthur F. Benson), 528 Junior High School, Some Problems of the (Marie Gugle), 217 Kerr, Mina — Student Government, 358 Kindergarten Children, Individual Differ- ences in (Elizabeth Woods), 198^ Kindergarten Children, Mental Testing for All (Virgil E. Dickson), 196 Kindergarten Education, Department of, Secretary's Minutes, 191 Kindergarten, The, Makes Adequate Pro- vision for the Children's Physical Development (Jeanette Ezekiels), 193 King, Henry C. — The Educational Chal- lenge of the Present World Situation, 469 Kleeberger, F. L. — The Fundamentals Underlying Economic Fitness, 315 Language, Making, a Real Part of the Curriculum (Howard R. Driggs), 205 Leavitt, Frank M. — Vocational Guidance and Placement, 335 Lester, Orrin — Discussion: Attitude of the Treasury Department, 1 29 Lewis, W. A. — Religious Education, 238 Lewis, W. D. — Teaching Citizenship, 531 Lewis, William Mather — Dollar Educa- tion, 418 Library Agencies, Relation of the Public Schools to Various (Mary F. Downey), 378 Library Department, Secretary's Mmutes, 375 Library, High-School, The Present Status of the, in the United States (Irma M. Walker), 387 Limiting the Spurious Output of Text- books thru Editing (J. W. Searson), 401 McCornack, W. R. — Economy in School- house Planning and Construction, 333 McCoy, William T.— What Is New in Our Point of View ? 136 McNaught, Margaret S. — Health Edu- cation, 87; School Revenue and Its Effect, 371 — Main Issue of the Year, The (Josephine Corliss Preston), 188 Making Language a Real Part of the Curriculum (Howard R. Driggs), 205 Making of a State Department of Public Instruction, The (C. P. Gary), 490 Management, Comparison of Theories, and Suggested Study for Their Evaluation, Participation of Teachers in (Harlan Updegraff), 180 Management of the Schools, Democracy in (Charles B. Stillman), 178 Maroney, Frederick W. — Physical Edu- cation in New Jersey, 474 Medical and Physical Examinations — Their Value and Scope (W. M. Stookey), 317 Mental Testing for All Kindergarten Children (Virgil E. Dickson), 196 Methods of Financing Large City School Systems (William L. Ettinger), 434 Miles, L. Wardlaw — America's Gift to France, 420 Miller, Mrs. V. H. — The School Board's Place in the Educational System, 89 Minkel, L. H. — Extension Systems for Improving Teachers in the Service, 135 Modern Health Crusade (Charles M. De Forest), 515 Morgan, L. B. — The Night Schools in Kansas City, Kansas, 403 Morgan, Joy Elmer — School Libraries and Americanization, 386 Morris, Nellie Grant — Retail Selling as a Factor in Commercial Education, 264 MuiR, L. J. — Discussion: What Super- vision Accomplishes, 124; The Organiza- tion of Rural High Schools, 141 720 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Music Education, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes, Salt Lake City Meeting, 309 National Council of Education, The (Homer H. Seerley), 33 National Council of Education, Forty Years of the (Robert J. Aley), 144 National Council of Education, Secretary's Minutes: Cleveland Meeting, 160; Salt Lake City Meeting, 107 National Council's Future, The (Homer H. Seerley), hi Necessity for Activity and Experiment for the Education of Little Children (Bess Cunningham), 192 Necrology, 713 Need, The Greatest, in Public Education Today — Wise and Responsible Leader- ship (E. C. Hartwell), 468 Need, of Standardizing the Qualifications of Deans for High Schools, The (Anna Willson), 215 Need for Teaching a Democratic Solution of Social Problems, The (A. Duncan Yocum), 172 Negro Rural Schools, Securing an Adequate Supply of Prepared Teachers for (Leo ,M. Favrot), 292 New School, The (Angelo Patri), 428 Night Schools in Kansas City, Kansas, The (L. B. Morgan), 403 Non-English Speaking Women, A Brief View of One Year's Experience in New York State with Classes for (Elizabeth A. Woodward), 345 Normal Schools, Department of. Secre- tary's Minutes: Cleveland Meeting, 251; Salt Lake City Meeting, 237 Nutrition, Success of, in Classes in Boston and Chicago (Caroline Hedger), 313 Officers for 1919-20, 17 Opportunity School, The Denver (Carlos M. Cole), 477 .Organization of Rural High Schools, The (L. J. Muir), 141 Organizations, The Functions and, of the State Department of Education Con- sidered in the Light of Present Needs and Plans (L. N. Hines), 483 Packer, P. C. — Planning a Comprehensive Building Program, 437 Part-Time Schools (S. J. Vaughn), 340 Participation of Teachers in Management, Comparison of Theories and Suggested Study for Their Evaluation (Harlan Updegraff), 180 Participation of the Teaching Staff in School Administration, The (H. B. Wilson), 176 Patri, Angelo — ^The New School, 428 Patriotism, The Teaching of (Theda Gildemeister), 438 Pay for Teachers, Adequate (P. P. Clax- ton), 55 Payne, E. George — The Value of Instruc- tion in Accident Prevention as a Factor in Unifying the Curriculum, 204 Pearse, C. G.— Sports to Build Bodies, 83 Pearson, F. B. — Teacher Recruiting, 497 Pendleton, Charles S.— The Socialized Recitation, 416 Personal Qualifications of Instructors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exemplify- ing Hygiene and Physical Education Tests in Teacher-Producing Institutions with View to Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests in the Schools, The (A. G. Reed), 254 Personal Qualifications of Instructors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exemplifying Hygiene and Physical Education Tests in Teacher-Training Institutions, with a View to the Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests in the Public Schools, The (J. D. Heilman), 256 Peterson, Matilda — The Reasons Why All Teachers Should Have Preparation Equivalent to That Required for Good Secondary Instruction, 239 Physical Development, The Kindergarten Makes Adequate Provision for the Children's (Jeanette Ezekiels), 193 Physical Director and Social Ethics, The (Charlotte Stewart), 312 Physical Education and Child Hygiene, Departments of. Secretary's Minutes, Physical Education in New Jersey (Frederick W. Maroney), 474 Physical Education Tests in Teacher- Producing Institutions with View to Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests in the Schools, The Personal Qualifications of Instructors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exemplifying Hygiene and (A. G. Reed), 254 Physical Education Tests in Teacher- Training Institutions with a View to the Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests in the Public Schools, the Personal Qualifications of ^ In- structors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exemplifying Hygiene (J. D. Heil- man), 256 Physical Examinations, Medical and — Their Value and Scope (W. M. Stookey), 317 Picture Material for Geography Classes Qessie L. Burrall), 382 Pioneer Communities, School Progress in (Annie E. Shelland Williams), 275 Pittman, M. S. — The Zone Plan of Super- vision, 289 Planning a Comprehensive Building Pro- gram (P. C. Packer), 437 Policies and Plans for the Guidance of the Present Administration, Report of the President with Recommendations as to (Homer H. Seerley), 163 Powell, R. W. — Discussion: Rural Edu- cation, 243 INDEX 721 Practice-Teaching for Prospective Rural Teachers (Ethel Black), 295 I'resent Status of the High-School Library in the United States, The (Irma M. Walker), 387 Present Status of the Junior High School, The (Arthur F. Benson), 528 President's Address (Albert Wunder- lich), 324 President's Address: The Nation, Our Field (Josephine Corliss Preston), 35 Preston, Josephine Corliss — The Call to Arms in 1920, 143; The Main Issue of the Year, 188; President's Address: The Nation, Our Field, 35 Problem of an Adequate Number of Adequately Trained Teachers (John H. Finley), 495 Problems of the Curriculum (Eva John- ston), 361 Problems in Education, Current Tendencies and (R. W. Himelick), 424 Problems, The Farm Women's (Florence E. Ward), 75 Problems, The Need for Teaching a Democratic Solution of Social (A. Duncan Yocum), 172 , Problems of the Social Life of College Women, The (Josephine Simrall), 363 Problems, Teachers' College (David Felmley), 164 Proceedings of the Fifty-eighth Annual Meeting, Journal of, 21 Professional Reading, School Surveys as (George M. Wiley), 510 Program of Constructive Measures as a Forward Step in School Administration, Adoption of (J. S. Freece), 325 Program of Constructive Work, 167 Program, Financing a Modern School (M. P. Shawkey), 499 Progress, Five Decades of Education (A. E. Winship), 422 Progress, Thrift Readjustment and (Arthur H. Chamberlain), 117 Public Instruction, The Making of a State Department (C. P. Cary), 490 Public Library and the School, The (Joanna H. Sprague), 379 Public Schools? Are We Getting Proper Returns from Industrial Education in Our QoHN N. Greer), 73 Public Schools, Health Organization Work in (Sally Jean Lucas), 369 Reasons Why All Teachers Should Have Preparation Equivalent to That Required for Good Secondary Instruction, The (Matilda Peterson), 239 Reed, A. G. — The Personal Qualifications of Instructors and the Laboratory Facilities for Exemplifying Hygiene and Physical Education Tests in Teacher- Producing Institutions with View to Adequate Preparation of Teachers for Using Such Tests in the Schools, 254 Regulations on Schoolhouse Construction in the United States in the Year 1920 (Frank Irving Cooper), 518 Reilley, Delia R. — The Menace of the Teacher Shortage, 344 Relation of Education to Our National Life, (Olive N. Jones), 48; (Will C. Wood), 50 Relation of the Public Schools to Various Library Agencies (Mary F. Downey) ,3 78 Relation of Silent Reading to Efi&ciency in Study, The (Ernest Horn), 526 Religious Education (W. A. Lewis), 238 Report for Committee of Health Problems in Education (Thomas D. Wood), 184 Report of Committee on Resolutions, 23 Report of the President with Recommenda- tions as to Pohcies and Plans for the Guidance of the Present Administration (Homer H. Seerley), 163 Report, Secretary's, 703 Report on Tenure of Teachers, Preliminary (Dr. Joseph Swain), 147 Report, Treasurer's, 707 Resolutions of the Department of Rural Education, 301 Resolutions of Department of Superin- tendence, 410 Response to the Address of Welcome (A. E. Winship), 31 Retail Selling as a Factor in Commercial Education (Nellie Grant Morris), 264 Rice, E. S. — Summary of Introductory Remarks, 377 Rural Education, Department of. Secre- tary's Minutes: Cleveland Meeting, 278; Salt Lake City Meeting, 271 Rural Education Reorganization, A Story of (H. H. Seerley), 240 Rural Education, Some Needs of (H. A. Allan), 280 Rural High Schools, The Organization of (L. J. Muir), 141 Rural Problem in Teacher-Training Institutions, Securing Recognition of the (Clyde M. Hill), 299 Rural School Activities (W. R. Heistand), 288 Rural-School Betterment, Some Immediate Requirements for (John F. Sims), 277 Rural Schools (John Sims), 116 Rural Schools That Serve EjBfectively (R. P. Crawford), 274 Rural Teachers, Practice Teaching for Prospective (Ethel Black), 295 Ryan, Orson — Discussion: Thrift through Participation, 132 Salaries, Should, in Teachers' Colleges and Normal Schools Parallel Salaries in the Universities? (J. Stanley Brown), 260 Salaries, Teachers (John W. Withers), 431 Salary Schedules, Teachers' Salaries and, in the United States, 1918-19 (E. S. Evenden), 537 Salary Situation with Remedies, The (Arthur H. Chamberlain), 154 722 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Salary, The Teacher's, as a Factor in Establishing Caste (Sara H. Fahey), 351 School Administration, Adoption of Pro- gram of Constructive Measures as a Forward Step in (J. S. Freece), 325 School Administration, Democracy in (Annie Webb Blanton), 515 School Administration, The Part the Teacher Should Play in (M. G. Clark), 93 School Administration, The Participation of the Teaching Staff in (H. B. Wilson), School of Administration, Department of. Secretary's Minutes: Cleveland Meet- ing, 2,2>y, Salt Lake City Meeting, 323 School Board's Place in the Educational System, The (G. A. Iverson), 88; (Mrs. V. H. Miller), 89 School Children, The Nation's Duty to the Health of (Thomas D. Wood), 79 School Libraries and Americanization (Joy Elmer Morgan), 386 School Patrons, Department of. Secretary's Minutes, 365 School Progress in Pioneer Communities (Annie E. Shelland Williams), 275 School Revenue and Its Effect (Margaret S. McN aught), 371 -School Surveys as Professional Reading (George M. Wiley), 510 School System, The Part the Teacher Should Play in the Administration of the (Stella Herron) , 96 ; (Agnes Winn) , 97 Schoolhouse Construction in the United States in 1920, Regulations on (Frank Irving Cooper), 518 Schoolhouse Planning and Construction, Economy in Planning (W. R. McCor- nack), 333 Science Instruction, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes, 305 Searson, J. W. — ^Limiting the Spurious Output of Textbooks thru Editing, 401 Secondary Education, Department of, Secretary's Minutes, 209 Secondary Education, Influence of the World-War on (J. H. Beveridge), 227 Secretary's Report, 703 Seerley, Homer H. — ^The National Council of Education, 33; The National Council's Future, in; Report of the President with Recommendations as to Policies and Plans for the Guidance of the Present Administration, 163; A Story of Rural Education Reorganiza- tion, 240 Selection of Textbooks from the Publisher's Pomt of View, The (C. W. Taber), 399 Self-Government, Student, in Teacher- Training institutions (C. E. Evans), 248 Senior and Junior High Schools, The Six- Year Unified High School versus the (Harry M. Shafer), 221 Shafer, Harry M. — The Six- Year Unified High School versus the Senior and Junior High Schools, 221 Shawkey, M. p.— Financing a Modern School Program, 499 Shearer, William J. — Elimination bf Waste in Education, 513 Sherman, Elizabeth — Discussion: Co- operation and Community, 126 Shiels, Albert— Suggestions for a Practi- cable and Effective Program of Ameri- canization, 484 Shortage of Teachers (Mabel Turner Harvey), 480 SiDERS, Walter R. — How Should Text- books Be Selected? — The Superin- tendent's Point of View, 397 Silent Reading to Efficiency in Study, The Relation of (Ernest Horn), 526 Simrall, Josephine — The Problems of the Social Life of College Women, 363 Sims, John F. — Rural Schools, 116; Some Immediate Requirements for Rural- School Betterment, 277 SissoN, Edward O. — American's Pledge to the World, 348; Definite Objectives in Education, 100 Six- Year Unified High School versus the Senior and Junior High Schools, The (Harry M. Shafer), 221 Skinner, Jessie — The Place of Classroom Teachers in the Administration of School Affairs, 95 Slade, a. a. — Health Crusade Work in Wyoming, 85 Smith, Ernest A. — Compulsory Character Education, 471; Introductory Remarks, 29 Snyder, Edwin R. — Americanization, 487 Social Ethics, The Physical Director and (Charlotte Stewart), 312 Social Problems, The Need for Teaching a Democratic Solution of (A. Duncan Yocum), 172 Socialized Recitation, The (Charles S. Pendleton), 416 Some Immediate Demands for Com- munity Service (G. W. Ager), 272 Some Immediate Requirements for Rural- School Betterment (John F. Sims), 277 Some Needs of Rural Education Which May Be Met thru This Department of the National Education Association (H. A. Allan), 280 Some Plans in Operation for Stimulating Home Reading by School Children (J. D. Wolcott), 383 _ Some Problems of Administration Con- fronting the Public Junior College (Jesse B. Davis), 478 Some Problems of the Junior High School (Marie Gugle), 217 Sports to Build Bodies (C. G. Pearse), 83 Sprague, Joanna H. — The Public Library and the School, 379 State Department of Education Considered in the Light of Present Needs and Plans, The Functions and Organization of the (L. N. Hines), 493 INDEX 723 State of Maine Plan, The (Augustus O. Thomas), 282 State Requirements and Standards (Florence M. Hale), 286 Stebbins, C. a. — Discussion: Thrift Impulses and Conduct thru Motion Pictures, 133 Stewart, Charlotte — The Physical Director and Social Ethics, 312 Stillman, Charles B. — Democracy in Management of the Schools, 178 Stookey, W. M. — Medical and Physical Examinations — Their Value and Scope, 317 Story of Rural Education Reorganization, A (H. H. Seerley), 240 Stranger within Our Gates, The (Walter E. Clark), 60 Strayer, George D. — A National Pro- gram for Education: A Final Report of the Commission on the Emergency in Education, 41 Strengthening the Superintendent (Edwin C. Broome), 505 Student Government (Mina Kerr), 358 Study Period, A Child's (Fred J. Ander- son), 373 Success of Nutrition in Classes in Boston and Chicago (Caroline Hedger), 313 Suggestions for a Practicable and Effective Program of Americanization (Albert Shiels), 484 Superintendence, Department of, Secre- tary's Minutes, 407 Superintendent's Problems, Report of the Sub-Committee on Curriculum of the Committee on (A. Duncan Yocum), 174 Superintendents in the Schools? What Should Be Done to Keep High-Class (Mary D. Bradford), 90; (William F. Geiger), 91 Supervised Study in the Grades (Alfred L. Hall-Quest), 502 Supervision, The Democratization of (James Fleming Hosic), 414 Supervision, The Zone Plan of (M. S. Pittman), 289 Surveys, School, as Professional Reading (George M. Wiley), 510 Swain, Dr. Joseph — Preliminary Report on Tenure of Teachers, 147 Systems, City (H. B. Wilson), 113 Systems, Extension, for Improving Teachers in the Service (L. H. Minkel), 13s Taber, C. W.— The Selection of Textbooks from the Publisher's Point of View, 399 Teacher in Administration, The (Cornelia S. Adair), 99 Teacher, The Part the. Should Play in the Administration of the School System (Stella Herron), 96; (Agnes Winn), 97 Teacher, The Part the, Should Play in the School Administration (M. G. Clark), 93 Teacher Recruiting (F. B. Pearson), 497 Teacher Shortage, The Menace of the (Delia R. Reilley), 344 Teacher Shortage from the Standpoint of a Coimty Superintendent (H. V. Hollo- way), 482 Teacher-Training Institutions, Securing Recognition of the Rural Problem in (Clyde M. Hill), 299 Teacher-Training Institutions, Student Self-Government in (C. E. Evans), 248 Teachers' Associations (Lotus D. Coff- man), 458 Teachers' College, Effective Democracy in the Faculty and the Administration of a (William H. Zeigel), 244 Teachers' College Problems (David Felmley), 164 Teachers, Extension Systems for Improv- ing, in the Service (L. H. Minkel), 135 Teachers, The Place of Classroom, in the Administration of School Affairs (Jessie Skinner), 95 Teachers' Salaries (John W. Withers), 431 Teachers' Salaries and Salary Schedules in the United States, 19 18-19 (E. S. Evenden), 537 Teacher's Salar}-- as a Factor in Establish- ing Caste, The (Sara H. Fahey), 351 Teachers, Shortage of (Mabel Turner Harvey), 480 Teachers Should Have ^ Preparations Equivalent to That Required for Good Secondary Instruction, The Reasons Why All (Matilda Peterson), 239 Teaching Citizenship (W. D. Lewis), 531 Teaching Citizenship in Our Schools ? How Are We (L. P. Benezet), 64 Teaching of English in the High School Functioning Effectively, Is the? (Ella M. Dukes), 213 Teaching of Patriotism, The (Theda Gildemeister), 438 Tendencies, Current, and Problems in Education (R. W. Himelick), 424 Tenure of Teachers, The (James Fergu- son), 158 Tenure of Teachers, Preliminary Report on (Dr. Joseph Swain), 147 Textbooks Be Selected, How Should? — The Superintendent's Point of View (Walter R. Siders), 397 Textbooks, Limiting the Spurious Output of, thru Editing (J. W. Searson), 401 Textbooks from the Publisher's Point of View, The Selection of (C. W. Taber), 399 Thomas, Augustus O. — The State of Maine Plan, 282 Thrift and Conservation (Arthur H. Chamberlain), 169 Thrift Education, Committee on. Report on Thrift Readjustment and Progress, 117 Thrift in Reading (H. E. Fowler), 391 724 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Thrift Readjustment and Progress (Arthur H. Chamberlain), 117 Training for Citizenship in Our Public Schools, How We Are (F. B. Cooper), 63 Treasurer's Report, 707 Unified High School versus the Senior and Junior High Schools, The Six- Year (Harry M. Shafer), 221 Updegraff, Harlan — Participation of Teachers in Management, Comparison of Theories, and Suggested Study for Their Evaluation, 180 Utah's Health Legislation (E. G. Go wans), 367 Value of Instruction, The, in Accident Prevention as a Factor in Unifying the Curriculum (E. George Payne), 204 Vaughn, S. J. — Part-Time Schools, 340 Vocational Education, Department of. Secretary's Minutes, 269 Vocational Education, The Influence of the War on (George M. Brace), 337 Vocational Guidance and Placement (Frank M. Leavitt), 335 Walker, Irma M. — The Present Status of the High-School Library in the United States, 387 War Has Contributed toward Teaching Citizenship, What the (Guy Potter Benton), 68 War, The Influence of the, on Vocational Education (George M. Brace), 337 Ward, Florence E. — The Farm Woman's Problems, 75 Waste in Education, Elimination of (William J. Shearer), 513 West, Rodney M. — The Freshman Class in 1940, 235 What Is New in Our Point of View? (William T. McCoy), 136 Wider Use of Schoolhouses, The, Depart- ment of, Secretary's Minutes, 403 Wiley, George M. — School Surveys as Professional Reading, 510 Williams, Annie E. Shelland — School Progress in Pioneer Communities, 275 WiLLSON, Anna — The Need of Standardiz- ing the Qualifications of Deans for High Schools, 215 Wilson, H. B.— City Systems, 113; The Participation of the Teaching Staff in School Administration, 176 Winn, Agnes — The Part the Teacher Should Play in the Administration of the School System, 97 Winship, a. E. — Discussion: Significance of the High School Years, 125; Down- fall of Autocracy, 350; Five Decades of Educational Progress, 422; Response to the Address of Welcome, 31 Withers, John W. — Teachers' Salaries, 431 WoLCOTT, J. D. — Some Plans in Operation for Stimulating Home Reading by School Children, 383 Wood, Mrs. Ira Couch — Discussion: Health Problems in Education, 187 Wood, Thomas D.— The Health of School Children a Community Problem, 365; The Nation's Duty to the Health of the School Children, 79; Report for Com- mittee on Health Problems in Education, 184 Wood, Will C. — The Recognition of the Relation of Education to Our National Life, 50 Woods, Elizabeth — Individual Differ- ences in Kindergarten Children, 198 Woodward, Elizabeth A. — A Brief View of One Year's Experience in New York State with Classes for Non-English- Speaking Women, 345 World-War on Secondary Education, Influence of (J. H. Beveridge), 227 Wunderlich, Albert — President's Ad- dress, 324 YocuM, A. Duncan — The Need for Teach- ing a Democratic Solution of Social Problems, 172; Report of Sub-Com- mittee on Curriculum of the Committee on Superintendent's Problems, 174 Zeigel, William H. — Effective Democ- racy in the Faculty and the Administra- tion of a State Teachers' College, 244 Zone Plan of Supervision, The (M. S. Pittman), 289 ZooK, George F. — The Emergency in Higher Education, 231 li}itfM/P.jh, L National Education Association 13 of the United States N3A13 Addresses and pro- 1920 ceedings.,. PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET